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V.  13 


T  H  E   N  E  W 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


EDITORS 
DANIEL    COIT    OILMAN,    LL.  D. 

PRESIDENT  OF    JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY    (1870-1901) 
AFTERWARDS   PRESIDENT  OF  THE   CAENEGIE   INSTITUTION   OF   WASHINGTON 

HARRY  THURSTON   PECK,  Ph.D.,  L.  H.  D. 

PROFESSOR    IN    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

FRANK    MOORE    COLBY,  M.  A. 

LATE    PROFESSOR    OF    ECONOMICS 
IN   NEW   YORK   UNIVERSITY 


VOLUME  XIII 


NEW  YORK 
DODD,  MEAD  AND   COMPANY 

1905 


Copi/right,  190S,  1904,  1905 
By  Dodd,  ^Iead  and  Company 


Aii  rij^hts  reserved 


PRESSWORK    BV 

Tub  Univkrsitv  Pkkss,  CAMDRrocK.  U*S.  A- 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME   XIH. 
COLORED   PLATES 

Facing  Page 

26 

Manuscripts,  Illuminated 106 

Maesupials ■ *  274 

Medusa  and  Siphonophoea .'.'.'..     540 

Mineralogy    .     .' 

MAPS 

124 

Maryland • 154 

Massachusetts 404 

Mexico 44O 

Michigan * 52G 

Milwaukee _  g^g 

Minneapolis • g^g 

Minnesota       ....  g02 

Mississippi       g^g 

MissouEi i74g 

Montana 

ENGRAVINGS 

....       34 
Map,  Topographical •     • gg 

Maple •     .     •  ^^ 

Marble 276 

Megalitiiic  Monuments '     '„' oso 

Meissonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest  ("Friedland,  1807   ) '     '.     '     '.  t&l 

Metal-Working  Machinery 418 

City  of  Mexico— The  Cathedral    ^ ^^2 

Michelangelo  ("Creation  of  Adam") [434: 

Michelangelo   ("Mosea") '     '     "     '     !  452 

Microscope ^  ^gg 

Microscopy,  Clinical '                          ^  ^g^ 

Milan — The  Cathedral 


IV 

FiciNo  Page 

3I1LLET— ("The  Gleaners") 516 

Milton,  John 524 

MiXEEALOGY 536 

Mint 570 

Mint,  etc 572 

Monkeys,  American 726 

Monkeys  of  the  Old  World 726 

Monocotyledons,  Types  of 730 

Mont  St.  Michel 774 

Moon 778 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 


a 

a 


as  in  ale,  fate.    Also  see  e,  below. 
"    "    senate,  chaotic.    Also  see  e,  below. 
"    "    glare,  care. 
"    "    am,  at. 
"    "    arm,  father. 

"  "  ant.  and  final  a  in  America,  armada, 
etc.  In  rapid  speech  this  vowel  read- 
ily becomes  more  or  less  obscured  and 
like  the  neutral  vowel  or  a  short 
u  (u). 
"    "    final,  regal,  where  it  is  of  a  neutral  or 

obscure  quality. 
"    "    all,  fall. 
"    "    eve. 
"    "    elate,  evade. 

"  "  end.  pet.  The  characters  e,  a,  and  a 
are  used  for  n  in  German,  as  in  Gart- 
ner, Grafe,  Hahnel,  to  the  values  of 
which  they  are  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sounds.  The  sound  of  Swedish 
fl  is  also  indicated  by  e. 
"  "  fern,  her,  and  as  i  in  sir.  Also  for  o. 
Of,  in  German,  as  in  GiJthe.  Goethe, 
Ortel,  Oertel,  and  for  cu  and  of»  in 
French,  as  in  Neufchatel,  Cr&vecceur: 
to  which  it  is  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sound. 
"    "    agency,  judgment,  where  it  is  of  a  ne\i- 

tral  or  obscure  quality. 
"    "    ice.  quiet. 
"    "    quiescent. 
"    "    ill.  fit. 
"    "    old,  sober. 
"    "    obey,  sobriety. 
"    "    orb.  nor. 
"    "    odd.  forest,  not. 
"    "    atom,  carol,  where  it  has  a  neutral  or 

obscure  quality. 
"    "    oil.  boil,  and  for  eu  in  German,  as  in 
Feuerbach. 
"    food,  fool,  and  as  u  in  rude,  rule. 
"    house,  mouse. 
"    use.  mule. 
"    unite. 
"    cut,  Vnit. 

"  full,  put,  or  as  oo  in  foot,  book.  Also 
for  a  in  German,  as  in  Miinchen, 
Muller,  and  «  in  French,  as  in 
Buchez,  Bude:  to  which  it  is  the 
nearest  English  vowel  sound. 
fi  "  "  urn.  burn. 
y       "    "    yet.  yield. 

B       "    "    the  Spanish  Habana.  Cordoba,  where  it 
is  like  a   r  made  with  the  lips  alone, 
instead  of  with  the  teeth  and  lips. 
ch     "    "    ehair-  cheese. 


oo 

ou 
u 

Vi. 

a 
1 


hw 

K 


as  in  the  Spanish  Almodovar,  pulgada,  -where 
it  is  nearly  like  th  in  English  then, 
this. 
"    "   go,  get. 

"  "  the  German  Landtag,  and  ch  in  Feuer- 
bach, buch;  where  it  is  a  guttural 
sound  made  with  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  raised  toward  the  soft  palate, 
as  in  the  sound  made  in  clearing  the 
throat. 
"  "  i  in  the  Spanish  Jijona,  g  in  the  Span- 
ish gila ;  where  it  is  a  fricative  some- 
what resembling  the  sound  of  (i  in 
English  hue  or  y  in  yet,  but  stronger. 
wh  in  which. 

ch  in  the  German  ich,  Albrecht,  and  g 
in  the  German  Arensberg,  Jlecklen- 
burg;  where  it  is  a  fricative  sound 
made  between  the  tongue  and  the 
hard  palate  toward  which  the  tongue 
is  raised.  It  resembles  the  sound 
of  h  in  hue,  or  y  in  yet;  or  the  sound 
made  bv  beginning  to  pronounce  a  fc, 
but  not  completing  the  stoppage  of 
the  breath.  The  character  K  is  also 
used  to  indicate  the  rough  aspirates 
or  fricatives  of  some  of  the  Oriental 
languages,  as  of  kh  in  the  word  Khan. 
'    sinker,  longer. 

'    sing.  long.  . 

'    the  French  bon,  Bourbon,  and  m  m  the 
French  Etampes ;  where  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  nasalizing  of  the  preceding 
vowel.     This  effect  is  approximately 
produced  by  attempting  to  pronounce 
'onion'   without  touching  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
The   corresponding   nasal    of    Portu- 
guese is  also  indicated  by  N,  as  in  the 
case  of  Sao  Antao. 
"    shine,  shut. 
"    thrust,  thin. 
"    then.  this. 

"    z  in  azure,  and  s  in  pleasure. 
An  apostrophe,  or  superior  comma.  [']  is  some- 
times used  to  denote  a  glide  or  neutral  connecting 
vowel,  as  in  ta'b'l  (table) ,  knz"m  (chasm). 

Otherwise  than  as  noted  above,  the  letters  used 
in  the  respellings  for  pronunciation  are  to  receive 
their  ordinarv  English  sounds. 

When  the  "pronunciation  is  sufTiciently  shown 
by  indicating  the  accented  syllables,  this  is  done 
without  rcspelling ;  as  in  the  case  of  ver>'  common 
English  words,  and  words  which  are  so  spelled  as 
to  insure  their  correct  pronunciation  if  they  arf= 
correctly  accented.     See  the  article  on  PR0NX7N- 

CIATIOX. 


sh 
th 

TH 

zh 


A  PARTIAL   LIST  OF  THE  LEADING   ARTICLES  IN   VOLUME   XIII. 


IVIANUAL  TRAINING.  METAJVIORPHOSIS. 

Professor  Charles  Russell  Richards.  Professor  Alpheus  Spring  Packard  and 


ilANUSCRIPTS,  ILLUMINATION  OF. 

Professor  Arthur  L.  Frothingham.  METEMPSYCHOSIS 

MARINE   INSURANCE. 

Dr.  Allan  Herbert  WillcU.  METEOROLOGY 

IiIARK,  GOSPEL  OF. 

Professor  Melanchthon  W.  Jacobus.  METHODISM. 


Professor  John  Merle  Coulter. 

lYCHOSIS. 
Professor    Edward    W.    Hopkins. 

lOLOGY. 

Professor    Cleveland    Abbe. 

3ISM. 

Professor    John    Alfred    Faulkner. 


JIARRIAGE. 

Professor     Munroe     Smith,     Professor  ]METRE. 

Franklin  U.  Giddings,  and  Dr.   Har-  Mr.  Varnum  Lansing  Collins. 

Ian  F.  Stone.  MICHELANGELO. 
MARTINIQUE.  Dr.  George  Kriehn. 

Professor  Angelo  Ilcilprin.  MICROSCOPE. 
MARX    KARL.  Professor  William  Hallock. 

Professor  Samuel  MeCune  Lindsay.  MICROSCOPY,  CLINICAL. 
MASONS,  FREE.  Dr.  Frederick  R.  Bailey, 

ilr.     William     J.     Duncan     and     Dr.  middle   AGES. 

Thomas  Gatfney  TaatVe.  Professor   Dana    Carlcton  IMunro. 

MASS.  ,    ,,    c    T  MILITARY  LAW. 

Rev.  Thomas  J.  Campbell,  S.  J.  Colonel  Edward  Hunter. 

MASTER  AND  SERVANT.  MILK. 

Professor  Francis  M.  Burdick.  p^     Alfred   Charles   True.    Dr.   Marcus 

MATERIALISM.  Benjamin,  an,l  Dr.  E.  W.  Allen. 

Professor  Evander  Bradley  ;McGilvary.  MILTON. 
M\THEM\T1('S  Professor  Wilbur  Lucius  Cross. 

Professor  David  Eugene  Smith.  MINERALOGY 


>LATTER. 
MEAT. 


Mr.  Herbert  Percy  Whitlock. 

Professor  Joseph  Sweetman  Ames.  MINING. 

Mr.   Charles   Shattuck  Hill. 


Dr.   Alfred   Charles  True.  MISSIONS. 
MECHANICS  Professor   Thomas   .Joseph    Shahan   and 

Professor  Joseph  Sweetman  Ames.  Dr.  Henry  Otis  Dwight. 

MEDICAL  EDUCATION.  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 

Professor  Francis  R.  Packard.  Jlr.  CVrus  ('.  .Vdanis  and  otlu'rs. 

MEDICINE.  MOHAmiED. 

Dr.  Alfred  O.   Lee.  Professor    Edwin    A.     Start    and    Mr. 

MEDUSA.  Charles   C.   Sherman. 

Professor  Alpheus  Spring  Packard  and     MOHAl\niED\NISM 

Mr.    Gilbert    Van    Ingen.  Professor     .Alorris     Jastrow     an<l     Pro- 

MEGALITHIC  MONUMENTS.  fcssor  Richard  J.  H.  Gottheil. 

Dr.   W    J  McGee.  MOHAMMEDAN  SECTS. 
MELANCHTHON.  Professor  Richard  J.  H.  Gottheil. 

Dr.  James  Maurice  Whiton.  . 

MEMORY  MOLIERE. 

'professor   Edward   Bradford   Titchener.  Dr.  Benjamin  Willis  Wells. 

MENDICANCY.  MONASTICISM. 

Professor  Samuel  McCune  Lindsay.  ">■•    ■'"""'*   ''•    Walsh. 

MENINGITIS.  MONEY. 

Dr.  Albert  Warren  Ferris.  Dr.    Roland    P.    Falkner. 

MENTAL  SCIENCE.  MONOPOLY. 

Rev.   Francis  Edgar  Mason.  Professor    .Mvin    Sydney    Johnson    and 

MESSIAH.  ^'-   ""■•'""   ^-   ^^""•'- 

Professor   Nathaniel    .Schmidt   and    Dr.     ^lOON. 

Reginahl  H.  Starr.  Professor  Harold  Jacoby. 

META-MORI'lIlc   ROCKS.  MORAVIANS. 

Professor  William  Herbert  Hobbs.  Professor    J.    Taylor    Hamilton. 


TPIE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


MANNA  -  CROUP,       or      Manna 
Groats.      A    kind    of    semolina, 
prepared  in  Russia,  usually  from 
the   hard   wheats   of  Odessa  and 
Taganrog.     Another  kind  is  made 
by  husking  the  small  grain  of  the 
aquatic  grass   Glyceria   fltiitans,   which   is   care- 
fully collected  for  the  purpose;    it  is  expensive, 
and  is  used  onI\'  as  a  luxury. 

MANNA-GRASS,  Floating  Fescue,  Float- 
ing Sweet  JIeadow  Grass,  etc.  {Glyceria  or 
Paniciilarid  fluitans).  A  perennial  grass,  three 
feet  tall,  found  in  marshes,  ditches,  and  by  the 
sides  of  stagnant  pools  in  Europe,  Asia,  North 
America,  and  Australia.  The  stems  are  decum- 
bent at  the  base,  and  rooting  at  the  joints ;  the 
leaves  long  and  rather  broad,  the  lower  ones 
often  floating ;  the  inflorescence,  a  long,  slender, 
nearly  erect  panicle.  In  irrigated  meadows  and 
in  verj'  wet  grounds,  manna-grass  affords  large 
quantities  of  cattle  food.  In  many  parts  of 
Germany  and  Poland  the  seeds — wliich  fall  very 
readily  out  of  the  spikelets — are  collected  by 
spreading  a  cloth  under  the  panicles  and  shak- 
ing them  with  a  stick ;  they  are  used  in  soups  and 
gruels,  ai'e  very  palatable  and  nutritious,  and 
are  known  as  Polish  manna.  Tliey  are  a  favorite 
food  of  geese,  and  are  also  eagerly  devoured  by 
carp  and  other  kinds  of  fish. 

MANNA-INSECT.  A  scale-insect  (flossypa- 
rid  iiiiiiiiiifi  rii)  which  lives  on  tamarisk  in  many 
places  in  countries  bordering  upon  tlie  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  and  produces  'manna,'  which  is  a  sub- 
stance very  like  honey.  It  is  surely  a  product 
of  the  insect  and  not  a  secretion  of  the  plant, 
although  formerly  it  was  supposed  to  exude  from 
the  plant  through  punctures  made  by  the  insect. 
The  insect  is  found  in  Algeria,  Arabia,  Armenia, 
and  Southern  Russia.  Formeidy  it  was  known  as 
Coccus  mannifenis,  or  Chermes  mnnnifer,  the 
latter,  the  earliest  name,  having  been  proposed 
by  Ilardwick  in   1822. 

MANNERISTS.  A  term  applied  to  painters 
and  sculptors  wlio  make  an  exaggerated  or  un- 
meaning use  of  inherited  or  acquired  forms, 
without  independent  study  of  nature  and  without 
understanding  their  significance.  A  work  of  art 
is  mannered  when  the  forms  are  inappropriate 
to  the  ideas  expressed.  The  term  Mannerists  is 
most  frequently  applied  to  those  Italian  painters 


See  Painting. 

See 


who  were  pupils  of  or  immediately  followed  the 
leaders  of  the  High  Renaissance — especially 
Michelangelo.  Raphael,  C'orreggio — whose  styles 
they  imitated  and  exaggerated. 

MAN'NERS,  John.     A  British  general 
Gran  BY,  .John  Manners,  Marquis  of. 

MANNERS,  .John  James  Robert,  Duke  of 
Rutliind  (1818 — ).  An  English  statesman,  born 
at  Belvoir  Castle,  Leicestershire,  December  13, 
1818.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1841  he  began  his  long 
Parliamentary  career  in  the  Conservative  inter- 
est; was  twice  Postmaster-General  (1874-80  and 
1885-80),  and  succeeded  Earl  Stanhope  as  chair- 
man of  the  Copvright  Commission.  On  the  deatli 
of  his  brother  '(1887)  he  became  Duke  of  Rut- 
land. Among  he  publications  are:  Enff'liiiid's 
Trust:  A  Plea  for  National  Holydays ;  and  Eiig- 
lisli  Ballads,  a  volume  of  graceful  verse. 

MANNERT,  miin'nert,  Konrad  (1756-1834). 
A  German  historian  and  geographer,  born  at 
Altdort  and  educated  at  Nuremberg.  In  1796 
he  became  professor  of  history  at  Altdorf,  in  1805 
at  Wiirzburg,  in  1807  at  Landshut.  and  in  1826 
at  Munich.  His  geographical  works  include  the 
valuable  Geoqraphic  dcr  Griechen  und  Riiiiicr 
(1795-1825,  with  Ukert)  and  an  edition  of  tlu> 
Tabula  Pcutiiiijcriana  (1824):  and  among  his 
historical  labors  the  more  important  are:  Kom- 
pendium  dcr  dcutschcn  Rcich-sgeschichtc  (1803; 
3d  ed.  1819);  Kaiser  LudwiglV.  (1812);  and 
Geschichte  der  alten  Deutschen,  besonders  der 
Franken   (1829-.32). 

MANNHARDT.  miin'hart,  Wilhelm  (1831- 
80).  A  (Jernuin  mythologist,  born  at  Friedrich- 
.stadt  in  Schleswig.  He  was  educated  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Berlin  and  Tiibingen,  and  became  edi- 
tor of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  deutsche  Mi/tholojjit; 
und  Sittenkunde  ( 1855) .  His  books  on  Germanic 
myth  include:  Gcrmanischc  Mythen  (1858)  ;  Die 
Gottcr  dcr  deutschen  und  nordischen  Volkrr 
(1800);  Tloftficnn-olf  nnd  Rogr/ciihuitd  (2d  ed. 
1800);  Die  Korndiunoucn  '(1808);  Klytia 
(1875)  ;  and  his  great  works.  ll'aW-  und  Fcld- 
kulte  (1875-77)  and  Mythologische  Forschungen 
(ed.  by  Patzig,   1884). 

MANNHEIM,  mVinliim.  The  capital  of  a 
district  in  Baden,  formerly  a  to«ni  of  the  Pa- 
latinate;   at   the   confluence    of   tlie   Rhine   and 


MANNHEIM. 

Keckar,  43  miles  smitliwe.-t  ot  Frankfort  (Map: 
vicriiiany,  C  4) .  It  is  the  third  lar^jcst  city  on  the 
Rliine.  surpassed  only  by  t'olof,Tie  anil  Diisseldorf ; 
since  its  connection  by  railroad  with  all  important 
cities  in  tlie  tiernian  Empire  it  has  become  tlie 
first  commercial  town  in  the  Grand  Pucliy  of 
Baden.  The  site  of  the  town  is  low,  and  a  high 
dike  protects  it  from  inundations.  The  Rhine, 
which  is  here  1200  feet  in  breadth,  is  crossed  by  a 
railway  bridge  which  connects  ilannheim  with 
Ludwigshafen ;  a  chain  bridge  spans  the  Xeckar. 
The  town  is  remarkable  for  its  cleanliness,  and  is 
the  most  regularly  built  town  in  (Jermany;  it 
is  divided  into  13U  square  sections,  and  numbers 
its  streets  according  to  the  American  system. 
The  palace,  built  1720-29,  by  the  Klector  Palatine 
Charles  Philip,  is  one  of  the  largest  buildings  of 
the  kind  in  Germany.  The  city  contains  a  gym- 
nasium with  a  library,  a  botanic  garden,  an  ob- 
servatory, and  the  National  Theatre,  founded  in 
1770,  in  which  Schiller's  Robbers  was  first  acted. 
Among  notable  public  monuments  are  those  of 
William  I.  and  Prince  Bismarck.  The  Schloss- 
gartcn.  bordering  on  tlie  Khiiie.  is  the  chief  of 
the  five  j)ublic  gardi'ns  surrounding  the  city. 
Since  the  construction  of  new  harbors  and  ex- 
tensive docks  in  ]S7:i,  Mannheim  has  had  a  great 
and  increasing  trade  in  grain,  coal,  petroleum,  to- 
bacco, sugiir.  and  ironware.  Its  cliicf  industry, 
the  manufacture  of  chemicals,  gives  employment 
to  7000  persons;  3000  arc  engaged  in  metal- 
working.  Cigars,  varnish  and  rosin,  carpets,  rub- 
ber, glass  and  leather  goods  are  also  manufac- 
ture<l.  The  growing  importance  of  Mannheim  is 
indicated  by  the  increase  in  its  population  from 
61.273  in  1885  to  140.384  in  1900.  The  United 
States  is  represented  bj-  a  consul. 

Mannheim  is  mentiimcd  as  a  village  as  early  as 
704.  Its  prosperity  dates  from  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  when,  under  the  Elector 
Palatine  Frederick  IV.,  it  became  the  refuge  of 
religious  exiles  from  the  Xetherlands.  It  sull'ered 
severely  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The  town  was 
almost  totally  destroyed  by  the  Fri-ndi  in  1G89. 
After  being  rebuilt  it  was  again  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1795,  and  a  large  part  of  it  burned. 
In  1802  it  was  given  to  Baden. 

MAN'NING.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Clarendmi  County.  S.  C.  01  miles  east  by  south 
of  Columbia;  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  Rail- 
road (Map:  South  Carolina.  D  3).  It  is  in  a  fer- 
tile and  well-watered  agricultiiral  section,  hav- 
ing extensive  forests  of  pine.  There  are  knitting 
mills  and  other  industrial  establishments.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  1009;   in   1900,  1430. 

MANNING,  D.xxiEL  (1831-87).  An  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  politician.  He  was  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  at  the  age  of  ten  entered  the 
printing  ofTice  of  (he  Albany  Atlas  as  a  printer's 
apprentice.  .After  the  cons(didation  of  the  Alln^ 
with  the  Aifiiix,  he  was  appointed  legislative  re- 
porter, in  which  capacity  he  made  a  w  idc  acquaint- 
ance among  politicians  and  became  known  as  an 
authority  on  State  political  affairs.  In  1805  he 
became  e<litor  and  part  owner  of  the  Arfiiis.  and 
in  1870  a  memlM>r  of  the  New  York  Demo- 
cratic State  Committee,  of  which  he  was  chosen 
secretary  in  1870  and  chairman  in  1881.  In  this 
position  he  was  associated  closely  with  Grover 
Clevelanil.  to  whose  election  as  (Jovernor  of  New 
York  he  contributed  greatly  in  1882.  To  Man- 
ning's astuteness  and  tact  also  was  largely  due 


!  MANNING. 

the  successful  presentation  of  Cleveland's  name  as 
a  can<lidatc  for  the  Presidency  in  1SS4.  In  the 
latter  year  his  personal  supervision  contributed 
greatly  to  the  success  of  the  Democratic  ticket 
in  the  pivotal  State  of  New  Y"ork.  From  1885 
to  1887  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in 
Cleveland's  Cabinet,  from  which  he  retired  short- 
ly lieliire  his  death,  on  account  of  ill  health. 

MANNING,  llE.NKY  Euw.\KD  (1807-92).  An 
English  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  one  of  the  most 
notable  figures  in  the  Church  life  of  his  time.  He 
was  born  July  15,  1807  (not  1808,  as  frequently 
given),  at  Totteridge,  in  Hertfordshire,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1830.  He  was  ordained 
in  1832,  married  in  1833,  and  in  1834  appointed 
rector  of  Lavington  and  GratVham  in  Sussex.  His 
wife  died  in  1837.  Manning  devoted  himself 
with  increasing  zeal,  cnergj',  and  success  to  the 
work  of  his  profession,  and  was  recognized, 
though  still  a  young  man,  as  ,a  leading  figure 
in  the  group  of  Tractarian  leaders.  His  appoint- 
ment in  1840  as  Arcluleacon  of  Chichester  gave 
him  a  still  more  influential  jwsition.  Newman's 
secession  affected  him  ]iainfully.  and  for  a  time 
seemed  to  increase  his  attachment  to  the  Church 
of  Enjiland ;  but  in  18.31  tlie  decision  in  the  noted 
Gorham  case  (see  Gokuam  Controveksy),  which 
seemed  to  claim  for  the  Crown  authority  over  a 
purely  doctrinal  qtiestion,  shook  his  allegiance. 
After  long  and  arduous  consideration  he  made 
his  submission  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  1851.  Only  two  months  later — an  unusual 
recognition  of  his  gifts  and  his  theological  at- 
tainments— lie  was  ordained  priest  by  Cardinal 
Wiseman.  He  made  some  further  studies  in 
Rome,  and  from  18.52  to  1850  was  informally 
connected  with  the  Jesuit  Church  in  Farm  Street, 
London,  finding  much  to  do  in  preaching  and 
spiritual  direction.  In  1857  he  developed  an 
English  congregation  of  priests  known  as  Oblatcs 
of  .Saint  Charles,  a  revival  of  the  community 
founded  at  Milan  by  Saint  Charles  Borromeo, 
and  became  its  first  superior.  The  same  year  saw 
his  appointment  as  provost  of  the  Chapter  of 
Westminster,  which  brought  him  into  close  re- 
lations witli  Cardinal  Wiseman,  then  .\rchbishop. 
In  the  (lilTicult  (■ircumstances  connected  with  the 
insubordinate  attitude  of  Archbishop  Errington, 
Wiseman's  coadjutor.  Manning  was  a  loyal  sup- 
porter of  the  Cardinal  and  of  great  service.  On 
the  latter's  death  in  1805.  Pius  IX.  took  the  un- 
exi»cted  step  of  apjiointing  Planning  his  suc- 
cessor as  Archbishop  of  Westminster,  and  for  the 
next  quarter  of  a  century  he  occupied  a  com- 
manding position  in  the  religious  life  of  England. 
He  not  only  did  much  to  bring  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic body  out  of  the  obscurity  in  which  centuries 
of  repression  had  left  it.  but  he  was  indefatigable 
in  all  kinds  of  good  works — the  care  of  the  poor, 
religions  education,  social  ami  temperance  work. 
In  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part,  standing  among  the  pronounced  ad- 
vocates of  defining  Papal  infallibility,  and  en- 
gaging in  a  controversy,  famous  at  the  time, 
with  Mgr.  Dupanloup.  Bishop  of  Orleans.  His 
Petri  Pririlriiiiim  (1871)  is  an  exposition  of 
the  doctrine  and  an  account  of  the  proceedings. 
On  the  same  subject  he  also  published  (1875)  an 
answer  to  Gladstone's  expostulations,  giving  his 
views  of  the  bearing  of  the  Vatican  decrees  on 
civil  allegiance;  and  in  1877  he  wrote  The  True 


MANNING.  ; 

Slory  of  tlie  Vaticdii  Council.  Among  Manning's 
other  published  works  are:  The  Temporal  Mis- 
sion of  the  Holy  UhosI  (1805)  ;  The  Intrnial 
Mission  of  ths  Holy  Ohost  (1875)  ;  England  and 
Christendom  (1807);  >S'i;i  and  Its  Consequences 
(187G).  His  manifold  services  were  recognized 
by  the  gift  of  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1875.  He 
died  in  London,  Januarj'  14,  1892.  The  full- 
est l)iogra]>hy  of  him  is  by  Purcell  (2  vols..  Lon- 
don, 18!tO),  which  is  unfortunately  disfigured 
by  many  misleading  inferences  and  grave  faults 
of  taste;  it  may  be  corrected  in  particular  as  to 
the  facts  of  the  Errington  case  by  Wilfrid 
Ward's  Life  and  Times  of  Cardinal  Wiseman 
(London,  1897).  There  is  a  shorter  but  in  many 
ways  more  satisfactory  biography  by  A.  W.  Hut- 
ton  (ib.,  1894).  Consult  also:  Fitigerald,  Fifty 
Tears  of  Catholic  Life  and  Proyress  (London, 
1901 )  ;  and  a  number  of  the  biographical  works 
cited  uniler  Oxford  Movement. 

MANNING,  .Jaiies  (1738-91).  President  of 
the  College  of  Rhode  Island  (after  1804  Brown 
University).  He  was  born  in  Elizabethtown, 
N.  J.;  was  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in 
1762;    was   ordained   to   the   Baptist  ministry   in 

1763.  Cooperating  with  an  association  of  Bap- 
tist ministers  in  Philadelphia,  he  went  to  Rhode 
Island  and  proposed  to  the  Baptists  in  Newport 
a  plan  for  the  establishment  of  a  "seminary  of 
polite  literature,  subject  to  the  government 
of   the   Baptists."      A   charter   was   obtained   in 

1764.  Manning  was  appointed  in  1765  presi- 
dent of  the  institution,  which  was  opened  the 
next  year  as  Rhode  Island  College.  He  served 
in  that  office  (except  during  the  Revolution, 
when  the  school  was  closed)  till  1790,  when  he 
resigned.  He  was  also  most  of  the  time  pastor 
of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Providence.  In 
1786  he  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederation,  where  he  labored  to  secure  the 
adoption  of  the  national  Constitution.  Consult 
(iuild.  The  Life,  Times,  and  Correspondence  of 
James  Manniny,  and  the  Early  History  of  Brown 
University    (Boston,    1864).      See    Bbowu    Uni- 

VEESITY. 

MANNING,  RouERT  (1784-1842).  An  Ameri- 
can pomologist,  one  of  the  pioneers  in  horti- 
cultural nomenclature.  In  order  to  determine 
the  value  of  varieties  he  established  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  a  fruit  garden,  in  which  he  raised  vari- 
eties of  all  fruits  that  could  withstand  the 
rigor  of  the  climate  of  that  State,  and  in  wliich 
at  the  time  of  his  death  nearly  2000  varieties 
were  growing.  He  published  a  descriptive  cata- 
logue, called  Book  of  Fruits,  in  1838.  Manning 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  JIassachusetts 
Horticultural  Society,  and  during  his  later 
years  was  recognized  as  an  authority  on  horti- 
cultural matters,  especially  on  fruit  varieties. 

MANNING,  TnoM.\.s  (1772-1840).  An  Eng- 
lish traveler,  born  November  8.  1772,  at  Broome, 
Norfolk,  where  his  father  was  rector.  In  1790 
he  entered  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  distingxiished  in  mathematics:  but  he  left 
without  a  degree,  owing  to  his  unwillingness  to 
take  the  oaths.  From  1800  to  1803  he  studied 
Chinese  in  Paris.  In  1806  he  went  out  to  Canton  as 
doctor.  In  1810  he  proceeded  to  Calcutta,  whence 
he  made  his  way  into  Tibet  to  Lhasa  (1811). 
He  was  the  first  Englishman  to  enter  the  holy 
city.  On  returning  to  England  in  1817.  after  a 
visit    to    Peking,    a    shipwreck   near   the    Sunda 


I  MANNITE. 

Islands,  and  after  a  call  on  Napoleon  at 
Saint  Helena,  he  lived  for  several  years  at  a 
cottage  called  Orange  Grove,  near  Darlford,  in 
the  midst  of  his  Chinese  books.  There  he  w^aa 
visited  by  the  chief  literary  men  of  the  day. 
One  of  liis  many  eccentricities  was  a  long,  flow- 
ing l)eard.  This  he  plucked  out  by  the  roots 
Iiefore  leaving  Orange  Grove  for  Bath,  where  he 
died.  May  2,  1840.  Charles  Land)  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  JIanning  in  1799,  and  a  memorable 
friendship  ensued.  Consult  Lamb's  Letters  and 
Essays  of  Elia  ("The  Old  and  the  New  School- 
master," and  "A  Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig")  ; 
also  the  Xarratives  of  the  Mission  of  G.  Boyle  to 
Tibet  and  of  the  -Journey  of  T.  Manning  to  Lhasa, 
ed.  with  memoirs  by  Markham   (London,  1876). 

MANNING,  Thomas  Courtlaxd  (1831-87). 
An  American  jurist,  born  at  Edenton,  N.  C.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1855  he 
removed  to  Alexandria,  La.,  and  liuilt  up  a  large 
practice.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Secession 
Convention,  entered  the  Confederate  Army  as 
a  lieutenant,  and  in  1863  became  adjutant-gen- 
eral with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Supi'eme  Court  ( 1864-65)  and  in 
1872  a  Democratic  Presidential  Elector.  In  1876 
he  was  vice-president  of  the  National  Democratic 
Convention.  From  1877  until  the  adoption  of  the 
new  Constitution  he  was  Chief  Justice  of  the 
State  Supreme  Court.  He  was  again  Presidential 
Elector,  and  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  but  was  refused  admission.  From  1882 
to  1886  he  was  again  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  during  1886-87  was  United  States 
Minister  to  Mexico.  He  was  also  trustee  of  the 
Peabod\-   Fund   from   1880  until  his   death. 

MANNITE  (from  manna).  CoHs(OH),,.  A 
hexahydric  alcohol  found  in  the  manna  from 
Praxinus  ornus  (Linne) ,  which  grows  in  the  basin 
of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  discovered  in  that 
manna  by  Proust  in  1800  and  may  be  readily  ex- 
tracted from  it  with  hot  water  or  boiling  weak 
alcohol.  It  is  found  also  in  many  other  vegetable 
products,  including  onions,  celery,  asparagus,  many 
fungi,  etc.:  and  it  has  been  prepared  artificially 
from  several  varieties  of  sugar,  such  as  hcyulose, 
dextrose,  and  mannose,  by  reduction  with  sodium 
amalgam.  Vice  versa,  liy  careful  oxidation  of 
mannite  with  nitric  acid  a  mixture  of  sugars  may 
be  obtained,  to  which  the  name  nmnnitose  is 
sometimes  applied.  Mannite  is  produced  also 
when  cane-sugar  vindergoes  fermentation.  It  may 
be  obtained  either  in  the  form  of  rhombic  prisms, 
or  in  the  form  of  silky  needle-like  crystals;  it 
melts  at  165-166°  C.  and  it  is  readily  soluble 
in  hot  water  or  alcohol,  but  only  moderately  sol 
uble  in  cold  water,  and  scarcely  soluble  at  all  in 
cold  alcohol  and  in  ether.  Its  pure  aqueous  solu- 
tion has  a  veiT  slight  action  on  polarized  light: 
the  action  is.  however,  greatly  increased  by  the 
presence  of  free  alkali  as  well  as  of  certain  salts, 
especially  borax.  Mannite  is  capable  of  existence 
in  three  distinct  modifications,  having  the  same 
chemical  constitution  and  therefore  much  the 
same  properties,  yet  differing  from  one  another  in 
their  power  of  rotating  the  jilane  of  polarized 
light.  The  chemical  constitution  of  mannite  is 
represented  by  the  formula  CIL(OHl  .  CH(01I1  . 
CH(OH)  .  CH(OH)  .  CIMOHT  .  CH(OH)  .  CH 
(OH).  The  hexahydric  alcohol  sorbite  found  in 
plums,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  other  fruits, 
and   the   hexahydric   alcohol     dulcite    found     in 


MANNITE. 


MAN  OF  BLOOD. 


Madagascar   manna,   are   in  many  respects  very 
similar  to  mannite. 

MANNLICHER.  iiiiin'liK  r-r.  Fkuiunam)  vox 
(  1S4n1!iii4  I .  An  Austrian  cn^'iniHT  and  in- 
ventur.  He  was  born  at  Jlainz.  Germany,  and 
for  many  years  served  as  chief  enfiineer  of  the 
Northern  Railroad  (Kaiser  Ferdinands  Xord- 
bahn).  In  1899  he  was  called  to  the  Austrian 
Upper  House  in  recognition  of  his  public  ser- 
vices. He  became  widely  celebrated  tlirough  his 
many  inventions  and  improvements  in  military 
firearms,  as  magazine,  repeating,  and  automatic 
rifles  and  revolvers,  which  introduced  i)rinciples 
that  have  been  largely  adopted  in  the  small- 
arm  equipments  of  several  Kurojjean  powers, 
bee  Small  Arm.s. 

MANNS,  miins,  August  (182.-5— ).  A  Ger- 
man-Knglish  musical  conductor,  born  at  Stolzen- 
berg,  I'onierauia.  He  received  his  early  training 
in  music  from  a  village  nuisician  and  from  Ur- 
ban, the  town  musician  of  Klbing.  He  became 
a  member  of  a  military  band  at  Danzig,  then  at 
Posen,  and  in  1848  joined  Gungrs  orchestra  in 
Berlin.  Soon  after  he  became  conductor  and 
first  violin  at  KroU's  Garden,  Berlin.  In  1851 
Von  Roon,  the  War  ilinister.  selected  Manns 
as  bandmaster  of  his  regimental  band ;  first  at 
Konigsberg,  then  at  Cologne.  In  18.54  he  became 
assistjint  conductor,  and  the  next  year  conductor 
at  the  Crystal  Palace.  London,  where  he  accom- 
plished important  results  in  the  furtherance  of 
the  newer  romantic  music  of  Germany,  lie  al.so 
changed  the  original  wind  band  into  an  orchestra, 
and  foimded  (18.50)  the  now  famous  Saturday 
concerts.  He  conducted  the  Glasgow  Choral 
Union  ( 1879-92),  and  six  Triennial  Handel  Festi- 
vals. 

MAN'NUS  (connected  with  Goth,  manna, 
AS..  Eng..  OllG.  man.  Ger.  Mann,  Skt.  manu, 
man:  of  doubtful  origin,  the  usual  derivation 
from  man.  to  think,  being  incredible:  cf.  perhaps 
Lat.  manu.i,  hand).  According  to  Tacitus  (Ocr- 
mania,  chap.  2),  the  name  given  by  ttie  Germans 
to  the  son  of  the  earth-born  god  Tuisto.  From 
his  three  sons  they  derived  their  three  great 
trilx'S,  the  In(i(rvonrs.  the  Ilc-rmioncfi.  and  the 
Istwvoncs.  Mannus  belqngs.  not  to  the  Teutonic 
people  alone,  but  to  the  great  mythus  of  the 
origin  of  the  human  race,  common  to  the  whole 
Arj-an  family,  and,  like  the  Hindu  Manu  or 
Manns,  stands  forth  as  the  i)rogenitor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  earth  endowed  with  reason. 

MAN'NYNG,  Robert  (or  Robert  de 
Bri.wk)  (nourished  c.l290-].'?40).  An  English 
poet,  native  of  Hrunne,  or  Bourne,  in  Lincoln- 
shire. In  1288  he  joined  the  neighlioring  broth- 
erhood of  tiilbertine  canons  at  Sempringham. 
There  he  wrote  lldndh/nri  Si/nne  (l.'SO.il.  a  free 
paraphrase  of  the  Manurl  ilrs  f'erhic:  by  William 
of  Wadington.  It  depicts,  with  much  sharp  sa- 
tire, the  social  life  of  the  time.  The  best  manu- 
script (the  Harleian),  with  the  French  original, 
was  editeil  by  F.  .T.  Furnivall  for  the  Roxburghe 
Club  in  isr.2.  In  I.I.IS  Mannyng.  then  resident  in 
the  Gilberline  priory  of  Sixhill.  Lincidnshire.  fin- 
ished his  fhraniclr  of  l-'.nfiland.  It  has  little  his- 
torical value,  ns  it  closely  follows  the  earlier 
chronicles.  The  earlier  part  of  the  f'hronirlr  was 
edited  by  Furnivall  for  the  Rolls  Series  (London, 
1887)  :  and  the  latter  part  by  T.  Hearnc  in  1725. 
To  Mannyng  is  al.so  attributed  Meditacyuns  of  the 


Hoper  of  oure  Lorde  Ihesus,  edited  for  the  Early 
English  Text  Society  (London,  1875). 

MANOA,  ma-nn':i.  A  city  fabled  to  have  been 
built  on  an  island  in  Parma  Lake,  Guiana,  and 
governed  by   El  Dorado    (q.v.l. 

MANOBO,  ma-no'b5,  or  Culaman.  A  Malay 
head-luinting  people  in  DSvas  Province,  Minda- 
nao. They  are  said  to  be  partly  Indonesian.  See 
Philippine  Islands. 

MANOEL  DO  NASCIMENTO,  mii'nu-fil'  dd 
na'she-man'to.  A  i'orluguese  poet.  See  NascI- 
MENTO,   MaKOEL  DO. 

MANCEUVKES  (Fr.  manoeuvre,  OF.  man- 
ouvre,  manovre,  from  ML.  manuopera,  manupera, 
a  working  with  the  hand,  from  Lat.  mamis,  hand 
-j-  opera,  work).  Fiehl  exercises  of  large  or  small 
bodies  of  troops,  designed  to  teach  in  time  of 
jieace  the  duties  of  troops  in  war.  In  Eurojie 
these  are  carried  on  in  most  great  armies  through- 
out the  year,  the  grand  manceuvres  (of  one  or 
more  army  corps)  usually  taking  place  in  the 
autumn,  and  simulating  the  conditions  of  war 
as  closely  as  possible.  In  the  I'nited  States  there 
are  similar  operations,  usually  held  in  the  fall, 
in  which  the  Regular  Army  aiul  the  militia  par- 
ticipate. 

Naval  mana-uvrcs  and  the  combined  manceuvres 
of  sea  and  land  forces  working  in  harmony  are 
of  more  recent  origin  than  their  military  counter- 
part. Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  first  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  having  sham  battles  between 
his  troops,  an  idea  which  Napoleon  utilized  in 
the  great  camp  of  Boulogne  in  1805,  during  his 
preparation  for  the  invasion  of  England.  It  was 
\o\\  Moltke.  however,  and  the  Prussian  general 
staff  who  first  devidoped  the  idea  of  nuino>uvres 
into  its  full  modern  significance,  and  in  the  com- 
bined naval  and  military  operation  around  the 
city  of  Flensburg  in  Schlcswig-Holstein  (1890) 
set  an  example  which  was  soon  copied.  The 
United  States  naval  and  military  mana-uvres  held 
in  1002  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  followed 
practically  the  same  plan  of  camp:iign  as  did 
(Jcrmany  in  the  instance  already  cited.  England 
and  France,  and  the  United  States,  hold  periodi- 
cal naval  mana-uvres,  the  problem  usually  being 
the  attack  or  defense  of  shore  defenses.  In  naval 
mananivres  particularly,  conditions  may  be 
created  which  are  faithful  replicas  of  actual 
battles  and  campaigns.  Besides  their  value  in 
the  fornuilation  of  the  most  cfTective  scheme  of 
shore  defense  against  attack  or  invasion,  they 
are  just  as  impcntant  in  the  training  under  war 
conditions  of  the  naval  persomud.  besides  which 
they  atVord  commanders  excellent  experien<'e  in 
the  ])ractice  of  liattle  tactics  and  strategy.  Flaws 
in  methods  and  material  which  otherwise  might 
not  be  discovered  until  too  late  are  noted  and 
subsequently  remedied:  new  ideas  in  the  applica- 
tion of  strategical  or  tactical  principles  carried 
out :  the  employment  of  torpedoes,  mines,  de- 
stroyers, submarines,  wireless  felegraphy.  search- 
lights, and  the  vari<nis  ex|ierinicnts  in  coaling  at 
sea,  thoroughly  tested:  and  the  whole  carefully 
obser\e<l  and  noteil  by  ofliiers  of  the  National 
(Jovemment  appointed  for  the  purpose,  whose 
report  usually  forms  the  basis  for  future  naval 
legislation.  See  Tactics.  Military;  Tactics, 
Naval. 

MAN  OF  BLOOD,  The.     A  designation  ap- 
plied by  tlje  Puritans  to  Charles  I.  of  England. 


MAN  OF  BLOOD  AND  IRON. 

MAN  OF  BLOOD  AND  IRON,  The.  A 
name  given  to  Prince  Bismarck,  originating  in  a 
plirase  used  by  himself  in  regard  to  tlie  settle- 
ment of  the  diilerences  of  Prussia  and  Austria. 

MAN  OF  DECEMBER,  The.  Napoleon  III., 
so  called  because  of  his  coup  d'etat  of  December 
2,   1851. 

MAN  OF  DESTINY,  The.  A  name  given  to 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  considered  himself  spe- 
ciall}'  chosen  and  directed  by  fate. 

MAN  OF  LAW'S  TALE,  The.  One  of  Chau- 
cer's Canlerhury  Tuhs.  It  is  the  story  of  Con- 
stance, told  in  Gower's  Coiifessio  Amnntis,  and 
taken  from  old  French  romances.  Constance, 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Rome,  married  the 
vSultan  of  Syrie.  who  was  killed  at  a  feast.  In 
a  rudderless  shi])  Constance  reached  Northumbria 
and  wedded  King  Alia.  Enemies  place  her  and 
her  son  in  the  ship,  and  after  many  perils  she  is 
found  by  Alia  at  Eome. 

MAN  OF  MODE,  The,  or  Sir  Topling  Flut- 
TEE.  A  comedv  by  George  Etlierege,  presented  in 
1070. 

MAN  OF  SIN.     See  Antichrist. 

MAN  -  OF  -  THE  -  EARTH.  A  weed.  See 
Ipomcea. 

MAN-OF-WAR.  An  arnied  naval  vessel 
regularly  commissioned  by  some  acknowledged 
government  and  fitted  for  purposes  of  war.  As 
such  she  possesses  the  privileges  of  war;  her  deck 
is,  by  a  legal  fiction,  taken  to  be  a  portion  of  the 
soil  of  the  nation  whose  flag  she  hoists;  in  time 
of  war  she  is  justified  in  attacking,  sinking,  burn- 
ing, or  destroying  the  ships  and  goods  of  the  foe, 
and,  by  the  law  of  nations,  she  may  stop  and 
search  the  merchant  vessels  of  neutral  powers 
which  s!ie  suspects  of  carrying  aid  to  her  enemy. 
(See  CoNTR.\B.\XD  OF  Wak;  and  Neutrality.) 
In  case  of  being  overpowered,  the  crew  of  a  man- 
of-war  are  entitled  to  the  ordinary  mercy  granted 
to  vanquished  combatants,  lawfully  fighting.  Any 
vessel  making  war.  but  not  belonging  to  an  ac- 
knowledged government,  is  either  a  privateer  ( see 
Marque,  Letters  of)  or  a  pirate  (see  Piracy). 
See  Cruiser;  Ships,  Armored;  Shipbuilding; 
Navies;  Ram;  Mortar  Vessel. 

MAN-OF-WAR,  Portuguese.  See  Portu- 
guese JIan-of-Wak. 

MAN-OF-WAR  BIRD,  or  HAWK  (so  called 
from  its  iircdatorv  habits) .  A  frigate-bird  (q.v.), 
but  occasionally  the  term  is  applied  to  some  other 
swift  anil  predaceous  sea  fowl,  as  a  skua, 

MANOM'ETER  (from  Gk,  «av<Sf,  mnnos,  thin, 
rare  -{-  filrpov,  mctron,  measure).  An  instrument 
for  measuring  the  density  or  pressure  of  the  air 
or  any  gas.  A  barometer  (q.v.)  is  one  form  of 
manometer,  as  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is 
measured  by  the  height  of  the  column  of  mer- 
cury which  it  supports.  The  manometer  in  its 
simplest  form  would  be  a  glass  tube  open  at  both 
ends  and  bent  into  the  form  of  a  U  and  contain- 
ing a  sufficient  quantity  of  some  liquid  to  cover 
the  bend  and  rise  to  a  small  height  in  each  arm. 
The  vessel  containing  the  gas  whose  pressure  is 
to  be  ascertained  is  connected  with  one  arm  of 
the  tube,  and  if  the  gas  is  at  the  same  pressure 
as  the  atmosphere  the  liquid  will  stand  at  the 
same  level  in  both  tubes.  If  the  gas  is  at  a 
greater  pressure  the  liquid  in  the  arm  of  the  tube 
on  which  it  acts  will  be  at  a  lower  level,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  gas  will  be  obtained  by  adding 
to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  the  weight  of 


i  MANOMETER. 

a  column  of  the  liquid  whose  height  is  equal  to 
the  dill'erence  in  level  in  the  two  tubes.  When 
the  pressure  of  the  gas  is  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  the  atmosphere  we  use  mercury  on 
account  of  its  high  specific  gravity,  and  when 
the  pressures  are  sufficient  a  tube  with  one  arm 
closed  can  be  em- 
ployed and  the  press- 
ure determined  by 
measuring  the  extent 
to  which  the  air  is 
compressed.  Now,  ac- 
cording to  Boyle's  or 
Mariotte's  law,  a 
pressure  exerted  on 
the  column  of  mer- 
cury sufficient  to  force 
the  air  into  half  the 
space  it  occupies  at 
the  normal  atmos- 
pheric pi'essure,  must 
become  doubled,  or  15 
pounds  to  the  square 
inch  nmst  be  added. 
Again,  to  compress 
the  air  into  halt  the 
remaining  space,  .30 
poimds,  or  double  the 
pressure  required  for 
the  reduction  to  the 
first  half,  must  be 
added,  making  in  all 
a  pressure  of  four  at- 
MANOMETER.  mosphcres  for  the  re- 

A,  tor  pressures  greater  than  duction  to  one-fourth 
one  atniospliere;  B.  for  pies-  the  original  volume, 
sures  less  than  one  atmos-  It  is  evident,  there- 
V^"""-  fore,  that  a  graduated 

scale,  to  exhibit  the  degrees  of  pressure,  must  have 
its  spaces  decrease  from  below  upward.  If  the  gas 
is  considerably  rarer  than  the  air,  as  for  example 
in  the  receiver  of  an  air  pump,  we  employ  a 
shortened  barometer  consisting  of  a  bent  tube 
with  one  end  closed  but  filled  with  mercurv,  which 


BOURDON  PRESSCKE  GAUGE,  WITH    FACE  REMOVED. 

is  supported  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
In  this  case  the  .pressure  is  measured  uy  the  dif- 
ference in  level  of  the  two  columns,  which  would 
be  zero  were  the  vacuum  perfect. 

These  manometers  are  of  course  constructed  in 
various  forms,  depending  upon  the  use  to  which 
they  are  to  be  put,  and  the  tubes  and  air  cham- 
bers are  variously  constructed.    The  most  common 


MANOMETER. 


6 


MANOR. 


form  of  inanoniftcr  is  tlic  steam  gauge,  which 
may  be  either  a  piston  actuated  by  the  pressure 
to  move  an  iiuiieator  against  the  face  of  a  spring, 
or  more  commonly  a  metal  tube  of  elliptical  cross- 
section  bent  into  circular  shape.  One  end  of  this 
tube  is  jiermanently  fastened  to  the  case  of  the 
instrument  and  through  it  the  steam  or  gas  en- 
ters, while  the  other  end  is  closed  but  free  to 
move.  It  is  connected  with  a  spring  and  a  series 
of  levers,  so  that  its  motion,  which  depcn<ls  upon 
the  pressure,  is  communicated  to  an  indicator 
moving  over  a  scale  graduated  usually  in  pounds 
in  the  United  States  and  Kngland,  and  atmos- 
pheres in  Europe.  These  steam  gauges  nuist  of 
course  be  adjusted  and  calibrated  by  reference  to 
some  direct  soiirce  of  pressure,  such  as  would 
be  furnislicd  by  a  column  of  liquid  in  a  vertical 
tube. 

MAN  ON  HORSEBACK,  TiiEt  A  name  given 
to  the  French  General  Houlanger  (q.v.),  who 
usually  appeared  in  public  riding  a  black  horse. 
The  name  is  used  of  one  who  gains  ascendency 
in  a  period  of  lawlessness,  and,  by  the  exercise  of 
despotic  power,  restrains  violence  and  restores 
law  and  order. 

MANON  LESCAXJT,  ma'noN'  le-skO'.  A 
noted  romance  by  the  Abbe  Prevost,  published 
in  Holland  in  1731  under  the  title,  Histoire  du 
Chevalier  ties  Grieux  et  dc  Maiton  Lescaut.  It 
was  originally  only  an  episode  of  his  Meiiioires 
d'un  homme  dc  (jualitc.  The  chevalier  and  Ma- 
non  (a  young  girl  about  to  enter  a  convent) 
fall  in  love  at  their  first  meeting,  and  fly  to- 
gether to  Paris.  Here  she  deceives  her  lover  and 
becomes  the  mistres.s  of  various  rich  admirers 
through  her  love  of  luxury.  She  is  at  last  ar- 
rested and  transported  to  New  Orleans,  accom- 
panied by  the  Chevalier  des  firieux,  whose  con- 
stancy remains  unshaken  by  his  knowledge  of  her 
character.  At  New  Orleans  the  son  of  the  Gov- 
ernor, who  falls  in  love  with  Manon.  is  danger- 
ously wounded  by  the  Chevalier  des  Grieu,x.  and 
the  lovers  escape  to  the  desert,  where  Manon  dies 
of  exhaustion. 

MANOR.  The  district  of  a  lord  and  his  non- 
noble  feudal  dependents.  The  term  began  to  be 
used  in  Kngland  after  the  Norman  conr|uest.  but 
the  system  existed  in  .\nglo-Sax(m  times.  A 
manor  consisted  of  two  parts:  (1)  The  inland 
(demesne)  or  home-estate,  which  the  lord  hcM 
in  his  own  hands,  and  ujion  which  his  house  was 
built.  (2)  The  outland  (geneatland) ,  which  was 
held  by  tenants  for  rent  or  for  service  performed 
for  the  lord  on  the  island.  The  tenants  were 
usually  all  villeins,  who  dwelt  together  in  vil- 
lages and  lived  ordinarily  by  agriculture.  It  is 
held  by  writers  like  (Jneist.  Stubbs,  and  Freeman 
that  originally  there  were  few  manius,  but  that 
they  gradually  increased  in  number,  until  in  the 
tenth  century  the  prevailing  system  of  society 
was  that  of  manors  with  dependent  peasants.  In 
18R.S  a  new  theory  was  advanced. by  Frederic  See- 
bohm.  namely,  that  during  the  whole  Anglo-Sax- 
on period  the  mass  of  the  population  was  servile, 
and  that  the  invaders  copied  the  manor  system 
from  (he  Roman  villa.  Thus  there  arc  two 
schools  of  historians  at  present,  the  one  believing 
the  economic  development  of  Kngland  to  have 
proceeded  from  free  village  communities  to  man- 
ors, and  the  other  holding  that  the  process  was 
the  reverse. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  lord  of  the  manor 


often  was  removed  tliree  degrees,  sometimes  even 
live  degrees,  in  the  feudal  scale  from  the  king, 
since  the  creation  of  new  manors  by  subinfeuda- 
tion was  a  recognized  i)ractice.  Jloreover,  a  lord 
might  hold  sevcial  manors.  Sir  Edward  Coke 
(1552-1C34)  formulated  the  theory  that  a  manor 
must  have  at  least  two  freeliold  tenants,  so  that 
a  Court  Baron  (q.v.)  could  be  held.  The  earlier 
practice,  however,  aceonling  to  JIaitland,  knew 
no  such  distinction,  ami  many  manors  nuist  have 
had  only  villeins  occupying  the  land. 

Two  important  statutes  put  a  check  upon  the 
development  of  the  manorial  system,  which  has 
since  declined  to  a  mere  shadow.  The  Statute 
of  JIarlborough,  in  120!).  had  the  cfl'ect  of  pre- 
venting the  establishment  of  new  Courts  Baron, 
and  the  famous  .statute  of  Westminster  iii.,  in 
12tlO,  known  as  the  statute  Quia  Einfitores,  made 
it  lawful  for  a  freeludd  tenant  to  sell  his  lands, 
and  provided  that  the  i)urchaser  should  hold  of 
the  chief  lord  of  the  manor,  instead  of  his  ven- 
dor, and  thus  prevented  further  subinfeudation. 
After  this  legislation  it  became  customary  to 
parcel  the  land  out  in  individual  holdings,  and 
with  the  decay  of  the  manorial  system,  the  later 
conception,  as  linking  the  innnediate  freehold 
ten.ant  or  'tenant  paravail'  by  a  shortening  feu- 
dal chain  to  the  king,  became  predominant. 
Lands  in  a  manor  wen^  jiarcelcd  out  to  freehold 
and  leasehold  tenants,  and  the  freeholders  might 
hold  by  any  form  of  feudal  tenure;  as  by 
'Knigiit's  service,'  'in  free  and  common  socage,' 
etc.  The  manors  were  the  great  reservoirs  of 
customary  law,  and  each  manor  modified  the 
common  law  of  land,  and  might  modify  the  com- 
mon tenures  to  conform  to  its  ancient  customs. 
These  customs,  not  being  a  part  of  the  conunon 
law  of  the  kingdom,  were  originally  not  cogniz- 
able by  the  common  law  courts,  jiut  were  de- 
termined or  'found.'  and  administered,  as  the 
local  law  of  each  manor,  by  its  own  courts.  The 
principal  one  of  these,  and  the  one  which  came 
in  the  course  of  time  to  be  regarded  as  the  prin- 
cipal characteristic,  and  (as  Lord  Coke  called 
it)  the  "chief  prop"  of  the  manor,  was  the  Court 
Baron.  This  court  exercised  the  civil  jurisdiction 
vested  in  the  lord  of  the  manor,  and  the  Court 
Leet  took  cognizance  of  criminal  causes.  No  new 
manors  have  been  created  in  England  since  the 
legislation  above  referred  to,  Init  many  old  man- 
ors still  exist.  They  nuiy  be  extinguished  by  the 
lord  purchasing  the  lands  of  his  freehold  tenants, 
so  that  there  will  be  no  one  to  hold  the  Court 
Baron  without  which  a  manor  ceases  to  exist. 

The  manorial  system  was  introduced  into  New 
York,  when  under  the  English  rule,  and  substan- 
tially the  same  peculiar  customs,  etc..  prevailed 
as  in  Kngland  at  that  time.  Manorial  cinirls 
were  estal)lished  and  the  system  was  the  basis  of 
the  land  tenures.  Some  of  these  manors  gave 
names  to  districts,  which  are  preserved  to  the 
present  day,  as  Pelham  Manor,  Van  Cortlandt 
jianor,  etc.  As  the  manorial  system  was  incon- 
sistent with  the  institutions  of  the  T'nitcd  States, 
it  ceased  to  exist  after  the  separation  from  Eng- 
land. 

The  various  views  held  by  historical  scholars 
will  be  found  by  consulting  the  following  authori- 
ties: Stubbs.  Con.ttiliilioiKil  ffi.ilnni  (if  F.nrjlnnd, 
vol.  i.  (f.th  ed..  Oxford,  18!I7):  Maitland,  '((elect 
Plenx  in  ManarinJ  Pourix  (London.  ISSd)  ;  .An- 
drews. The  Old  Enfilish  .Wfliior( Baltimore.  lSfl2)  ; 
.Seebobm,   The  English   Village  Community    (4th 


MANOR.  7 

ed.,  London,  1890)  ;  Ashley.  An  Introduction  to 
Emjlish  Economic  History  and  Theory  (2  vols., 
London,  1888-93).  8eo  tlie  articles  Feud.\lism; 
Te.vuke. 

MANORIAL  COURT.     See  M.\xoK. 

MANRESA,  man  iTi'sa.  A  town  in  the  Piov- 
inee  ot  liareelona.  Spain,  30  miles  northwest 
of  the  city  of  that  name  (ilap:  Spain.  F  2).  It 
is  pieturesquely  situated  on  the  left  banl<  of  the 
Cai'doner,  and  in  an  amphitheatre  of  hills 
crowned  by  a  large  Gotliic  cathedral  of  the  four- 
teentl)  century.  It  lias  a  high  school,  conducted 
by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  the  neighborhood  is  the 
Convent  of  Santo  Domingo,  in  which  Ignatius  of  ' 
Loyola  dwelt  for  a  year,  and  which  is  on  that 
account  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  The  surrounding 
region  is  irrigated  by  a  canal  fed  by  the  Llobre- 
gat  River.  JIanresa  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  woolen  yarns,  and  silk  fabrics.  In  ISII  it 
was  set  on  fire  by  ]\Iarshal  Macdonald.  Popula- 
tion, in  1887,  19.000;   in  1900,  23,416. 

MANRIQTJE,  man-re'ka,  Gomez  (1412-91). 
A  Spanish  poet,  uncle  of  the  more  celebrated 
Jorge,  born  in  1412,  of  a  noble  family.  He 
played  an  important  part  in  the  disturbances  of 
the"  reign  of  Henry  IV.  In  his  earlier  lyrics 
he  adhered  to  the  Provencal-Galician  methods, 
but  he  soon  affiliated  himself  with  the  movement 
that  aimed  at  the  Italianizing  of  Castilian 
poetical  forms.  He  attained  some  success  in 
the  composition  of  the  political  satire,  but  the 
pathetic  note  is  the  most  distinctive  one  in  his 
lyrics.  Gomez  also  essayed  the  drama  in  several 
pieces,  the  best  of  which  is  tlie  liturgical  play. 
Represent acion  del  nacimiento  de  yiicstro  Seilor. 
Consult  his  Cancionero,  edited  by  A.  Paz  y  Melia 
(Madrid,  1885-86). 

MANRIQTTE,  Jorge  (1440-78).  A  Spanish 
poet.  He  fell  in  battle  in  1478.  when  yet  hardly 
old  enough  to  have  attained  the  fullness  of  his 
poetical  power.  The  greater  part  of  his  verse 
preserved  in  the  Cancionero  general  of  1511  and 
in  other  Cancioneros  gives  little  evidence  of  any 
extraordinary  merit  in  him,  and  his  fame  is 
really  based  on  a  single  jioem,  that  written  in 
commemoration  of  the  death  of  his  father,  the 
Maestre  de  Santiago.  This  suffices.  _  however,  to 
make  his  name  one  to  be  remembered  as  long  as 
his  language  remains  intelligible.  In  verses 
raoumfidly  sweet  of  tone,  the  exquisite  coplas 
of  this  composition  proclaim  the  vanity  and  brief 
duration  of  all  things  terrestrial  and  the  neces- 
sity of  yielding  to  death  as  so  many,  even  the 
most  powerful  and  exalted  of  human  beings,  have 
had  to  do.  Longfellow's  graceful  translation  of 
the  poem  has  preserved  nmch  of  the  dignity  and 
pathos  of  the  original.  The  Spanish  text  may 
be  found  in  vol.  xxxv.  of  the  Bihlioteca  de  autores 
espafioles    (Madrid,  1872). 

MANS.  An  .aboriginal  people  occupying  some 
of  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  Chinese  prov- 
inces of  Sze-chuan  and  Yun-nan,  portions  of  Tong- 
king,  etc.  During  the  last  half  century  they  have 
been  forced  more  and  more  into  the  hills.  Tlie 
Mans  are  short  in  stature  and  mesocephalic. 
They  are  more  or  less  nomadic  and  do  not  mix 
readily  with  other  peoples  of  the  country.  They 
are  looked  upon  as  part  of  the  aboriginal  popu- 
lation of  Sze-chuan,  driven  back  into  Yunnan 
about  the  third  century  a.d.  by  the  advance  of 
the  Chinese,  and  now  moving  seaward  along  the 


MANSART. 

heights  of  land.     The  Mans  and  the  Lolos   (q.v.) 
seem   to  be  linguistically  related. 

MANS,  max,  Le.  The  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Sarthe,  and  formerly  of  the  Province  of 
Maine  in  Northwestern  France.  It  is  situated  in 
the  centre  of  the  department,  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Sartlie,  116  miles  (132  miles  by  rail) 
southwest  of  I'aris  (Map:  France,  G  3).  It  is 
an  old  town,  but  has  many  wide  streets  and 
avenues,  some  of  recent  construction,  and  several 
parks  and  promenades.  The  most  notable  build- 
ing is  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Julien,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  churches  of  France.  It 
was  built  in  the  period  Ijetween  the  eleventh  and 
the  fifteenth  centuries,  and  has  a  magiiiflcent 
choir  built  in  pure  Gothic  style.  It  holds  the 
tomb  of  Berengaria,  the  Queen  of  Richard  Cceur- 
de-Lion.  The  Church  of  Kotre  Dame  de  la  Cou- 
ture is  also  notable.  The  town  has  a  seminary, 
two  normal  schools,  and  a  public  library,  con- 
taining 53,000  volumes.  There  are  also  excellent 
museums  of  natural  history,  art,  and  arclia;ology. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  chemicals,  es- 
pecially sulphuric  acid,  tobacco,  sail-cloth,  in- 
struments and  clocks,  chocolate,  and  candles. 
There  is  a  chamber  of  commerce  and  of  agricul- 
ture, and  the  town  has  considerable  trade  in 
cattle,  poultry,  eggs,  fruit,  grain,  and  wine. 
Population  of  the  commune,  in  1891,  57.412;  in 
1901,  63,272,  with  52,902  in  the  city  proper. 

Le  Mans  existed  before  the  Roman  conquest. 
Its  original  name  was  Vindinvini.  It  was'  the 
chief  city  of  the  Cenomani,  from  whom  it  received 
its  present  name.  It  was  fortified  by  the  Romans, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of 
the  Prankish  Kingdom.  It  was  taken  by  William 
the  Conqueror  in  1063.  and  suffered  many  sieges 
during  the  long  Anglo-French  wars.  Tlie  Ven- 
deans  were  defeated  here  in  December,  1793.  and 
the  city  subjected  to  a  massacre.  In  1871  it  was 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Chanzy's  army  by  tlie 
Germans  under  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  in  a 
battle  lasting  from  the  10th  to  the  12th  of  Janu- 
ary. 

MANSARD  ROOF.  A  form  of  roof  named 
after  Francois  Mansart  (q.v.).  It  is  constructed 
with  a  break  in  the  slope  of  the  roof,  so  that  each 
side  has  two  planes,  the  lower  being  steeper  tlian 
the  upper.  This  kind  of  roof  has  the  advantage 
over  the  common  form  of  giving  more  space  in 
the  roof  for  living  room. 

MANSART,  nuiN'sar',  or  MANSARD,  Fr.\n- 
rois  (1598-1666).  A  Frencli  architect,  born  in 
Paris.  He  designed  many  important  private 
houses  in  Paris  and  provincial  chateaux,  the 
Church  of  Val  de  Grace,  parts  of  the  Chateau  of 
Blois.  and  the  Hotel  Carnavalet.  The  form  of 
roof  known  as  Mansard  is  named  from  him. — His 
nephew,  Jules  H.\RDonx-M.\N.s.\KT  (1G45-1708). 
also  an  architect,  was  born  in  Paris,  the  son  of  an 
obscure  painter,  named  Hardouin,  who  had  mar- 
ried a  sister  of  Francois  Mansart.  He  studied 
architecture  under  his  great-uncle  and  under 
Bruant.  .and,  being  also  a  skillful  courtier,  se- 
cured Louis  XIV.  for  patron,  and  entered  upon 
the  construction  of  some  of  his  most  splendid 
works.  Tlie  Chateau  de  Clagny  was  his  first 
work,  executed  for  Mme.  de  Montespan.  His  next 
was  on  the  Palace  of  Versailles,  wliich  he  began 
in  1660.  building  the  south  wing,  the  Grande 
Galerie,  then  the  north  wing,  the  grand  stairway, 
and   the   chapel    (1677-1708).      Besides   this,   he 


MANSART. 


MANSFIELD. 


built  a  number  of  othfr  noted  olifitcaux  at  Ver- 
sailles (1G72).  The  extravagance  and  rage  of 
palace  building  which  possessed  the  King  was 
turned  to  the  greatest  advantage  by  ilansart, 
both  as  an  artist  and  as  a  man  of  business.  He 
accumulated  an  immense  fortiuie,  and  was  cov- 
ered with  dignities  and  honors.  The  Grand  Tri- 
anon was  his  work;  but  his  most  perfect  design 
is  the  dome  of  the  Church  of  the  Invalides  in 
Paris,  which,  though  inferior  to  very  many  domes 
in  size,  surpasses  all  in  the  exciuisite  proportions 
of  its  exterior  lines.  The  ChAteau  of  -Marly,  the 
Place  Vendome,  and  the  Place  des  Victoires  in 
Paris  were  also  designed  by  ilansart. 

HANSE.  In  Scotch  law,  the  dwelling  house 
of  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church.  Every 
minister  of  a  rural  parish  is  entitled  to  a  manse, 
which  the  heritors  or  landed  proprietors  are 
bound  to  build  and  maintain:  and  he  is  also  en- 
titled, as  part  of  the  manse,  to  a  stable,  cow- 
house, and  garden.  The  manse  must,  by  statute. 
be  near  to  the  church.  The  amount  fixed  by  law 
as  the  allowance  for  the  manse  has  varied  from 
time  to  time,  and  it  may  vary  more  or  less,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  but  it  is  now  usually 
fixed  at  a  value  of  £1000.  It  is  only  the  min- 
isters of  rural  parishes  that  are  entitled  to  a 
manse,  and  not  ministers  of  a  royal  burgh  where 
there  is  no  landward  district. 

MAN'SEL,  Hexby  Longveville  (1820-71). 
An  Engli.^li  metaphysician,  born  at  Cosgrove, 
Northamptonshire.  lie  graduated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1843.  and  in  1855  was 
appointed  reader  in  moral  and  metaphysical 
philosophy  in  JIagdalen  College.  In  1859  he  be- 
came \Vaynllele  professor,  and  in  lS(iO  received 
the  appointment  of  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history.  He  belongs  to  tiie  school  of  Sir  W. 
Hamilton,  whose  lectures  he  edited  (1859)  with 
the  assistance  of  Professor  Veitch.  He  was  xyell 
versed  in  the  erudition  of  metaphysical  philos- 
ophy, and  wrote  in  a  clear  and  elegant  style.  The 
best  known  of  his  publications  is  his  Hampton 
Lectures  (  18.")S-59  and  ISCT)  on  "The  Limits  of 
Religious  Thought."  in  which,  applying  the  idea 
developed  in  Hamilton's  articles,  "The  Philos- 
ophy of  the  Unconditioned,"  he  maintained  that 
any  attempt  to  arrive  at  an  idea  of  the  Absolute 
through  the  categories  of  substance  or  cause  is 
attended  by  insurmountable  didiculties.  It>  was 
urged  by  many  that  the  work,  though  purport- 
ing to  be  theistic,  was  really  agnostic,  and  Spen- 
cer asserted  (in  the  prospectus  to  his  Ki/nllietic 
I'hiinxdphii.  IS(iO)  that  he  was  merely  working 
out  "the  doctrine  put  into  shape  by  Haniilt'in  .niid 
Mansel."  Controversies  resulted  between  Maiisel 
and  F.  1).  Maurice  and  (Joldwin  .Smith,  and  Man- 
sel characterized  his  opponents'  statements  as 
misrepresentations.  His  further  works  include: 
Prolcijomena  Jjogica  (1851).  in  exposition  of  the 
science  as  a  formal  one:  The  I'hilosophi/  of  the 
Conditioned  (18fiG);  and  The  Gnostic  [leresies 
of  the  I''irst  and  Hreond  Cenlurt/  (1875;  edited 
by  Dr.  Light  foot,  with  sketch  liy  Lord  Carnar- 
von). Consult  the  sketch  referred  to;  also, 
Biirgon,  Ijivcs  of  Twelve  Good  Men  (London, 
1888 t. 

MANSFELD,  miinsffelt,  Ernst.  Count  (1580- 
1620).  .\  (Icrman  soldier.  He  was  the  illegiti- 
mate son  of  1'eter  Ernst,  Count  of  Man-ifcM.  and 
was  educated  by  his  godfather,  .\rchduke  Ernst 
of  Austria.     In  return  for  vahialile  military  ser- 


vices under  Kudolph  II.  he  was  legitimized  by 
Imperial  decree.  The  title  and  estates  of  his 
father  were,  however,  withheld  from  him.  and  in 
revenge  he  joined  the  enemies  of  Austria  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  as  a  stanch  Protestant  cham- 
pion. He  fought  gallantly  in  Bohemia  and  on 
the  Rhine  for  the  Elector  Palatine.  His  efl'orts 
failed,  but  brought  him  great  renown.  In  1625, 
aided  by  English  and  French  subsidies,  he  again 
attacked  Austria.  Wallenstcin  met  and  over- 
came his  force  at  Dessau.  A])ril.  iri2().  JIansfeld 
was  driven  from  the  field  and  died  in  Dalmatia 
before  the  close  of  the  year. 

MANS'FIELD.  A  market-town  in  Xotting- 
hamshire,  England,  14  miles  north  of  Notting- 
ham, surrounded  bv  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
forest  of  Sherwood"  (Map:  England,  E  3).  The 
town  is  regularly  built  and  has  a  grammar  school 
founded  in  1501,  twelve  almshouses  founded  in 
1693.  and  other  charitable  institutions.  Its  pub- 
lic buildings  include  a  town  hall  and  municipal 
otBces,  a  mechanics'  institute,  free  library  and 
isolation  hospital,  and  it  owns  water,  gas,  mar- 
kets, bath  and  pleasure  grounds.  It  stands  in 
the  centre  of  a  large  manufacturing  and  mining 
district.  Silk,  cotton,  and  doubling  mills  are  in 
operation,  and  it  also  carries  on  bootmaking, 
iron-founding,  and  an  important  trade  in  cattle 
and  agricultural  produce.  Population,  in  1891, 
15,900;   in   IdOl,  21,400. 

MANSFIELD.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Richland  County,  Ohio.  80  miles  southwest  of 
Cleveland;  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Erie, 
and  the  Pennsylvania  railroads,  and  interurban 
lines  connecting  with  two  points  on  the  l'>ig  Four 
system  (Map:  Ohio.  E  4).  It  has  the  Ohio  State 
Reformatory,  a  memorial  soldiers'  and  sailors' 
building,  a  public  library  with  about  11.000  vol- 
umes, and  Sherman-IIeineman  Park  of  40  acres. 
The  city  is  an  important  trade  centre  for  the 
adjacent  agricultural  country,  and  is  noted  for 
its  manufactures,  which  include  threshing  ma- 
chines, boilers,  engines,  engine  fittings  and  brass 
goods,  stoves,  pumps,  buggies,  street  c;irs.  cigiirs, 
webbing  and  suspenders,  electrical  and  electric 
railway  supplies,  etc.  Mansfield  is  governed 
under  a  revised  charter  of  1857  which  ])rovides 
for  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  a  city  coimcil, 
and  administrative  officials  of  whom  the  water- 
works trustees  and  bo.ird  of  education  are  chosen 
by  popular  vote.  The  water-works  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  nuinicipality ;  also  a  large 
sewage  and  garbage  disposal  plant.  Settled  in 
1808.  Mansfield  was  first  incorporated  in  1828. 
It  was  the  home  of  .John  Slicrnian  (q.v.).  Popu- 
lation, in   1.890.  13.473;   in  1900,   17,640. 

MANSFIELD.  A  borough  in  Tioga  County, 
Pa.,  13  miles  east  by  north  of  Wellsboro,  the 
countv-seat ;  on  the  Tioga  River,  and  on  the 
Erie  Railroad  (Map:  Pennsylvania.  D  2).  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  State  normal  school  with  a 
library  of  over  5000  volumes,  and  has  a  public 
library  of  2000  volumes.  The  annual  county  fair 
is  held  here  in  a  beautiful  park.  Mansfield  is  the 
centre  of  a  farming  region,  and  there  are  various 
manufactures.  Population,  in  1890,  1762;  in 
1900.  1847. 

MANSFIELD,  Moint.  The  highest  peak  of 
the  (Jrecn  Moiuitains  in  the  State  of  Vermont, 
situal<'d  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State, 
20  miles  east  of  Burlington  (Map:  Vermont, 
D  3).     It  rises  3000  feet  above  the  surrounding 


MANSFIELD. 


n 


MANSFIELD  COLLEGE. 


country  and  lias  three  peaks,  tlie  highest  of 
which  is  4304  feet  above  sea-level.  Its  summit 
affords  one  of  the  finest  views  in  New  England, 
ineluding  Lake  Champlain  with  the  Adirondacks 
beyond,  and  a  large  part  of  the  Green  and  White 
mountains. 

MANSFIELD,  Edward  Deerino  (1801-80). 
An  American  author,  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1819,  but  declined 
to  enter  the  army  and  studied  at  Princeton,  from 
which  he  graduated  in  1822.  In  1825  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  He  afterwards  removed  to 
Cincinnati,  and  in  1836  became  professor  of  con- 
stitutional law  in  Cincinnati  College.  Shortly 
afterwards,  however,  he  abandoned  the  legal  pro- 
fession to  engage  in  journalism,  and  edited  suc- 
cessively the  Cincinnati  Chronicle,  Atlas,  and 
Railroad  Record.  He  was  Commissioner  of  Sta- 
tistics for  the  State  of  Ohio  from  1857  to  1867, 
was  a  member  of  the  Societe  Fran<;aise  de  Statis- 
tique  Universelle.  and  published:  Political  Gram- 
mar of  the  United  states  (1834)  :  Life  of  Gen. 
Winficld  Scott  (1846);  History  of  the  Mexican 
War    (1848);   and  American  Education   (1850). 

MANSFIELD,  Joseph  Ivjxg  Fenno  (1803- 
62).  An  .\iiicrican  soldier.  He  was  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  graduated  second  in  his  class  at 
West  Point  in  1822,  was  assigned  to  the  Engineer 
Corps  as  brevet  second  lieutenant,  and  during 
the  next  twenty-four  years  was  engaged  almost 
continuously  on  engineering  work  for  the  Gov- 
ernment, his  most  important  service  being  the 
construction  of  Fort  Pulaski,  for  the  defense  of 
Savannah  River.  Ga.,  to  wliich  he  devoted  most 
of  his  time  between  1830  and  1846.  During  the 
jMexican  War  lie  served  throughout  the  nortli- 
ern  campaign  as  chief  engineer  under  General 
Taylor,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  constructing 
and  aiding  in  the  defense  of  Fort  Browni,  taking 
a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Monterey 
(where  he  was  wounded)  and  in  the  battle  of 
liuena  Vista,  and  receiving  the  successive  brevets 
of  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel.  He 
then  served  as  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Engi- 
neers for  the  Atlantic  coast  defense  from  Slareh, 
1848.  to  April.  1853,  and  of  the  board  for  the 
Pacific  coast  defenses  from  April  to  Jlay,  1853, 
and  from  1853  to  April,  1861,  was  inspector-gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  Army  with  the  rank  of 
colonel.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  engaged 
in  organizing  companies  of  volunteers  at  Colum- 
bus, Gliio,  in  April,  1861:  commanded  the  De- 
partment of  Washington  from  April  to  July, 
1861 :  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  May:  was  in  command  of  the  city  of 
Washington  from  .July  to  October;  then  com- 
manded successively  at  Camp  Hamilton.  Newport 
News,  and  Suffolk,  Va. :  captured  Norfolk.  Va., 
on  May  10,  1862:  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  .July;  commanded  a  division  in 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  during  the  Maryland 
campaign,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Antie- 
tam  on  Septeiiiber  17,  1862.' 

MANSFIELD,  PiicHARD  (18.57  —  ).  An  Ameri- 
can actor,  born  in  the  island  of  Helgoland,  5Iay 
24,  1857,  the  son  of  Madame  Pvudersdorff  (Mans- 
field), the  noted  singer.  He  was  educated  chiefly 
in  Germany  and  England,  and  when  about  seven- 
teen years  of  age  came  to  Boston,  Mass..  where 
he  worked  as  a  clerk  in  a  dry-goods  store  and 
studied  painting  for  a  short  time.  In  1875  he 
returned  to  England,  and  after  several  years  of 


severe  privation  engaged  at  length  with  some 
success  in  comic  opera.  His  first  appearance  on 
the  American  stage  was  in  1882  in  New  York. 
In  January,  1883,  he  won  a  striking  success  as 
Baron  Chevrial  in  A  Parisian  Romance  at  the 
Union  Square  Theatre.  This  was  followed  by  a 
number  of  modern  and  classic  rr>les,  which  within 
ten  years  gained  him  a  leading  place  among 
American  actors.  Among  his  parts  have  been 
Doctor  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde  (1887);  Richard 
III.,  produced  in  London  in  1889;  Beau  Bruni- 
niell  (1890);  Arthur  Dimmesdale  in  his  own 
dramatization  of  The  Scarlet  Letter  (1892); 
Shylock  (1893):  Bluntschli  in  Arms  and  the 
Man  (1894)  ;  Dick  Dudgeon  in  The  Dci-il's  Dis- 
ciple (1897)  ;  Cyrano  de  Bergerac  (1898)  ;  Henry 
V.  (1900);  Monsieur  Beaucaire  (1901);  and 
Brutus  in  .hilius  Ccesar  (1902).  Deep  study  and 
careful  elaboration  of  detail  characterize  Mans- 
field's work,  both  in  comedy  and  tragedy.  In 
1892  Mansfield  married  Beatrice  Cameron. 
Consult:  Hapgood,  The  Stage  in  America  in 
1807-1900  (New  York,  1901);  Strang,  Famous 
Actors  of  To-day  in  America  (Boston,  1900)  ; 
McKav  and  Wingate,  Famous  American  Actors  of 
To-dn'y    (New  York,  1896). 

MANSFIELD,  William  Murray,  first  Earl 
of  (1705-93),  A  celebrated  British  jurist.  He 
was  horn  March  2,  1705,  the  fourth  son  of 
David,  Viscount  Stormont.  He  studied  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1730, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  the  same  year. 
Through  the  facility  and  force  of  his  oratory,  as 
well  as  through  the  clearness  of  his  understand- 
ing, he  acquired  a  brilliant  reputation  and  an 
extensive  practice ;  in  cases  of  appeal  he  was 
often  employed  before  the  House  of  Lords.  In 
1741  he  was  appointed  by  the  Ministry  Solicitor- 
General,  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  mem- 
ber for  Boroughbridge,  and  at  once  took  a  high 
position.  In  1746  he  acted,  ex-oflicio,  as  counsel 
against  the  rebel  lords  Lovat,  Balmerino,  and 
Kilmarnock:  and  in  1754  he  was  appointed 
King's  Attorney.  He  became  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  in  1756.  At  this  time  he  entered 
the  House  of  Lords  under  the  title  of  Baron 
Mansfield  of  Mansfield  in  the  County  of  Notting- 
ham. As  his  opinions  were  not  those  of  the 
popular  side,  he  was  exposed  to  much  abuse  and 
party  hatred.  .Junius,  among  others,  bitterly 
attacked  him;  and  in  the  Gordon  riots  of  178(), 
his  house,  with  all  his  valuable  books  and  nianu- 
.scripts,  was  burned.  He  declined  with  dignity 
indemnification  by  Parliament.  In  1776  he  was 
made  Earl  of  Mansfield.  He  worked  hard  as  a 
judge  till  1788,  when  age  and  ill  health  forced 
him  to  resign.  His  death  occurred  on  ilarch  20, 
1793.  He  was  a  brilliant  parliamentary  debater, 
fluent,  clear,  and  logical,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
who  ever  sat  on  the  bench.  Consult:  A  General 
ViciD  of  the  Decisions  of  Lord  Mansfield  (ed.  by 
Evans,  London,  1803)  ;  Report  of  Cases  Argued 
and  Adjudfird  in  the  Court  of  the  King's  Bench 
During  the  Time  of  Lord  Mansfield's  Presidency 
in  that  Court  (Dublin,  1794)  ;  Holliday,  Life  of 
William,  Late  Earl  of  Mansfield  (London,  1797). 

MANSFIELD  COLLEGE.  A  theological  col- 
lege at  Oxford,  England,  not  incorporated  with 
the  university.  It  was  founded  in  1886  by  the 
transfer  to  Oxford  of  Spring  Hill  College,  Bir- 
mingham, and  has  been  erected  and  supported  by 
the    Congregational    churches    for   the    study   oi 


MANSFIELD  COLLEGE. 


10 


MANT. 


tliuolofrv.  pailicuhirly  ivr  the  ccluoation  of  Con- 
gregational ministers.  The  buildings  consist  of 
an  o])en  quadrangle  with  hall,  common  rooms, 
library  lecture  rooms,  and  chapel,  and  are  very 
well  designed  in  tiothic  style. 

MANSI,  niiin'se,  Giovanni  Domexico  (1692- 
ITil'.').  Jioman  t'atholie  Arclibishoj)  of  Lucca. 
Jle  was  born  at  Lucea,  February  10,  1(>!I2;  taught 
theology  many  years  at  Naples;  made  literary 
journeys  through  Italy,  France,  and  Germany; 
established  an  academy  in  Lucca  over  which  he 
presided;  was  made  Archbislioj)  in  ]7t).>;  and  died 
in  Lucca,  Sei)teml)er  27,  ITtiO.  He  is  best  known 
as  the  editor  of  the  great  work  on  the  Councils, 
flacronim  Cdnciliornm  Xova  et  Amplissima  Col- 
lectio  (31  vols..  Florence,  17.5!)  sqq.j,  which  goes 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  fiftecntli  century.  Con- 
sult his  l.ifc,  by  Zatta    (Venice,  1772), 

MANSILLA  DE  GARCIA,  nnni-sS'lya  da 
giir-se'a,  Ldi.vhda  (  ISoS — ).  A  South  American 
author,  born  in  Huenos  Ayres.  She  married  the 
Argentine  diplomatist  Manuel  Garcia,  in  1855. 
Her  novels  deal  with  Argentine  .subjects,  and 
have  some  value  from  tlieir  descriptive  quali- 
ties. They  include:  El  mr<lico  dc  San  Luis 
(1S.57),  and  the  historical  Liicin  Miranda,  and 
Pahio  6  la  I'ida  en  las  pampas  (18G8),  which 
was  published  in  French  at  Paris. 

MANSION  HOUSE.  The  name  given  to  the 
oflicial  residence  of  the  Lord  Mayor  of  London, 
situated  oj)posite  the  Koyal  Kxchange.  In  its 
great  bancpieting  hall,  known  as  the  Egyptian 
Hall,   are   given    the   state   banquets. 

MANSLAUGHTER.  The  unlawful  killing 
of  aiKilhcr  withuut  malice,  express  or  implied. 
It  is  this  absence  of  malice  wliich  distinguishes 
the  act  from  nuirder.  Not  infrequently  persons 
are  charged  with  tliis  crime  who  are  admittedly 
free  from  any  moral  blame.  At  conunon  law, 
manslaughter  is  of  two  kinds,  voluntary  and  in- 
viduntary.  The  former  includes  cases  of  inten- 
tional killing,  upon  sudden  heat  or  passion  due 
to  provor-ation,  which  palliates  the  olTense;  as 
when  the  person  killed  grossly  insults  or 
wrongs  the  slayer  or  quarrels  with  him.  In- 
voliinlani  inanshniiilitcr  occurs  when  the  killing 
is  not  intended,  but  results  from  the  commis- 
sion of  an  unlawful  act  which  falls  below  the 
grade  of  felony  (q.v.),  or  from  the  doing  of  a 
lawful  act  in  an  unlawful  manner,  as  in  cases  of 
culpable  negligence  (q.v.),  A  railroad  engineer, 
a  trolley-ear  motorman,  or  a  horse-car  driver, 
whose  negligent  misconduct  causes  the  death  of 
a  human  being  is  guilty  of  manslaughter.  Hy 
modern  statutes  the  oltense  has  been  extended 
to  everA'  kind  of  homiciile  (q.v.)  which  on  the 
one  hand  is  not  nuirder  (q.v.),  and  on  the  other 
is  not  justifiable  or  excusable.  It  has  also  been 
divided  into  degrees — the  first  degree  inclu<Iing 
eases  marked  by  unusmil  cruelty,  or  by  unlawful 
conduct  of  a  grave  character,  such  as  a  deliberate 
assault  or  the  use  of  dangerous  weapons,  or  ad- 
ministering drugs  to  procure  miscarriage;  while 
the  second  <legree  embraces  culpable  acts  and 
omissions  which  are  less  blamewiutby.  The 
common  law  treated  manslaughter  as  n  felony, 
but  within  the  benefit  of  clergy.  Modern  statutes 
in  England  punish  the  more  serious  forms  by 
penal  servitude  for  life,  and  the  lighter  forms 
by  imprisonment  or  fine.  In  the  United  States 
manslaughter   in   the   first   degree   is   punishable 


by  imjirisonment  for  a  term  generally  varying 
from  live  to  twenty  years;  in  the  second  degree, 
by  iniiirisonment  for  a  shorter  term,  or  by  a  fine 
of  a  limited  amount,  or  by  both  fine  and  im- 
prisonment. See  Crimi.xal  L.\w'  (consult  the 
anllicn-itics  there  cited)  :   Homicide;   Murder. 

MANSO,  niiin'so,  Joiiax.v  Ivaspab  Fbiedricu 
( 17t)0-lS2lil .  A  German  philologian  and  histo- 
rian, born  at  Blasienzell  (Gotha).  He  studied  at 
Jena,  and  from  1790  until  his  death  was  rector 
of  an  academy  at  Breslau,  His  translations  from 
the  classics — Vergil's  Crorgics  (178;!)  ;  the  QSdt- 
pns  Rex  of  Sophocles  (1785) — were  not  success- 
ful, but  the  Ocsrliirhte  drs  prcnssischen  iitaates 
bis  zur  ztceiten  I'ariser  Abk-unft  (3  vols.,  1819- 
20),  has  more  merit,  and  was  much  read  in  its 
time, 

MAN'SON,  George  (1850-76).  A  Scotch 
water-color  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh. He  at  first  worked  as  an  engraver,  and 
during  this  tinu>  and  afterwards  studied  painting 
in  the  Edinburgh  School  of  .Art.  In  1875  he  took 
some  lessons  in  etching  from  Cadart  in  Paris. 
His  pictures  are  usually  of  homely  rustic  sub- 
jects, treated  with  much  delicacy  and  beauty  of 
color.  They  include  ''Milking  Time,"  and  "The 
Gy])sy  Well."  As  an  engraver.  Manson  imitated 
the  simple,  direct  methods  of  the  Bewicks.  Con- 
sult the  preface  bv  Gi*av  in  George  Manson  and 
His  Worlds  (Edinburgh,'l880). 

MANSON,  Patrick.  A  distinguished  English 
physician  and  parasitologist,  and  writer  on 
tropical  diseases.  He  first  became  known  by  his 
investigations  into  the  pathology  of  filarial  dis- 
eases, and  was  one  of  the  first  to  suggest  the 
hypothesis  that  the  mosciuito  is  an  active  agent 
in  the  propagation  of  malaria.  In  1897  he  was 
ma<le  medical  adviser  to  the  British  Colonial 
Ollices.  He  has  published  many  monographs  on 
tropical  diseases.  His  most  imi)ortant  works  are: 
The  Goulstonian  Lectures  (1896),  and  Tropical 
DisrasiK     (1S9S1.      See    Insects,    Propauation 

111      MlSKASi:    BY. 

MANSURAH,  nian-soTi'i-a.  A  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  capital  of  the  Province  of  Dakahlieh, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Damietta  arm 
of  the  Nile,  about  35  miles  southwest  of  Dami- 
etta, on  the  Cairo-Damietta  Railway  (Map: 
Egj'pt,  El).  It  has  extensive  cotton  manu- 
factures and  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  raw 
cotton.  The  town  was  foiuulcd  in  1222  and  is 
noted  as  the  phue  where  Louis  IX.  of  France  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner  in  1250.  Population, 
in   1897.  :!r,,131. 

MANT,  Ricii.vRD  (1776-18481.  An  Irish 
bishop.  He  was  born  at  Soutliam))ton.  England; 
was  educated  at  Winchester  School  and  Trinity 
College.  Oxford,  taking  his  bachelor's  degree 
in  1797;  was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  College  in 
1798;  was  ordained  priest  in  1803;  and  was  cu- 
rate and  vicar  of  several  i)arishes  in  and  near 
London.  1804-20.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Kil- 
laloe  and  Kilfeiioragh.  Ireland,  in  1820,  and  in 
1823  was  transferred  to  the  See  of  Down  and 
Connor.  In  the  House  of  Lords.  Bishop  Mant 
voted  against  Catholic  Emancipation  in  1821  and 
1825.  He  was  a  member  in  1830  of  the  Royal 
Commission  to  incpiire  into  ecclesiastical  uniim. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  of  poetry,  as  well  as 
of  historical  and  theological  works;  and  many  of 
his  hymns  are  included  in  difTerent   collections. 


MANT. 


With  Georfie  D'Oyly  (q.v.)  he  prepared  the 
annotatetl  edition  of  tlie  Bible  loiowii  as  D'Oyly 
and  Mant's  Bible  (1814).  which  had  an  immense 
sale  in  Knglaiid,  and  was  repul)lished  in  New 
York,  with  adilitions  by  Bishop  Hnbart.  He  also 
published:  The  Book  of  Common  Prnycr  irith 
y'olrs  (1S20),  and  a  History  of  the  Church  of 
Jrtland  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Union  of 
the  Churches  of  England  and  Ireland  in  ISOl 
(1840).  His  poetical  works  include  a  version 
of  the  Psalms  (1824),  and  Ancient  Eymns  from 
the  Roman  Breviary,  vith  Orifjinal  IJymns 
( 1837 ) .  Consult  the  memoir  by  his  son.  Walter 
Bishop  Mant    (Dublin,  1857). 

MANTA,  mlin'ta.  A  port  of  entry  of  Ecuador, 
situated  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  150  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Quito  (Map:  Ecuador,  A  4).  Its 
hai'bor  is  deep  enousrh  for  large  vessels.  The 
town  exports  straw  hats,  rubber,  and  coffee,  and 
is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consular  agent. 
It  is  the  ]iort  of  ilonticristi,  10  miles  inland. 
It  was  founded  in   1.535. 

MANTA  (Sp.,  blanket).  A  name  about  Pan- 
ama of  tlie  huge  ray  {ilanta  birostris) ,  more 
fominonlj-  known  as  'devil-fi.sh'  (q.v.)  or  'sea 
devil,'  which  is  greatlj-  dreaded  by  the  pearl- 
fishers,  '"whom  it  is  said  to  devour  after  envelop- 
ing them  in  its  vast  wings,"  sometimes  20  feet 
across,  as  in  a  blanket.  See  Plate  of  Rats  and 
Skate.s. 

MANTALINI,  man'ta-le'ne.  In  Dickens's 
Nicholas  Xicklehy,  a  fop  given  to  mild  forms  of 
swearing.  He  is  supported  by  the  labor  of  his 
wife,  a  mantua-maker. 

MANTAEO,  nian-tii'ru.  A  river  in  Peru.  It 
is  formed  at  a  height  of  13.000  feet  above  sea- 
level  by  the  small  headstreams  of  Lake  Chin- 
-chaycocha,  in  tlie  western  part  of  the  Province 
of  Junin.  Thence  it  flows  southeast  past  the 
towns  of  Jauja  and  Huancayo  into  the  Province 
of  Huaneavelica,  where  it  turns  northeast, 
breaks  through  a  deep  gap  in  the  eastern  Cordil- 
leras, and  joins  the  Apurimac  to  form  the  Ene. 
which  joins  the  Quillabaniba  to  form  the  Uca- 
yalli.  Its  length  is  about  280  miles,  and  it  is 
navigable  a  few  miles  above  the  junction. 

MANTCHTJKIA,    man-choC'ri-a.      See    IMan- 

CIIVRIA. 

MANTEGAZZA,  niUn'ta-ga'tsa,  Paolo  (1831 
— ).  An  Italian  ph^ysiologist  and  anthropologist, 
born  at  Jlonza.  After  studying  medicine  in  the 
universities  of  Pisa  and  ililan  he  received  his 
doctor's  degree  at  Pavia  ( 1854 ) .  and  then  traveled 
extensively  in  Europe.  India,  and  South  America, 
where  he  practiced  for  a  time  in  Paraguay  and 
the  Argentine  Republic.  In  1858  he  returned  to 
^Nlilan.  was  appointed  pliysician  at  the  hospital 
in  that  city  the  following  year,  and  became  in 
1800  professor  of  pathology  at  Pavia.  In  1870 
he  was  made  professor  of  anthropology  at  the 
Istituto  di  Studii  Superiori  in  Florence,  and  there 
he  founded  the  lluseum  of  Antliropology  and  of 
Ethnology-,  the  first  in  Italy,  as  well  as  the  Italian 
Anthropological  Society,  and  a  review.  Arehivo 
per  I'Aiitropoloi/ia  e  la  Etnologiu.  He  was  Deputy 
for  Monza  in  the  Italian  Parliament  from  lH(i5 
until  lS7<i,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  Senate. 
His  philosophical  and  medical  works  include: 
Elementi  d'ir/iene  (1875);  Ipiene  dell'  amore 
(1877)  :  Fisioloqia  del  dolore  (1880)  :  Fisioloqin 
del  piacere  (1881)  ;  Fisonomia  e  mimica  (1883)  ; 
Vol.  Xill— 2. 


11  MANTEGNA. 

Oli  amori  decjli  uomini.  fiaggio  di  una  etnologia 
deir  amore  (188());  Le  estasi  umanc  (1887): 
Fisiologia  delta  donna  (1893);  Fisiologia  dell' 
amore  (1890)  ;  L'aiiiio  3000  (1897)  ;  and  L'amore 
(1898).  He  also  pul)lished  travel  sketches  and 
political  treatises:  Itio  delta  I'lata  e  Teneriffe 
(1877);  Viagyio  in  Lajionia  (1884);  India 
( 1884)  ;  Htudl  milla  etnologia  dell'  India  ( 1886)  ; 
and  Iticordi  d'un  fantaccino  al  parlamento  ital- 
iano   (1890). 

MANTEGNA,  min-ta'nya,  Andkea  (1431- 
1500).  An  Italian  painter  and  line-engraver  of 
the  early  Renaissance,  the  chief  master  of  the 
Paduan  school.  He  was  born  at  Vicenza,  the 
son  of  a  peasant  named  Biagio  ( Blasius ) .  After 
the  death  of  his  father,  at  the  age  of  ten 
he  was  adopted  by  the  painter  Squareione,  who.se 
apprentice  and  pupil  he  became.  They  dis- 
agreed repeatedly,  and  finally  separated,  upon 
the  marriage  of  Andrea  with  the  daugliter  of 
.Jacopo  Bellini,  in  1453.  Ijt  is  the  tendency  of 
the  latest  criticism  to  minimize  the  inlluence 
of  Squareione  upon  Mantegna's  art;  nevertheless, 
it  is  certain  that  we  find  all  the  characteristics 
of  Squarcione's  school  in  it.  He  was  also  in- 
fluenced by  the  work  of  Donatello,  Paolo  Uccello, 
and  Era  Filippo  Lippi  at  Padua,  but  there  is 
no  evidence  in  his  works  of  the  influence  of  his 
father-in-law.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  Mantegna 
was  an  independent  master,  practicing  his  art  at 
Padua,  where  he  remained  until  the  end  of  1459. 

The  chief  works  of  this  early  Paduan  period 
are  his  seven  mural  paintings  in  the  Chapel  of 
Saints  .James  and  Christopher,  in  the  Church 
of  the  Eremitani,  in  which  the  entire  progress 
of  his  art  can  be  traced.  Mantegna's  paintings 
are  far  superior  to  those  of  the  other  pupils 
of  Squareione  in  the  chapel,  and  were  as  im- 
portant for  Northern  Italy  as  the  Brancacci 
frescoes  for  Florence.  Five  are  from  the  life  of 
Saint  .James,  and  twe  from  the  life  of  Saint 
Christopher.  His  eai'liest  work  is  a  wall-paint- 
ing representing  Saints  Bernardinus  and  An- 
tonius  (1452).  above  the  main  portal  of  San 
Antonio  in  Padua.  Others  are  the  altar-piece 
of  San  Giustiniano  (1453),  containing  panels  of 
saints  in  arched  frames,  the  most  prominent  of 
whom  is  Saint  Luke;  "Saint  Eufemia,"  in  the 
Museum  of  Naples;  the  "Presentation  of  Christ 
in  the  Temple,"  and  the  portrait  of  Cardinal 
Luigi  Scarampi.  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  His 
"Pietri,"  in  the  Grera  at  Milan,  is  a  remarkable 
piece  of  foreshortening,  in  which  the  reclining 
Saviour  is  represented  with  his  feet  toward  the 
spectator.  The  altar-piece  of  Saint  Zeno  ( 1458- 
59)  has  rich  classical  decoration  of  columns  and 
garlands:  in  the  centre  is  the  Madonna,  sur- 
rounded by  angels  and  by  a  group  of  saints  on 
either  side.  The  predella  contained  a  "Cruci- 
fixion" of  infinite  pathos,  now  in  the  Louvre, 
which  was  flanked  by  "Gethsemane"  and  the 
"Resurrection,"  at  present  in  the  Museum  of 
Tours. 

In  1459,  after  repeated  invitations  from  Lodo- 
vico  Gonzaga.  Marquis  of  Mantua.  Mantegna 
removed  to  that  city,  wliere  he  resided  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  Although  very  independent 
anil  sometimes  irritable,  he  was  treated  with 
high  honor  and  great  consideration  by  the  Mar- 
quis and  his  successor,  Francesco  II.,  under 
whose  patronage  he  continued  imtil  his  death. 
In   148.'?  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  visited  him,  and  in 


MANTEGNA. 


1488  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  summoned  liini  to 
Rome  to  decorate  the  Belvedere  Chapel,  now- 
destroyed.  In  14!I0  he  returned  to  Mant\ia,  where 
he  died  Septendier  13,  loOti.  His  last  years  were 
darkened  by  linancial  troubles,  eonseijuent  upon 
his  building  a  family  chapel  in  tlie  Church  of 
Sant'  Andrea. 

His  chief  work  at  Mantua  was  the  decora- 
tion of  the  Camera  del  Sposi,  in  the  Castello  di 
Corte.  finished  in  1474.  Two  of  the  walls  and 
the  eeilinij  remain.  One  of  these,  which  is  par- 
tially damaged,  is  covered  with  a  realistic  group 
of  tiie  Maniuis..  his  wife,  and  the  entire  Court. 
The  other  shows  a  meeting  of  the  Manpiis  with 
Cardinal  Francesco  Gonzaga,  both  attended  by 
relatives.  The  figures  are  nearly  all  in  inofilo 
and  still'  in  action,  but  intensely  realistic'  and 
of  moniunental  grandeur.  The  same  wall  con- 
tains a  hunting  scene,  somewhat  damaged,  and  a 
group  of  beautiful  genii  holding  an  inscrip- 
tion. The  ceiling  is  richly  decorated  and  con- 
tains a  circular  dome  painted  to  rei)resent  the 
open  sky,  with  angels  and  other  figures  looking 
over  a  parapet.  Before  going  to  Rome.  Mantegna 
had  also  begun  his  nine  cartoons,  the  "Triumph 
of  Cipsar."  now  in  Hampton  Court,  which  ho' 
finished  soon  after  his  return  to  ilantua.  They 
are  drawn  on  paper  in  high  colors,  to  represent, 
as  if  in  bas-relref,  a  continuous  triumphal  pro- 
cession, and  were  used  as  hangings.  Xo  other 
monument  of  the  fifteenth  century  shows  such 
knowledge  and  feeling  for  the  antique.  For 
Isabella  of  Este,  Marchioness  of  Jlantua,  he 
painted  two  pictures  in  the  famous  chamber 
which  she  furnished  with  paintings  by  prominent 
Italian  artists,  vi/.  the  "Triumph  of  Virtue  Over 
Vice"  and  "I'arnassus,"  the  latter  containing 
groups  of  graceful  classical  figures  in  a  romantic 
landscape.     Both  are  now  in  the  Louvre. 

Among  his  other  works  orf  the  Mantuan  period 
are:  "Saint  Sebastian."  in  the  Gallery  of  Vienna: 
"Saint  George,"  in  the' Academy  of  Venice; 
"Summer,"  "Autumn,"  and  the  "Triumph  of 
Scipio,"  in  the  National  Gallery,  London.  In 
later  life  he  painted  a  large  numlier  of  Madonnas, 
of  which  there  are  good  examples  in  the  Ulfizi  at 
Florence,  the  .Vational  Gallery,  London,  the  Dres- 
den Gallery,  and  the  Trivulzio  Collection,  Milan. 
Particularly  famous  is  the  "iladonna  della  Vit- 
toria"  (14!M)),  painted  in  commemoration  of  a 
supposed  vict<iry  over  the  French,  and  now  in 
the  Ixiuvre.  I'nder  a  canopy  of  fruit  and  leaves, 
the  Virgin,  surrounded  by  saints,  is  represented 
blessing  Francesco  Gonzaga. 

Mantegna  was  a  highly  cultured  man  for  his 
day.  was  well  versed  in  classical  liter:itnre, 
numbering  among  liis  friends  prominent  Human- 
ists, like  Felice  Feli(i;ino.  who  deilicated  a  book 
to  him.  No  other  i>ainter  of  the  Renaissance 
imderstood  anticpie  art  as  did  Mantegna.  His 
paintings  were  its  sculptiire  transferred  to  can- 
vas, and  he  mastercil  completely  its  decoration. 
The  figures  and  draperies  are  sharp  and  rigid, 
and  his  archivology  is  sometimes  more  learned 
than  artistic.  He  was  a  severe  student  of  na- 
ture, and  an  intense  realist.  His  portraits  arc 
full  of  strength  and  character,  liis  ideal  fig- 
ures nolde  and  grand.  No  artist  of  the  early 
Renaissance  had  greater  invention  and  imagina- 
tion. His  execution  was  careful,  his  composi- 
tion good,  and  the  excellence  of  his  drawing  is 
attested  by  the  finished  drawings  in  the  Louvre, 
British  Museum,  I'fTizI,  ami  other  collections.    As 


12  MANTES. 

a  colorist  he  did  not  stand  on  the  same  high 
level.  All  of  his  work  was  in  tempera ;  and  his 
wall  paintings,  which  were  painted  upon  dry 
plaster,  are  improperlj'  called  frescoes. 

Mantegna  was  tlic  greatest  line-engraver  of 
Northern  Italy,  and  his  inllucnce  upon  that  art 
was  potent  not  only  in  Italy,  but  in  Germany 
as  well.  Unlike  Italian  engravers  before  him, 
lie  engraved  copper  plates  from  his  own  designs. 
At  first  his  technique  was  primitive,  but  it  im- 
proved with  the  study  of  German  engravings. 
In  all  cases  his  invention  is  more  interesting 
than  his  technique.  The  best-known  plates  of 
his  Paduan  period  are  the  "Flagellation  of 
Christ,"  and  "Christ  at  the  Gates  of  Hell;"  to 
tlic  Mantuan  period  belong  llie  "Resurrection  of 
Christ,"  "Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  and  En- 
tombment." This  last  plate  had  a  greater  intlu- 
ence  upon  art  than  any  other  ever  executed.  Its 
composition  was  adopted  by  Raphael  in  his  pic- 
ture of  the  same  name,  by  Holbein  (q.v. )  in  the 
"Basel  Passion"  series,  and  the  figure  of  Saint 
.Tohn  was  used  by  Diirer  in  his  "Crucifixion." 
Mantegna  also  engraved  a  number  of  classical 
subject;s,  the  best  known  of  which  are  two  Bac- 
chanals and  two  "Battles  of  Tritons,"  and  sev- 
eral plates  from  the  "Triimiph  of  C'^sar."  He 
had  a  large  number  of  followers  who  developed 
his  technique  and  engraved  his  compositions, 
the  best  known  of  whom  was  "Jaeopo  de'  Bar- 
bari." 

BibliogRjVPIIY.  The  sources  for  the  life  of 
Mantegna  are  chiefly  his  correspondence  and 
other  documents.  Consult:  Basehet.  "D<icuments 
sur  Mantegna."  in  Gazelle  des  Bcaux-Arta.  vol. 
XX.  (Paris,  ISGli).  Vasari  (q.v.)  is  unreliable 
upon  Mantegna.  The  best  and  most  eomi)lete 
modern  authority  is  Kristeller,  Andrea  Mint- 
Icgnn.  trans,  by  Strong  (London,  1902).  W'olt- 
mann's  biography  in  Dohme,  Kunst  U)id  Kiinslhr 
Ititliens  (Leipzig,  1878),  is  a  scholarly  treatise. 
Crutwell,  Mantegna  (ib.,  1002).  is  a  good  brief 
account,  while  Cartwright's  biography  in  the 
"(ircat  Artists  Series"  (London.  1881)  is  of  a 
popular  cliaracter.  Consult  also  the  monographs 
bv  Thode  (Bielefeld,  1897)  and  Yriartc  (Paris, 
1002 ) . 

MAN'TELL,  Gideon  Algernon  (1700-1852). 
.\n  eminent  British  geologist,  born  at  Lewes,  in 
.Sussex.  He  studied  medicine  and  surgery,  but 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  geology  and  paleontol- 
ogy'. His  excellent  collection  of  fossils  was 
bought  by  the  British  Museum.  He  carried  out 
investigations  concerning  the  fossils  of  the  Weal- 
den  formations,  and  discovered  the  great  Dino- 
saurian  rei>tiles.  Besides  a  large  number  of 
paiiers  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  and  the 
Geological  Transactions,  ho  publislied  The  ^Von■ 
dcrs  of  Oeiilojiy  (18.38),  and  The  Medals  of- 
Creatietn    (1844). 

MANTES,  mii.Nt.  The  capital  of  an  arron- 
disscment  in  the  Department  of  Seine-et-Oise. 
France,  beautifully  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine.  .10  miles  west-northwest  of  Paris  by 
rail  (Map:  France.  H  ."?).  A  twelfth-century 
bridge  crosses  the  Seine  above  the  town,  and 
modern  bridges  connect  Mantes  with  an  islet  in 
the  iSeine.  and  with  Limay  on  the  opposite  river 
bank.  The  fine  Gothic  Church  of  Notre  Dame, 
dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  occupies  the  sito 
of  the  prior  church  burned  during  the  siegr  of 
1087;    and    there    are    other    ancient    bviiMings. 


MANTES.  13 

Mantes  has  large  tanneries,  saltpetre  factories, 
and  a  considerable  agricultural  trade.  Mantes 
was  a  Celtic  town  from  which  Julius  C'a'sar  ex- 
pelled the  Druids ;  it  is  the  Roman  iledunta. 
William  the  Conqueror  destroyed  the  town  in 
1087  and  here  received  the  injury  which  caused 
his  death.     Population,  in  1901,  8034. 

MANTETTFFEL,  miin'toi-fcl,  Edwin  Hans 
Kakl.  IJaron  von  (1809-S.'j).  A  Prussian  general. 
He  was  born  at  Dresden,  February  24.  1809,  and 
in  1827  entered  the  army.  He  became  in  1843  the 
personal  aide  of  Prince  Albrecht,  and  in  1848  of 
King  Frederick  William  IV.  His  promotion  was 
rapid,  and  he  played  a  prominent  role  in  the 
great  Prussian  militaiy  reforms.  He  took  part 
in  the  war  of  1804  against  Denmark,  and  in 
1865  became  the  Governor  of  Schleswig,  and  as 
such  played  a  prominent  role  in  the  ultimate 
solution  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question. 
During  the  war  of  1866  against  Austria  he 
commanded  the  Army  of  the  Main,  and  during 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  he  commanded  the 
First  Army  Corps,  and  participated  in  the  battles 
of  Colombey-Nouilly  and  Noisseville.  Later  he 
became  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  (ierman 
troops  in  South  France,  and  operated  effectively 
there,  driving  Bourbaki's  army  across  the  Swiss 
frontier.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  German  army 
of  occupation.  In  1873  he  was  created  field- 
marshal,  and  later  .sent  on  important  diplomatic 
missions  to  Russia.  His  last  prominent  post  was 
that  of  Governor  of  the  Im])erial  Province  of 
Alsace-Lorraine.  He  died  June  17,  1885,  at 
Karlsbad. 

MANTETIFFEL,  Otto  T)Ieodor.  Baron  von 
( 1805-82) .  A  German  statesman,  born  at  Liibben. 
He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Halle,  and  became 
in  1845-40  a  director  of  one  of  the  departments 
in  the  Prussian  Jlinistry  of  the  Interior.  When 
Count  Brandenburg  undertook  the  suppression  of 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848,  he  was  ap- 
pointed Minister  of  the  Interior.  In  1850  he 
took  office  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and 
president  of  the  Cabinet,  and  as  such  pursued  a 
reactionary  policy.  In  1856  he  was  sent  as 
Plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of  Paris,  and  in 
1858  retired  from  the  Jlinistry.  From  his  lit- 
erary bequest  H.  von  Poschinger  published  Unter 
Friedrich  Wilhehn  IV.  DenkwurdigkeiteH  des 
Ministers  Otto  Freiherrn  von  Manteuffel  (1900- 
01);  and  PreussoJs  nnsimrtige  Politik,  1850-5S 
(ib..  1902).  For  his  biography,  consult  Hesekiel 
(Berlin,  1851). 

MANTI,  man'ti.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Sanpete  County,  Utah,  120  miles  south  of  Salt 
Lake  City,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  Western  and 
Sanpete  Valley  railroads  (Map:  Utah,  B  2). 
The  Mormon  temple  which  cost  $1,500,000,  is  a 
noteworthy  feature  of  the  city,  and  there  is  a 
fine  Central  Public  School  building.  Manti  is 
surrounded  by  a  productive  agricultural  country, 
largely  engaged  also  in  sheep-raising,  and  has 
flour  mills  and  a  creamery.  In  the  vicinity  are 
productive  coal  mines.  Manti  was  settled  in 
1849  and  incorporated  two  years  later.  Popu- 
lation, in   1890,   1950;   in  1900,  2408. 

MAN'TINE'A  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mavrhem, 
ilantineia) .  A  city  of  Arcadia,  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, on  the  high  tableland  west  of  Argolis.  It 
was  situated  on  the  river  Ophis,  in  the  midst  of 
a  broad  plain,  and  was  at  first  a  group  of  open 


MANTIS. 


villages,  owning  the  supremacy  of  Sparta.  Under 
Argive  influence  tlie  five  villages  united  in  a 
fortified  city,  liut  the  comnuinily  was  dissolved 
later  by  the  Spartans,  only  to  be  reconstituted 
by  the  Thebans  under  Epaminondas.  The  plain, 
from  its  strategic  importance,  was  the  scene  of 
several  battles,  of  which  the  most  famous  was 
that  of  B.C.  302,  when  Epaminondas  defeated  the 
Spartans  and  Athenians,  but  fell  himself  in  the 
moment  of  victory.  Excavations  conducted  by 
the  French  School  at  Athens  during  1887  and 
1888  have  clearly  determined  the  course  of  the 
walls,  and  laid  bare  the  Agora  and  its  surround- 
ing buildings,  inchuling  a  small  but  interesting 
theatre.  The  site  of  the  city  is  now  called  Palje- 
opoli.  Consult  Fougferes,  Mantinee  et  I'Arcadie 
oricntalc    (Paris,   1898). 

MANTIQUEIBA,  maN'te-ka'e-ra,  Sebra  da. 
A  mountain  range  in  Southeastern  Brazil.  It 
extends  for  about  200  miles  parallel  with  the  At- 
lantic coast  and  about  70  miles  away  from  it, 
first  along  the  boundary  between  the  States  of 
Srio  Paulo  and  Minas  Geraes,  and  then  for  a 
short  distance  into  the  latter,  where  it  divides 
into  two  branches^,  the  Serra  dos  Aimores  con- 
tinuing along  the  coast,  and  the  Serra  do  Espin- 
hago  extending  through  the  centre  of  Minas  Ge- 
raes. The  name  Mantiqueira  is  sometimes  applied 
to  this  whole  system,  but  is  properly  confined  to 
the  single  range  in  the  south.  It  is  granitic 
in  character,  and  the  highest  and  roughest  in 
Brazil.  Its  highest  point,  Mount  Itatiaia,  on  the 
State  boundary,  has  an  altitude  of  9000  feet.  The 
range  is  the  watershed  of  the  Rio  Grande,  the 
principal  headstream  of  the  ParanS. 

MANTIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. //(iiTif,  diviner, 
prophet;  so  called  from  the  position  of  the  fore 
legs,  which  resembles  the  attitude  of  prayer). 
One  of  the  popular  names  for  any  of  the  orthop- 
terous  insects  of  the  family  Mantidse,  and  the 
scientific  name  of  the  type  genus.  Other  popu- 
lar names  are  'praying  insect,'  'soothsayer,' 
'prophet,'  'rear-horse,'  'mule-killer.'     The  family 


THE   REAR-HORSE, 

a,  &di}]tm&\e Stagaiomaatis  Carulina;  b,  egg-case. 

Mantidje  form  the  old  group  of  the  Orthoptera 
known  as  the  Raptoria  or  grasjiers.  They  have 
the  prothorax  long  and  the  froftt  legs  fitted  for 
grasping  their  prey.  The  head  is  oblique  and 
generally  three-cornered.  They  are  much  more 
abundant  in  tropical  regions  than  elsewhere,  and 
exhibit   striking   instances   of   protective    resem- 


MANTIS. 


'flower  mantes'  of  tioiiic;U  couiUiies  resemble  the 
Uowers   of   certain   plants,  and   in   these   flowers 
they  lurk  awaiting  the  visits  of  the  insects  upon 
which  they  feed.     The  term    praying'  insects  has 
been  derived  from  the  attitude  which  they  assume 
when  at  rest  or  when  waiting  to  grasp  anotlier 
insect;    the  knees   are  bent  and   tlie   front   legs 
are   held   as   though    supporting   a   prayer-book. 
The   commonest   North   American   species   is  the 
'rear-horse"     or     •mule-killer'        iSiaflmomnntts 
Varolimi).    but    the    Euroi)ean    (ilatitis    relig%0- 
sa)    has  been  introduced  into  the  L  nited  States 
by     accident,     and     has     become     acclimatized. 
The    eggs    of    the    Jlantida-    are    laid    in    tough 
eases    attached    to    the    twigs    of    trees,    where 
the    young    when    hatched    begin    immediately 
to  feed  upon  plant-lice  or  other  small  soft-bodied 
insects,  the  size  of  the  insects  attacked  increas- 
ing with  the  growth  of  the  mantes.     They  have 
always  been  recognized  as  beneficial  insects,  but 
they" are   indiscriminate   in   their   diet,   and   will 
feed  upon  other  beiielicial  insects  as  well  as  upon 
injurious  forms.    Their  eggs  are  frequently  para- 
sitized by  a  verv  curious  ehalcis-fly  of  the  genus 
Podagrio"n,  which  bv  means  of  a  long  ovipositor 
is  enabled  to  pierce  the  tough  egg  cases  of  the 
mantes. 

These  insects  seem  always  to  have  been  re- 
garded with  superstitious  awe.  They  were  used 
by  the  Greeks  in  soothsaying,  and  the  Hindus 
display  a  reverential  consideration  of  their  move- 
ments'and  flight.  In  Southern  Fr.-ince  the  peas- 
ants believe  that  they  point  out  a  lost  way,  the 
Turks  and  other  Moslems  recognize  intelligence 
and  pious  intentions  in  the  actions  of  the  mantis; 
a  South  African  species  is.  or  was,  venerate<l  by 
the  Hottentots;  the  Chinese  and  the  Javanese 
keep  them  in  cages  and  cause  them  to  fight  for 
wagers. 

MANTIS'SA.  See  LoG.\nrniMS. 
MANTIS  SHRIMP,  or  Se.\  Mantis.  A  large 
burrowing  cru-teuean  iSquilla  empusa),  of  the 
order  Stomapoda.  which  lives  in  large  irregular 
holes  which  it  excavates  at  or  near  low-water 
mark  of  spring  tides.  It  is  so  called  from  the 
reseinblanec  of  the  great  spiny  claw  to  that  of 
the  mantis  (ii.v.).  This  elaw  is  borne  on  the  legs 
of  the  second  pair,  and  instead  of  ending  in  a  for- 
ceps-like elaw,  which  is  armed  with  a  row  of 
six  sharp  curved  spines  fitting  into  corresponding 
sockets,  the  terminal  joint  is  turned  back  and  is 
attached  to  the  penultimate  segment  like  the 
•  blade  of  a  pocket  knife  to  the  handle.  By  means 
of  these  singular  organs,  says  Verrill.  the  shrimps 
hold  their  prey  securely,  and  can  give  a  severe 
wound  to  the  liuman  hand,  if  handled  incautious- 
ly. It  has  large  eyes.  but.  as  it  remains  in  its 
burrow  constantly,  it  is  blind,  the  facets  of  the 
eye  being  partly'  atrophied.  It  lives  chiefly  on 
annelid  worms.  '  The  Kuropean  species  is  used  as 
food,  and  I  he  American  species  is  probably  edible. 

MANTLE  (AS.  mantel,  mcnieh  OF.  mantel, 
Fr.  manliiiu,  from  I.at.  mantcllum,  maiilelum, 
cloak,  mantle,  from  Lat.  mniius.  hand  +  tela, 
texture,  from  trxere.  to  weave,  Skt.  tnkf.  to  cut, 
to  fashion).  A  long  flowing  robe,  worn  in  the 
Rliildle  Ages  over  the  armor,  and  fastened  by  a 
fibula  in  front,  or  at  the  right  shoulder.  The 
mantle  is  an  important  part  of  the  oflicial  in- 
signia of  the'various  orders  of  knighthood.  La- 
dies of  rank  woje  similar  mantles,  in  many  in- 
stances decorated  with  heraldic  charges,  in  which 


14  MANTUA. 

case  the  mantle  bore  either  the  impaled  arms  of 
the  lady  and  her  husband,  or  her  husband's  arms 
only. 

MANTLING,  L.vmukeqii.n,  or  CoxToiSE.  A 
heraldic  ornament  attached  to  the  helmet.  Some- 
times it  is  cut  into  irregular  strips  and  curls  of 
the  most  capricious  forms,  supposed  to  indicate 
that  it  has  been  torn  on  the  tield  of  battle;  but 
usually  the  strips  fall  in  graceful,  flowing  lines. 
In  British  heraldry  the  mantling  of  the  sovereign 
is  of  gold  lined  "with  ermine;  that  of  peers 
ordinarily  of  crimson  velvet  lined  with  ermine; 
but  sometimes  the  livery  colors  (see  Livery) 
are  adopted  instead,  as  is  generally  the  practice 
in  ('(iiitiiicntal  heraldry.     See  Uek.\ldrt. 

MANTRAS,  miiii'luiz.  A  people  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Malacca  and  Kembau,  formerly  regarded 
as  "a  Negrito  people  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  but 
more  recently  described  as  Sakai-Malay  half- 
breeds.  The  "mixture  of  these  peoples  has  result- 
ed in  giving  the  Mantras  a  somewhat  taller  stat- 
ure than  the  Sakai  and  a  whiter  skin. 

MANTUA,  man'tii-a    (It.  ilantova).     A  city 
of  l.iiiiilMrdy,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Mincio.  25 
miles  bv  rail  southwest  of  Verona   (Map:   Italy, 
E  2).    it  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Duchy 
of  Mantua  and  is  now"  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  the   same  name.      It   occupies   two   islands   in 
the    river    and    is    elaborately    fortified.      Three 
lakes    formed    by    the    river    half    surround    the 
town    and   there"    are    marshes    adjacent.      It    is 
not  a  healthful  city.     Architecturally  it   is   in- 
teresting on  account  of  the  Renaissance  churches 
and  secular  edifices  by  Alberti   (q-v.)   and  other 
great  builders.     It  is  still  more  prominent  in  the 
world   of   painting,  owing   to  the   works  of  Man- 
tegna  and  Giulio  Romano,  both  of  whom  resided 
here.    The  inadef|uatc  iHipulation  and  the  sullen 
massive  grandeur  of  the  edifices  explain  why  the 
traveler   in   Mantua   associates   the  city  with   a 
gloomy  decadence.     The  streets  are  regular  and 
spacious,   but  poorly   paved.     There  are   several 
fine  squares.     The  most  important  church  is  the 
spacious  Sant'  Andrea.    Begun  in  1472  as  a  crea- 
tion  of   .\lberti,   it  has   been   subjected,  to   many 
changes  of  plan  during  the  centuries.     Its  white 
facade  of  marble  is  adorned  with  a  portico,  and 
contrasts  curiously  with  the  adjacent  red  brick 
cami)anile.     The  i'ntcrior    (110  yards  long)    con- 
tains many  frescoes  by  prominent  artists.     The 
Cathedral 'of   San   Pie'tro   is  not  attractive,  but 
has  a   fine  ceiling. 

The  Corte  Reale,  formerly  the  ducal  palace 
of  the  Gonzagas  and  now  consigned  to  military 
purposes,  is  a  notable  structure  dating  from  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  It  was  em- 
bellished with  frescoes  by  (liulio  Romano.  Its 
apartments  are  of  excci)tioiial  interest  for  their 
varied  decorations,  representing  the  most  delight- 
ful Italian  period  of  the  art  of  int^Tior  ornamen- 
tation. Another  fine  old  .Mantuan  ])alace  is  the 
Palazzo  del  T?,  conslructed  by  (Jiulio  Romano, 
and  adorned  by  him  in  a  most  artistic  style.  Some 
of  the  frescoes  are  excellent.  The  friezes  in  the 
loggia  are  by  Primal  iccio.  who  was  educated  in 
Mantua  under  Giulio  Komami.  In  the  old  castle 
of  the  Gonzagas  is  a  collect  ion  of  archives.  Among 
the  frescoes  here  by  Mantegna  only  two  remain  in 
a  satisfactory  cotiilition.  The  Vergilian  Ac.idemy 
of  .Arts  and  Sciences  contains  some  specimens  of 
art.  The  neighboring  library  in  the  Lyceum  has 
a  work  bv  Rubens,  who  lived  and  studied  in  Man- 


MANTUA. 


15 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 


tua  several  years.  In  llie  adjacent  museum  are 
some  good  Greek  busts  and  sarcophagi,  and  the 
Museo  Patrio  possesses  other  antiquities.  A 
statue  of  Dante  and  the  liouse  of  Giulio  Koniano 
are  shown  as  attractions  to  the  visitor  in  Mantua. 
The  city  has  a  theological  institute,  a  botanical 
garden,  an  astronomical  observatory,  a  public  li- 
brary witli  80,000  volumes,  and  an  i'XcoUent, 
commodious  military  hospital.  Tlie  trade  and 
manufactures  are  unimportant.  Population 
(commune),  in  1901,  29,142. 

History.  Mantua  was  originally  an  Etruscan 
city.  It  became  a  Roman  municipium  just  be- 
fore tile  time  of  Vergil,  who  was  born  in  the 
neighboring  village  of  Andes.  The  town  rose  to 
importance  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  be- 
came one  of  the  city  republics  and  a  member  of 
the  Lombard  League.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  began  the  rule  of  the  House  of 
Bonaccolsi.  wlio  was  succeeded  in  1328  by  the 
House  of  Gonzaga.  A  century  later  Jlantua  with 
its  territory  was  erected  into  a  marquisate,  and 
from  1.530  the  Gonzagas  were  dukes  of  Mantua. 
The  State  prospered  greatly  under  this  dynasty, 
its  political  power  and  territory  being  increased 
at  the  expense  of  Venice  and  Milan.  The  Gon- 
zagas were  liberal  patrons  of  the  arts  and  learn- 
ing. After  the  Mantuan  War  of  Succession 
(1G28-30)  the  city  began  to  decline.  The  last 
Duke  was  driven  away  in  1703  and  died  in  1708. 
and  Mantua  fell  to  Austria.  The  French  took  the 
city  in  1797.  It  was  left  to  the  Austrians  l)y  the 
Treaty  of  Villafranea  (1850),  and  was  ceded  to 
Italy  1806.  During  the  Austrian  occui)ation 
it  was  of  great  military  importance  and  constitut- 
ed one  of  the  so-called  Quadrilateral  of  fortresses, 
the  others  being  Verona,  Legnago,  and  Peschiera. 
See  Gonzaga,  House  of. 

MANTUAN  BARD,  MANTUAN  SWAN. 
Titles  applied  to  Vergil  in  allusion  lo  his  birth- 
place, ilantua. 

MANU,  nia'noo  (from  Skt.  maiitt,  man).  An 
ancient  mythical  sage  of  India,  the  progenitor 
of  mankind,  according  to  the  Hindus,  and  the 
reputed  author  of  the  great  law-book  known  as 
the  Code  of  Manu  (Skt.  MOnava-Dlinrma-Hiistra) . 

There  is  no  good  ground  for  accepting  the  ex- 
istence of  JIanu  as  a  liistorical  personage.  In 
the  Rig  Veda  he  is  merely  the  ancestor  of  the 
human  race,  the  first  one  to  offer  a  sacrifice  to  tlie 
gods.  In  the  Satapatha  Brahmana  and  in  tlie 
Mahabharata  he  alone  survives  the  universal 
deluge.  In  the  first  chapter  of  the  law-book  as- 
cribed to  him,  he  declares  himself  to  have  been 
produced  by  Viraj,  who  was  an  offspring  of  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  to  have  created  all  this  uni- 
verse. Hindu  mythologv'  knows,  moreover,  a  suc- 
cession of  Manus.  each  of  whom  created,  in  his 
own  period,  the  world  anew  after  it  had  peri.shed 
at  the  end  of  a  nnindane  age. 

The  ilunara-DJiariiia-ifrixtra,  written  in  verse, 
is  a  collection  of  religious  ordinances,  customs, 
and  traditions,  such  as  would  naturally  grow  up 
by  established  usage  and  receive  divine  sanction 
in  course  of  time.  This  work  is  not  a  mere  law- 
hook  in  the  Kuropean  sense  of  the  word ;  it  is 
likewise  a  system  of  cosmogony ;  it  propounds 
metaphysical  doctrines,  teaches  the  art  of  govern- 
ment, and  treats  of  the  state  of  the  soul  after 
death.  In  short,  it  is  the  religious,  secular, 
and  spiritual  code  of  Brahmanism.  It  is  di- 
vided  into  twelve  books.     The  chief  topics   are 


the  following:  (1)  Creation;  (2)  education 
and  the  duties  of  a  pupil,  or  the  first  or- 
der; (3)  marriage  and  the  duties  of  a  liouse- 
holder,  or  the  second  order;  (4)  means  of  sub- 
sistence, and  personal  morality;  (5)  diet,  puri- 
fication, and  the  duties  of  women;  ((i)  the  duties 
of  an  anchorite  and  an  ascetic,  or  the  duties  of 
the  third  and  fourth  orders;  (7)  government, 
and  the  duties  of  a  king  and  the  military  caste; 

(8)  judicature   and   law,   private   and   criminal; 

(9)  continuation  of  the  former,  and  the  duties  of 
the  commercial  and  servile  castes;  (10)  mixed 
castes  and  the  duties  of  the  castes  in  time  of  dis- 
tress; (11)  penance  and  expiation;  (12)  trans- 
migration and  final  beatitude. 

The  text  of  ilanu  has  often  been  edited  and 
translated,  as  by  Jolly,  Mdnaca-Dharma-Hustra 
(London,  1887),  by  Mandlik.  with  seven  native 
commentaries  (Bombay,  188(1),  and  in  the  series 
of  the  Xirnaya  Sagara  Press  (Bombay,  1887). 
There  are  several  translations;  especially  by 
Biihler,  The  Laws  of  Manu,  (Oxford,  1880)";  and 
by  Burnell  and  Hopkins,  The  Ordinances  of  Manu 
(London,  1884).  Consult,  also,  Hopkins,  Mutual 
Relations  of  the  Four  Castes  According  to  the 
Mdnavadharmacastrani  (Leipzig.  1881);  Jolj', 
ICecht  und  Hitte    (Strassburg,   1896). 

MANUAL  (Lat.  manualis,  relating  to  the 
hand,  from  nianus,  hand).  The  keyboard  of  an 
organ  played  by  tile  hands,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  pedal,  played  by  the  feet.  The  number  of 
manuals  varies  from  two  to  four  according  to 
the  size  of  the  organ.  In  older  French  organs 
even  five  manuals  are  found.  The  names  of  the 
different  manuals  are:  (1)  Great  organ;  (2) 
choir-manual;  (3)  swell-manual;  (4)  solo-man- 
ual; (5)  echo-manual.  Each  manual  really  is  a 
separate  organ  in  itself,  having  its  own  set  of 
pipes  and  stops.  By  means  of  couplers  any  or 
all  of  the  manuals  can  be  connected,  so  that  by 
striking  a  note  on  one  manual  the  same  note 
sounds  on  all  the  other  manuals  that  are 
coupled.  The  usual  compass  of  manuals  is  four 
octaves  and  a  fifth,  C-g\ 

MANUAL  OF  ARMS.  A  text-book  of  rules 
and  explanations  for  tlie  instruction  of  military 
recruits  in  the  use  of  their  arms  and  their  care 
and  preservation.  The  JIanual  of  Arms  owes 
much  of  its  elaborateness,  both  in  the  L'nited 
States  and  England,  to  its  German  origin.  In 
this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  while 
the  manual  remains  practically  unchanged  in 
the  two  former  countries,  the  exercise  in  Ger- 
many has  dwindled  to  three  positions,  viz.: 
Slope  arms,  order  arms,  and  present  arms.  In 
the  United  States  Army  all  drills  are  prefaced 
and  concluded  with  an  examination  of  cartridge 
chambers,  as  a  precaution  against  accidents,  and 
for  purposes  of  instruction  the  movements  are 
divided  into  motions,  and  executed  in  detail. 
The  command  of  execution  determines  the  prompt 
execution  of  the  first  motion,  and  the  commands 
Tico,  Three,  etc.,  the  other  motions.  The  com- 
mands and  movements  of  the  manu.al  of  arms 
are  given  after  the  soldier  is  in  position  with  rifle 
at  the  order,  and  are  as  follows:  (1)  Order 
arms;  (2)  carry  arms;  (3)  present  arms;  (4) 
right  shoulder  arms;  (5)  port  arms.  Other 
movements  are:  (61  Parade-rest;  (7)  fix  bay- 
onets;   (8)   cliarge  bayonets. 

MANUAL  TRAINING.  This  term,  in  spite 
of  considerable  criticism,  has  come  to  be  gener- 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 


16 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 


all}-  applied  to  the  use  of  constnu-tive  baud  work 
iu  the  schools,  as  a  feature  of  general  education. 
The  term  is  broadly  used  to  include  the  work  of 
both  boys  and  girls  in  various  materials,  in 
which  case  instruction  in  domestic  art  and 
science  is  understood,  but  it  is  often  used  in  a 
narrower  sense  as  relating  only  to  the  work  with 
tools  commonly  given  to  boys. 

The  earliest  ollkial  recognition  of  manual 
training  a-s  a  legitimate  part  of  school  work  was 
obtained  in  European  countries.  As  early  as 
18.i8,  L'no  Cygna?us  organized  a  plan  of  manual 
training  for  the  primary  schools  of  Finland,  and 
in  ISGU  instruction  in  some  branch  of  manual 
work  was  made  com]iulsory  in  the  training  col- 
leges for  male  teachers  in  that  country,  and  in  all 
primary  schools  for  boys  in  country  districts. 
.Sweden  is,  however,  tlie  country  which  con- 
tributed most  toward  the  early  (levclopment  of 
manual  training,  and  from  which  has  come  the 
largest  influence  in  its  propagation.  In  1872 
the  Government  reached  the  conclusion  that 
schools  for  instruction  in  Sloyd  were  necessary 
to  counteract  the  tendency  toward  concentration 
in  cities,  and  the  decline  of  the  old  home  indus- 
tries. The  schools  first  established  had  natu- 
rally an  economic  rather  than  an  educational 
significance.  This  was  changed,  however,  as  the 
movement  grew,  until  a  thoroughly  organized 
scheme  of  educational  tool  work  for  boys  between 
twelve  and  fifteen  years  of  age  was  developed. 
In  1877  the  work  was  introduced  into  the  folk- 
school,  and  the  Government  granted  aid  in  sup- 
port of  the  instruction.  In  1807  it  is  reported 
that  Sloyd  instruction  was  given  in  about  2000 
schools.  The  [sloyd  Seminarium  at  Xiilis,  estab- 
lished in  1S74  under  the  direction  of  Otto  Solo- 
man,  has  not  only  Ix'cn  an  active  and  stimulating 
force  in  the  development  of  the  work  in  Sweden, 
but  has  exercised  a  far-reaching  influence  upon 
the  thought  and  practice  of  other  countries.  At 
present  Sloyd  is  taught  in  all  the  regular  normal 
schools  of  the  country. 

In  France  manual  training  was  made  obliga- 
tory in  the  elementary  priniary  schools  by  the 
law  of  1882.  The  olllcial  progranmie  for  manual 
training  is  very  complete  and  thorough,  but  its 
provisions  are  only  partially  realized  because 
of  the  failure  of  conununes  to  ])rovi(le  workshops, 
and  of  the  insuHicieiit  supply  of  trained  teachers. 
In  Paris  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  schools 
were  equipped  with  workshops  in  1807-98,  and  at 
this  time  one-third  of  the  regular  teachers  in 
the  city  schools  had  taken  normal  courses  in 
mantial  training.  A  feature  of  the  French  work 
is  the  variety  of  materials  and  processes  used, 
and  the  fact  that  han<l-work  instruction  has  been 
planned  for  every  grade  of  the  elementary  pri- 
mary school. 

Germany,  although  the  seat  of  a  very  active 
propaganda  issuing  from  the  German  Association 
for  Manual  Training  for  Boys,  has  done  very 
little  toward  incorjiorating  manual  training  with 
the  regular  wcuk  of  the  common  schools.  A  large 
number  of  workshops  have  been  established  in 
various  parts  of  the  Empire,  supported  mainly 
by  individuals  and  societies,  in  which  pupils  of 
the  public  schools  are  given  instruction  out  of 
school  hours.  The  educational  ministries  of 
Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Raden  now  make  annual 
contributions  in  aid  of  this  instruction,  but  the 
work  is  obligatory  in  only  a  very  few  places. 
Manual  work  for  girls,  on  the  other  hand,  has 


been  for  a  long  time  a  compulsory  branch  of  in- 
struction in  tlie  common  schools  of  Germany.  The 
Manual  Training  Seminary  at  Leipzig,  founded 
in  1887  by  the  Association  for  Manual  Training 
for  Boys,  under  the  leadership  of  T)r.  Waldemar 
Golze,  is  the  active  centre  of  the  movement,  and 
the  main  institution  lor  the  training  of  teachers. 

The  history  of  manual  training  in  the  United 
States  involves  both  the  development  of  the  idea 
and  the  development  of  practice.  Expressions 
of  the  layman's  point  of  view  are  presented  in 
such  books  as  the  following:  Ham,  Manual  Train- 
ing (London,  1880)  ;  McArthur,  Education  in  its 
Uelation  to  Manual  Industry  (Xew  York,  1884)  ; 
.Tacobson.  Higher  (Iround  (Chicago,  1S8S).  In 
the  field  of  practice,  little  of  a  purely  educational 
cliaracler  appeared  before  1878,  at  which  time 
the  VVorkingman's  School  was  founded  by  the 
Ethical  Culture  Society  of  New  York.  This  in- 
stitution comprised  a  kindergarten  and  an  ele- 
mentary school,  in  which  manual  work  formed 
from  the  first  a  vital  and  important  part  of  the 
educational  scheme.  The  general  movement, 
however,  took  its  large  beginning,  as  has  l)een 
the  case  with  so  many  educational  movements, 
at  the  top  instead  of  the  bottom  of  the  school 
system.  In  1880,  through  the  elVorts  of  Dr. 
Calvin  A.  Woodward,  the  Saint  Louis  Manual 
Training  School  was  opened  in  connection  with 
\Vashington  University.  The  work  of  this  school 
attracted  wide  attention,  and  its  success  led  to  the 
speedy  organization  of  similar  schools  in  other 
large  cities:  Chicago,  Baltimore,  and  Toledo, 
1884;  Philadelphia,  188,'5;  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
and  Omaha,  1886.  The  first  provision  for  girls' 
work  in  these  schools  was  made  in  the  case  of  the 
Toledo  school,  and  included  sewing,  dressmaking, 
niillinery.  and  cooking.  In  1895  the  Massachu- 
setts Legislature,  under  the  lead  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education,  made  it  obligatory  upon 
every  city  in  the  State  of  .30.000  or  more  inhab- 
itants to  estal)lish  and  maintain  manual  training 
in  a  high  schocd. 

The  rapid  development  of  this  tyjie  of  second- 
ary school  has  resulted  in  an  institution  peculiar- 
ly .\merican.  In  other  countries  the  introduction 
and  spre:>d  of  manual  training  has  been  contined 
to  the  elementary  school,  and  no  institution  ex- 
ists in  Europe,  of  a  purely  educational  character, 
that  presents  any  ])arallel  to  the  comprehensive 
and  costly  e(piipment  of  these  schools.  The  shop- 
work  comprises  joinery,  turning,  pattern-making, 
forging,  and  nuicliine  work,  and  sometimes  foun- 
dry practice  and  tinsmithing.  The  nature  of 
this  work  has  been  very  similar  in  the  various 
schools,  and  until  late  years  has  been  almost 
uniformly  based  upon  the  principles  of  the 
'Russian  System.'  The  central  idea  of  this  .system 
of  shopwork  instruction,  developed  in  a  technical 
school  for  the  instruction  of  engineers,  is  the 
analysis  of  a  craft  into  its  elementary  processes 
and  constructions,  and  the  presentation  of  these 
details  in  an  orderly  and  sequential  scheme  as 
separate  elemenls.  Compared  with  the  develop- 
ment of  maiuinl  training  in  the  high  school,  the 
introiluction  of  the  work  in  the  public  element- 
ary school  came  at  first  but  slowly.  Experi- 
mental classes  in  carpentry,  the  expense  for 
which  was  borne  by  Mrs.  Quincy  A.  Shaw,  were 
conducted  at  the  Dwight  School  in  Boston,  in 
1882.  Those  were  taken  under  the  care  of  the 
citv  and  transferred  to  temporary  quarters  in 
the  English  High   School  building  in   1884,  but 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 


17 


t!ie  work  did  nut  ii'ci'i\c  a  placu  in  tlio  course  of 
study  until  1888.  In  JSprinfificId,  Mass.,  .sewing 
was  introduced  in  tlie  schools  in  1.884.  and  in 
1880  a  manual  traininj;  school  was  established, 
at  which  pupils  coming  voluntarily  from  the  ele- 
mentary schools  received  instruction  in  knife- 
work.  "  In  1885  the  Legislature  of  New  Jersey 
passed  a  law  providing  that  the  State  would 
duplicate  any  amount  l)etwccn  $.500  and  ifoOOO 
raised  by  a  city  or  town  for  instruction  in  manual 
training.  This  led  to  the  early  introduction  of 
the  work  in  a  utuiiber  of  places  in  various  parts 
of  the  State.  In  1888  the  city  of  New  York 
began  the  introduction  of  a  manual  training 
course  of  study,  including  drawing,  sewing,  cook- 
ing, and  woodwork. 

All  this  early  work  was  crude  and  experi- 
mental, and  it  was  not  tintil  the  influence  ema- 
nating from  the  Sloyd  School  of  Boston  began  to 
be  felt  tliat  tool  work  for  boys  in  the  elementary 
school  took  oil  a  more  definite  character.  A 
vital  principle  of  the  Sloyd  work  is  the  appeal 
to  the  interest  of  the  worker  through  the  con- 
struction of  a  finished  object  of  definite  use  re- 
lated, generall}',  to  the  needs  of  home  life.  This 
princi])le  has  gained  general  acceptance  in  the 
work  of  the  elementary  school,  and  has  to  quite 
an  extent  modified  the  character  of  the  work 
done  in  the  high  schools.  From  the  upper  grades 
of  the  grammar  school  with  the  provisions  for 
shopwork  for  bo_vs,  and  cooking  and  sewing  for 
girls,  hand  work  has  made  considerable  progress 
in  its  way  downward.  Work  in  clay,  paper,  card- 
board, sewing,  weaving,  basketry,  bent  iron,  and 
simple  wood  construction  are  the  processes  most 
commonly  employed. 

Consult:  Dewey,  The  School  and  Societij  (Chi- 
cago, 1899)  :  .James,  7'«/A-s  to  Teachers  on  Fsi/chol- 
ogy  (New  York,  18!19)  ;  Parker,  Ta}l;s  on'l'cda- 
gogics  (New  York,  1894)  ;  Salomon,  The  Theort/ 
of  Educational  Hlogd  (Boston,  1896)  ;  Ware,  The 
Educational  Foundations  of  Trade  and  Indus- 
try (New  York,  1901)  ;  and  the  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Educational  Association.  Data  on 
the  early  history  of  the  movement  in  the  United 
States  are  contained  in  part  ii.  of  the  Report  upon 
Education  in  the  Industrial  and  Fine  Arts  in  the 
United  States,  issued  by  the  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Education. 

MANU'CHE,  or  MANXJCCI,  Co.SMO.  An 
English  dramatist  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It 
appears  that  he  was  aided  in  his  literary  en- 
deavors by  James  Compton,  Earl  of  Northamp- 
ton, of  whose  retinue  he  was  a  member.  During 
the  civil  wars  he  was  successively  captain  and 
major  of  infantry,  and  afterwards  he  busied 
himself  in  the  instructing  of  private  pupils  and 
the  writing  of  plays.  His  poverty  was  somewhat 
relieved  by  application  first  to  Cromwell,  and 
afterwards  to  Charles  II.  Twelve  plays,  nine  in 
manuscript  and  three  printed,  are  generally  as- 
cribed to  him.  There  is  no  evidence  that  any  was 
presented.  One,  The  Just  flcneral  (16.52),  de- 
scribed as  a  'tragi-comcdy.'  is  written  throughout 
in  a  peculiar  rhythmical  blank  verse,  scarcely  dif- 
ferent from  prose.  Consult:  Lamb.  Specimens  of 
the  English  Dramatic  Poets  (London,  1808;  and 
subsequent  editions)  :  Fleay.  A  Biographical 
Chronicle  of  the  Enqlish  Drama,  15.'J9-lG!i2  (Lon- 
don.  1891). 

MANtrCODE  (Malay  Manukderala,  bird  of 
the  gods).      Tlie   name   originally  given   to   the 


MANUEL  II.,  PALiEOLOGUS. 

king  l)ird-of-paradise,  but  now  applied  to  certain 
Papuan  birds  probably  not  relatives  of  the  Para- 
discidit  at  all.  They  have  glossy,  steel-blue 
plumage,  and  are  rcnuirkable  for  their  vocal 
powers.  Lesson,  Forbes,  and  other  ornithologists 
assert  that  they  are  able  to  pass  through  every 
note  of  the  gamut.  Eight  or  ten  species  are 
known,  of  which  ilanueodia  viridis  is  common 
throughout  the  entire  Papuan  region.  It  is  de- 
scril)ed  by  Wallace  as  being  powerful  and  active, 
clinging  to  the  smaller  branches  of  the  trees 
on  which  it  finds  the  fruit  that  constitutes  its 
food. 

MANUEL  I.,  COMNE'NUS  (1120-80).  By- 
zantine  Emperor  from  1143  to  1180.  He 
was  the  youngest  son  of  the  Emperor  Calo- 
Johannes,  whom  he  succeeded  upon  the  throne. 
He  became  at  once  involved  in  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  wars  in  Asia  and  Europe.  In  1144  Ray- 
mond, Prince  of  Antioch,  who  had  thrown  olV 
the  Byzantine  yoke,  was  compelled  to  submit 
again  to  vassalage.  In  1147  the  Crusaders,  un- 
der Louis  YII.  of  France  and  Conrad  III.  of 
Germany,  marched  through  jManuel's  dominions 
without  serious  hindrance  on  his  part,  as  he  was 
at  this  time  entangled  in  a  war  with  Roger,  King 
of  Sicily.  This  eonttict  proveil  a  long  and  ardu- 
ous one.  For  a  time  the  Byzantine  arms  were 
victorious,  but  the  fortune  of  war  changed  and 
no  substantial  gain  resulted,  ilanuel  was  en- 
gaged in  protracted  wars  with  the  Seljuks,  who 
in  1176  defeated  his  forces  in  a  great  battle  at 
Myriocei)halon.  He  sought  to  drive  Frederick 
Barbarossa  out  of  Itah',  but  failed.  He  also 
waged  war  with  the  Hungarians  and  with  the 
Venetians,  being  unsuccessful  against  the  latter. 
He  died  September  24,  1180.  The  reign  of  Manuel 
was  one  of  great  splendor,  but  the  expenses  of  the 
numerous  wars  and  his  policy  of  allowing  the 
Italians  to  monopolize  the  trade  sapped  the 
strength  of  the  Empire.  Consult:  Tafel,  Kom- 
nenen  und  Xorinannen  (2d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1870)  ; 
Kap-Herr,  Abendldndische  Politik  Kaiser  Manuels 
(Strassburg.  1881)  ;  Finlay,  History  of  Greece, 
vol.  iii.  (London,  1877). 

MANUEL  II.,  PA'L^OL'OGUS  (1348- 
142.5).  Byzantine  Emiicror  from  1391  to  1425. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  John  V.,  as  sole  ruler 
after  he  had  been  an  associate  in  the  Empire 
since  1373.  Fearing  that  Constantinople  would 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  Manuel  applied 
for  aid  to  the  Western  princes,  whose  army  was 
defeated  with  great  slaughter  b.v  Bajazet  (q.v. ) 
at  Nicopolis,  in  1390.  "in  1398  a  nephew  of 
Manuel  with  the  aid  of  Bajazet  rose  in  rebellion, 
and  the  Emperor  was  compelled  to  make  him  co- 
Emperor.  He  was  known  as  .John  VII.  Manuel 
was  in  constant  peril  until  Bajazet  was  defeated 
by  Tiniur  at  Angora,  in  1402.  and  taken  prisoner. 
After  the  death  of  Bajazet  in  1403  Manuel 
reigned  in  peace  for  eighteen  years,  for  the  young 
Sultan  Mohammed  I.  was  his  intimate  friend. 
But  when  in  1421  Mohammed  died  and  Amurath 
II.  came  to  the  throne,  the  old  contest  was  re- 
newed. In  1422  Constantinople  was  besieged, 
and  although  the  siege  failed,  Manuel  had  to 
sign  a  humiliating  treaty.  He  retired  to  a  mon- 
astery in  1423,  after  a  severe  illness,  his  son  .John 
VIII.  becoming  practically  the  sole  ruler.  Manu- 
el died  in  1425.  Consult  Xivrey,  "Sur  la  vie  et 
les  ouvrages  de  I'empereur  ^Manuel  Pali'ologue." 
in  Mcmoires  dc  I'Acadcmie  des  Inscriptions,  vol. 
xix.   (Paris,  1853). 


MANUEL  I. 


18 


MANUEL  I.,  THE  Gkeat  (1469-1521).  A 
King  of  Portugal,  in  whose  reign  that  country 
attained  the  higliest  ])iteh  of  power  and  splendor. 
He  succeeded  John  11.  in  U95,  ruled  throughout 
with  the  hel))  of  the  Cortes,  and  did  much  for 
art  and  letters  by  his  generous  |>atronage.  The 
only  hlot  on  his  domestic  administration  was  his 
persecution  of  the  .Jews.  But  the  ,>ame  militant 
Christianity  led  him  to  attem])t  conquests  in 
Africa,  in  "which  he  was  unsuccessful,  to  enter 
into  diplomatic  relations  with  many  far-otV  lands, 
and  to  tit  out  great  expeditions  of  exploration 
and  conquest.  It  was  Manuel  who  sent  Vasco 
da  Gama  around  the  Cape,  Cabral  upon  the  voy- 
age which  resulted  in  the  accidental  discovery  of 
ISouth  America,  Cortereal  to  Nortli  America,  and 
Almeida  and  Albuquerque  to  the  East  Indies, 
where  a  wide  field  was  opened  for  Portuguese 
coimncrce. 

MANUEL,  m.i'ni.i'el',  Eugene  (1823-1901). 
A  i'rcMcli  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  in  Paris 
of  .lewish  parents.  From  1849  to  1871  he  taught 
rhetoric  in  dillcrent  Parisian  lyceums.  He  was 
appointed  chief  of  cabinet  to  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  in  1871,  a  year  later  was 
made  inspector  of  the  Academy  of  Paris,  and 
in  1878  inspector-general.  With  his  brother-in- 
law,  E.  Li'vi-.Mvarf's,  he  published  four  volumes 
of  lectures  for  the  use  of  students,  entitled  La 
France  (1854-55;  Cth  ed.  1868).  Several  of  his 
ver.se  collections  were  crowned  by  the  Academy. 
They  include:  I'aycs  inlimcs  (3d  ed..  18(J9)  ; 
Poi'mes  jmpuldircs  (1871):  Pendant  la  yuerre 
(1871)  ;  I'n  voi/aqc  (5th  ed.  1890)  ;  Pocnies  du 
foyer  et  cfe  I'c'col'e  (IGth  ed.  1892).  His  play 
Les  ouvriers  (1870)  also  received  academic  lion- 
ors,  and  Mme.  Sarah  Bernhardt  made  her  first 
appearance  at  the  Comedic  Francaise  in  his 
drama  L'abscnt  ( 1873 1 .  Manuel  edited  the  (Euvres 
ItjrUiurx  de  Jean  lla/itislc  h'ousseau  (1852)  and 
Cht'nier's  I'ocsies   (1884). 

MANUEL,  mil'ni.t'Al',  Don  Ju.\N  (1282-1349). 
A  Spanish  prince  and  author,  born  at  Escalona. 
He  was  the  nipbcw  of  .Mfonso  X..  callcil  'the 
Wise.'  His  father  died  in  his  youth,  and  lie  was 
brought  up  by  his  cousin.  Sancho  IV..  who  was 
succeeded  by  Ferdinand  IV.  I'pon  his  death, 
Don  Manuel  was  co-regenl  for  the  young  heir 
Alfonso  XI.  (1320).  When  the  King  reached 
his  majority  he  refused  to  marry  Ctmstance.  the 
daughter  of  Don  Mainiel.  or  in  otlu-r  ways  recog- 
nize his  authority.  From  1327  to  1335  there  was 
active  war  between  them,  ending  in  the  King's 
victory.  He  afterwards  received  Don  JIanuel 
into  favor,  and  m:uh'  him  general-iii-cbief  of  tlie 
army  against  the  .Moors.  Don  Manuel  is  bet- 
ter remembered  now  as  author  than  as  soldi<'r. 
His  prose  is  clear,  vigorous,  and  interesting. 
Several  of  his  works  may  be  found  in  Kiva- 
deneyra's  Ifiblioleca  dc  aiilorrs  inimiiDhs.  vol. 
xi.  (Madrid,  1884).  The  most  important  of  them 
is  the  Conde  Liicanor  (1575).  with  a  ecunmen- 
tary  l)y  (Jon/.alo  .\rgotc  de  Molina.  This  con- 
sists of  forty  nine  stories,  told  somewhat  in  the 
Oriental  manner,  with  a  little  moral  in  verse  at 
the  end  of  each  tale.  More  modern  editions  of 
Kl  Cnndf  l.iirauor  are  those  of  Stuttgart  (1839), 
Barcelona  (1S53).  and  Madrid  (1800).  There 
is  an  English  translation  by  .Tames  York  (Lon- 
don,   I  SOS  and    1 888). 

MANUEL,  inii'ni.iVd'.  Nikolaus  (1484-15.30). 
A  Swiss  painter,  poet,  and  magistrate,  born  at 


MANUFACTURERS. 

Bern.  His  early  profession  was  probably  that 
of  painter  and  engraver,  and  in  his  youth  he 
traveled  a  good  deal;  and  was  a  pupil  of  Titian 
at  Venice.  Uiioii  his  return  to  Bern  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Great  Senate  (1512),  and  after- 
wards served  in  the  French  Army.  He  was  a 
pronounced  supporter  of  the  Swiss  reformation. 
His  writings  include  the  satirical  comedies:  \  om 
Paps4  und  seiner  Priesterschaft,  Dcr  Ablass- 
kriimer,  Barheli,  and  Elsli  Tragdenknaben,  re- 
edited  by  Tittmann  in  18(iSand  Bachtold  in  1878. 
His  works  as  an  artist  are  very  interesting;  they 
consist  of  a  few  oil  and  water-color  paintings,  and 
a  number  of  drawings,  best  stiulied  in  the  Basel 
Museum.  His  frescoes,  "The  Dance  of  the  Dead," 
liainlcd  on  the  walls  of  the  Dominican  convent 
(1515-21)  at  Bern,  were  destroyed,  but  have  been 
well  copied  in  the  twenty-four  lithographs,  'Nik- 
laiis  Maiiiicls  Totcntnii::'  (Hern,  1829-31). 

MANUFACTURED  ARTICLE.  A  thing 
which  has  been  created  by  the  application  of 
labor  to  crude  materials,  whereby  they  are  trans- 
formed into  a  new  and  difl'erent  quality,  shape,  or 
form,  having  a  distinctive  name,  characte*-,  or 
use,  and  capable  of  being  used  without  alteration. 
The  term  is  sometimes  confused  with  manufac- 
tured 'products,'  such  as  "pig  iron'  or  'pig  lead,' 
which  are  merely  iron  and  lead  reduced  from  the 
native  ores  and  freed  from  impurities,  and  which 
are,  in  law,  considered  as  'r;iw'  or  crude  ma- 
terials, ready  to  be  manufactured  into  articles. 
The  word  article,  therefore,  in  its  technical  legal 
sense  means  a.  tiling  adapted  for  use.  The  dis- 
tinction between  manufactured  articles  and  crude 
or  raw  materials  is  of  great  imjiortance  under 
tariir  and  revenue  acts  where  the  former  are 
assessed  with  a  higher  rate  of  duty  than  the 
latter.  The  distinction  above  mentioned  has 
been  adopted  by  the  United  States  courts  in  tlie 
interpretation  of  our  tarifT  laws.  For  example, 
india-rubber,  which  is  a  product  obtained  by  re- 
ducing the  juice  or  sap  of  certain  tropical  trees 
and  plants  to  a  solid  form  by  dipping  convenient 
molds  into  it,  and  drying  it  over  a  lire  niaile 
from  a  peculiar  kind  of  nut,  was  held  not  to  be 
a  manufactured  article  tinder  a  tarilV  act  tax- 
ing articles  made  of  rubber.  The  court  de- 
scribed it  as  a  "raw  material  in  a  more  portable, 
useful,  and  convenient  form  for  other  manufac- 
tures here."  The  court,  however,  held  that  rub- 
ber shoes,  made  by  the  same  process,  except  that 
the  mold  was  in  the  form  of  the  human  foot, 
were  manufactured  articles,  as  they  were  adapted 
for  immediate  use.  Consult:  Carr,  Judicial  Jii- 
U-rprclation  of  Tariff  Acts  (1894)  ;  Elmes,  Law 
of  ihe  Customs :  also  the  authorities  referred  to 
under  Sai.E.S. 

MANUFACTURERS,  Xationai,  As.soci.v- 
TION  OF.  All  association  of  .\merican  nuinufac- 
lurevs  organized  in  Cincinnati  in  1895  for  the  pur- 
poses of  increasing  their  export  trade,  intlucncing 
legislation  alTeeting  their  interests,  and  of  co|)ing 
with  the  demands  of  labor  organizations.  The 
association  maintains  a  cent  nil  otllce  in  Xew 
Y(U'k  which  supplies  members  with  information 
.iboul  foreign  markets,  prices,  credit  reports, 
and  undertakes  through  its  international  freight 
bureau  the  shipment  and  delivery  of  foreign 
consignments.  Its  most  conspicuous  function  is 
the  energetic  campaign  which  it  wages  against 
radical  legislation  and  tra<le  unionism.  The  pub- 
lic measures  with  which  the  association  has  been 


MANUFACTURERS. 


19 


MANUFACTURES. 


most  prominently  connectfd  are  the  reform  of  the 
patent  law  and  of  the  consular  and  postal  ser- 
vices. The  association  lias  placed  itself  on  record 
as  not  being  opposed  to  labor  organizations  as 
such,  but  maintains  that  employers  must  be 
free  to  employ  their  working  people  witli- 
out  interference  on  the  part  of  individual 
organizations  and  that  they  must  be  un- 
molested in  the  management  of  their  business 
and  in  the  use  of  any  methods  or  systems  of  pay 
which  are  equitable.  The  association  provided 
for  the  organization  of  separate  defense  associa- 
tions in  the  different  lines  of  industry  it  repre- 
sents. Provision  was  further  made  for  the 
federation  of  these  affiliated  protected  associa- 
tions into  a  "permanent  central  organization  that 
will  create  a  clearinghouse  for  ideas  and  provide 
means  for  cooperation  on  matters  of  common  in- 
terest." The  association  has  evidently  entered 
upon  a  programme  of  positive  opposition  to  trade 
unionism.  The  association  had.  in  lflO.3.  more 
than  1000  members,  and  claimed  that,  measured 
by  capital  invested,  workmen  employed,  or  prod- 
ucts manufactured,  it  constitutes  the  largest 
trade  body  in  the  world.  The  association  pub- 
lishes the  American  Trade  Index  and  the  Confi- 
dential Bulletin-  of  Inquiries  from  Foreign 
Buyers;  its  organ  is  Ameriean  Industries,  pub- 
lished semi-monthly  at  New  York. 

MANUFACTURES  (ML.  manufactura,  from 
Lat.  inuiiiifiiclus.  iikhiu  faetus,  made  by  hand, 
from  niaiiu,  abl.  sg.  of  manus,  hand,  and  faetus, 
p.p.  of  faeere,  to  make).  In  a  broad  sense  of  the 
term,  manufactures  are  such  forms  of  industry 
as  elaborate  for  economic  use  materials  which 
are  themselves  the  product  of  industry.  Manu- 
factures are  thus  distinguished  from  extractive 
industry,  which  procures  wealth  from  nature  in 
its  primary  forms.  In  practice  it  is  difficult  to 
draw  a  hard  and  fast  line  between  these  two 
types  of  industry,  since  many  commodities  which 
are  commonly  classed  as  raw  materials  have  been 
subject  to  one  or  more  elaborative  processes,  as, 
for  example,  raw  cotton,  raw  sugar,  pig  iron. 
The  practice  of  American  statisticians  is  to  class 
with  extractive  industry  processes  which  are  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  exploitation  of  natural 
products.  Butter  and  cheese  which  are  made  on 
the  farm  are  treated  as  agricultural  products: 
when  produced  in  factories  distinct  from  the 
farm  they  are  classed  with  manufactures.  A 
product  in  its  earliest  merchantable  form  may 
then  be  classed  with  raw  materials ;  when  sub- 
jected to  further  processes  of  elaboration  it  be- 
comes a  manufactured  commodity.  For  the  tech- 
nical legal  distinction  in  this  matter,  see  ilANU- 
FACTURED  AkTICLE. 

Again,  many  commodities  undergo  minor 
changes  incidental  to  consumption.  The  prepa- 
ration of  food  may  be  cited  as  a  case  in  point. 
Such  processes  are  not  usually  placed  under 
manufactures.  If  the  preparation  of  food  is 
carried  on  in  separate  establishments  with  a 
view  to  supplying  a  market,  it  will  fall  under 
the  head  of  manufactures.  This  distinction  is 
obviously  difficult  to  make  in  practice.  The 
twelfth  census  of  the  United  States  excludes 
from  manufactures  proper  most  forms  of  order 
production,  confining  the  term  to  production  of 
standard  conunodities  for  a  general  market. 
From  a  theoretical  point  of  view,  however,  it  is 
better  to  include   under  manufactures  all   proc- 


esses   of    elaboration    of    merchantable    materials 
into  commodities  primarily   designed    for  sale. 

In  this  sense  of  the  term  niaiuifactures  prc- 
supjiose  a  considerably  developed  economic  life. 
They  did  not  exist  when  each  household  produced 
exclusively  for  its  own  consumption.  In  West- 
ern Europe  they  were  first  carried  on  under  the 
guilds  (c).v. ).  forming,  however,  but  an  insignifi- 
cant part  of  the  economic  life.  With  the  rise  of 
capital  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
manufactures  were  carried  on  more  extensively 
under  the  domestic  system.  The  capitalist-mer- 
chant put  out  materials  to  be  worked  up  at  home 
by  workmen  whose  chief  occupation  was  usually 
agriculture.  This  form  of  manufacture  still  ex- 
ists in  America  and  England :  it  is  widely  prac- 
ticed in  France,  Germany,  and  Russia ;  and  in 
some  European  districts,  notably  in  Norway,  it 
is  the  prevalent  form. 

In  the  more  advanced  nations  domestic  manu- 
facture has  been  largely  supplanted  by  the  fac- 
tory system  (q.v. ).  The  extension  of  the  market 
in  early  modern  times,  requiring  a  vastly  in- 
creased production  of  goods  of  standard  kinds, 
led  first  to  excessive  division  of  labor  and  later 
to  the  invention  of  machinery.  The  fir-st  indus- 
tries to  respond  to  these  influences  were  the 
textile  and  the  iron  industries  as  discussed  in 
detail  under  the  heads  of  Textile  Manufactur- 
ing and  Iron  and  Steel,  JIetallubgt  op. 

Manufactures  in  the  United  State.s.  At 
the  end  of  the  colonial  period  manufacturing  in- 
dustry in  America  was  of  slight  importance.  The 
principal  .salable  articles  were  raw  materials, 
such  as  the  products  of  the  forests.  Each  house- 
hold provided  itself  with  the  chief  commodities 
for  consimiption.  In  New  England,  however,  the 
manufacture  of  rum  was  extensive,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  hats,  coarse  cloth,  and  nails  was  car- 
ried on  under  the  domestic  system  of  industry. 
The  total  value  of  the  manufactures  of  America  at 
the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  t'onstilution  has 
been  estimated  at  $20,000,000:  but  this  includes 
much  domestic  production  for  home  consumption. 

Machine  production  scarcely  existed  before 
1790.  In  that  year  a  British  mechanic.  Slater, 
set  up  spinning  machinery  in  Rhode  Island.  In 
1794  Whitney  invented  tlie  cotton  gin,  thus  as- 
suring a  supply  of  raw  materials  for  the  new 
cotton  manufacture.  By  1810  machinery  had 
been  generally  introduced  in  textile  manufacture, 
although  large  quantities  of  goods  were  still 
produced  luider  the  older  system.  The  value  of 
textiles  produced  in  that  vear  was  estimated  at 
about  .$40,000,000. 

The  iron  manufacture  developed  more  slowly. 
Machinery  of  improved  types  was  introduced  in 
the  first  and  second  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  production 
and  manufacture  was  carried  on  in  a  primitive 
fashion,  until  the  fifth  decade  of  the  century, 
when  anthracite  began  to  be  substituted  for 
charcoal  in  .smelting.  From  tliat  time  increase 
was  rapid,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  statistics  given 
under  Iron  and  Steel,  Metallurgy  of. 

The  value  of  the  manufactures  of  the  ITnited 
States  for  the  vear  ISIO  was  estimated  by  Tench 
Coxe  to  be  $198.01.3.471.  In  1820  the  value  of 
manufactures  had  risen  to  .$268,000,000.  The 
following  table,  taken  from  the  Twelfth  Census, 
Manufnetures,  part  i.,  gives  the  essential  facts 
as  to  the  development  of  manufactures  from  1850: 


MANirPACTTJRES. 


20 


MANUL. 


1900 

1890 

1880 

1870 

1860 

1850 

ranital*              

9,835 
2,328 
7,348 
13,014 

5,316,802 

6,523 
1,891 
6,162 
9,372 

4,251,613 

2,790 

947 

3,396 

5,369 

2,732,595 

2,118 

775 

2,488 

4,232 

2,053,990 

1,009 

378 

1.031 

1.885 

1.311.246 

533 

236 

555 

1.019 

Average    number   of   wage- 

957.059 

*  Millions  uf  dollars. 


Capital 

Total  wages 

ro8t  of  materials 

Value  ot  products 

Average  number  of  wage-earners 


Per  cent,  of  increase 


50.7 
23.1 
42.3 
38.9 

25.1 


133.9 
99.5 
62.0 
74.5 

55.6 


31.7 
22.2 
36.5 
26.9 

33.0 


100.8 
104. 7 
141,2 
124.4 

56.6 


89.4 
60.0 
85.8 
85.1 

37.0 


In  estimating  the  economic  significance  of  the 
development  of  manufactures  as  shown  in  the 
above  table,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  allow- 
ance for  the  fact  that  a  considerable  number 
of  operations  are  now  carried  on  as  manufactures 
which  formerly  were  a  part  of  household  indus- 
try. The  increase  in  the  net  product  of  manu- 
factures above  cost  of  material  is  not  wholly  a 
net  increase  in  national  income,  although  the 
greater  part  may  be  so  regarded.  It  is  further 
to  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  statistics  of  capital 
are  based  upon  estimates  which  in  the  nature 
of  the  case  are  not  very  reliable. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  the  Twelfth 
Census,  }tnnufactures,  part  i.,  shows  the  rank 
of  the  various  States  and  Territories  in  gross 
value  of  manufactures: 

New  Tork $2,175,726,900 

Pennsylvania 1.834.790.860 

Illinois I.i5a.7:iii.lfi8 

Massachusetts l,ii;tt.i9H.9K9 

Ohio H;i2.4:iH.n3 

New  Jersey 611.748.0:33 

Missouri 385.492,784 

Indiana 378,120.140 

Wisconsin 360.818.942 

Michigan 3.56.944.082 

Connecticut 352,824,106 

California 302,874,761 

Minnesota 262,665,881 

Marylanil 242,552,990 

Rhode  Island 1H4,074.378 

Kansas 172.12n.3'.iH 

Iowa iri4.617.K77 

Kentucltv ir,4.ir.6.3B5 

Nebraslia 143.990.102 

Virginia 1:12. 172.910 

Maine 127.361.4«.-i 

Louisiana 121.181.r,s3 

Texas U9.414.'Jh2 

New  Hampshire 118,709.308 

Tennessee 10H.H4..''«K 

Georgia loo. 654, .W7 

Colorado 102.8:10.137 

Nortli  Carolina 94.919.663 

Washington 86.795.0,51 

Alabama 80.741.449 

West  Virginia 74.838.330 

South  Carolina 58.748.731 

Vermont 57.623.815 

Montana 57.075.824 

District  of  Columbia : 47.607.022 

Oregon 46.oon.5K7 

Delawan- 45.;t87.630 

Arkansas 45.197.731 

MisslsBippi 40,431  .:!86 

Florida ;10,K10.243 

Arizona 21.31n,lS9 

rtah 21,156.183 

South  Dakota 12.231,2:19 

North  Dakota !),18:t.ll4 

Oklahnina 7.08:1.9:18 

New  Mexico 6.60.-I.795 

Wyoming 4.:K)1,240 

Idaho r; 4.ll->ll.-..T2 

Nevada 1.643.675 


The  four  States  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Il- 
linois, and  Massachusetts  produce  nearly  one- 
half  the  manufactures  of  the  United  States.  The 
greatest  concentration  of  manufacturing  industry 
is  in  southern  New  England  and  New  York  and 
eastern  Pennsylvania.  But  there  a])ears  to  be 
a  general  tendency  toward  extension  of  the  area 
of  manufactures. 

The  United  States  occupies  at  present  the  fore- 
most rank  as  a  manufacturing  nation.  The  suc- 
cessive stages  by  which  it  has  reached  this  posi- 
tion are  illustrated  by  the  following  table,  taken 
from  the  Twelfth  Census,  Maniifaetures,  part  i. 
(Mulhall's  estimates)  : 

Annual  Value  of  Manufactures. 


1820 

1B40 

$i.4ii.ni)0,(U)() 

l.II'.H,IHH).l)On 

511.00*).1>X) 

2US.00U.000 

l,6r,4.000.000 

:fl.H:j;i,iHH),(K)() 

l.oiit;.uoi»,<Hiii 

Germany 

Austria 

1,4M4. noil. 0(H) 
Hrv>.(H10.(K)0 
4tH,lH>0.lHH) 

Other  States 

2,510.000.000 

1880 

1894 

J;2.sn8.oon.noo    '  S4.2*'-3.(X>o.ooo 

2  iiy_*  IMIII.lHIO             ■_'.*Hm,lHHI.IK)0 

(Jprmany 

1  ■>.'.'»  IMM(  (MM)             ;i,a.)7,lMHI.IK)0 

l.r20.lHHI.(H)0 
l,907.0(H),OO0 
3.155.000.000 

l.r.'tll.lHHI.lHM) 

9, 408.  IXH  1.000 

Otlier  States  

6.230,000,000 

BlBLiOGBAPny.  For  the  rise  of  manufactures 
in  Kngland.  consult:  ("iinninghani.  drouth  of 
English  hidustnj  (Cambridge.  1800-1I2),  and 
Ashley,  Kconomic  Uislori/  (London,  ISSS-OS). 
For  the  growth  of  manufactures  in  America, 
consult:  Wright,  Industrial  Erohition  of  the 
United  folates  (New  York,  1807).  and  Wells, 
Recent  /'conoiiiic  I'haniies  (Xew  York.  1808). 
Consult  also  the  several  censuses  of  the  United 
States,  particularly  the  Twelfth  Census,  and 
jMulhall's  Dietioniirji  of  Statistics  (London, 
18',l!t),  article  "Manufactures."  See  the  .separate 
articles  on  the  varimis  manufacturing  industries, 
such  as  Cotton;  Iron  and  Steel:  Wooi,:  etc., 
which  contain  an  historical  sketch  and  statistics 
for  each  industry. 

MANUL,  mii'nul  (Malay  word).  A  small 
wild  c:it  {Fclis  manul)  of'  Tibet  and  Siberia, 
which  has  very  long,  soft,  and  alnindant  hair.    It 


MANTJL. 


21 


MANXJBES  AND  MANUKING. 


is  wliitish-gray,  with  a  few  black  marks  on  the 
chest  and  about  the  head,  and  a  few  dark  vertical 
bands  across  the  loins.  It  has  a  verj'  broad, 
round  head,  a  short,  heavy,  ringed  tail,  and  the 
appearance  of  great  strength  and  endurance. 

MANUMISSION     (Lat.     manumissio,    from 

maiiinnillcic,  to  manumit,  from  iiianus,  hand  + 
mittere,  to  send).  In  Roman  law,  the  enfran- 
chisement of  a  slave.  In  the  older  law  {jus  ci- 
vile), this  could  be  accomplished:  (1)  Tindicta, 
i.e.  by  a  fictitious  action.  In  the  later  law,  the 
forms  of  suit  were  dropped,  and  the  master  sim- 
ply appeared  before  the  magistrate  and  declared 
that  the  slave  was  to  be  set  free.  (2)  Cchsii, 
i.e.  by  the  entry  of  the  slave's  name,  with  the 
assent  of  the  master,  on  the  register  of  citizens. 
This  form  disappeared  in  the  Imperial  period. 
(3)  Tcstanunlo.  i.e.  by  a  bequest  of  liberty  in  the 
master's  will.  When  the  Roman  Empire  became 
Christian,  a  fourth  mode  of  manumission  was 
recognized — mdniimissio  in  ecclesia,  by  declara- 
tion of  the  master  in  the  presence  of  priest  and 
congregation.  Informal  manumissions  'among 
friends,'  or  "by  letter,'  were  originally  void :  but 
jU  the  later  Republican  period  individuals  thus 
freed  were  protected  by  the  magistrates  and  in 
the  Imperial  period  they  were  recognized  as 
legally  free.  These  informal  manumissions  were 
regulated,  under  Justinian,  by  requiring  five  wit- 
nesses to  prove  the  manumission.  The  right  of 
a  master  to  manumit  his  slaves  was  restricted 
in  the  Imperial  period.  Some  of  the  restrictions 
were  imposed  in  the  interest  of  creditors;  others 
in  the  interest  of  the  public. 

By  manumission  the  slave  usually  became  a 
citizen,  but  his  political  rights  were  restricted. 
Moreover,  he  remained  for  life  in  a  relation  of 
dependency ;  he  was  the  'client'  of  his  master  and 
of  his  master's  children,  and  owed  them  certain 
semi-feudal  observances  and  services.  He  and 
his  children  were  also  debarred  from  marriage 
with  free-born  persons.  Consult  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  Civil  Law. 

Among  the  early  Germans  also  the  ordinary 
forms  of  manumission,  by  the  act  of  the  master 
alone,  gave  the  freedman  only  a  partial  freedom ; 
he  was  dependent  upon  his  former  master  for 
protection.  There  were,  however,  methods  of 
manumission  which  gave  the  former  slave  the 
full  rights  of  a  freeman,  viz.  his  adoption  into 
a   kinship  group  or  into   the   trilie. 

MANURES  AND  MANURING  (from  OF. 
muniiavrer,  manovrcr,  Fr.  maiicccrcr,  to  manage, 
work  by  hand,  from  OF.  manouvre,  manovrc, 
from  ML.  maniiopcrn,  t)tanoprra,  a  working  with 
the  hand,  from  Lat.  inaiius.  hand  +  oprra,  work). 
In  a  broad  sense,  the  term  manure  is  applied  to 
any  substance  used  to  increase  the  productive- 
ness of  soil.  The  word  is  commonly  used  in  a 
more  restricted  sense  to  mean  the  excreta  (solid 
and  liquid)  of  farm  animals,  either  mixed  or 
unmixed  with  litter,  and  more  or  less  fermented. 
In  this  article  the  term  is  used  in  its  broader 
sense.  Manures  may  be  direct  or  indirect  in  their 
effect.  The  former  supply  plant  food  which  is 
lacking  in  the  soil,  the  latter  render  active  the 
insoluble  fertilizing  constituents  already  present 
and  improve  the  chemical,  physical,  and  bio- 
logical conditions  in  the  soil.  The  first  class  in- 
cludes the  so-called  commercial  or  artificial  fer- 
tilizers, such  as  superphosphates,  nitrate  of  soda, 


etc. ;  the  second  embraces  natural  manures,  such 
as  the  green  manures,  sea-weed  (q.v. ),  and  ani- 
mal manures,  and  the  soil  amendments  or  soil 
improvers,  such  as  lime,  gypsum,  salt.  etc.  Under 
certain  conditions  all  these  manures  may  be  both 
direct  and  indirect  in  their  action. 

Plants  derive  the  bulk  of  their  food  directly  or 
indirectly  from  the  atmosphere.  A  small  but 
very  essential  portion,  however,  is  drawn  from 
the  soil.  This  inchulcs  the  inorganic  or  ash 
constituents  and  nitrogen,  which,  liowever,  is  in 
certain  cases  derived  indirectly  from  the  air. 
These  substances,  being  soluble,  are  transported 
by  water,  which  is  not  considered  a  food.  Of  the 
soil  constituents  which  plants  need  only  four  are 
likely  to  be  exhausted  by  ordinary  sj'stems  of 
cropping,  viz.  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash, 
and,  in  some  eases,  lime.  Direct  manures  supply 
one  or  more  of  these  constituents,  which  are 
known  as  the  essential  fertilizing  elements.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  would  remain  practically 
luiclianged  if  all  the  ingredients  removed  in  the 
various  farm  products  were  restored  to  the  land. 
This  may  be  accomplisiied  to  a  large  extent  by 
feeding  the  crops  grown  on  the  farm  to  animals, 
carefully  saving  the  manure  and  returning  it  to 
the  soil,  and  when  practicable  combining  a  ju- 
dicious use  of  green  manures  with  a  system  of 
stock  feeding  in  which  those  farm  products 
comparatively  poor  in  fertilizing  constituents 
are  exchanged  for  feeding  stuffs  rich  in  these 
substances.  L'nder  such  practice  the  loss  of  soil 
fertility  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  or  there 
may  even  be  an  actual  gain  in  fertility.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  of  farming,  however,  the  ma- 
nure produced  on  the  farm  is  not  sufficient  to 
maintain  its  fertility.  Roberts  estimates  that  in 
ordinary  mixed  husbandry  only  about  one-half  of 
the  fertility  taken  from  the  soil  by  crops  is  re- 
stored in  farm  manures.  Hence  the  necessity 
for  supplying  the  deficiency  from  other  sources, 
resulting  in  the  wide  use  of  artificial  or  com- 
mercial fertilizers  of  various  kinds. 

JSTatural  Manures.  These  include  all  manu- 
rial  substances  derived  from  natural  sources 
without  undergoing  any  specific  treatment  or 
process  of  manufacture,  such  as  animal  excreta 
and  all  animal  and  vegetable  refuse  of  the  farm, 
as  well  as  various  factory  wastes.  The  natural 
manures  are.  as  a  rule,  bulky  in  character  and 
contain  small  amounts  of  the  essential  constitu- 
ents. The  most  important  and  useful  of  the 
natural  manures  is  farmyard  or  Iiarnyard  ma- 
nure. Its  quality,  which  is  very  variable,  depends 
upon  the  care  taken  in  its  preservation,  the  kind 
and  age  of  the  animal  producing  it.  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  food  used,  nature  and  amount 
of  the  litter  added.  Experiments  conducted  at 
the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  Cornell 
University  furnish  the  data  on  following  page 
regarding  the  amount  and  value  of  the  maniire 
produced  by  different  farm  aninials  under  ordi- 
nary conditions  of  liberal  feeding. 

IMature  animals,  neither  gaining  nor  losing 
weight,  excrete  practically  all  of  the  fertilizing 
constituents  consumed  in  the  food.  Growing  ani- 
mals and  milch  cows  excrete  from  50  to  75  per 
cent,  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  the  food; 
fattening  or  working  animals  from  90  to  95 
per  cent.  Roberts  states  that  the  value  of  the 
manure  produced  by  animals  is  from  30  to  50 
per  cent,  of  the  food  they  consume.     As  regards 


HANUBES  AND  MANURING. 


2J 


HANTJSES  AND  MANURING. 


Aiioc^iT  A.10  Vali'c*  or  MurKC  Pkodfcco  bt  F^uu  Lite  Stock 
[New  York  CornvU  Eiiwrliaeot  Statloa] 


Ariioutit 


CUIUIK 


'itioti  tkuil  TalDv  of  niauurv 
ryot  and  Utter)  t 


Ki.'iD  or  i.'niiAL 


Sta«ep... 
CalTM... 
Pttt- 
Co«  - 


t«.f  J.*, 

wriiTdl  Oitlly 

KItiogen 

aJlJ    "^ 

Potash 

Taloe 
per  loo 

f—in-li 

I 

PfrcfDt. 

/»>r  CMt. 

Prr  »o». 

i  : 

w.ura 

0.768 

U.3»l 

U.S»l 

«S.30 

.US7 

.197 

.irj 

.932 

■J.  18 

-. .  '.. 

.1«7 

.!«0 

.380 

.330 

S.39 

"1  1 

.IW^ 

.*X 

.aso 

.MU 

a. 09 

4'   s 

.i/;>» 

.430 

.JliO 

.«U 

S.21 

•  v.. 

the  ffftilizins  value  of  e<|tial  weijihts  of  manure  in 

itA  unriiial  c-oii<litiun.  f:'r ■■    •'    ■  ■   '    '  '•.  ~tanJ 

in  tli<- ti)|ki\vins;  onler:  rs*-*, 

i-ows.      IVultry  iiianur-    .     .■,•  ani- 

mal manures.  Uvause  it  eonsi3t:«  ot  a  mixture,  in 
Rumewliat  concentrated  form,  of  both  the  solid 
I  intestinal)  and  liquid  I  urinary)  excreta.  The 
lii|uid  excretum  of  farm  animals  is  the  must  valu- 
able [>art  of  the  manure.  iK-inj;  esin-eially  rich  in 
nitr<>t;en  and  potash,  but  {KH>r  in  phosphoric  acid. 
Slie«'p  manure  is  drier  and  hence  richer  in  fer- 
tilizing constituents  than  pig.  horse,  or  cow 
manure.  1*1^  manure  i-ontains  as  much  water  as 
cow  manure  and  more  than  horse  manure,  but  is 
richer  in  nitroijen.  Horse  manure  is  a  com|i<ira- 
tively  dry  manure,  which  ferments  rapidly.  For 
this  reason  it  is  called  a  "hot"  manure  and  is 
especially  valuable  for  use  in  hotbeds  and  for 
forcinj;  early  crops.  Cow  manure  is  a  wet  "cold' 
manure,  which  fcnnents  slowly.  Its  low  per- 
centaj:e  of  fertilizing  constituents  is  due  to  its 
high  pcrtviitaye  of  water.  The  amounts  of  fer- 
tilizing «Mi~tituents  in  animal  manure  stand  in 
direct  relatit>n  to  those  in  the  food.  As  regards 
the  value  of  the  manure  produce*!  the  concen- 
trated feeding  stuffs,  such  as  meat  scrap  or 
meal,  cottonseed  meal,  linstvd  meal,  gluten  meal, 
and  wheat  bran,  stand  Krst ;  the  leguminous 
plants  (clover,  p(>as.  beans,  etc.)  second;  the 
jfrjsses  thiril:  cereals  (oats,  com.  etc.)  fourth; 
and  root  crops,  such  as  turnips,  beets,  and  man- 
gelwurzels,  last.  High  salting  and  succulent 
foods  as  a  rule  give  watery  and  p^Kir  manure. 
With  liii;h  f>«'liri'_'  there  is  less  coiiiplcte  digestion 
and  hence  richtr  manure.  Hi;;hly  nitrogenous 
fiKKls  five  richer  manures,  although  at  the  same 
time  they  incr»"aso  the  excretion  of  urine,  thus 
retjuiring  more  lie<i<ling  and  reducing  the  value 
of  the  manure.  U.au-e  as  a  rule  the  materials 
commonly  u-ie.1  as  litter  are  poorer  in  fer- 
tilizing constituents  than  the  animal  excreta. 
Animals  kept  in  cold  (|Uitrters  probably  di(j;est 
their  food  more  closely,  and  hence  make  ptxirer 
manure. 

Barnyard  manure  rapiilly  deteriorates  from 
two  chief  causes:  Ml  f.riiientation.  which  Jie- 
gins    as    snon    a<    ■  r..    is   ilroppcd;    (2) 

weatlierinir   and    I-  iii<-h    rapidly   reduce 

the  value  of  unprvt.^!..!  manure.  Roberts  re- 
ports experiments  at  Ithaca.  X.  Y..  in  which 
mn-  '  •  •  f   fr„^  o  to   10 

t'"  -T    cent,    of    its 

Va! ;.,...:    ,.  ■     -'.0    p«.r 

cent. :    while   mixe<l   an  Inst 

only  9  per  cent.     The   '  :.,.,■  fer- 

mentation may  be  largely  prevented  by  the  use 


of  projier  absorbents  (Utter)  and  preservatives, 
such  as  superphosphate,  kainit.  etc.;  but  the 
must  perfect  preservation  is  secured  by  storing 
the  mixed  manure  of  different  animals  under 
cover  or  in  pits,  keeping  it  moist  and  compact 
to  e.xclude  air.  Extremes  of  temperature  and 
moisture  should  be  avoided  to  prevent  "fire- 
fanging'  and  to  secure  a  uniform,  moderate,  and 
harmless  fermentation.  Such  fermentation,  in 
fact,  improves  the  quality  of  poor,  coarse  manure, 
by  rendering  its  constituents  more  available 
as  plant  food. 

When  practicable,  it  is  best  to  avoid  storage 
by  hauling  the  manure  directly  to  the  fields 
and  spreading  it  upon  land  occupied  by  plants. 
From  10  to  40  tons  yvr  acre  is  usually  applied. 
Moderate  applit-ations  at  fre«]uent  intervals  are 
preferable  to  large  but  infre<|uent  applications, 
except  when  the  purpose  is  to  warm  the  soil  to 
force  early  crops.  The  forcing  effect  of  fresh  ma- 
nure renders  it  U'tter  suite«l  to  early  garden 
truck,  grasses,  and  forage  plants  than  to  plants 
grown  for  seed,  such  as  cereals.  Direct  applica- 
tions to  root  crops,  such  as  sugar  lieets.  [Kitatoes, 
or  tobacco,  often  prove  injurious.  This  result  can, 
as  a  rule,  be  avoided  by  applying  the  manure 
some  months  before  the  planting  of  the  crop  or 
by  using  only  well-rotted  manure.  Barnyard 
manure  is  not  applied  to  fruit  trees  with  the 
same  goo<I  results  as  in  case  of  other  crops.  It 
does  not  stimulate  fruiting  to  the  sjinie  extent 
as  the  mineral  fertilizj-rs.  This  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  poor  in  total  and  available 
mineral  constituents  and  ctimparatively  rich  io 
nitrogen,  which  tends  to  proiimte  the  growth  of 
the  vecetative  ors:ans,  its  temlency  being  to  pro- 
duce large  growth  but  a  poor  quality  of  fruit. 
As  a  rule,  therefore,  the  b«>-*t  results  are  likely 
to  he  obtained  by  using  barnyard  manure  in  con- 
nection with  commen-ial  fertilizing  materials, 
lime,  gypsum,  etc..  either  in  compost  (q.v.)  or 
separately. 

Other  natural  manures  of  secondary  impor- 
tance are  peat,  ashes  (qq.v. ).  wool  waste,  which 
contains  on  an  average  .t..t  per  c«'nt.  of  nitroijen. 
I  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  2  p«'r  cent,  of 
potash :  hair  waste,  containing  7  per  cent,  of 
nitrogt'n  and  less  than   1   per  cent,  of  phosphnrii" 

acid;   felt  waste  with  about  8  per  cent,  of  

sren :   leathiT  with  ah<iut  7  per  cent,  of  niti    . 
These    -    '  are    prire-ipally    valuable    !■  r 

the  nitr  ontain.  but  this  is  very  slowly 

avnihil'M'     ■'   r    m'.  and  hence  not  of  great  \    '•• 

There   is  a  cla*s  of  stiVist.-inffs  us*vl   for   r     ■ 
iring  purposes  which  is  interme<liate  in  char.i   :.  r 
between  the  natural  manures  proper  and  arti- 


XAHUBES  AJTD  KAVUBINO. 


23 


UAvvnzn  and  mamvutmo. 


tvinti.-t  Ktlixt  nuiiie  than  lor  ttteir 


r  an- 


,\KIiil'  l*t.  tin  (  ', 

SIM 


:        in 


■:».     With 

f^rm  Oj«r 

/,  I 

•    an 

i»   f 

Urrm.      In    U-mUvit 

,  a*  a  c'/' 


U 


miri'l.x 
all    U: 

*     ' 

'   two  '/f  ' 
it   c/wtl-, 

tatti 

,V 

t'lVi/j 


■''■*. 
■  I 


Si- 


r, .'  rr.. 


i-  ni'f.i''-  ',f 

'■<K»?  I*)  (("T  «r»^t,  '/f  nitr'Jjp^, 

-;,    (lri*'l    rn'^»    or 
arp  prrnitiifti  in  I.' 


lor  (II  o/  a  •  'tjr<i  ta» ' 

ori'l  orif^r  Jt  <'of/' 

1    J'.r  U'^!    i4    a    /•il(i»/j;    ih.v,-!!,   •'»•  Lain  on 

fr'/rn  amrrK/niurn    »ulr>t)at»-.    pri-fart^  fn/tuMii. 


i-ry  vAnh  ' 
I  ,  'I   otjt  of   • 

•ali».    how<-v<-r,    whiUr   <- 
than  riiir.T'"-*    nf-  no*   >- 
ttw-  w/il.  • 
form*  of 


rii« 

:ttut 


f^^ 


of 

t»M 


K«w  alvj  taf/U  of  c'/ni' 


jr'*!«< 
.-jr«- 


f 
;r  'I 


'    'ifrii'nr 


o<?-     ff-r 


a/fi   a» 


iTO       fr*f,/I   rriav  •»•• 


eiurn  yhijm^haXr,  iar((fi}r  irtviiul<l«f  in  wat«r  awl      cal  anal>»i»   rarrri'/f   al 


MANURES  AND  MANURING. 


the  soui'fe  ;iiid  availability  of  the  essential  con- 
stituents of  fertilizers,  especially  of  the  organic 
nitrogen,  it  is  often  desirable  to  purchase  the 
unmixed  materials,  either  for  use  separately  or 
to  be  mixed  on  the  farm  as  required. 

To  use  fertilizers  to  the  best  advantage  it  is 
necessary  to  take  into  consideration  a  variety 
of  conditions,  among  the  more  important  of  which 
are  the  character  of  the  fertilizer  itself,  the  cliar- 
aeter  of  the  soil  and  its  previous  manuring  and 
cropping,  the  climate,  and  the  crop  to  lie  grown. 
In  general,  concentrated  fertilizers  prove  most 
prohtable  on:  (1)  soils  in  good  physical  condi- 
tion, i.e.  well  tilled  and  abundantly  suiiplied  with 
humus;  and  (2)  high  value  crops,  such  as  are 
grown  in  market-gardening.  Different  classes  of 
farm  crops  vary  in  their  fertilizer  requirements. 


24  MANURES  AND  MANURING. 

growing  beets  and  mangels;  soluble  phospliates 
in  abundance  for  the  turnip;  and  potasli  for  po- 
tatoes, white  and  sweet.  That  is,  while  the  fertiliz- 
ers should  contain  all  three  elements,  individual 
crops,  because  of  their  peculiarities  of  growth,  re- 
quire certain  fertilizing  constituents  in  greater 
relative  amounts  and  in  immediately  available 
forms.  Fruit  trees  are  slow-growing  plants  and 
therefore  do  not  need  quick-acting  fertilizers  as  a 
rule.  Highly  soluble  manures,  such  as  nitrate 
of  soda,  are  likely  to  be  washed  out  of  the  soil 
without  being  utilized.  For  this  reason  the  use 
of  nitrate  of  soda  is  not  advised  except  where 
the  growth  of  nursery  stock  is  to  be  forced  or 
where  bearing  trees  exhibit  a  lack  of  luxuriance 
in  foliage.  The  old  and  still  common  practice  of 
fertilizing  fruit  trees  everv  few  years  with  slow- 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE   PrINCIP.AL  COMMEnCI.^L   FERTILIZING   MATERIALS 


Xitropen 

Available 

phosphoric 

acid 

Insoluble 

phosphoric 

acid 

Total 

phosphoric 

acid 

Potash 

Chlorin 

1.  SupplviiiK  iiitTOfji'ii; 

Per  rent. 
15.5  to  16 
13      to  20.5 
12      to  U 

10  to  11 

11  to  12.5 

5  to    6 
7     to    9 
6.5  to    7.5 

6  to    6 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

3     to    5 
1      to    2 
11      to  14 
6      to    8 
1.5  to    2 
1      to    1.6 

26      to  28 

13      to  16 
33      to  35 
26      to  32 

16  to  20 
32      to  36 

17  to  18 
20      to  25 
22      to  29 
15      to  17 

*n.4  to23 

Per  cen  t. 

2  to     3 

1  to     1.5 

50 
48  to  62 

26  to  30 
12  to  12.5 
16  to  20 
20  to  30 

2  to    8 
1  to    2 
6  to     8 

Per  cent. 

2.  SujiplyiiiK'  plioHplioric  acid : 

South  Cnniliiui  rock  phosphate. 

South     Carolina    rock     super- 

phoHphat*'    ((iisHolved    South 

Carolina  roek  phosphate) 

Florida  lanil  rock  phosjihate 

Flnrida.  ttflihlt'  nhcisnhate 

26  to  28 

Ito    3 
33  to  35 
26  to  32 

Ito    4 
32  to  30 

Ito     2 

15  to  17 

16  to  20 
2  to    3 

12  to  15 

Florida     suprrphoHphate     (dis- 
Bolvod  Fhjrida  phosphate) 

14  to  16 

Bonfblai'k  superphosphate  (dis- 

15  to  17 

5  to     8 

6  to     9 
13  to  15 

2.5  to    4.5 
1.5  to    2.5 
2      to    3 

Dissolved  bone      

3.  Supplying  potash : 

45     to  48 

Sulphate  of  potash  (hiph  grade) 
Sulphate  t>r    potash  and   mag- 

.Sto    1.5 

1.5  to    2.5 

.10      to  .32 

Svlvlnit 

42      to  40 

7      to    9 
1      to    2 
1      to    1.5 
3      to    5 

2      to    3 

•  In  pood  Tliomas  slag  at  least  80  per  cent,  of  the  phosphoric  acid    should  be  soluble  in  amtnonium  citrate,  I.e. 
OTallable.  j  ,       ,.   j 

+  f'(>tton-bnll  ashes  contain  about  10  per  cent,  of  lime,  unleashed  wood  ashes  30  to  35  per  cent.,  and  leached  wood 
ftehes  35  to  40  per  cent. 

ly  decomposing  manures,  such  as  barnyard  ma- 
nure, leatlier  waste,  horn  refuse,  wool  waste,  leaf 
mold,  tobacco  stems,  etc..  is  thus  seen  to  have 
more  or  less  of  a  scientific  basis.  Frequently, 
however,  it  is  desirable  to  stinnilate  the  growth 
and  fruitfulness  of  the  trees,  and  for  lliis  pur- 
pose more  active  fertilizing  materials  tlian  tbe 
above  are  neeiled.  In  selecting  and  mixing  the 
latter  the  fact  that  fruits  are  potasli  feeders 
should  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  fertilizer 
re(|Uiiements  of  small  fruits  are  similar  to  tliose 
of  orchard  fruits,  but,  hcing  as  a  rule  more  rapid 
growers,   thev   can   utilize   to   advantage   heavier 


The  cereals,  maize  excepted,  and  grasses  are  simi- 
lar in  their  hal)its  of  growth,  and  arc  able  to 
utilize  comparatively  insoluble  forms  of  mineral 
plant  food,  Imt  are  muih  benefited  by  nitrogen, 
especially  nitrates,  applied  in  time  to  carry  them 
through  the  jieriod  preceding  maturity.  It  is  for 
the  latter  reason  that  nitrogen  has  been  termed 
the  ruling  or  dominant  element  for  this  class  of 
plants.  Leguminous  plants — clover,  peas,  beans, 
etc. — which  are  capable  of  acquiring  nitrogen 
partly  from  the  air,  make  liberal  use  of  the  min- 
eral constituents,  especially  ]w>tash  and  lime. 
Fertilizers  for  such  plants  should  therefore  con- 
tain an  abundance  of  the  mineral  constituents  applications  of  soluble  fertilizing  materials  and 
only,  potash  being  the  dominant  element.  Root  do  not  derive  the  same  benefit  as  orchard  fruits 
and  tuber  crops  require  an  abundance  of  nil  the  from  slowly  decomposing  manures, 
fertilizing  const iluents  in  rc.Tilily  available  forms.  It  may  be  said  that  in  general  crops  grown  on 

Of  the  three  classes  of   fertilizing  constituents,     soils  poor  in  decaying  vegetable  matter  (humus) 
the  nitrogen   is  especially  useful   for  the  slow-     are  as  a  rule  benefited  by  applications  of  nitrog- 


MANURES  AND  MANUKING.  25 

onous  iiuuiuii':-,  wliile  tlior^e  yiuwii  upon  soils 
well  supiilied  with  liiis  substancu  are  more  beiie- 
litud  by  pliusphates  and  potasli.  Upon  iieavy 
soils  phospluiles  are  likely  to  be  more  beneficial 
than  nitrogen,  while  the  reverse  is  the  case  on 
light  dry  soil.  Sandy  soils  are  as  a  rule  de- 
ficient in  potash,  while  clayey  soils  contain  this 
element  in  larger  quantities.  Deep-rooting  crops 
with  long  seasons  of  growth  are  able  to  ac- 
quire the  necessary  plant  food  where  shallow- 
rooted  and  short-season  crops  would  sufl'er.  As 
regards  the  dillerent  forms  of  fertilizing  mate- 
rials it  may  be  said  tliat  nitrates  and  soluble 
phosphates  should  be  api)lied  only  a  short  time 
before  they  are  required  by  the  plant.  Potash 
salts,  ammonium  sulphate,  organic  nitrogenous 
matter,  and  insoluble  phosphates,  being  less  like- 
ly to  be  converted  into  less  available  forms  or 
leached  out  of  the  soil,  may  be  safely  applied 
weeks  or  even  months  before  tliey  are  needed.  In 
general  farm  practice  the  best  results  are  likely 
to  be  obtained  in  the  use  of  fertilizers  by  applying 
them  systematically,  i.e.  by  adopting  a  combined 
system  of  rotation  and  manuring  which  is 
adapted  to  the  given  conditions  of  crop,  climate, 
and  season,  and  which  provides  for  the  utiliza- 
tion to  the  best  advantage  of  the  home  and  local 
supplies  of  manures. 

The  preparation  and  use  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers on  an  extensive  scale  practically  dates 
from  tlie  announcement  of  Liebig's  theory  of 
plant  nutrition  in  1840  and  the  publication  about 
the  same  time  of  the  results  of  Lawes's  experi- 
ment on  the  preparation  and  use  of  superphos- 
phates as  a  fertilizer.  Since  that  date  the  in- 
dustry has  grown  to  enonnous  proportions.  It  is 
estimated  that  over  $50,000,000  worth  of  ferti- 
lizers are  annually  consumed  in  the  United  States 
alone.  This  large  and  rapidly  growing  industry 
is  under  strict  legal  supervision  for  the  pre- 
vention of  fraud.  Every  State  in  which  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  used  to  any  great  extent 
has  provided  for  fertilizer  inspection. 

The  composition  of  the  more  important  mate- 
rials used  in  the  preparation  of  fertilizers  is 
shown  in  the  table  on  the  preceding  page. 

Bibliography.  Semjjers,  Manures — How  to 
Make  and  How  to  Use  Them  (Philadelphia, 
1893);  Aikman,  Maiuire»  and  Manuring  (Edin- 
burgh and  London,  1894)  ;  Roberts,  The  Fertility 
of  the  Land  (New  York,  1897)  ;  Storer,  Arp-icul- 
ture  (New  York,  1897);  Voorhees,  Fertilizers 
(New  York,  1898)  ;  Brooks,  Agriculture,  vol.  ii. 
(Springfield,  Mass.,  I90I);  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletins  21, 
44.  See  Green  JI.^nuring;  Bone  Fertilizers; 
Guano. 

MANUSCRIPT  (Lat.  manu  script urn,  written 
by  hand).  A  term  applied  to  anything  written 
by  hand,  on  either  hard  or  soft  and  flexible  sub- 
stances. The  hard  substances  are  principally 
stones,  metals,  bone,  and  wood,  on  which  the 
writing  is  in  the  nature  of  engraving;  the  soft  or 
flexible  sulistances  are  especially  papyrus,  wax. 
parchment  and  other  skins,  textiles,  and  paper, 
while  terra-cotta  or  clay  partakes  of  both  classes. 
The  instruments  used  were  the  wedge,  stylus,  brush, 
and  graver  for  the  hard,  and  the  reed,  quill, 
stylus,  and  metal  pen  for  the  soft  substances. 
The  stone  chisel  was  used  in  rock-writings.  In 
the  matter  of  inks,  black  was  always  the  ordi- 
nary color,  and  red  was  used  at  an  early  date 
(e.g.  in  Egypt)    for  decorative  purposes;   other 


MANUSCRIPTS. 


colors  had  a  special  meaning,  as  purple  was  the 
Imperial  color  of  the  Byzantine  and  Carloviu- 
gian  emperors,  and  yellow  the  Imperial  color  in 
China.  For  the  history  of  the  methods  of  pro- 
duction and  preservation  of  various  kinds  of 
manuscripts,  see  Paleography;  Book;  Libra- 
RiE.s;    Codex;    Papyrls;    Cuneiform    In.scrip- 

TIO.XS. 

MANUSCRIPTS,  Illumination  of.  The  art 
of  embellishing  manuscripts  with  miniatures  and 
ornaments,  an  art  of  the  most  remote  antiquity. 
The  term  miniature,  so  often  used  indiscriminate- 
ly to  designate  such  ornanu'ntation,  as  well  as 
minute  painting  on  ivory  or  other  material,  is 
derived  from  minium  (cinnabar,  red  lead), 
whence  mi?iiarc,  to  write  or  design  in  red.  The 
Egj'ptian  papyri  of  the  ritualistic  class,  as 
old  as  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  esi)ecially  the  Book 
of  the  Dead,  are  ornamented  with  vignettes  or 
miniatures,  attached  to  the  chapters,  either  de- 
signed in  black  outlines,  or  painted  in  primary 
colors  in  tempera.  Except  these  papyri,  no  other 
manuscripts  of  antiquity  were,  strictly  speaking, 
illuminated;  such  Greek  and  Roman  ones  of  the 
first  century  as  have  reached  the  present  day  be- 
ing written  only.  Pliny,  indeed,  mentions  from 
Varro  that  authors  had  their  portraits  painted 
on  their  works,  and  mentions  a  biographical 
work  with  numerous  portraits  introduced,  but 
all  svich  have  disappeared  in  the  wreck  of  ages, 
the  oldest  illuminated  manuscripts  which  have 
survived  dating  from  the  fourth  century.  Saint 
Jerome  complains  of  the  abuse  of  the  practice,  as 
shown  by  filling  up  books  with  capital  letters  of 
preposterous  size.  The  art  of  illuminating  manu- 
scripts with  gold  and  silver  letters  is  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  from  Egypt,  but  it  is  re- 
markable that  no  papyrus  has  any  gold  or  silver 
introduced  into  it.  The  artists  who  painted  in 
gold,  called  chrysographi,  are  mentioned  as  early 
as  the  second  century.  There  were,  in  fact,  from 
the  beginning  two  distinct  classes  of  illuminated 
manuscripts:  (1)  those  with  decorative  letters 
and  (2)  those  with  figured  compositions.  These 
were  often  crossed,  and  figures  painted  within 
and  around  the  letters.  The  purely  figured  il- 
lustrations, similar  to  the  larger  compositions 
in  mosaic  and  fresco,  originated  in  early  Byzan- 
tine art,  and  the  decorative  letter  style  was  a 
specialty  of  the  northern  races,  especially  Irish 
and  Saxon.  One  of  the  oldest  manuscripts  of  this 
style  is  the  Codex  Argenteus  of  Ulpbilas  (e.50O 
A.D. ),  and  the  charter  of  King  Edgar  (a.d.  966) 
shows  the  use  of  these  letters.  The  principal  late 
Roman  illustrated  manuscripts  are  the  two  Ver- 
gils  of  the  Vatican,  the  Iliad  of  the  Ambrosian 
(Milan),  and  the  Roman  Philocalian  Calendar  at 
Vienna,  all  belonging  to  the  fourth  century  or  the 
early  part  of  the  fifth,  and  illustrating  the  last 
phase  of  the  secular  school.  There  exist  also  a 
few  copies  of  originals  of  this  date  or  earlier, 
such  as  the  Terence  plays  at  the  Vatican  and 
Biblioth&ciue  Nationale  and  the  Calendar  of  Ara- 
Ins  at  Boulogne.  Of  Greek  classic  descent  are 
the  exquisite  pictures  in  the  Viennese  manuscript 
of  the  medical  writings  of  Dioscorides,  not  exe- 
cuted till  A.D.  505. 

Fifth  and  Sixth  Centuries.  It  was  during 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  that  illuminating 
became  an  important  branch  of  Christian  art. 
to  remain  so  until  the  sixteenth  century.  Manu- 
scripts of  the  Old  Testament,  either  as  a  whole 
or   in   separate  books,   and   Gospel   manuscripts 


MANUSCRIPTS. 


26 


were  systematically  M-anluMl  for  inciilcnts  of 
liistoiir  or  ri-liyious  iiiiportaiice.  At  first  tlicie 
was  even  a  siipfralnnidance  of  pictures,  as  in 
tlie  roll  of  Joshua  at  the  Vatiean,  ami,  though 
less  so,  in  the  fiftheentury  oodices  of  (Jenesis 
at  Vienna  ami  tlie  Britisli  Museum.  The  nor- 
mal type  was  yiven  at  this  time  by  the  lios- 
sano  Gospels,  a  work  of  the  Byzantine  school 
which  was  creating  the  new  art.  In  the  tcacliing 
of  tlic  people  by  pictures  it  is  dillicult  to  decide 
whicli  liramli  of  art  gave  the  suggestive  types 
for  the  scenes — the  ininiature  painters  or  the 
iiiosaieist-s  and  fresco-painters.  Outside  of  the 
Bible  the  chief  work  is  the  numuscript  of  Cosmas 
Indicopleustes  at  the  ^'atican,  with  its  fifty-four 
pictures  of  the  si.\th  century.  Until  the  seventh 
century  the  illuminations  were  square  or  oblong 
pictures  interrui)ting  the  text,  but  at  that  time 
the  calligraphic  style  of  decoration  began,  with 
its  initial  letters  ami  its  interweaving  of  liunian, 
animal,  and  geometric  forms  with  tlie  letters. 
Already  in  the  famous  Syriac  manuscript  at  the 
Laurentian  l.ilirary  (Florence)  this  decorative 
sense  had  shown  itself.  It  was  developed  by  the 
Byzantine  artists  of  the  Iconoclastic  age,  who 
preferred  ornamentation  to  the  human  figure,  and 
by  the  Irish  and  .\nglo-Saxon  schools,  which 
showed  an  originality  and  boldness  in  decorative 
work  eipial  to  their  i"neptit\ide  in  treating  tlie  fig- 
ure. Meanwhile  in  the  West  the  Benedictine 
monks  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  had 
continued  the  degenerate  Roman  style,  as  in  the 
Pentateuch  of  Tours,  or  were  copying  Byzantine 
models,  as  in  the  Cambridge  dospcls. 

iKi.SH  AND  .\n(ii,o-S.\xox.  The  Irish  and  their 
pupils,  Anglo-.Saxon  miniaturists,  broke  away 
entirely  not  only  from  all  classic  traditions, 
but  from  all  naturalism.  Spirals,  knots,  bands, 
zigzags,  and  other  geometric  forms,  derived  large- 
ly from  metal  work,  were  interwoven  often  with 
fantastic  beasts  and  impossible  men.  The  Book 
of  Drh:  the  Dorbcer  Life  of  Coliimhti.  the  Liiniis- 
fame  (losiieis,  the  Hool:  of  Kell.i.  the  Kaiiit  Gnll 
Gospels,  the  Wiirzhiofl  i:pi.illrs.  the  Ctrrrht 
Psalter,  are  among  the  finest  works  of  this  school. 

('.XKOl.TXniAX.  The  prominence  of  Irish  and 
.\nglo-Saxon  monks  in  the  missionary  and  educa- 
tional worlds  in  the  eighth  century  throughout 
Northern  Europe  made  them  the  teachers  of  the 
Carolingian  scluxd  of  illuminators  liiat  sprang  up 
in  Kiani'cand  (Jcrmany.  This  school,  while  adoj't- 
ing  much  of  the  decorative  scheme,  including  the 
immense  and  highly  ornamental  initial  letters, 
added  the  use  of  sacred  eonipositions  with  the 
human  figure  laru'cly  from  Latin  or  Byzantine 
models.  Uich  architectural  details  are  used  to 
frame  the  scenes,  and  large  single  figures  of 
Christ,  the  Emperor.'  the  Evangelists,  etc.. prevail. 
The  backgroimds  are  not  gilt,  but  plain  or  broken 
■up  by  accessories.  The  Cosjiel-book  of  Charlc- 
mngne  from  Soissons  ( BibliotluNpic  Xatioiialc. 
Paris)  is  dated  7S1  and  is  one  of  the  earliest  and 
finest  works  of  the  school.  It  had  several 
branches.  In  France  were:  (1)  the  Franco-Sa.xon 
branch,  extending  from  Paris  to  the  Bhine.  of 
which  over  thirty  CNampIes  remain,  including  (he 
Gospels  at  .\rras.  the  Psalter  at  Vienna,  and  the 
above  Oospels  from  Soissims:  (2)  the  branih  of 
Tmirs,  founded  by  .Meuin.  illustrated  by  Bibles 
and  riospels.  ill  the  British  Museum,  belonging  to 
Alcuin.  f'biirlcs  the  Bald,  and  l.othair:  CU  the 
branch  of  Orleans,  with  Bibles  at  the  Biblio- 
theque  Xationalc  and  Le  Puy.   In  CSermany  were: 


MANUSCRIPTS. 

(1)  the  branch  at  .Mctz.  to  which  the  .Sacramen- 
tary  of  Drogo  belongs;  and  i'2)  that  at  Saint 
(jail,  which  has  specimens  in  the  Munich  Library. 
In  these  Carolingian  works  the  colored  outline 
drawing  was  brilliant  rather  than  solid,  the 
figures  clumsy  and  inclined  to  over-action.  But 
the  general  effect  was  of  splendor  and  originality. 

Ro>(.\N'E.SQiE.  The  true  continuators  of  the 
Carolingian  style  in  the  Romanesque  period  were 
the  German  illuminators  of  the  time  of  the 
Othos  and  the  Henrys,  who  tempcrcul  the  ear- 
lier exaggerations  of  movement  and  size  through 
contact  with  Byzantine  art.  Botli  the  Rhenish 
and  the  Saxon  schools,  especially  the  hitter,  have 
left  many  works  executed  for  these  emperors, 
now  preserved  at  Bamberg.  Miniich,  TrOves.  Paris, 
etc..  especially  Gospel-books.  The  architectural 
details  and  borders  are  particularly  good  and 
rich,  including  also  the  animals  and  binls  so  fre- 
quent in  Romanesque  art.  Body  colors,  usually 
light  in  tone.  re])laced  the  Carolingian  outline 
style;  figures  were  better  drawn  and  more  dig- 
nified. In  the  eleventh  century  the  richness  of 
initials  and  backgrounds  increased,  often  with 
tapestry  elTects  as  in  the  Rcriensb>irri  Gospels; 
but  there  came  a  decadence,  which  lasted  nearly 
up  to  the  Gothic  period. 

Meanwhile  other  countries  were  lagging  far 
liehind.  In  France  the  Carolingian  methods  be- 
came crude  and  barbarous,  as  in  the  Xoaillrs 
Bible.  Italy  had  never  even  participated  in  the 
Carolingian  revival  ;ind  confined  itself  to  clumsy 
figure  painting,  mostly  in  outline,  without  dis- 
playing any  decorative  ability.  The  English 
school  cont;iincd  tlic  older  Irish  and  Anglo-Saxon 
work  with  modifications  first  due  to  Carolingian 
influence,  as  in  .KllnliroUVs  Briiedietioiwl.  With 
the  Conquest,  however,  the  body-<'olor  technique 
re))laced  the  outlined  work,  as  in  Germany. 

Late  Byzantine.  The  three  centuries  before 
the  twelftli  were  most  prolific  and  successful 
in  Byzantine  miniature  painting.  The  Mace- 
donian dynasty  saw  a  return  to  more  classic 
models,  to  figure-painting  in  place  of  the  decora- 
tive work  of  the  Iconoclastic  age.  The  famous 
Paris  Psalter  has  scenes  of  antique  grace  showing 
a  co[)ying  of  verj'  early  models:  but  even  works 
of  purely  conteni])orary  art  like  the  Paris  ser- 
mons of  Gregory  of  Xazianzus  show  an  under- 
standing of  form  and  drapery  denied  to  Western 
art.  Tlie  brilliant  gold  grounds,  the  rich  solid 
coloring,  the  simplicity  of  composition  and  orna- 
ment belong  to  a  severer  style.  One  of  the  most 
extensive  scries  of  pictures  is  contained  in  the 
Mcnolofiiam  of  Enijicror  Basil  II.  (!17(il02.')) .  in 
the  Vatican,  which  heralds  a  dccademc  in  Byzan- 
tine art.  The  decline  is  evident  in  the  Paris 
t<iiint  John  Chriisostom  illuminated  for  Xice- 
phonis  III.  (lOTH-SI).  and  culminated  in  the 
works  done  for  the  Paheologi.  when  the  figures 
have  become  merely  decorated  puppets,  and  when 
the  artists  in  despair  turn  to  decorative  work  and 
initials. 

(iOTUlf.  Uliile  Byzantine  illumination  was 
dying,  the  golden  age  of-  the  art  in  Europe 
was  beginning,  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. First  Germany,  and  then  France  take 
the"  lead.  The  llorliis  Ihlieiariim  of  llcrrad  of 
Landsperg.  a  sort  of  cyclopa-dia  in  design,  was 
a  forerunner  of  Gothic  design,  whose  first  steps 
are  shown  by  Landgrave  Hermann's  Psalter.  It 
was  under  Saint  Louis  (  I22(i-70)  in  France. 
however,   that   the  Gothic  style  of   illumination 


ILLUMINATED      MANUSCRIPTS 


LIU9  BIEN  ACO    t 


COPVBIOHT,  iS03,av  OOOO,  MC*0  t  COMPANV 

MINIATURE    FROM    LATIN    MANUSCRIPT   BOOK    OF   HOURS    OF   THE    BLESSED    VIRGIN    MARY 


MANUSCRIPTS. 


27 


MANUSCRIPTS. 


really  originated  and  dtvclopod.  Tlip  intliience 
of  Byzantine  art  is  shown  in  tlie  clear  outlines, 
the  solid  strong  coloring,  the  small-sized  figures, 
the  simplicity  of  accessories,  and  the  good  taste 
shown  in  every  particular.  Of  course  the  orna- 
ments and  other  details  were  adapted  from  the 
Gothic  style  of  architecture,  with  growing  realism 
in  the  use  of  plants  and  llowers.  A  Fsultcr  of 
Saint  Louis  is  the  earliest  masterpiece  of  tlie 
type  so  familiar  to  the  strong  style  of  stained 
glass  windows.  In  the  course  of  the  fourteenth 
century  a  lighter  scheme  was  introduced,  with 
delicate  shading  instead  of  flat  tints,  with  more 
detail  and  expression.  This  French  Gothic  school 
was  extremely  systematic  in  its  use  of  subjects— j 
in  this  as  in  the  larger  arts — and  it  originated 
the  type  of  the  Bible  Historice,  corresponding  to 
the  German  Biblia  Patipcnim,  with  its  great 
■wealth  of  illustrations.  The  other  main  class  of 
religious  illuminated  manuscripts  was  the  Book 
of  Hours  or  prayer-book.  Such  works,  executed 
for  the  use  of  royal  and  feudal  personages,  were 
the  most  exquisite  products  of  the  school.  But 
the  field  of  subjects  was  immeasurably  enlarged 
beyond  the  religious  sphere,  which  had  hitherto 
reigned  alone.  Works  of  poetry  and  legend,  of 
history  and  literature  of  every  kind,  were  deco- 
rated as  a  matter  of  course  with  illuminations. 

Other  countries  followed  timidly  and  awkward- 
ly in  the  wake  of  France,  adopting  her  Gothic 
style  in  this  as  in  other  branches  of  art.  Still, 
though  England,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands 
had  flourishing  schools,  there  was  a  lack  of  orig- 
inality and  far  less  perfection  of  design  and 
color. 

In  France  itself  the  latter  part  of  the  four- 
teenth century  saw  a  further  approach  to  the 
methods  of  naturalistic  painting.  Exquisite  bor- 
ders of  elaborate  floral  patterns  commonly  in- 
closed the  entire  page,  often  enlivened  by  little 
birds,  animals,  and  figures.  Contemporary  cos- 
tume, furniture,  and  other  accessories  are  repro- 
duced with  minute  fidelity.  Brush  work  is  evi- 
dent in  the  modeling,  and  faces  are  exquisitely 
treated.  Work  in  monochrome,  in  the  light 
/irisaille,  and  in  cnma'ieu  became  popular.  The 
libraries  of  King  Charles  V.  and  of  the  dukes  of 
Berry,  Anjou,  and  Burgundy  were  cnriclied  with 
many  illuminated  manuscripts,  often  by  Court 
illuminators — missals,  gospels,  psalters,  brevi- 
aries, books  of  hours,  romances,  poems,  treatises 
on  falconry,  jousting,  astronomy,  physics.  The 
number  of  illuminations  in  some  of  these  works 
can  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  a  Bible  done  for 
the  Duke  of  Burgimdy  contained  over  2500  pic- 
tures. The  great  public  and  private  collections 
testify  to  the  enormous  productivity  of  the 
French  schools  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
thirteenth  and  the  whole  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  two  influences  are 
noticeable:  that  of  Italy  and  that  of  Flanders. 
The  Italian  Giottesque  revival  extended  to  illu- 
mination, and  Giotto's  contemporary,  the  Sienese 
master  Simone  Mcmnii.  executed  illustrations  to 
Vergil  and  to  Petrarch  in  a  simple  broad  style,  im- 
ported from  wall-painting,  which  henceforth  char- 
acterized Italian  illuminating.  The  manuscript 
statutes  of  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost  illustrate 
the  development  of  this  school.  When  the  popes 
established  themselves  at  Avignon  the  Italian 
miniaturists  with  them  began  to  influence  the 
French  artists.  On  the  other  hand,  the  powerful 
Vol.  XIH.— 3. 


school  of  Flanders  began  to  dominate  French  art 
on  the  northern  side,  in  this  as  in  other  branches, 
with  tendency  to  heaviness,  realism,  and  portrait- 
ure, especially  remarkable  in  the  following  cen- 
tury. 

The  fifteenth  century  still  belongs  to  the  golden 
age  in  the  West.  In  France,  except  for  a  few 
exceptional  men  who  adopted  the  Renaissance 
style,  led  by  Fouquet,  the  Gothic  manner  still 
ruled  supreme.  Here  it  was  the  feudal  nobles 
and  the  royal  family,  and  not  the  churches  or 
monasteries,  for  whom  nearly  all  the  master- 
pieces were  executed :  the  Books  of  Bours  or 
prayer-books  were  especially  beautiful.  Those  of 
Philip  the  Good  of  Burgimdy,  at  The  Hague, 
and  those  of  Charles  the  Bold  and  !Mary  of  Bur- 
gundy, at  Vienna,  are  typical  of  Flemish  art, 
which  was  taking  the  lead  in  powerful  natural- 
ism. The  Breviary  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford 
(c.  1430)  shows  Franco- Flemish  art  in  the  service 
of  England.  The  Hours  executed  for  Chevalier 
and  the  Jewish  Antiquities  of  Josephus  are 
among  the  masterpieces  of  Fouquet,  even  more 
great  as  a  painter  than  miniaturist,  who  combined 
the  pure  Italian  Renaissance  with  North  French 
realism.  In  Bohemia  also  the  art  was  royally 
patronized  by  EmiX'ror  Charles  IV.  and  his  son 
Wenceslas,  while  King  Jlatthias  Corvinus  of 
Hungary  helped  develop  the  genius  of  some  of 
the  greatest  Italian  miniaturists. 

Renaissance.  Italy  forged  to  the  front  during 
this  centuiy.  The  Sforzas  at  jNIilan,  the  dukes  of 
Ferrara,  the  royal  House  of  Naples,  the  Medici 
at  Florence  were  the  greatest  patrons  besides  the 
cathedral  churches.  The  Cathedral  of  Siena  still 
has  the  finest  collection  of  illuminated  missals 
and  choir  books  decorated  by  Liberale  da  Verona, 
Girolamo  da  Cremona,  Francesco  di  Lorenzo, 
Roselli,  and  other  leading  artists.  But  the  great- 
est of  all  artists  was  Attavante,  some  of  whose 
work  can  be  seen  at  Florence  (in  the  Cathedral), 
beside  that  of  Gherardo,  of  Strozzi,  the  pupil  of 
Fra  Angel  ico,  and  others.  Some  of  Attavante's 
greatest  masterpieces  were  executed  for  JIatthias 
Corvinus  (e.g.  Missal  of  1485-87).  This  Italian 
school  did  not  aim  at  the  delicate  French  effects. 
It  remained  broader;  preferred  to  use  large 
capital  letters  to  frame  its  compositions;  aimed 
at  simplicity  of  composition  with  few  figures. 

The  invention  of  printing,  while  it  limited  the 
scope  of  illumination  by  greatly  diminishing  the 
demand  for  manuscripts,  did  not  at  once  give  it 
its  death  blow.  Printed  books  were  often  at 
first  illuminated  with  initials  or  pictures  added 
by  hand  in  spaces  left  for  them,  a  practice  that 
lasted  even  into  the  first  decade  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Quite  as  fatal  was  the  introduction  of 
foreign  methods  into  the  art,  borrowed  from 
fresco  and  oil  painting.  The  old  simplicity  and 
aloofness  from  naturalism  gave  way  to  attempts 
at  effects  that  were  totally  foreign  to  the  true 
spirit  of  illumination:  shading  and  delicacy  of 
coloring,  imitation  of  natural  objects,  importance 
given  to  perspective  and  accessories.  The  works 
of  Raphael's  pupil.  Oiulio  Clovio.  are  the  most 
charming  of  this  mistaken  school.  Prominent 
among  the  works  of  the  old  school  is  the  some- 
what earlier  Grimani  Brrriari/  (c,  1477)  in  Ven- 
ice, so  long  ascribed  to  Mcmling,  the  last  master- 
piece of  the  Flemish  school.  In  France  the 
famous  Missal  of  .\nne  of  Brittany  (1508,  Saint 
Petersburg  Library)  is  the  expiring  effort  of  the 
national    school,    which    was    succeeded    by    the 


MANUSCKIPTS. 


28 


MANUTITIS. 


Italian  masters  oi  ilie  Foiitaineblcau  group.  The 
brt-akiiig  iluwii  of  tlic  ti'tlinic-al  ilillVrfmcs  be- 
tween tlip  larger  forms  of  painting  and  illumina- 
tion was  at  this  time  helped  by  the  work  of 
such  artists  as  Fra  Hartolommeo  della  Porta, 
who  practieed  both  branehes.  Henceforth  illu- 
mination ceased  to  count  in  the  history  of  art. 
In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  the  art  became  ex- 
tinct, ending  in  the  styh'  called  ciDiiahii  yria,  a 
kind  of  monochrome  in  which  the  lights  are  white 
or  gold,  and  shaded  so  as  to  emulate  bas-reliefs. 
OniE.\r.\l,.  Among  Oriental  nations  the  Persians, 
Hindus, and  Chinese  have  illuminated  manuscripts 
of  great  beauty,  with  ligured  compositions,  while 
the  branches  of  Mohammedan  art  stricter  than 
the  Persians  have  contined  their  illuminations  to 
ornamental  work,  as  in  the  mediii>val  works  of 
the  schools  of  Cairo  and  Damascus,  mainly  repre- 
sented by  magnificent  Korans.  The  best  works 
were  produced  during  tlie  comparatively  brief 
period  between  the  tliirteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies. The  style  of  these  illuminations  is  de- 
scribed under  Indi.\x  Akt:  Mouaiimeu.\x  Art; 
etc. 

BiBLiocR.\PiiY.  There  are  very  good  chapters 
in  such  general  historic  works  as  Woltmann  and 
Woermaim.  Ilistori/  of  I'aiiitiiig  (J^"g.  trans., 
Xew  York.  1880)  ;'hut  for  full  details,  see  such 
works  as  \V.  J.  Aud>ley.  (liiide  to  the  Art  of 
llltiniinutinri  and  Missul  Painting  (London, 
18C2)  :  and  .J.  \V.  Bradley.  Dictionary  of  Minia- 
turists (London,  18S7-S',il.  A  recent  special 
treatise  is  0.  E.  Warnvr. I Hinniniitcd  Mannscripls 
(London,  1000),  in  the  "I'ritish  iluseum  Series." 
In  its  special  branch,  J.  O.  Westwood,  Facsimiles 
of  the  Miniatures  and  Ornaments  of  the  Anr/lo- 
Sa.Ton  and  Irish  Manuscriptsi'i.ondon.  ISfiSKhas 
never  been  displaced,  and  the  general  historic 
treatment  in  .T.  Labarte.  Uistoii-e  des  arts  indus- 
triels  (Paris.  IS(itl) .  remains  excellent.  So  is  the 
handbook  in  the  French  series  of  Quantin.  Lecoy 
de  la  Marche,  Les  manuscrits  et  la  miniature 
(Paris,  1884).  Good  German  works  are:  Tik- 
kanen.  Die  Psaller-Illustrationen  ini  Mittelalter 
( Helsingfors,  1895  seq.):  Kobell.  Kunslrolle 
Mininturcn  und  Initialen  aus  Handsehriftcn 
des  '/.  his  16.  Jahrhunderts  (2d  ed..  Munich, 
1H!12). 

MANUTIUS,  raft-nii'shi-iis.  The  Latin  name 
of  a  famous  family  of  Italian  printers.  TEon.M.no 
M.\.Nri(l.  better  known  as  Ai.iio  .Ma.mzio  (Aldus 
Manulinsi,  was  liorn  at  Scrmoncta.  near  Rome, 
in  14.50.  Having  studied  Latin  at  Rome  under 
Gasparino  da  Verona  and  Greek  at  Ferrara  under 
Guarino  da  Verona.  Manuzio  went  in  14S2  to  live 
at  .\lirandola  with  his  old  friend  Giovanni 
Pico.  I'ico  got  Manuzio  a  [ilace  as  tutor  to  his 
nephews,  .\lberto  and  Lionel lo  Pio.  princes  of 
Carpi.  .Mberto  supplied  the  funds  with  which 
the  great  press  was  founded.  Manuzio.  or  .\ldn. 
to  u.se  the  name  now  most  familiar,  settled  in 
Venice  in  1490.  and  .soon  publisheil  the  undated 
Hero  and  Leandcr  of  M\is.t>vis,  the  (lalenmyo- 
ninchin.  and  the  Greek  Psalter.  In  149.5  the  first 
vidume  rif  .\ristotle  appeared.  Xine  comedies  of 
.Vristophanes  followed  in  149S.  Thueydides. 
Sophocles,  and  Herodotus  came  out  in  1.502; 
Xenophon's  [lilhnies  and  Euripides  appeared  in 
1.503,  Demosthenes  in  1504.  In  1513  Philo  was 
i-sui'd.  and  Pindar.  Hesychius.  and  .\tlien.TU.s 
came  out  in  151  t.  .Mdo's  press  now  devoted  itself 
to  printing  Latin  and  Italian  works,  including 
tlu'   fUrine  Comedy.     These   works    (1495-1514) 


were  jirintcd  with  Aldine  types,  a  style  said  to 
have  been  copied  from  the  liandwriting  of  Pe- 
trarch. Italic  type  was  invented  by  Aldo,  as  is 
shown  by  his  Monitum  of  March  10,  1503.  re- 
printed in  Renouard  (vol.  iii.).  Italics  were 
soon  a(lo[ited  by  Lyonese  printers.  Apparently 
the  tirst  book  thus  printed  at  Lyons  was 
issued  in  1501.  Aldo  was  an  ardent  hu- 
manist. He  loved  the  books  that  he  printed 
and  wished  to  make  not  only  them  but  his 
manuscripts  accessible  to  many.  Symonds 
ro\ighly  estimates  the  current  price  of  Aide's 
pocket  series  of  CJreek,  Latin,  and  Italian 
classiesi  begun  in  1501,  at  two  shillings  a  vol- 
ume. The  live  volumes  of  Aristotle  were  worth 
about  £8.  Thus  Aldo's  books  were  cheaper  than 
those  of  modern  publishers,  who  have  hardly  sur- 
passed him  in  ([uality  at  their  best.  In  1499 
Aldo  had  wedded  Maria  Torresano  of  Asola.  Her 
father.  Andrea,  a  celebrated  printer,  jointed  Aldo, 
and  Asolanus  came  to  be  printed  along  with 
Aldus  on  the  title  pages  of  Aldine  editions. 
On  February  6,  1515,  Aldo  died,  leaving  three 
sons  to  help  carry  on  his  business. — Pai^lcs 
JIaxitii'.s  (15»12-74).  born  in  Venice.  June  12, 
1512.  took  up  in  1533  the  task  which  had  mean- 
while lieen  done  mainly  by  his  grandfather.  Andrea 
Torresano.  Paolo  set  up  his  own  firm  and  de- 
voted himself  mainly  to  the  Latin  classics.  He 
skillfully  edited  Cicero's  Letters  and  Orations, 
and  published  his  own  Latin  version  of  Demos- 
thenes. In  1501,  at  the  invitati(m  of  Pius  IV.,  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  to  have  500  ducats  a 
year  and  enough  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  press. 
The  profits  were  to  be  equally  divided  between 
Paolo  and  the  Camera  Apostolica.  Aldo  seems  to 
have  fared  well  imder  Pius  IV..  but  the  coldness 
of  Pius  V.  compelled  him  to  leave  Rome.  He  went 
back,  however,  and  died  there  in  1574.  His 
partnership  with  the  Pa])acy  was  more  favorable 
to  theological  writers  than  to  classic  literature. 
— Aldu.s  Manutiu.s.  the  younger  (1547-97).  son 
of  Paolo,  was  born  February  13.  1547.  and  died 
in  Rome,  October  28,  1597.'  At  the  age  of  nine 
his  name  appeared  on  the  title  page  of  the 
Elet/anze  della  linfiua  toseana  e  latina.  In  1501, 
whether  with  or  without  help  we  do  not  know, 
he  produced  a  work  on  Latin  spelling.  Ortho- 
firuphiir  Uatio.  Avhich  he  completed  with  an 
Epitome  Orthofiraphiw  in  1575.  both  highly  valu- 
able books.  In  1572  Aldo  married  Francesca 
Liicrezia,  daughter  of  liartolommeo  Giunta, 
grandson  of  a  (iiunta  who  had  established  a 
famous  Venetian  press.  This  was  a  lucky  alli- 
ance, for  the  Aldine  press  had  been  steadily  de- 
clining, while  the  other  was  growing  richer.  In 
1574  his  father's  death  in  Rome  made  .Mdo  the 
younger  head  of  the  (irm.  His  commentary  of  the 
Ars  I'lietiea  of  Horace  (1570)  maintained  the 
family's  traditional  blending  of  good  printing  and 
scholarship.  As  a  professor  of  belles-lettres  Aldo 
went  to  Bolccua  (1585).  and  thence  to  Pisa 
(15871.  There  he  printed  Alberti's  comedy 
Philndn.rius.  and  attributed  it  strangely  to 
Lcpidus.  In  1588  he  went  to  Rome  and  again 
turned  to  ]U'inting.  with  Clement  VIII.  as  his 
patron,  tintil  his  death.  Consult:  Schfick, 
.ildus  Manutius  \tnd  seine  Zeitfiennssen  (Berlin, 
1802)  ;  Goldsniid.  .1  Itihliririrnphieal  f^keteh  of 
the  .\ldine  Press  at  Venice  (Edinburgh.  1887)  ; 
and  Omont.  Catalogue  des  lirres  grecs  ct  latins 
imprimis  par  .llde  Manucc  (Paris,  1892).  See 
Aldi.ne  Editions. 


MAN  WHO  LAUGHS. 


29 


MANZONI. 


MAN"  WHO   LAUGHS,   The.     See  Homme 

QUI   KIT,   I.'. 

MAN  WITHOUT   A   COUNTRY,   The.     A 

story  liy  Kdwanl  Kvciptt  Hak-.  jmblished  anony- 
mo\i>i\y' ill  the  Atluiitio  .yuiilhly  (1S63).  Philip 
Xolau,  a  young  army  officer,  became  involved  in 
Aaron  Burr"s  treason,  and  in  his  disgrace  he 
publicly  cursed  the  United  States.  He  was  sen- 
tenced never  to  hear  his  country's  name  again, 
and  until  he  died,  repentant,  was  transferred 
from  one  United  States  ship  on  foreign  service  to 
another,  so  that  he  never  saw  his  own  land. 

MANX  CAT.     See  Domestic  Cuts,  under  C.\T. 

MANX  LITERATURE.  The  Celtic  dialect 
still  spoken  on  the  Isle  of  Man  is  closely  related 
to  Irish  and  Scotch  Gaelic,  standing  nearer  on 
the  whole  to  the  latter.  (See  Celtic  Lan- 
guages.) Unlike  both  of  them,  Manx  has  aban- 
doned the  traditional  Gaelic  orthography  and 
modeled  its  spelling  rather  upon  English,  ilanx 
literature,  so  far  as  preserved,  is  scantj*  and  con- 
fined to  the  modern  period.  The  principal  monu- 
ments are  the  translations  of  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  and  of  the  Bible.  The  former  was 
first  published  in  1765;  the  latter  in  1771-75. 
But  an  older  mauuscrijit  version  of  the  Prayer- 
book,  completed  by  Bishop  Phillips  in  1610,  has 
been  recently  printed  by  .John  P>hys  and  A.  W. 
Moore  (Douglas,  1894).  Moore  has  also  pub- 
lished several  books  dealing  with  the  history 
and  popular  traditions  of  the  Isle  of  Man. 

Bibliography.  A  general  account  of  Manx 
remains  was  given  by  H.  Jenner  in  the  Tran-^- 
actions  of  the  London  Phitologicul  Hociety  for 
lS7o.  Kelly's  Practical  Grammar  of  Manx  and 
Manx  Dictionary  have  both  been  published  by  the 
Manx  Society.  Professor  Rhys  contributed  an 
investigation  on  the  Outlines  of  Manx  Phonology 
to  the  edition  of  Bishop  Phillips's  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  (Douglas,  1894).  The  following 
publications  of  A.  \V.  Moore  are  all  of  value: 
The  /•Surnames  and  Place  Names  of  the  Isle  of 
Man.  (London,  1890)  :  The  Folk-Lore  of  the  Isle 
of  Man  (Douglas,  1891);  Manx  Carols  (Doug- 
las, 1891)  ;  and  A  History  of  the  Isle  of  Man 
(London,  1900). 

MAN-YOSHU,  man'y6-shoo'  (Japanese,  Col- 
lection of  a  Thousand  Leaves).  The  most  ancient 
antliolog^'  in  the  Japanese  language.  It  was 
formed  in  the  eighth  century  a.d..  being  one  of 
the  first  books  written  in  Japan.  It  retains  the 
highest  place  in  the  estimation  of  Japanese  crit- 
ics, and  a  whole  literature  has  gathei-ed  around 
it.  To  the  foreign  student  its  chief  value  is  in 
its  facts  and  allusions,  which  make  it  a  prime 
source  for  the  study  of  ancient  Japanese  history 
and  sociolog\-. 

MANZANARES,  miin'th.a-na'ras.  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Ciudad  Real,  Spain,  situated  98 
miles  south  of  JIadrid.  in  a  vast  and  arid  plateau 
known  as  La  JIancha,  1882  feet  above  the  sea- 
level  (Map:  Spain,  D  ."!).  The  town  is  well 
built,  and  contains  a  modern  church  of  Gothic 
architecture  and  an  ancient  castle  surrounded 
by  ;i.  moat.  The  country  around  is  flat,  requiring 
irrigation  to  render  the  soil  productive.  The 
climate  is  healthful  and  delightful:  the  chief  in- 
dustry is  the  raising  of  saffron  and  making  Val- 
de-Penas  wine.  There  are  manufactures  of  cloth, 
soap,  and  brandy.     Population,   in   1900,    11,181. 

MANZANILLO,  mitn'sa-ne'lyo.  A  seaport 
and  port  of  entry  of  Cuba,  in  the  Province  of  San- 


tiago de  Cuba  (Map:  Cuba,  J  0).  It  is  situated 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  province,  at  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  (;uaeanabo,in  a  low  and  unhealthful 
region  surrounded  by  mangrove  swamps.  Though 
not  very  attractive  in  appearance,  it  is  regularly 
built,  with  straight  and  wide  streets  crossing  at 
right  angles.  It  has  four  high  schools,  several 
hospitals,  and  a  good  market.  The  roadstead, 
protected  by  the  Keys  of  Manzanillo,  forms  a 
capacious  harbor.  The  city  serves  as  tlie  port 
of  Baj'amo.  and  is  the  outlet  for  the  products 
of  the  fertile  Canto  Valley,  the  chief  of  which 
are  sugar,  tobacco,  and  lumber.  Population,  in 
1899,  14,464:  of  the  municipal  district,  32,288. 

MANZANILLO  (Puerto  de 'Colima) .  A  sea- 
port of  the  State  of  Colima,  Mexico,  situated  on 
the  Pacific  coast  at  the  entrance  to  the  lagoon 
of  Cuyutlan  (Map:  Mexico,  G  8).  A  railroad 
connects  the  town  with  Colima.  the  capital  of 
the  State,  40  miles  inland.     Population,  4000. 

MANZANITA,  man'za-ne'ta.  A  California 
shrub.  See  Arctostaphylos  and  Plate  of  Cali- 
fornia Shrubs. 

MANZONI,  man-zo'ne,  Alessandro  (1785- 
lS7.'ii.  An  Italian  poet  and  novelist,  born  at 
Milan,  March  7,  1785.  Having  completed  hia 
early  training  at  Milan  and  Pavia,  he  accom- 
panied his  mother  to  Paris  in  1805,  and  with  her 
he  frequented  some  of  the  most  fashionable  sa- 
lons, especially  those  in  which  the  enc}'clopiEdic 
and  rationalistic  ideas  of  the  preceding  century 
still  retained  a  hold.  But  the  skeptical  opinions 
that  this  Parisian  sojourn  gave  him  were  not  to 
last.  His  acquaintance  with  the  French  scholar 
Fauriel  began  at  this  time  and  greatly  influenced 
his  later  artistic  development.  Back  in  Milan  in 
1808.  he  married  Enrichetta  Blondel,  a  follower  of 
the  Reformed  religion.  The  couple  went  to  Paris, 
and  there  in  1810  the  marriage  was  resolemnized 
according  to  the  rites  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
which  the  wife  embraced  and  which  Manzoni 
practiced  from  this  time  on  with  sincere  ardor. 
After  1810  he  made  his  home  in  the  region  of 
Milan.  He  was  on  terms  of  close  friendship 
with  such  writers  as  Massimo  d'Azeglio,  who 
married  his  daughter,  Tommaso  Grossi,  the  nov- 
elist, and  Berchet.  Although  an  avowed  patriot, 
he  played  no  very  public  part  in  the  struggles 
for  political  independence,  so  that  he  was  in- 
cluded in  no  proscription.  He  became  a  Senator 
in  1860.  He  died  May  22,  1873.  During  his 
youthful  period  ilanzoni  produced  poems  after 
the  manner  of  the  school  of  classicists,  reflecting 
his  earlier  skeptical  feelings,  e.g.  the  Trionfo 
delta  liberta.  obviously  written  imder  the  in- 
fluence of  Monti :  a  composition  in  blank  verse 
entitled  In  morte  di  Carlo  Imbonati.  and  the 
Urania.  The  period  between  1816  and  1825  was 
his  most  active  one  in  the  production  of  works 
in  both  prose  and  verse.  To  it  belong  the  Inni 
sacri.  which  are  full  of  exalted  religious  senti- 
ment, one  or  two  political  canzoni.  and  the  poem 
that  made  him  really  famous,  the  Cinque  maygio, 
an  ode  on  the  death  of  Napoleon  (1821).  Of  this 
same  period  are  his  dramatic  compositions  with 
which  he  hoped  to  inaugurate  a  reform  in  the 
Italian  theatre.  They  are  the  Contc  di  Car- 
maqnola  and  the  Adelchi.  the  former  published  in 
1820  and  the  latter  in  1822  (at  Milan).  Admir- 
able as  literary  performances,  they  are  not 
adaptable  to  scenic  production,  and  neither  was 
well  received  at  home,  although  Goethe  warmly 


MANZONI. 


30 


MAP. 


praised  the  Conte  di  i'lirmagnola.  In  connection 
with  these  pieces  Manzoni  enunciated  tlie  follow- 
ing principles:  the  dramatic  composer  should 
adapt  the  poetic  invention  to  the  historic  fact 
and  not  follow  the  contrary  practice;  the  unities 
of  time  and  place  need  not  he  observed ;  the  style 
and  the  dialogue  should  he  perfectly  natural; 
and  the  Chorus^  a  sort  of  commentary  on  the 
events  enacted,  should  provide  a  place  in  which 
the  author  may  freely  express  his  own  feelings. 
Of  the  prose  publications  of  ilanzoni,  the  first 
to  be  noted  is  the  Morale  aittolico  (Milan, 
1819),  a  reply  to  Sismondi's  strictures  upon 
Catholicism.  His  masterpiece  is  the  novel  / 
promessi  sposi  (Milan,  182.1-2G),  which  is  more 
remarkable  as  an  excellently  framed  psycholog- 
ical novel  than  as  an  historic  novel.  The  story 
relates  events  supposed  to  have  taken  place  in 
Lombardy  during  the  years  1628  to  Ifi.Sl.  and 
as  background  to  the  account  of  the  marriage  of 
two  peasants,  long  thwarted  by  a  tyrannous 
local  potentate,  gives  a  picture  of  the  manners 
of  the  time.  The  novel  contains  a  most  graphic 
description  of  the  ravages  of  the  plague  in  Milan 
in  1C30.  /  promessi  sposi  has  passed  through 
about  150  Italian  editions,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  very  many  modern  languages.  Con- 
vinced that  pure  Tuscan  was  the  only  true  literary 
Italian,  he  revised  the  form  of  the  tale  with  a 
view  to  expunging  (Gallicisms  and  Lombard  dia- 
lect expressions,  and  repulilishcd  it  in  1840.  With 
the  second  edition  of  /  promessi  sposi  appeared 
a  sort  of  sequel  to  it.  the  Colonna  infnine.  much 
inferior  to  the  earlier  work,  and  reallj'  only  an 
historical  and  legal  essay. 

Consult:  Opcrr  rarie  di  A.  Manzoni  (Milan. 
184.5-70,  with  additional  prose  works)  ;  the  edi- 
tion of  his  letters  or  Epislolario,  by  G.  Sforza 
(Milan,  1882-83)  ;  Vismara,  Bihliografia  man- 
zoniana  (Milan.  1875);  Uersezio.  .1.  Manzoni, 
stttdio  bio(jraficn  e  criliro  (Turin.  1873)  ;  De 
Gubernatis.  .1.  Manzoni,  studio  hiografico  (Flor- 
ence. 1870)  ;  C.  Cantil.  .1.  Manzotii,  reminiscenze 
(Milan.  1885)  ;  V.  Waille,  Le  romantisme  de 
Manzoni    (Paris,   1890). 

MAORIS,  mii'6-rez.  The  aborigines  of  New 
Zealand.  In  many  respects  the  most  remarkable 
representatives  of  the  Polynesian  race.  Above 
the  average  in  stature,  they  are  more  or  less 
robust,  with  athletic  frames.  The  head-form  is 
dolichocephalic.  The  women  for  the  most  part 
are  strong  and  vigorous.  I!oth  sexes  are  adepts 
in  swimming,  and  the  people  are  fond  of  bodily 
exercise.  Some  authorities  hold,  on  insufficient 
grounds,  that  the  Maoris  and  other  Eastern 
Polynesians  are  non-.Malay.  and  Caticasie  rather 
than  Mongolie,  although  they  admittedly  speak 
dialects  of  the  eonunon  .Malayo-Polynesian  speech. 
A  few  more  vent\iresome  inquirers  have  even 
sought  to  .show  that  the  Maori  tongue  is  related 
to  the  .Aryan  family  of  languages.  Hut  all  such 
efforts  are  vain.  The  Moriori  of  Chatham 
Island  are  hardly  more  than  a  branch  of  the 
Maori,  with  perhaps  more  of  a  pre-Maori  Mela- 
nesian  intermixture,  noticeable  not  only  in  phys- 
ical characteristics,  but  also  in  art.  weapons, 
etc.  The  Maoris  are  noted  for  their  tattooing, 
their  ornamental  and  decorative  art,  their  epic 
pnetr^'.  legends,  and  mythology.  In  early  times 
they  were  among  the  most  cannibalistic  of  Poly- 
nesian peoples,  despite  thrir  relatively  high  cul- 
ture. Their  long  and  valiant  struggle  with  the 
British   colonists,   in   the  course   of   which   they 


displayed  some  brilliant  war  tactics,  gained  for 
them  the  respect  of  their  opponents,  and  they 
now  have  their  representatives  in  the  Legislature 
on  the  same  basis  as  their  white  fellow  country- 
men. The  Maoris,  scattered  over  parts  of  the 
northern  island  and  the  northern  portion  of  the 
southern  island,  seem,  according  to  the  last 
census,  to  be  increasing  in  numbers,  and  not 
rapidly  dying  out  as  has  hitherto  been  .supposed. 
Considerable  intermarriage  has  also  taken  place. 
Consult :  Finsch,  Jfeise  in  der  Siidsee  ( Uien. 
1884)  :  Von  IIoehstetter.YcK-.S'cc/inirf  (Stuttgart, 
1803)  ;  White.  The  Ancient  IJistor;/  of  the  Maori, 
Bis  Mytliolog;/  and  Traditions  (London.  1889)  ; 
Tregear.  Maori  Poli/ncsian  Comparative  Diction- 
ary (Wellington,  New  Zealand,  1801);  Robley, 
Moko,  or  Maori  Tattooing  (London.  189t))  ; 
Reeves.  The  hong  White  Cloud  (London,  1898). 
See  Polynesians. 

MAP  (from  Lat.  mappa,  napkin).  A  delinea- 
tion upon  a  plane  surface  of  objects  that  are 
actually  located  upon  a  spherical  surface.  The 
word  was  brought  into  use  in  the  iliddle  Ages 
and  signified  that  maps  were  originally  printed 
on  cloth.  In  common  usage  ma])  is  nearly 
synonymous  with  chart,  although  there  is  a 
tendency  to  limit  the  former  woril  to  representa- 
tions of  the  earth's  surface,  while  delineations 
of  stars  in  the  celestial  vault  and  of  hydrographic 
facts  are  generally  designated  as  charts.  The 
earliest  maps  were  purely  empirical  drawings 
presenting  the  relative  positions  of  known  points 
and  defining  in  a  general  way  the  limits  of  land 
and  ^^ater  areas.  Jlodern  nuijis.  however,  whose 
construction  involves  a  high  degree  of  skill  and 
judgment,  are  faithful  epitomes  of  our  earth 
knowledge,  recording  that  which  is  revealed  by 
geographical  surveys  and  discoveries  or  added  to 
or  taken  away  from  the  earth  by  man's  industry. 

History  of  M.\p-Makixg.  The  earliest  ex- 
amples of  cartographic  art  are  fiirnislied  by  the 
Egj'ptians  and  Babylonians.  Picture  maps  illus- 
trating events  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century 
B.C.  have  been  found  among  the  Habvlonians,  to 
whom  also  belongs  the  credit  of  dividing  the  circle 
into  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  according  to 
cur  present  sexagesimal  system.  The  Greeks  de- 
veloped the  knowledge  of  these  ancient  peoples 
upon  a  scientific  basis.  Anaximander  of  Miletus 
(sixth  century  B.C.)  is  credited  with  the  first 
attempt  to  draw  a  map  of  the  then  known  world, 
but  the  hrmor  of  founding  the  methods  of  rational 
cartogra|>liy  must  be  assigned  to  Claudius  Ptole- 
m.TUs,  who  lived  in  the  second  century  a.d.  .\1- 
though  largely  indebted  to  the  labors  of  Ilip- 
parchus,  who  provided  the  necessary  means  for 
the  determination  of  geographical  position,  to 
Eratosthenes,  the  keeper  of  the  .Mexandrian  Li- 
brary, and  es]iecially  to  Marinus  of  Tyre.  Ptolemy 
combined  the  results  of  their  investigations  and 
constructed  a  general  maj)  of  the  world  that  not 
only  excelled  all  previous  elTorts  in  this  direction. 
l"\it  is  generally  recognizeil  as  the  most  complete 
summary  of  geographical  knowledge  available 
l)r(  vious  to  the  sixteenth  century.  Under  the 
Itonians  map-making  was  confined  to  such  de- 
lineations as  were  iiseful  for  military  and  polit- 
ical jiurposes.  They  did  not  apply  astronomical 
methods  to  (he  art,  and  the  few  examples  of 
world  maps  were  const rncted  upon  an  oval  plan, 
in  which  the  earth  appeared  to  be  twice  as  long 
from  east  to  west  as  from  north  to  south. 

The   Middle   Ages  witnessed   a   return   to   the 


MAP. 

Homeric  conception  of  a  flat  circular  earth  sur- 
rounded by  the  ocean.  With  tlie  Renaissance, 
liowever,  I'toleiny's  work  again  came  into  use, 
and  when  wood  and  copper  engraving  began  to  be 
employed  for  the  reproduction  of  maps  cartog- 
raphy made  rapid  progress.  To  satisfy  the  in- 
creasing requirements  of  navigation,  the  Italians 
produced  a  series  of  nautical  charts  called  loxo- 
dromes,  in  which  all  points  were  connected  with 


31  MAP. 

Tlie  earliest  attempt  to  construct  a  map  of  an 
extended  territory  U|)on  a  trigonometric  and  to- 
pographic survey — tliat  is.  upon  modern  sclentifio 
principles — was  made  in  17.3.3  by  Cesar  Cassini, 
the  director  of  the  astronomical  observatory  at 
Paris.  Assisted  at  first  by  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences  and  afterwards  by  a  private  company, 
he  undertook  to  map  the  entire  area  of  France. 
The   first  sheets  appeared  in   1744  and  the  last 


PTOLEMV'8  MAP  (C.  150). 


each  other  by  straight  lines,  which  represented 
compass  bearings  and  enabled  tlie  navigator  to 
lay  out  his  course  to  any  objective  point.  With  the 
progress  of  geographical  discoveries  in  the  fif- 
teenth, sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries,  map- 
making  became  an  established  industry  in  Ger- 
many and  Holland.  To  this  period  belong  the 
great  cartographers — .Johann  Werner,  of  Nurem- 
berg, who  in  1513  devised  the  equal  area  cordi- 
form    projection;     Gerhard     Kramer,    generally 


were  completed  in  1793.  The  work  aroused 
widespread  interest  among  all  civilized  govern- 
ments, and  so  forcibly  illustrated  tlie  value  of 
accurate  maps  that  the  French  Government  soon 
imdertook  an  elaborate  survey,  an  example  that 
has  been  generally  followed  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. 

Theory  of  ItlAP  Construction.  As  it  is  im- 
possible to  make  the  surface  of  a  sphere  conform 
with  a  plane,  the  problem  of  representing  por- 


OBTOOGRAPHIC  PBO.IECTION. 

known  as  Mercator,  who  invented  the  first  de- 
veloped projection  and  published  a  map  of  the 
world  (1569);  Ortelius,  the  publisher  of  an 
atlas,  Thratnim  Orbis  Tcrrarum  (1570);  and 
Blaeu  (died  1()38),  author  of  Atlas  Xoriis.  Ho- 
mann  (died  1724)  issued  the  first  school  atlas. 
Alias  Scholasticus.  !Mercator's  projection  prac- 
tically revolutionized  the  method  of  map-making, 
as  it  solved  for  the  navigator  the  complex  prob- 
lems involving  the  relations  of  courses  and  dis- 
tances to  latitude  and  longitude. 


'00  80 

eTEREOGRAPHIC  PROJECTION. 

tions  of  the  earth's  surface  upon  a  map  can  be 
solved  with  only  approximate  accuracy.  The 
solution  may  be  approached  by  various  methods 
which  lead  to  results  more  or  less  valuable  for 
particular  purposes.  Among  these  methods  are 
the  orthofirnphic  and  stcreor/raphic  projections  of 
Hipparchus,  the  (/nomic  projection  of  Thales,  and 
the  f/lohular  or  e<juidistnnt  projection  devised  by 
Niccolisi.  These  projections,  which  are  based 
upon  the  relative  positions  of  the  eye  and  the 
plane   of   projection,   are   best   adapted   for  the 


3)IAF.  32 

representation   of   hemispheres   and   are   seldom 
used  in  mapping  small  areas. 

The  orthographic  projection  assumes  that  the 
eye  is  placed  at  an  inlinite  distance,  so  that  all 
lines  leading  from  it  to  the  object  are  paralh-l. 
The  plane  of  projection  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
line   of   sight   and   every   point   upon   the  herai- 


MAP. 


GNOMIC   PEOJECTION. 

(On  plane  o(  the  Equator.) 

sphere  is  referred  to  the  plane  hy  a  perpendicular 
let  fall  on  it.  In  this  projection  the  central 
portions  of  the  hciiiisphcri'  arc  faithfully  rc]ne- 
sented.  tnit  near  1lic  circiiinfcrcnce  the  areas  Ix'- 
come  greatly  diniiiiisluHl  and  tlie  relative  angular 
directions  are  greatly  changed. 

The  stereographic  projection  is  obtained  when 


the  surfaces  are  much  larger  than  on  the  globe; 
but.  on  the  other  hand,  the  relative  positions  of 
objects  that  are  near  together  are  well  preserved. 

The  gnomic  projection  assumes  that  the  eye  is 
placed  at  the  centre  of  a  sphere  while  the  plane 
of  projection  is  tangent  to  its  surface. 

The  globular  or  equidistant  projection  was  de- 
signed to  correct,  as  much  as  possible,  the  con- 
traction of  the  orthographic  and  the  expansion  of 
the  stereographic  projections.  In  this  method 
the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed  along  the  diameter 

of  the  sphere  at  a  distance  — =  times  the  radius 

above  the  surface,  and  the  plane  of  projection  is 
perpendicular  to  the  diameter.  In  this  con- 
struction all  circles  on  the  sphere  become  ellipses, 
and  ol>jects  are  not  represented  with  their  true 
outlines,  but  the  relative  dimensions  are  fairly 
well  preserved.  An  eciuidistant  method  for 
polar  projections  of  the  sphere  is  employed  in 
the  meteorological  charts  of  the  Northern  and 
Southern  hemispheres  frequently  used  by  the 
United   States  Weather  Bureau. 

Modern  maps  upon  large  scales  are  constructed 
by  so-called  projections  which  arc  actually  dv- 
rilopmenls  of  projections.  Development  is  ren- 
dered possible  by  the  substitution  of  a  cylindrical 
or  conical  surface  for  the  ordinary  plane  of 
[irojection,  the  eye  occupying  an  arbitrary  posi- 
tion when  not  assmned  at  the  centre  of  the 
>phere.  The  surface  of  the  cylinder  or  cone  is 
developed  subsequently  in  a  plane.  Various  re- 
sults may  be  obtainecl  by  changing  the  place  at 
which    the    cone    or   cylinder    is   tangent    to   the 


160     180     160     140    120    100    80 


40     20 


20     40      60     80     100    120    140    160 


MBRCATOB  8    PROJECTION. 


the  eye  is  placed  at  any  point  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere  and  the  line  of  sight  to  any  point  on 
the  opposite  hemisphere  is  prolonged  until  it  in- 
tersects the  plane  of  projection  tangent  to  the 
hemisphere.  By  this  method  the  central  portion 
of  the  map  is  enlarged  relative  to  the  correspond- 
ing surface  of  the  globe,  and  in  the  outer  zones 


sphere,  while  by  substituting  for  the  tangent 
cylinder  or  cone  a  secant  cylinder  or  cone  lying 
partly  within  ami  partly  without  the  sphere, 
projections  arc  obtained  which  are  known  as 
equal  surface  |)rojections  and  which  are  valuable 
for  the  construction  of  maps  exhibiting  statis- 
tical information  and  for  celestial  charts. 


MAP. 


33 


MAP. 


Among  the  most  impoilant  projections  using 
tile  idea  of  development  is  that  devised  by  Mer- 
eator.  In  this  piojeetiou  a  cylinder  is  assumed 
as  tangent  to  the  sphere  at  the  equator,  the  axis 
ul'  the  former  being  coincident  with  that  of  the 
latter.  The  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed  at  the 
centre  of  tlie  sphere  and  the  lines  of  sight  passing 
through  points  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere  are 
prolonged  until  they  intersect  the  circumscribing 
cylinder.  On  developing  (unrolling)  the  cylinder 
in  a  plane  the  projected  meridians  become  paral- 
lel and  equidistant  straight  lines  which  are  inter- 
sected at  right  angles  by  parallel  straight  lines 
representing  latitudes..  The  defects  of  Mercator's 
projection  relate  to  scale  and  area.  The  scale  is 
correct  only  on  the  equator,  from  which  north- 
ward and  southward  the  successive  parallels  of 
latitude  increase  in  distance  from  each  other  in 
the  ratio  of  the  tangent  of  the  latitude,  attaining 
an  infinite  value  at  the  poles.  This  increase  of 
the  latitudes,  together  with  the  parallelism  of 
the  meridians,  produces  such  an  exaggeration  of 
areas  as  to  make  the  map  of  little  use  for  any 
purpose  except  that  of  navigation. 


POLYCONIC  PROJECTION. 

If  a  cone  is  placed  tangent  to  the  surface  of  the 
sphere,  with  its  axis  coincident  with  the  axis  of 
(he  latter,  the  surface  of  the  sphere  may  be  pro- 
jected from  the  centre  of  the  cone,  which  can 
then  be  unrolled  or  developed  on  a  plane.  In 
this  case  each  parallel  of  latitude  is  a  curved 
line  concave  to  the  pole,  while  the  longitudes  are 
straight  lines  converging  toward  the  poles.  A 
modified  form  of  this  projection  known  as  the 
polyconic  projection  assumes  that  an  infinite 
number  of  cones  inclo.se  the  sphere.  By  this 
method  each  parallel  of  latitude  is  developed  by 
its  own  cone  and  determines  tlie  value  of  its 
own  longitudinal  intervals.  This  method,  devised 
by  Hassler,  the  former  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  is  the 
most  perfect  of  all  projections  for  mapping  areas 
not  exceeding  a  la(  itudinal  amplitude  of  more 
than  40°,  as  it  preserves  an  almost  absolutely 
uniform  scale  over  the  entire  map.  It  has  been 
universally  adopted  for  the  construction  of  maps 
of  land  areas  on  large  scales. 


Pr-\ctic.\l  Methods.  The  construction  of  the 
necessary  basic  projections  as  a  preliminary  to 
the  making  of  a  map  is  now  a  very  simple  mat- 
ter, since  the  work  is  accomplished  by  merely 
laying  oil'  tabular  values  computed  for  the  gen- 
eral use  of  map-makers.  Tables  for  these  pro- 
jections are  easily  obtained;  tho.se  computed  and 
published  by  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey  for  various  scales  in  meters  and 
inches  and  by  the  Hyilrographic  Office  of  the 
United  States  Navy  Department  are  the  most 
useful  for  the  purpose. 

The  preparation  of  an  exact  map  presupposes 
a  corresponding  exact  survey.  For  all  maps  of 
permanent  value  the  survey  must  be  based  upon 
careful  geodetic  triangulations  and  levelings.  For 
less  exact  work  there  are  corresponding  styles  of 
maps,  such  as  the  plattings  of  sections  and  town- 
ships by  the  United  States  Land  Office ;  the  general 
maps  of  the  counties,  compiled  by  county  sur- 
veyors by  the  use  of  the  pedometer  and  the  sur- 
veyor's compass;  the  rapid  military  reconnais- 
sance in  which  the  engineer  officer,  note-book  in 
hand,  sketches  in  such  features  as  ma}'  affect 
military  operations  ;  the  elab- 
orate maps  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey, 
which  undertake  to  give  mi- 
nute details  as  to  geology, 
mines,  forests,  and  topog- 
raphy ;  and  the  perfect  hydro- 
graphic  maps  of  the  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey. 

The  maps  of  the  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  are  luainly 
hydrographie  in  their  char- 
acter. Tlie  original  maps  are 
projected  on  a  polyconic  base, 
and  on  this  base  the  elaborate 
system  of  triangulations  con- 
necting carefully  measured 
base  -  lines  is  platted  from 
the  field  notes  by  skillful 
draughtsmen.  The  main  points 
of  the  coasts  being  thus  indi- 
cated, the  interlying  areas  of 
the  triangles  are  worked  in 
from  the  notes  of  surveys 
made  by  stadia,  chain,  or 
tape;  and  the  hydrographie 
data  obtained  by  careful 
soundings  along  definite  lines  are  also  entered. 
The  base  map  thus  prepared  is  reduced  by  hand 
to  the  scale  of  publication,  and  a  finished  map 
is  prepared  as  a  guide  for  the  engraver.  On  this 
map  the  hydrography  is  indicated  by  uniform 
signs.  The  shoals  and  sandbars  are  represented 
by  dots,  close  together  along  the  shore  and  wider 
apart  as  they  fall  away  into  deeper  waters. 
Lighthouses  are  indicated  in  their  exact  posi- 
tions, together  with  their  bearings  from  im- 
portant points  and  their  relation  to  channel 
entrances,  etc.  In  short,  all  information  re- 
lating to  the  hydrography  of  the  seaboard  is 
carefully  marked  by  apjiropriate  signs  consis- 
tent on  all  the  maps.  From  the  finished  map 
the  engraver  makes  a  tracing  on  hard  gela- 
tin sheets,  which  he  transfers  in  reverse  to 
a  copper  plate  from  which  the  ultimate  prints 
are  obtained.  In  late  years,  in  order  to 
satisfy  the  increased  demand  for  maps,  a 
great  deal  of  the  hand  reduction  has  been  super- 
seded by  photographic  methods,  and  lithographs 


MAP. 


34 


MAPLE. 


have  taken  the  place  of  tlie  beautiful  copper-plate 
prints. 

The  general  scope  of  the  -work  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  is  the  surveying  and 
mapping  of  the  entire  territory  of  the  United 
States  to  obtain  basic  topographic  maps  for  the 
exhibition  of  geological  data,  liach  scpiarc  de- 
gree, called  a  "rectangle,"  in  which  the  co\intry  is 
divided,  is  surveyed  and  niap])cd  separately.  (See 
SrRVEYiN'G.)  The  detailed  information  thus  ob- 
tained in  the  field  survey  is  rovighly  inked  in  at 
the  close  of  the  season,  and  then  turned  over  to 
the  photographer  for  reduction  to  the  scale  of 
publication.  From  the  reduced  photographic 
copies  engravings  are  made  on  stone,  each  sheet 
requiring  three  separate  stone  engravings.  From 
the  engraved  stones  transfers  are  made  to  other 
stones  and  the  sheets  printed  on  a  lithographic 
press. 

The  map  shown  on  the  accompanying  plate 
has  been  designed  to  illustrate  the  methods  of 
delineation  employed  by  the  I'nited  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  and  United  States  Geologi- 
cal Survey  in  the  preparation  of  their  charts  and 
topographical  maps.  The  map  is.  of  course, 
ideal,  and  shows  the  use  of  the  vario\is  conven- 
tional signs.  In  the  upper  right-hand  corner  is 
a  compass  card  indicating  the  true  north  and  the 
magnetic  variation  of  the  particular  locality, 
while  the  depths  of  the  ocean  are  given  in  fath- 
oms. The  shoals  are  indicated  as  alrcadj"  ex- 
plained, and  also  the  lighthouses,  rocks,  beacons, 
buoys,  etc.  The  contour  lines  which  form  such  a 
prominent  feature  of  a  topographical  map  connect 
all  places  at  the  same  height  above  sea-level,  and 
the  interval  between  them  is  ."iO  feet,  darker  lines 
being  drawn  at  the  intervals  of  2'M  feet.  (See 
COXTOIRS.)  In  the  topograidiical  maps  of  the 
United  States  Government  the  contour  interval  is 
generally  '20  feet,  with  heavier  lines  marking  every 
100  feet.  In  the  maps  of  the  Geological  Survey 
these  contour  lines  or  relief  figures  are  in  brown  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  drainage,  which  is  in 
blue.  Such  cultural  features  as  buildings,  roads, 
trails,  railroads,  tunnels,  ferries,  and  bridges  all 
have  their  appropriate  markings,  which  ,nre 
shown  in  the  map.  Kresh  marshes  are  distin- 
guished from  salt  marshes  by  dilTcrent  conven- 
tional signs,  while  wooded  country  is  shown  in 
the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  map.  Triangu- 
lation  stations  are  marked  by  a  A  and  bench 
marks  by  an  X.  Mines  and  quarries,  mine  tun- 
nels and"  shafts,  also  have  their  appropriate  signs 
as  indicated. 

Relief  maps  are  usiially  constructed  after  a 
eonVnur  maj)  has  been  prejiared  by  building  up 
the  surface  of  the  country,  tising  eardboanl  of 
uniform  thickness  to  represent  the  sticcessive 
contour  lines.  When  one  such  relief  map  has 
been  constructed,  copies  are  made  either  in 
plaster  of  Paris  or  papier  machf. 

Maps  of  the  Uxitkd  States.  The  following 
is  the  list  of  the  more  important  b>ireaus  of  the 
United  States  Government  which  publish  maps 
for  general  distribution:  United  States  Coast 
an<l  (Jeodetic  Survey.  Washington — maps  pertain- 
ing to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  the 
United  States,  and  those  of  Alaska,  the  West 
Indies,  and  the  Philippines.  I'nited  States  Gen- 
logical  Survey.  Washington — topographical  maps, 
special  monograph  maps  of  mining  districts,  and 
maps  relating  to  irrigation.  General  Land  Olhce, 
Washington — township  plats.  State  maps,  maps 


of  mineral  and  private  land  claims,  enlarged 
maps  of  the  United  States.  United  States  Hy- 
drographic  OfKce,  Navy  Department.  Washing- 
ton— hydrographic  charts  of  domestic  and  foreign 
harbors,  of  coast  lines,  and  pilot  charts  of  the 
North  Atlantic  Ocean.  Ollicc  of  the  Survey  of 
the  tireat  Lakes,  Detroit,  ^lich. — maps  pertain- 
ing to  the  hydrography  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Mis- 
sissippi River  Commission,  Saint  Louis,  Mo. — 
maps  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Bibliography.  Gretschel,  Lehrhuch  der  Kai- 
tcn/jrojelction  (Weimar,  187.3)  ;  Schott,  "A  Com- 
parison of  the  Relative  Value  of  the  Polyconic 
Projection,"  Report  of  Viiited  Slates  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey,  Appendix  15  (Washington, 
1880)  ;  Fiorini,  Le  projezioni  deUe  carte  geoijra- 
fiche  (Bologna,  1881)  ;  Tissot,  Memoire  sitr  la 
■representation  des  surfaces  ct  les  projections  dcs 
cartes  geoyraphiques  (Paris.  1881);  Craig,  "A 
Treatise  on  Projections,"  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  (Washington,  188"2)  ;  Stein- 
hauser,  Grundzilge  der  mathematischcn  Geogra- 
phic und  JjandkartenprojeUtion  (."Jd  ed..  Vienna, 
1887)  ;  Verner.  Map  Reading  and  FAementary 
Field  Sketchinq  (London.  1803):  West,  The, 
Flcincnfs  of  Military  Topography  (London, 
1S!14)  ;  Woodward.  Geographical  Tables  (Wash- 
ington, 1894)  :  Cehrian  and  Los  Areos,  Teoria 
general  dc  las  proyecciones  geogrdficas  (Madrid, 
1805)  ;  Gelcich  and  Sauter,  Kartenlunde  ge- 
schichtlich  dargestellt  (Stuttgart,  1807)  :  Zon- 
dervan,  Allgemeine  Kartenkunde  (Leipzig,  1901). 
See  Chart;  Hydrography;   Surveying. 

MAP,  or  MAPES,  Walter.  A  mediaeval  au- 
thor, of  Welsh  descent,  born  probaldy  in  Here- 
fordshire, England,  about  1140.  He  studied  in 
Paris  soon  after  1154;  was  connected  with  the 
household  of  Henry  II.,  whom  he  attended 
abroad;  was  sent  on  missions  to  Paris  (1173) 
and  Rome  (117IM  ;  and  was  precentor  of  Lincoln, 
incumbent  of  Westbury,  Gloucestershire,  canon 
of  Saint  Paul's,  and  .\rchdeacon  of  Oxford 
(1107).  He  died  about  1210.  JIap's  one  undoubted 
work  is  De  yugis  Curialium  (""The  Triflings  of 
Courtiers"),  a  curious  and  interesting  medley 
of  anecdotes,  reminiscences,  and  stcuies,  to  which 
we  owe  most  of  our  knowledge  of  Map's  life.  In 
several  of  the  manuscripts  of  the  prose  Lancelot, 
(irail.  and  Morte  d'Arthur  his  name  occurs  as  the 
author.  But  recent  scholarship  places  them  at  a 
later  date.  With  some  doulit  the  Golias  poems 
are  ascribed  to  him.  satires  in  Latin  on  the 
clergy.  Map  was  especially  a  foe  of  Jews  and 
Cistercians.  In  this  collection  occurs  the  famous 
drinking  song  "Meum  est  proposifum  in  tabcrna 
niori,"  which  was  rendered  into  English  by 
Leigh  Hunt.  Consiilt  the  Latin  Poems  Atlrihiilrd 
to  Mail  and  De  Xugis  Curialium.  ed.  by  Wright, 
Canulcn  Society  (London,  1841  and  1850). 

MAPLE  (AS.  mapol,  tnapul,  mcrpel.  Icel. 
mopurr.  OIIG.  maxzaltra,  mazzoltra,  Ger.  Mas- 
holder,  maple),  Acer.  A  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Accracea",  containing  nearly  100 
species,  natives  of  north  temperate  regions.  es]ip- 
eially  abundant  in  North  .\merica  and  Eastern 
.•\sin.  They  have  opposite,  lobed  or  palmate 
leaves  without  stipules;  flowers  in  small  axil- 
lary racemes  or  corymbs,  rich  in  nectar,  and  at- 
tractive to  bees;  fruits,  two  small  winged  nuts, 
one  or  two  seeded.  With  n  few  exceptions  the 
entire  order  is  embraced  in  the  genus  Acer, 
The  best-known  European  species  arc  .4cer  cam- 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   MAP 


.  \  '^      '-'-^ •¥' 


a  Mile 


Scale: 


4  Kilometers. 


"'!-"■' -^Infert  above  datui 


ighl3 


(Contour  interval  50  feet^  hydrography:^-:-''"^.!,^^^^^^ 


\     Datum'  is  rrvearv  eea^  I 


MAPLE. 


35 


MAPLE. 


pestre  and  Acer  Psciulo-Plataniis.  The  common 
maple  {Acer  ciimpestre) ,  a  shrub  or  small  tree 
seldom  attaining  a  height  of  50  feet,  is  a  native 
of  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Its  wood  is 
hard,  line-grained,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is 
nuich  used  by  turners  and  for  carved  work.  The 
greater  maple,  sycamore,  or  plane  tree  of  Eu- 
rope {Acer  Psciido-Plafainis)  is  extensively 
planted  both  in  Europe  and  in  America.  It  is  a 
large  tree  witli  a  spreading  head,  70  to  00  feet 
tall,  of  rather  quick,  vigorous  growth.     Its  wood. 


M.IPLE  LEAVES. 

1,  European  maple  iAcer  camppsirc) :  2.  striped  maple 
(Acer FeDnsylraDirum);  3,  suprar  ni:xp\f{Afersiicriiarmum); 
4,  cut  leaved  form  of  .lapaneee  maple  {Acer  Japonicuw, 
var.  dissectum). 

which  is  white,  compact,  moderately  hard,  re- 
ceives a  line  polish,  and  is  nuich  used  by  wheel- 
wrights, turners,  etc.  Sugar  is  sometimes  made 
from  the  sap. 

The  Norway  maple  (Acer  platanoides) .  a  na- 
tive of  Europe,  is  commonly  planted  in  the  East- 
ern United  States  and  elsewhere  as  a  shade  tree. 
It  grows  to  a  height  of  100  feet,  and  has  a  com- 
pact, round  head,  that  renders  the  shade'  very 
dense.  It  is  by  some  preferred  as  a  shade 
tree  to  the  sugar  maple,  which  it  resembles. 
Among  the  American  species 
perhaps  the  best  knowni  is  the 
sugar  maple  {Acer  sacchari- 
ninn),  a  large  tree,  00-120  feet 
high,  and  found  from  New- 
foundland to  Georgia  and  west- 
ward to  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  eastern  Ne- 
braka,  and  Kansas.  The  wood 
has  a  satiny  appearance  and  is 
extensively  used  in  cabinet  work 
and  finishing  houses.  When  the 
grain  has  a  pronounced  wavy 
appearance  the  wood  is  called 
bird's-eye  maple,  and  is  used  as 
veneer.  From  the  sap  of  this 
tree  large  quantities  of  syrup 
and  sugar  are  made.  To  obtain 
BED  MAPLE.  the  sap,  holes  are  bored  into  the 
a.  Rtaminate  tree  for  half  an  inch  or  more 
flowers;  ft,  pistU-  ,^,,i,g„  ^j,  ^ap  is  circulating 
lat« flowers.  ,       ,        .        ,,    ^   ,    .  .    .  '^ 

freely    m    the    late    winter    or 

early  spring.  The  sap  caught  in  vessels  is 
evaporated  until  the  residue  becomes  syrupy 
or  until  a  yellowish  or  brown  sugar  is  obtained. 
Trees  will  yield  from  2  to  6  ])ounds  of  sugar 
during  a  season,  and  if  the  tapping,  as  it  is 
called,  is  properly  done,  the  tree  suffers  little 
injury.  The  black  maple  (.-leer  HiV/riod  ).  by  some 
botanists  considered  identical  with  Acer  saccha- 
riiiiiDi,  is  also  an  abundant  producer  of  sugar. 
Tlie  tree  is  of  similar  habit  and  range  to  the 
former,  and  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  black 
bark  and  generally  duller  appearance.  By  many 
it  is  considered  on!}'  a  variety.    The  silver  maple 


(.leer  saccharintim,  better  Known  as  Acer  dasy- 
carpiim)  is  a  large,  rapidly  growing  species  of 
the  same  range  as  the  last.  It  is  an  ornamental 
tree,  with  light,  brittle  wood,  and  is  extensively 
planted  as  a  shade  tree,  but,  aside  from  its  rapid 
growth,  is  not  equal  in  this  respect  to  the  sugar 
maple.  The  tree  is  very  hardy  and  easily  grown, 
but  on  account  of  its  brittleness  is  especially 
liable  to  damage  by  winds  and  storms  breaking 
its  limbs.  This  species  was  named  Acer  saccha- 
riniim  by  Linn^us  under  the  impression  that  it 
Mas  the  true  sugar  maple,  a  tree  which  it  is  now 
believed  he  never  saw.  Sugar  is  made  from  it, 
but  the  sap  is  less  sweet  than  that  of  either  of 
the  two  species  most  commonly  tapped.  The 
striped  maple  {Acer  Pennsi/hanicum)  is  a  small 
tree  with  greenish  bark  striped  with  white  lines. 
Its  compact  habit  of  growth  and  large  leaves 
make  it  an  excellent  shade  tree.  The  red  or 
scarlet  maple  {Acer  riihrum  )  has  about  the  same 
range  as  the  sugar  maple.  It  somewhat  resembles 
the  silver  maple  in  habit,  but  is  of  slower  growth. 
Its  timber  is  valuable,  and  the  sprintr  coloring 
of  the  flowers  and  fruits  and  the  autumn  coloring 
of  the  leaves  make  it  a  very  ornamental  tree. 
The  mountain  maple  {Acer  spicutu7)i) ,  a  small 
tree  in  the  Eastern  X'nited  States,  the  large- 
toothed  or  Oregon  maple   (Acer  grandidcntata) , 


RED  MAPLE  {Acer  rubruni). 
Spray  with  fruite. 

and  the  vine  maple  {Acercircinnaliiiii )  of  the  Rocky 
^Mountains  and  Paeifie  Coast,  are  other  common 
and  well-known  species  possessing  the  habits  and 
uses  described  above.  All  of  the  species  are  valu- 
able for  fuel,  in  this  respect  exceeding  all  other 
woods  except  hickory  in  popular  estimation.  Of 
many  of  the  species  there  are  numerous  culti- 
vated varieties  differing  in  their  habit  of  growth, 
color  and  character  of  foliage,  etc.  The  autumn 
coloring  of  the  maples,  especially  in  the  United 
States,  is  not  surpassed  by  any  other  group  of 
trees,  the  reds  and  yellows  of  their  leaves  adding 
greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  autumn  landscape. 

Among  the  species  of  Eastern  Asia  are  a  num- 
ber that  have  been  introduced  into  Western  coun- 
tries, and  some  have  proved  valuable  for  plant- 
ing, such  as  the  famous  Japanese  maples,  most 
of  which  are  varieties  of  Acer  palmatnm  and 
Acer  Juponicum.  They  are  mostly  small  trees  or 
shrubs,  and  on  account  of  their  great  variety  in 
color  and  the  deep  and  often  curious  lobing  of 
their  leaves,  they  are  extensively  planted  as  or- 
namentals. 

There  is  one  group  of  Acer  called  the  ash- 
leaved  maples,  on  account  of  their  compound 
leaves,  that  is  often  separated  under  the  generic 
name  Negundo.  There  are  representatives  of  this 
group   in  Japan  and   in   the  United  States,  the 


MAPLE. 


best  known  of  which  is  Acer  Xcgundo  {yegundo 
aceroidcs),  the  box  elder   (qv.)- 

The  earliest  fossil  representatives  of  the  genus 
Acer  have  been  recognized  by  leaves  and  fruits 
from  the  Cretaceous  rocks.  In  the  Miocene  Ter- 
tiary beds  the  genus  is  abundantly  represented, 
not  only  in  the  temperate  rcjrions,  but  also  in 
the  Arctic  regions  of  North  America  and  Kurope. 
Some  llowers  of  the  maple  have  been  found  in 
the  amber  of  the  Baltic  region.  The  ash-leaved 
maple  {\eyunJo)  is  repiesented  by  fossil  ances- 
tors, very  like  the  modern  forms,  in  the  ilioeene 
beds  of  North  America. 

MAPLE  INSECTS.  The  dilTerent  species  of 
maple  ari'  f;rcally  subject  to  the  attacks  of  in- 
jurious in^ects.  certain  species,  such  as  the  silver- 
leaved  maple,  being  more  susceptible  than  others. 
Several  insects  bore  in  the  trunks  of  these  trees. 
The  sugarnuiple  borer  {Oliicohiiis  .s-ixciosiis) ,  a 
black,  long-horned  beetle  which  has  yellow  bands, 
destroys  the  su^ar  maple  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  United  States;  the  horntail  l)orer  (see  Horn- 
tail)  and  the  larva  of  a  clear-winged  moth 
{.flyvria  acerni)  also  bore  the  trunks,  the  latter 
being  especially  abundant  in  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley. A  buprestid  beetle.  Diverca  divaricata,  in 
the  larval  stajtc  bores  in  red  maple  stumps, 
although  undoubtedly  originally  an  enemy  of  the 
beech.  The  principal  bark-borer  of  the  sugar 
maple  in  the  Northern  United  States  is  Corthylus 
puiicldlissiiiius,  one  of  the  Scolytidte.  The  striped 
maple-worm  (larva  of  Aiii.ioln  rubicunda)  is 
a  widespread  enemy  of  these  trees,  frequently 
feediiifr  upon  the  leaves  in  such  great  numbers 
as  entirely  to  chfoliate  long  rows  of  shade  trees. 
The  tent-caterpillar  of  the  forest  {Malacosoma 
dissliia)  is  a  decided  enemy  of  all  species  of 
maples,  and  has  greatly  damaged  the  sugar 
maples  in  New  York  and  New  England.  The  tus- 
sock-moth's caterpillar  (Orijiiin  leucoxligma) 
and  the  fall  webworm  Uliiphuntria  ciinea)  fre- 
quently defoliate  the  shade  trees  of  the  larger 
cities."  The  cottony  nui])le  scale  [  I'uhinaria  in- 
nuiiterahilis)  is  occasionally  so  numerous  as  to 
cause  serious  injury,  and  amitlier  scale-insect 
{['seudococcus  accrix).  probably  introduced  from 
Europe,  is  very  abundant  on  the  shade  trees  of 
certain  cities.  The  so-called  gloomy  scale  {Aspi- 
diotiin  Iriiebrirosus)  has  a  southern  range,  and 
is  frequently  the  unnoticed  cause  of  the  death  of 
otherwise  vigorous  shade  trees.  Several  species 
of  plant-lice,  notably  Pemphigus  nccrifolii, 
damajre  the  leaves  of  early  summer,  and  a  gall- 
mite  {Pln/loplKs  (jiiadripes)  disli^'ures  the  leaves 
with  its  massed  reddish  galls.  Consult  Packard, 
Fifth  Hrporl  of  the  I'nited  Stairs  Entomological 
Ciiniiiiissidii    (\\'ashinf;ton,    1890). 

MAPLESON,  ma'p'l-son.  .Tamks  Hknry 
( 182!l-l!ini ).  .\n  Knglish  r)peralic  impresario, 
born  in  London.  He  studied  the  violin  for  two 
years  at  the  Koyal  .\cademy  of  Music,  and  then 
went  to  Italy  for  singing  lessons;  but  soon  after 
his  return  a  throat  nlTeetion  made  a  vocal  career 
out  of  the  question,  and  he  was  engaged  in  the 
orchestra  at  Tier  Majesty's  Theatre,  .\fter  hav- 
ing made  tfturs  with  several  leading  artists,  in 
ISCil  he  succeeded  K.  T.  Smith  ns  manager  of 
the  Italian  opera  at  the  T.yeeum  in  London.  He 
controlleil  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  (lSri2-fin).  and 
then  went  to  Drury  I-ane  until  1S77.  when  he 
returned  to  Her  Majesty's,  and  the  followinc  year 
he  brought  Italian  opera  to  the  United  States. 


36  MABA. 

He  was  successor  to  Strakosch  at  the  Academy 
of  -Music  in  New  York  City.  He  introduced  Patti 
(1SS3-S4},  Gerster,  Campanini,  Del  Puente,  Ga- 
lassi,  Marie  Koze.  Belocca,  Albani,  Sealclii.  Nor- 
dics, and  Minnie  Hauck  to  New  York  audiences. 

MAPLE  SUGAR.     See  Sugab. 

MAP  TURTLE.  One  of  the  names  of  a  com- 
mon North  American  land-turtle  (Malachm<mys 
yeoyraphicus) ,  also  called  "geographic  tortoise." 

MAPURITO,  ma'poo-je'to.  See  Conep.\te; 
Ski  ^K. 

MAQUET,  ma'kfl',  Auguste  (181.3-88).  A 
French  author,  born  in  Paris.  He  was  educated 
at  the  CollSge  Charlemagne,  where  he  was  for  a 
time  teacher.  Having  written  the  dranui  Ua- 
ihilde,  he  was  introduced  to  Alexandre  Dunuis. 
who,  impressed  by  his  talent,  proposed  their 
working  together.  It  has  generally  been  ad- 
mitted that  in  this  capacity  of  collaborateur  he 
furnished  large  portions  of  Dumas's  most  famous 
books  and  plays'.  Under  his  own  name  he  pub- 
lished the  romances  Beau  d'Angennes  (1843), 
1m  belle  Gabrielle  (1853-55),  and  many  others. 
For  the  theatre  he  prepared  Le  chateau  de  (!ran- 
tier  (18.5'2),  Le  comte  de  Lavernie  (1855).  La 
belle  Gabrielle   (1857),  and  a  number  of  others. 

MAQTTI,  mii'kwe  (Sp.  maqui,  from  the  Chilean 
name).  Aristotelia  ilacqui.  One  of  a  few  species 
of  a  genus  of  plants  sometimes  referred  to  the 
natural  order  Tiliaceae,  a  Chilean  evergreen  or 
sub-evergreen  shrub  of  considerable  size.  The 
small  green  or  yellow  flowers,  borne  in  axillary 
racemes,  are  followed  by  three-celled  edible  lilack 
acid  berries  about  the  size  of  peas,  and  are  used 
by  the  Chileans  to  make  wine.  The  wood  is  used 
for  making  musical  instruments,  and  the  tough 
bark  for  instrument  strings.  The  maqui  is  fre- 
quently cultivated  as  an  ornamental  shrul).  and 
in  favorable  conditions  sometimes  bears  fruit  in 
northern  countries. 

MAQUI.  A  peculiar  type  of  xerophytic  thick- 
et characteristic  of  the  Mediterranean  region 
of  Europe.  The  plants  are  chiefly  evergreen 
shrubs  and  half-shrubs,  and  comprise  a  large 
number  of  well-known  plants,  such  as  the  myrtle, 
box,  laurel,  and  oleander.     See  Thicket. 

MAQUOKETA,  ma-ko'kf-ta.  A  city  and  the 
county-iat  of  .Jackson  County.  Iowa.  38  miles 
northwest  of  Clinton:  on  the  Maquoketa  River, 
and  on  the  Chicago  and  Xorthwestern  and  the 
Chicago.  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  railroads 
(Map:  Iowa.  G  2).  It  has  the  Boardnian  Li- 
brary Institute,  a  subscription  library  of  snnie 
3.j00  volumes.  Maquoketa  is  a  trade  and  indus- 
trial centre  of  considerable  importance,  its  man- 
vifactures  includinj;  lime.  Hour,  foundry  and  ma- 
chine-shop luoducts.  woolen  poods,  brick  and 
tile.  etc.  In  the  vicinity  are  valuable  hardwood 
forests  and  quarries  of  limestone.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  bv  the  municipal- 
ity.    Population,  in  ISltO.  3077: 'in  PIOO.  3777. 

MARA,  mii'n'i.  Oertrihe  Ei.iz.vnETii  SniMEI,- 
INO  (  I741I-1S33I.  A  German  sin!;er.  born  at  Cas- 
sel.  She  bejran  to  l)lay  the  violin  at  such  an  early 
age  that  her  father,  n  poor  musician,  gave  her  a 
few  lessons,  and  then  exliihited  her  as  a  prodigy 
in  Vienna  and  London.  In  the  latter  city  she 
took  a  few  singing  lessons  from  Paradisi  and  was 
so  successful  that  thereafter  she  devoted  herself 
entirely  to  vocalization.  Her  first  engagement 
was  at  Leipzig:   she  then  sang  at  the  Dresden 


MABA. 


37 


MARAJO. 


Court  Opera,  and  in  1771  accepted  an  engagement 
lor  life  at  llie  liorlin  Court  Ui)era.  In  iierlin  she 
married  the  violoncellist  ilara,  who  squandered 
her  fortune.  In  17S0,  owing  to  a  series  of  an- 
noyances, she  broke  her  contract  and  went  to 
Vienna,  and  from  there,  in  1782.  to  Paris,  where 
her  great  rivalry  with  Todi  (q.v. )  became  an  his- 
toric event,  and  the  French  public  was  divided 
into  'Maradists'  and  'Todists,'  With  the  excep- 
tion of  two  visits  to  Italy,  she  spent  the  period 
from  17S4  to  1.S02  in  Kngland.  Upon  leaving 
London  she  went  to  Paris,  and  then,  after  an  ex- 
tensive tour,  to  Russia,  where  she  lost  her  prop- 
erty at  the  time  of  the  French  invasion.  Her 
voice  had  now'  failed  her,  and  she  became  a 
singing  teacher  at  Reval,  where  she  died  in  great 
poverty.  Consult  Rochlitz,  Fiir  Freunde  dcr 
Tonkanst,  vol.  i.   (Leipzig,  1824). 

MARABOU  (mar'a-boo')  STORK  (Fr,  mar- 
ahuut,  J-^p.  iiiarabu,  from  Ar.  iiiiirahif,  hermit, 
from  ruhdlu,  to  bind).  The  African  name  of  a 
stork  allied  to  the  adjutant  (q.v.)  or  argala  of 
India.  Both  species  belong  to  the  genus  Leptop- 
tilus,  which  is  remarkable  for  having  the  feathers 
of  the  anal  region  lengthened,  so  as  to  conceal 
the  true  tail  feathers,  and  these  elongated  feath- 
ers al'e  the  so-called  'marabou  feathers'  which 
were  formerly  much  used  for  trimming  ladies' 
hats  and  dresses.  The  African  species  is  Leptop- 
tilus  crumcnifer.  It  is  white  with  the  back  and 
wings  greenish  slate  color.  The  sausage-like 
pouch  which  hangs  from  .its  neck  is  capable  of 
being  inflated,  giving  the  bird  a  strange  appear- 
ance. It  is  gregarious  in  its  wild  state,  frequent- 
ing the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  living  upon  animals 
too  large  for  other  storks  to  swallow.  It  is  easily 
domesticated,  but  its  exceeding  voracity  impels  it 
on  every  occasion  to  purloin  poultry,  cats,  and 
puppies,  swallowing  them  whole. 

MARABOUTS,  mar'a-boots'.  The  French 
form  of  the  name  of  a  Mohammedan  sect,  from 
which  sprang  the  Almoravides  (q.v.) ,  who  founded 
a  dynasty  in  Northwest  Africa  and  in  Spain 
during  the  eleventh  century.  The  descendants  of 
these  ascetic  missionaries  form  to-day  a  sort  of 
order  among  the  Berbers,  leading  a  sanctified  and 
contemplative  life,  though  the  appellation  Mara- 
bout is  generally  given  them  only  after  their 
death.  They  are  the  western  counterpart  of  the 
eastern  Mnjohid.  who.  suppressing  the  passions, 
seeks  union  (Ittihad)  with  Allah,  and  of  the 
saints  (iciilis)  of  the  Sufis.  They  are  often  at- 
tached to  mosques,  chapels,  or  places  of  pilgrim- 
age, explaining  the  Koran  and  providing  the 
faithful  with  amulets.  As  their  influence  is  very 
great,  their  orders  are  implicitly  obeyed.  There 
are  various  divisions  among  them:  the  higher 
Marabouts  living  in  a  soi-t  of  monastery  {ZO- 
imyah ) ,  composed  of  a  mosque,  a  domed-building 
{kiihhnh) ,  in  which  are  the  tomb  of  some  saint, 
.schools  for  children  and  for  the  teaching  of  the 
Koran  and  the  sciences,  as  well  as  living  rooms 
for  scholars  and  travelers.  The  tomb  of  the  saint 
is  sometimes  itself  called  a  Marabout,  and  is  an 
object  of  pilgrimage  for  the  pious  Mohammedans. 
Consult  Rinn,  Marabouts  el  Khoiians  (Algiers, 
1SS4). 

MARACAIBO,  mii'n'i-kl'b.'i.  A  city  of  Vene- 
zuela, situated  on  a  sandy  plain  on  the  west  shore 
of  the  strait  Avhich  connects  Lake  Maracaibo  with 
the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  (or  of  Venezuela)  (Jlap: 
Venezuela,  0  1).     It  is  a  handsome  town,  with 


a  hot  but  healthful  cliuuUe,  and  has  several  fine 
buildings,  notably  the  Oovernment  palace,  the 
city  hall,  and  the  school  of  arts.  Among  its 
other  educational  institutions  arc  a  nautical 
school  and  several  libraries.  The  town  hospital 
has  a  fine  location  on  an  island  opposite  the 
city.  Its  streets  are  lighted  by  electricity  and 
traversed  by  surface  railroads,  ilaracailio  does 
some  manufacturing,  but  its  importance  is  due 
to  its  harbor,  which  has  the  finest  dockyards  in 
the  Republic,  and  is  deep  enough  to  admit  the 
largest  vessels;  the  entrance  is,  however,  made 
diflicult  by  a  shifting  bar.  The  chief  articles  of  ex- 
port are  coffee,  hides,  and  cabinet  woods.  Steam- 
ship lines  run  to  the  LTnited  States,  and  a  United 
States  consulate  is  established  here.  Population, 
35,000.  Maracaibo  was  founded  in  1571  by  Manso 
Pacheco.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
State  of  Zulia. 

MARACAIBO,  Gulf  of.  See  Venezuela, 
Gulf  of. 

MARACAIBO,  Lake.  A  large  sheet  of  water 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  Venezuela,  connected 
with  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  ( or  of  Venezuela  )  by  a 
strait  nearly  nine  miles  wide  (Map:  Venezuela,  C 
2 ) ,  It  is  of  nearly  rectangular  shape,  with  a  length 
from  north  to  south  of  100  miles  and  a  width  of 
50  to  60  miles.  Its  extreme  depth  in  the  north- 
ern part  is  500  feet,  but  it  shoals  rapidly  toward 
the  south,  where  the  shores  are  low  and  marshy 
and  the  water  shallow.  The  entrance  is  obstruct- 
ed by  a  bar  with  only  7  to  14  feet  of  water,  so 
that  large  vessels  cannot  enter.  Owing  to  the 
narrow  entrance  and  to  the  great  number  of 
rivers  which  discharge  into  it,  the  water  of  the 
lake  is  fresh  and  the  tides  are  scarcely  felt,  so 
that,  though  its  form  is  that  of  a  marine  inlet,  it 
is  to  be  considered  as  an  inland  lake.  It  occu- 
pies part  of  a  mvich  larger  lake  basin  surrounded 
by  lofty  moimtains.  This  basin  has  been  partly 
filled  up  by  alluvium,  leaving  a  number  of 
smaller  lakes  connecting  by  creeks  with  the  main 
lake. 

MARAGHA,  ma'ra-ga'.  An  old  town  in  the 
west  of  Persia,  in  the  Province  of  Azerbaijan, 
55  miles  south  of  Tabriz  and  20  miles  east  of 
Lake  Urumiah  (Map:  Persia,  B  3).  It  consists 
mostly  of  mud  houses  inclosed  by  a  high,  dilapi- 
dated wall.  The  town  is  celebrated  as  the  site  of 
an  observatory  which  Hulaku  Khan  built  for  the 
astronomer  Nasir-ed-Din.  The  famous  uuirble 
pits  produce  a  nearly  transparent  marble.  Pop- 
ulation, about  15,000. 

MARAIS,  ma'ra',  Le.  (I)  A  name  given 
during  the  French  Revolution  to  the  centre  party 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  and  of  the  Conven- 
tion, usually  called  the  Plain.  (2)  A  quar- 
ter of  Paris,  built  on  marshy  ground,  east 
of  the  Rue  Saint  Denis  and  including  the  Place 
des  Vosges.  formerly,  as  the  Place  Royale.  the 
centre  of  aristocratic  Paris.  H;  contains  fine 
buildings  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  and  Louis 
XIIL  (3)  Vast  plains  in  the  west  of  France, 
reclaimed  from  the  sea.  consisting  of  two  distinct 
divisions,  the  Breton  or  western  and  the  Poitevin 
or  southern.  The  soil,  since  the  draining  of  the 
region,  is  exceedingly  fertile.  The  Marais  con- 
tains many  scattered  hills,  representing  former 
islands.     Tt  is  still  jntnidated  during  the  winter. 

MARAJO,  mii'ra-zho'.  or  Joannes.  A  large 
island  formed  by  the  estuaries  of  the  Amazon  and 
the  Para  and  the  network  of  river  arms  connect- 


MARAJO. 


38 


MABASH. 


ing  them  (Map:  Brazil,  II  4).  It  is  165  miles 
long  from  cast  to  west  ami  120  miles  wide.  Its 
siirlate  is  very  low  and  Hat;  the  nurlliern  part 
i-()nsi>ts  of  immense  swamps,  while  the  western 
part  is  covered  with  forests,  consisting  largely 
of  rubber  trees.  There  are  several  large  lakes 
in  the  interior,  and  in  the  wet  season  the  greater 
part  of  the  island  is  Hooded.  In  the  dry  .season 
it  all'ords  excellent  glazing.  The  population  is 
scanty,  consisting  largely  of  hunters  and  rubber- 
gatherers  visiting  the  island  during  the  dry 
season.  The  principal  settlement  is  Saure,  on 
the  eastern  coast. 

MABAL,  ma'riil'.  A  large  species  of  deer 
il'iiiii.s  iiiiiiiih  of  the  Caspian  provinces  of  Per- 
sia, which  is  closely  related  to  the  lOumpcan  red 
deer  in  structure  and  habits,  and  pcrlia])s  is  only 
a  variety  of  that  species.  Its  antlers  always 
terminate  in  more  than  two  tines.  Consult  Lyd- 
dckd.    /».'/•   „/■   .1//    I.iiiids    (London,    1898). 

MAEAMABOS  -  SZIGET.  A  town  of 
Hungary.     Sec    \I.\.ii.m.\kos-Sziget. 

MAB'ANATH'A.  An  expression  found  in  the 
New  Testament  near  the  close  of  Paul's  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (xvi.  22 — "If  any  man 
love  not  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  let  him  be  anath- 
ema, niaranatha"! .  The  term,  not  being  Greek, 
but  Aramaic,  has  occasioned  much  discussion. 
Interpreters  ignorant  of  .Vramaic.  or  in  localities 
where  there  was  no  old  trailition  as  to  its 
meaning,  considered  it  a  threat  of  some  sort.  But 
ancient  Eastern  tradition  and  modern  scholar- 
ship explain  it  as  made  up  of  two  .Aramaic  words, 
»i(?r(/)i  or  iniiraiiii  ("Lord'  or  "Our  Lord')  and 
(itha  or  thU,  'come'  (or  'has  come,'  if  atlu'i  be  the 
form).  It  is  therefore  to  be  understood  as  a 
fervent  prayer  or  exclamation,  'Lord  (or  Our 
Lord),  Come!'  A  |)arallcl  is  found  in  Rev. 
xxii.  20  ("Even  so,  come,  I.,ord  .Jesus").  Mara- 
natha  is  also  found  in  the  Didachv  (see  Teach- 
ing OF  THE  TwKLVE  Ai'OSTi.ES)  apparently  with 
the  same  sense,  at  the  end  of  a  thanksgiving 
prayer  in  connection  with  the  Eucharist.  The 
expressicm  doubtless  came  into  vogue  very  early 
in  Palestinian  circles  in  connection  with  the  ex- 
|i('ctation  of  the  speedy  return  of  .Icsus.  and  prob- 
ably as  a  part  of  the  celebration  of  the  aga])a'  or 
love  feasts.  Consult:  Thayer  in  the  Hastings 
Dirliiiiiarif  of  Ihr  Uihli- :  Schmidt,  in  the  .lournal 
of  lliblitiil  lAlcriiturr,  vol.  xiil.  (  18114)  ;  Dalman, 
(Irammatik  dc.i  jiidisch-paliistinischeii  Aranmisch 
(1-eipzig.  18941. 

MARANHA,  ma-rii'nya,  MIBANHA,  or 
MABIANA.  A  lierce  cannibal  tribe  of  .\ra- 
wakan  slock  (i|.v.),  ranging  from  tbc  .lutahy 
Kiver  on  the  south,  across  the  Amazon  and  Putu- 
mayo,  to  the  Yapurrt  on  the  nortli,  in  Western 
Brazil  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Colomliia  and 
Peru.  They  wear  wooden  labrets  and  ear  pen- 
dants, with  nose  i>endunts  of  shell.  b\i(  ilo  not 
tattoo.  The  boring  of  a  child's  lips  is  celebrated 
by  a  feast.  When  a  boy  is  twelve  years  old  four 
gashes  are  cut  near  his  mouth  by  his  father,  and 
he  must  then  fast  five  days.  At  a  later  period 
the  boys  whip  themselves  as  a  test  of  manhood. 
In  fighting  expeditions  each  man  carries  a  small 
bag  of  salt  as  an  antidote  against  poisoned 
arrows. 

MABANHAO,  miiri'i  ny.aiN'.  or  MARAN- 
HAM.  .\  northern  State  of  Brazil,  bounded  by 
tlie  Allanlic  Ocean  on  the  nortli.  the  State  of 
I'iaiiliv  on   the  east,  and  bv  (iovaz  and  Parft  on 


the  west  (Map:  Brazil,  H  4).  Its  area  is  177,520 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  only  slightly  ele- 
vated and  traversed  by  a  number  of  rivers.  The 
coast  land  is  generally  low  and  subject  to  iuunda- 
lions.  The  whole  State  is  well  wooded  and  the 
climate  is  excessively  hot,  but  on  the  whole  not 
unhealthful.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Parana- 
hyba,  which  marks  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
State,  Itapicurfi,  Guajahii,  Mearim,  and  Pindare. 
The  soil  is  largely  fertile  and  produces  sugar, 
colfce,  cacao,  cotton,  rice,  corn, and  many  kinds  of 
southern  and  tropical  fruits.  Stock-raising  is 
increasing  in  importance,  as  the  natural  condi- 
tions of  the  region  are  very  favoral)li>  for  the 
development  of  that  industry.  The  ;igrieultural 
development  of  the  Stsite  is  greatly  handicapped 
by  the  scarcity  of  population,  and  cll'orts  are 
being  made  to  establish  agricultural  colonies  for 
the  natives  as  well  as  to  attract  foreign  set- 
tlers by  liberal  grants  of  land.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  rice,  ruliber,  to- 
bacco, cattle,  hides  and  skins.  The  population  of 
Maranhao  in  IStiO  was  4.30.8.54.  A  I:ir;;e  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  are  whites  of  Portuguese  de- 
scent, but  there  arc  also  a  consideralile  number 
of  negroes  ;Hid  mulattoes  and  about  20.000  In- 
dians.    The  capital  is  ilaranhiio. 

MABANHAO,   or  Sao   Luiz  de  .MaranhSo. 

The  capital  of  the  State  of  Maranhao,  Brazil.  It 
is  situated  on  an  island  in  the  Bay  of  Sao  JIarcos, 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Jlearim  and  Itapi- 
curu  rivers,  280  miles. southeast  of  Pan!  (Map: 
Brazil,  J  4).  The  ground  is  low,  but  hilly,  and 
though  the  climate  is  very  warm,  the  location 
is  not  unhealthful.  The  town  is  well  built  and 
clean,  and  has  handsome  public  buildings,  a  the- 
atre, a  hospital,  a  cathedral,  and  a  fine  bishoji's 
palace.  The  commerce  is  declining  and  the  orig- 
inally good  harbor  is  gradually  filling  with  sand. 
A  I'nitcd  States  consular  agent  is  stationed  here. 
Population,  with  the  surrounding  district,  about 
38.000.  The  town  was  founded  bv  the  French  in 
1012. 

MABANO  DI  NAPOLI,  marii'no  df  nii'- 
jp'i  h^  .\  town  in  (lie  Province  of  Naples,  Italy, 
situated  about  five  miles  northwest  of  Naples 
(Map:  Italy,  D  10).  It  lies  in  a  fertile  region 
and  produces  wine,  grain,  and  fruit.  Po[iulation, 
in  1001,  10.317. 

MABANON,  ma'ra-nyOn'.  A  name  some- 
times api)lied  to  the  upper  course  of  the  Amazon 
(q.v.  I . 

MABASCHINO,  ma'rii-ske'nA  (It.,  from  ma- 
fdsca,  sort  of  clierry).  A  liqueur  distilled  from 
the  fermented  juice  of  the  marasea  cherry  and 
flavored  with  its  pits.  The  marasea  cherry  is 
a  small  black  fruit,  so  named,  it  is  said,  from 
its  bitterness.  ^larasehino  is  chiefly  made  in 
Zara,  Dalmatia.     See  LiQUErR. 

MABASH^  nuVriisli'.  The  capital  of  the 
sanjak  of  I  lie  same  name  in  the  Vilayet  of  Aleppo, 
.\sialic  Turkey,  situated  at  tlie  foot  of  Mount 
Taurus,  about  00  miles  north  northeast  of  its 
port,  .Mexandretta  (Map:  Turkey  in  .\sia.  f;  4). 
It  is  a  well-built  city  with  fine  bazaars  and  a 
considerable  trade  in  Kurd  carpets  and  embroid- 
eries. Besides  mosqiies  and  Jfohaminedan 
schools  there  are  a  number  of  Christian  ehurclies, 
a  odiege  and  schools  attached  to  the  American 
mission,  and  a  .Tesuit  establishment.  In  the  vi- 
cinity  of   the   town    are   found    traces   of   Poman 


MABASH. 


39 


MARATHON. 


foitifications  and  tuiijljs  uilli  Greek  inscriptions. 
Jlany  Hitlite  monuments  liave  also  been  discov- 
ered near  ilarasli.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  from  40,000  to  52,000,  including  many  Ar- 
menians. 

MABAS'MtrS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  iiapa<rfi.6s, 
ruiiriisinos,  decay,  from  tiapaiveiv,  waraincin,  to 
\\caken;  ultimately  connected  with  Skt.  mar,  to 
grind,  mla,  weaken,  Olr.  nieirb,  AS.  iiicani,  OHG. 
vniruwi,  munci,  Ger.  miirbe,  soft).  A  term  some- 
what vaguely  used  by  the  older  medical  writers 
to  designate  those  cases  of  general  emaciation 
or  atrophy  for  which  they  did  not  see  any  special 
cause.  The  word  is  now  seldom  used  except  occa- 
sionally as  a  synon\nn  for  tabes  mesenterica,  or 
tubercular  disease  of  the  mesenteric  glands.     See 

TrUERCL  LOSIS. 

MABAT,  ma'ra',  Jean  Paul  (1744-93).  One 
of  tlie  radical  leaders  of  the  French  Revolution, 
Ijorn  May  24,  1744,  at  Boudry,  near  Neufchatel, 
Switzerland.  In  youth  he  made  himself  master 
of  several  languages;  subsequently  he  studied 
medicine  at  Bordeaux  and  at  Paris,  and,  after 
traveling  extensively  in  Europe,  removed  to  Lon- 
don. There  he  practiced  medicine  and  published 
An  Essay  on  Man  (1772)  and  the  Chains  of 
Slavery  (1776).  Returning  to  Paris,  he  wrote 
on  optical  subjects  and  electricity,  and  entered 
the  service  of  the  Count  of  Artois  as  a  veterinary 
surgeon  in  1777.  The  fruits  of  his  studies  in 
physics  appeared  in  a  number  of  paradoxical  pub- 
lications on  electricity  and  optics.  Upon  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  ilarat  soon  came 
to  the  front  as  one  of  its  most  extravagant,  pas- 
sionate, and  demagogical  leaders,  and  won  a  large 
following.  On  September  12,  178U,  ho  established 
a  journal.  Le  Piibliciste  Parisien,  which  became 
better  known  as  L'Ami  dti  Peuple,  and,  after 
September  21,  1792,  as  Le  Journal  de  la  Repub- 
lique.  The  more  conservative  revolutionists 
looked  with  abhorrence  upon  this  incarnation  of 
the  worst  passions  of  the  hour,  but  the  support 
of  tlie  lowest  among  the  populace  kept  him  in 
a  position  of  influence.  His  violence  caused  an 
order  of  arrest  to  be  issued  against  him  in  1790, 
but  lie  succeeded  in  evading  capture,  thanks  to 
the  protection  of  the  Club  of  the  Cordeliers,  of 
which  he  was  a  member.  A  bitter  foe  of  the  Gi- 
rondists, he  clamored  for  their  destruction  after 
the  return  of  the  King  from  Varennes.  Danton, 
who  had  found  JIarat  useful  in  the  preparation 
of  the  events  which  led  up  to  the  storming  of  the 
Tuileries  (August  10,  1792),  made  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Commune  of  Paris.  It  was  in  a  great 
measure  the  influence  of  Marat  which  led  to  the 
cruelties  and  massacres  of  September,  1792.  in 
the  midst  of  which  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Convention.  His  journal  became  more  fero- 
cious and  sanguinarj'  than  ever.  During  the 
King's  trial  he  was  urgent  for  his  immediate 
e.\ecution.  and  in  his  journal  called  upon  the 
people  to  slay  200,000  of  the  adherents  of  the 
old  regime.  On  April  14.  1793,  he  was  brought 
before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  on  the  charge 
of  fomenting  sedition,  but  was  acquitted  (April 
24th)  and  returned  to  the  Convention  more 
powerful  than  ever.  He  played  probably  the 
leading  part  in  the  events  of  May  31 -June  2, 
which  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  Giron- 
dists, wlio  had  long  regarded  him  as  their  most 
inveterate  enemy.  On  July  13.  1703,  Marat  was 
stabbed  in  his  own  hoiise  l)y  Charlotte  Corday 
(q.v. ).      His    death    aroused    tremendous   public 


feeling.  His  bust  was  placed  in  the  Hall  of 
the  Convention;  the  scene  of  his  murder  was 
l)ainted  by  David;  fetes  in  perpetuation  of  his 
memory  were  held  all  over  France;  mothers 
luimed  their  children  after  the  "martyr  of  the 
people,'  and  in  November  the  Convention  de- 
creed to  Jlarat's  remains  the  honors  of  the  Pan- 
theon. His  body  was,  however,  removed  in  Feb- 
ruar}-,  1795.  Consult:  Bax,  Jean  Paul  Marat, 
the  People's  Friend  (Boston,  1901),  a  rehabili- 
tation; Burnet,  Marat  (Paris,  1802),  a  brief 
sketch;  Cabanes,  Marat  inconnu,  I'hommc  prive, 
le  medecin,  le  savant,  d'apres  des  documents 
nouveaux  et  inedits  (Paris,  1891)  ;  Chfevremont, 
Jam  Paul   Marat    (Paris,   1880). 

MABATHI,  ma-rii'te.  A  language  spoken  in 
Westocn  India,  and  closely  related  to  Sindhi, 
Gujarati,  and  other  modern  vernaculars  of  Indo- 
Iranian  origin.  It  is  the  tongue  of  between 
15,000,000  and  20,000,000  people,  and  is  divided 
into  several  dialects,  which  are  comprised  under 
the  two  great  groups  Dakhani  and  Konkani.  The 
former  of  these  is  found,  as  its  name  implies,  in 
the  Deccan,  and  contains  the  standard  dialect, 
called  Deshi,  spoken  near  Poona.  The  district 
of  the  Konkani  is  along  the  coast  in  the  south- 
western portion  of  the  country  of  the  Mahrattas. 
It  contains  a  considerable  mixture  of  Dravidian 
words  from  the  neighboring  Kanarese,and  around 
Goa  it  has  juimerous  Portuguese  loan-words. 
Marathi  as  a  whole,  despite  its  importations  from. 
Persian  and  Arabic,  has  departed  less  from  the 
Sanskrit  fomi  than  almost  any  other  New  In- 
dian language.  It  is  probably  descended  from 
the  vernacular  form  of  the  Maharashtri  Prakrit 
dialect  of  mediieval  India. 

Marathi  literature  is  abundant.  It  begins  in 
the  thirteentli  century  with  Xamdev,  a  predeces- 
sor of  the  famous  Tukaram  (a.d.  1609),  who 
wrote  religious  poems  of  a  pronounced  Vishnu- 
itic  trend.  Another  poet  almost  as  highly  es- 
teemed as  Tukaram  was  Mayur  Pandit  or  Moro- 
pant  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Prose  works  in 
Jlarathi  are  comparatively  unim]iortant.  Mod- 
ern literature  in  this  language,  under  English  in- 
fluence, is  copious  but  rather  mediocre.  The 
alphabet  employed  by  the  Marathi  is  the  Devana- 
gari,  in  which   Sanskrit   is  written. 

Consult:  Xavalkar,  Student's  Marathi  Gram- 
mar (Bombay,  1880);  Joshi,  Comprehensive 
Marathi  Grammar  (Poona,  19001  ;  Molesworth 
and  Candy,  Marathi  and  English  Dictionary 
(2d  ed.,  Bombay,  1857)  ;  Godbole,  Selections  from 
the  Marathi  Poets  (5th  ed..  Bombay,  1864)  ;  Mit- 
chell, "The  Chief  Marathi  Poets,"  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Ninth  International  Congress  of  Ori- 
entalists, vol.  i.  (London,  1892)  :  Manwaring, 
Marathi  Proverbs  Collected  and  Traiislatcd  (Ox- 
ford,  1899). 

MAB^'ATHON'  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mapaflu;'). 
Anciently  a  small  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Attica,  about  twentj-  miles  northeast  of  Athens. 
The  modern  village  lies  at  the  point  where  a 
valley  opens  into  the  plain  of  Marathon,  which 
is  surrounded  by  a  semicircular  range  of  moun- 
tains on  the  north,  west,  and  south,  while  on  the 
east  it  is  washed  by  the  Bay  of  Marathon.  South 
of  the  valley  of  Marathon  is  another  valley,  in 
which  is  the  little  village  of  Vrana,  "probably  the 
site  of  the  ancient  town,  while  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  plain,  between  the  sea  and  the 
mountains,  a  road  leads  by  a  circuitous  route 
between  Mounts   Pentelieus  and  Hymettus  into 


MARATHON. 


40 


the  Attic  plain.  .Miiiiy  willi  Uiicc  other  towns  Mar- 
athon lM'lonf.'iil  to  the  Tetrapolis.  which  ehiinieil  a 
very  early  k^'endary  origin  and  indepeiulcnt  ex- 
istence until  the  time  of  Theseus.  It  is  clear 
that  tlie  leajiue  continued  to  exist  for  religious 
purposes  until  at  least  the  fourth  century  ii.c, 
and  probahly  for  a  lon-ier  time.  The  plain  of 
Marathon  is  especially  famous  ns  the  scene  of  the 
ilecisivc  battle  in  which  .Miltiades  led  the  Athe- 
nian-- and  PlataMins  to  victory  over  the  army  of 
Darius  under  the  command  of  Datis  and  .\rta- 
phernes  in  u.c.  4!H1.  The  details  of  the  battle  are 
not  easy  to  determine,  as  the  ancient  accounts  arc 
confused.  It  is  |)roliable  that  the  .\thenians  occu- 
pied the  valley  of  Vrana,  and  attacked  the  Per- 
sians either  when  they  were  prepariu};  to  re- 
embark  or  to  execute  a  turninf;  movement  by  the 
road  to  the  south.  The  (Jreek  force  seems  to 
have  numbered  about  10.000.  of  whom  102  fell. 
The  numbers  of  the  Persians  are  unknown,  but 
the  traditional  100.000  is  certainly  much  exag- 
gerated; their  loss  is  said  to  have  been  C400. 
Contrary  to  custom,  the  Athenian  dead  were 
buried  on  the  field,  and  over  their  remains  was 
raised  the  great  mound  (or  Soros)  which  is  still 
conspicuous  in  the  southern  part  of  the  plain. 
Us  identity,  at  one  time  much  disputed,  was 
proved  liy  the  excavations  of  the  (ireek  .\rcha>- 
ological  Society  in  ISilO  and  1801,  which  brought 
to  light  human  bones,  ashes,  vases  of  the  early 
fifth  century  u.c.  and  a  sacrificial  trench,  where 
olferings  had  been  made  before  the  earth  was 
heaped  up.  The  literature  on  the  subject  is  very 
extensive.  Besides  the  standard  histories  of 
(Ireece.  may  be  consulted:  Kraser.  I'nusanias, 
vol.  ii.  (London,  1808 1,  where  is  a  large  bibli- 
ography; .Milchhdfer's  Text  to  C'urtius  and  Kau- 
pcrt.  kfirtcit  i-oii  AtHkn  (lierlin,  18810.5); 
Macau.  Ilrrodoliis.  iv.,  v..  vi.  (London.  180.t)  ; 
and  ■louniui  of  Hellenic  Shidies,  vol  xix.  {Lon- 
don.  1800). 

MARATTI,  mariit'tc;-.  or  MARATTA,  Carlo, 
(  lllj.'i- 17  Ki  I .  .\n  Italian  painter,  born  at  Cum- 
erano.  May  1:5.  Ui2.5.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
-Andrea  Sacchi.  of  the  Roman  school,  and  was 
infiuenced  by  the  works  of  Raphael  and  the 
Carracci.  Considered  the  most  eminent  painter 
in  Rome,  he  long  enjoyed  the  Papal  patronage. 
In  17020;i  Clement  XI.  eonunissioned  him  to 
restore  Raphaid's  frescoes  in  the  Vatican,  and 
Innocent  XI.  appointed  him  superintendent  of  the 
paintings  in  the  Vatican.  He  died  at  Rome. 
i)eccmber  1.5,  1713.  while  Prince  of  the  Academy 
of  Saint  Luke.  Most  of  his  )iictures  arc  small 
easel  paintings  in  oil.  his  liest  works  being 
portraits.  His  design  is  academic,  his  cohu' 
pleasing,  his  lirush-handling  weak:  his  style  re- 
semble-^ that  of  (Juiilo  lleni.  ami  lacks  original- 
ity of  character.  He  itched  a  number  of  iin- 
jiorlnnt  plates.  .Vmong  his  best  paintings  are 
till-  following:  "Madonna."  Palazzo  Doria,  Rome: 
".Annunciation."  Turin  (Jallerv;  ".Adoration  of 
Shepherds,"  Hasel  Museum:  "Holy  Xight,"  Dres- 
den MiiMiMim :  "Snint  ,Ii«hn  at  Patmos."  "Slecp- 
iuL'  Child."  "Portrait  of  a  Cardinal."  Old  Pina- 
kolhek.  Munich:  "Presentation  in  the  Temple." 
"Portrait  of  Clement  IX.."  Hermitage.  Saint 
Petersburg:  "Madonna  in  Dlory."  "Ilagar  and 
Ishmnel."  Alndrid  Museum:  jiortrnit  of  Cardinal 
Cerri.  National  Cnllery.  London. 

MARAVE'DI,  S,i.  pron.  mil'rftvA-de'  (Sp., 
from  .\r.  Murfihitin,  name  of  a  Moorish  dynasty, 
pi.    of    murAlfit.    hermit).      The    name    borne    by 


MARBELLA. 

certain  Spanish  coins.  One  of  gold  weighing  about 
(iO  grains  was  issued  by  the  Moorish  emirs  in 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries;  subsequently 
the  nuiravedi  constituted  the  lowest  denomina- 
tion in  the  Spanish  coinage,  varying  in  value  from 
oneseventli  to  one-third  of  a  cent. 

MARBEATJ,  m:n'bo',  .Tean  Baptiste  ( 1798- 
1875).  A  French  philanthropist,  born  at  Brives. 
In  1841,  while  a  city  ollicial  at  Paris,  in  mak- 
ing some  investigations  of  the  charitable  insti- 
tutions, he  was  struck  with  the  lack  of  pro- 
vision for  the  care  of  babies  under  two  jears 
of  age  whose  motlicrs  were  com]xlled  to  go  out 
to  work.  He  wrote  a  book,  l)es  cliches,  ad- 
vocating the  establishment  of  day  nurseries. 
The  first  was  established  at  Chaillot  November 
11,  1844,  An  a.ssoeiation  of  cr&clies  was  formed 
in  1846.  Throughout  the  rest  of  his  life,  while 
specially  interested  in  cr&ches,  he  took  an  active 
part  in  furthering  various  charities.  Among 
his  writings  are:  Etudes  sur  Veconomic  soeiale 
(1844;  2d  ed.  1875)  ;  Des  creches,  on  le  innijen 
dc  diininuer  la  misere  en  aiigmcntani  hi  popula- 
tion (1845;  many  later  editions)  ;  />»  paupcrisme 
en  France  et  des  moyens  d'l/  remcdier  (1847); 
De  I'indiqence  et  des  secours  (1850).  He  died 
at  Saint  Cloud,  October  10,  1875. 

MAR'BECK,  or  MERBECK,  .loux  (  ?c.lo85). 
An  Knglisli  musician  and  llieologian,  organist 
of  Saint  George's  Chapel,  \\  indsor,  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  and  his  successor.  He  early 
read  Calvin's  writings,  adopted  his  views,  and 
joined  an  association  in  support  of  the  Reformed 
doctrines.  Among  the  members  wei'e  a  priest, 
a  chorister  of  Saint  George's  Cli;ipcl.  and  a 
tradesman,  and  these  men,  together  with  Mar- 
beck,  were  arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy.  Their 
papers  were  seized,  and  in  Marbeck's  li.indwriting 
were  found  notes  on  the  Bible,  a  concordance 
in  English,  and  a  copy  of  an  epistle  of  Calvin 
against  the  mass.  They  were  all  condemned 
to  the  stake,  but  Marbeck,  on  account  of  his 
musical  talents  and  througb  the  interposition  of 
(Jardiner.  Bishop  of  Winchester,  was  pardoned 
aiul  restored  to  his  place  as  organist.  He  lived 
to  see  the  triumph  of  his  principles,  and  to  pub- 
lish his  work,  The  Boke  of  Common  Prater 
Xotcd  (1550);  reprinted  in  facsimile  1844, 
and  in  .lebb's  Choral  Responses  and  I.iliinies, 
1857).  He  published  also  his  Coneordnncc  to 
the  Bible  (1550).  which  was  the  first  work  of 
the  kind  in  English  on  the  entire  Bible.  A  Te 
Deiim  of  his  anil  a  mass  of  five  voices  are  foimd 
in  Smith's  Musicu  Anticjun.  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  In  1574  was  pulilislieil  The  Lures  of 
Uolii  i^ainctes,  Prophrtcs.  I'ntriarches,  and  oth- 
ers :  and  subsequently  77ic  Holie  Historic  of  King 
Unrid.  drairn  into  English  meet  re  (1570),  and 
.1   I'ippiiifi  I'p  of  the  Pope's  Fardel  (1581). 

MARBELLA,  miir-bil'lyA.  A  port  of  South- 
ern Spain  in  the  Province  of  Malaga.  It  is  situ- 
ated amid  picturesque  surroundings  on  the  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean,  ."in  miles  northeast  of  Gib- 
raltar. It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  a  notable 
Church  of  the  Tncarnation.  In  the  neighborhood 
are  granite  quarries,  and  mines  of  sulpliur,  lead, 
and  iron:  the  town  has  iron  foundrio  and  sugar 
rcllncries.  The  harbor  is  used  (iriticipally  in 
local  coasting  trade;  it  is  an  ill  sheltered,  open 
roadstead,  but  equipped  with  a  large  iron  pier 
reaching  into  deep  water  and  a  lighllmuse  visible 
for    twelve    miles.      The    principal    exports    are 


MARBLE 


SUTHERLAND   FALLS  QUARRY   OF  THE  VERMONT   MARBLE  CO.,  AT   PROCTOR,  VT. 


MARBELLA. 

iron.  f.'rain.  sugar,  cork,  and  fisli.     Population, 
in  HIOO,  9075. 

MARBLE  (OF.  marble,  marbrc,  Fr.  marhrc, 
Prnv.  niiiniif,  uKirbrc,  from  J^at.  nuinnor,  niarblo, 
from  (JU.  lidpfiapos,  muniKirvs,  bright  stone, 
inarblo,  from  /iapftalpeiv,  murmiiircin,  to  sparkle). 
In  a  strict  sense  a  crystalline  limestone  having 
a  granular  structure.  The  term  has,  however, 
become  broadened  as  a  result  of  commercial  use 
and  now  includes  any  limestone,  either  crystalline 
or  non-crystalline,  Avliich  will  take  a  polish, 
ilarbles  vary  considerably  in  their  texture  and 
color.  Some  ai-e  extremely  fine-grained,  like 
those  of  Vermont,  while  others  are  coarsely 
granular,  as  in  New  York  State.  Those  oom- 
j)0sed  entirely  of  carbonate  of  lime  are  pure 
white,  but  many  are  colored  gray  or  blue  by  car- 
bonaceous matter,  while  others  exhibit  beautiful 
shades  of  pink,  yellow,  red,  and  brown,  due  to 
iron  compounds.  The  presence  of  fossil  remains 
may  also  add  to  their  beauty.  JIarbles  are 
usually  found  in  regions  of  metamorphic  rocks 
(see  t^EOLOGY),  and  hence  the  rock  has  been  at 
limes  subjected  to  crushing  forces.  These  have 
developed  fissures  in  the  rock,  which  subsequently 
became  filled  by  foreign  mineral  matter,  and  it  is 
to  this  that  much  of  the  beautiful  marking  or 
veining  of  many  ornamental  marbles  is  due. 

ilarble  occurs  in  many  geological  formations, 
but  in  the  United  States  it  is  obtained  mostly 
from  the  Paleozoic  rocks.  The  best-known  de- 
posits arc  found  in  the  Eastern  States.  In  west- 
ern Vermont,  at  West  Rutland,  Proctor.  Bran- 
don, and  other  localities,  some  of  the  quarries 
have  reached  a  depth  of  400  feet,  and  contain 
many  grades,  varying  from  the  purest  white 
statuary  marble  to  the  gray,  or  'true  blue' 
variety,  as  it  is  called.  Vermont  supplies  80 
per  cent,  of  the  marble  used  for  monumental 
wcuk  in  tlie  L'nited  States.  A  fine-grained,  white, 
dolomitie  marble  is  quarried  at  Lee.  in  western 
Massachusetts,  and  also  near  Pittsfield.  Much 
nuirble  for  structural  work  is  obtained  from  Saint 
Lawrence  and  Westchester  counties.  N.  Y. ;  from 
Cockeysville.  Md.,  and  Pickens  County.  Ga.  These 
are  all  magnesian  marbles  of  coarsely  crystalline 
character.  Black  marble  was  at  one  time  quar- 
ried near  Glens  Falls.  N.  Y. ;  and  at  Swanton, 
Vt.,  there  occurs  a  deposit  of  variegated  marble 
much  used  for  wainscoting  and  floors.  Some  of 
the  varieties  found  here  resemble  imported 
marbles.  About  CO  per  cent,  of  the  marble  used 
in  the  L'nited  States  for  furniture  tops  and  in- 
terior decoration  is  obtained  from  near  Knox- 
ville.  Tenn.  The  colors  are  variegated,  but 
chiefly  vcinings  and  niottlings  in  red,  brown, 
pink,  and  gra.y.  Aside  from  these  areas,  marble 
of  white  and  gray  striping  is  quarried  in  Tnyo 
Gount.v,  Cal.  Two  types  which  have  attracted 
some  attention  are  the  serpentine  or  verde  an- 
tiques found  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
onyx  marbles  from  Arizona.  Colorado,  and  Cali- 
fornia. These  latter  are  not  true  onyx,  but  a. 
travertine,  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
formed  in  caves  or  around  calcareous  springs. 

Many  ornamental  marbles  are  imported  into 
tile  United  States  from  various  Eurojiean  coun- 
tries. .\mong  the  more  important  types  are: 
Uliirk  (jiu!  Golrl.  a  black  Italian  limestone  veined 
with  yellow;  Brornlrjlr.  a  light  yellow  marble 
with  red  cloudings,  obtained  from  the  Pyrenees; 
Carrara,  the  white  marbles  quarried  at  Carrara, 
Italy;    GiaUo    antico,    a    yellow    marble     much 


41 


MARBLE. 


suugiit  after  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans; 
and  (Iriollc,  a  bright  red  variety,  obtained  in 
the  Pyrenees.  The  last  named  is  also  found  at 
Swanton.  Vt.  Landscape  marble  is  a  variety  con- 
taining coloring  matter  dispersed  through  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  resemble  a  landscape.  Xero 
antico  is  a  greenish-black  .serpentine  marble; 
Sumidian  marble  is  an  African  variety,  often  of 
yellow  color;  I'arian,  a  white  nuirble  much  used 
liy  the  ancient  (irecks  and  obtained  from  the 
island  of  Paros;  PcntelUe  is  another  white 
nuirble  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  weurring 
near  Athens;  Rosso  antico,  a  red  marble;  iS'i'rna, 
a  yellowish  marble,  often  with  veins  or  patches 
of  gray  or  purple. 

The  most  famous  marble  known  to  tlie  ancients 
was  the  Parian  marble,  which  was  a  finely  granu- 
lar and  very  durable  stone,  of  waxy  appearance 
when  polished.  Some  of  the  finest  Grecian  sculp- 
tures were  formed  of  this  marble,  among  them 
being  the  Venus  de'  iledici.  The  Pentellic 
marble  was  at  one  time  preferred  bv  the  Greeks 
to  Parian,  because  it  was  whiter  and  finer  grained. 
The  Parthenon  was  entirely  built  of  it.  It  does 
not  resist  the  weather  well.  The  quarries  at 
Carrara  were  known  to  the  ancients,  but  their 
chief  importance  has  been  in  modern  times.  The 
temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis  near  Naples  was 
constructed  of  a  gray  streaked  micaceous  marble, 
much  used  by  the  ancients  and  known  as  cipo- 
lino. 

Marble  suitable  for  structural  work  sells  at 
from  $1.50  to  $4  per  cubic  foot,  while  statuary 
marble  brings  .$12  or  $15  j^er  cubic  foot.  Marble 
must  commonly  meet  certain  requirements  as 
to  strength,  color,  texture,  freedom  from  flaws, 
and  durability  in  the  open  air.  Its  crushing 
strength  is  commonly  from  10,000  to  12,000 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  opening  of  a  marble  quarry  is  usually 
expensive  and  attended  with  financial  risks,  as  a 
thickness  of  from  10  to  30  feet  of  rock  usually 
has  to  be  taken  ofl'  before  sound  marble  is  reached. 
After  a  sufficient  area  of  surface  has  been  pre- 
pared b,v  the  removal  of  the  imperfect  stone, 
channeling  machines,  which  may  be  either  per- 
cussion or  diamond  drills,  are  set  to  work,  and 
rectangularl,y  crossed  channels  are  cut  to  a 
desired  depth,  say  from  5  to  7  feet.  One  of  the 
blocks,  called  the  key  block,  is  then  broken  oflf 
at  the  base  by  wedgin.g  and  lifted  out  with  a 
crane.  This  gives  ready  access  to  the  others, 
which  are  then  drilled  as  circumstances  may 
require,  the  quarry  being  worked  out  in  floors. 
The  blocks  removed  commonly  run  4  feet  6 
inches  by  6  feet  6  inches,  but  much  larger  ones 
are  sometimes  extracted  on  special  demand.  The 
marble  after  quarrying  is  taken  to  the  mill  and 
sawed  into  blocks  or  slabs,  or  chiseled  into  mon- 
umental pieces.  The  first  smoothing  is  done  with 
sand  and  water,  but  the  final  polishing  with  a 
mixture  of  putty  powder  and  weak  acid  rubbed 
on  with  a  flannel-covered  revolving  bufTcr.  Tlie 
total  value  of  marble  produced  annually  in  the 
United  States  exceeds  $4,000,000. 

BinuonRAPiiT.  Merrill.  Stones  for  Building 
and  Decoration  :  id..  "Mineral  Resources."  United 
States  f'lcoloijical  Siirrci/  (Washington,  annual)  ; 
McCallie.  "Marbles  of  (Jeorgia,"  in  Gcorpia  Clen- 
logical  Snrretj :  Hopkins.  "Report  on  Marbles." 
Arkansas  Oeolopical  Snrvei/.  vol.  iv.  (1800); 
Ries,  '"Limestones  and  Marbles  of  Western  New- 
England,"    Seventeenth    Annual    Report    United 


HARBLE. 


42 


MARBURG. 


States  Geological  tiiiri-nj  (Washington,  1896); 
atone  (New  York,  luouthly).  See  BuiLDixo 
Stone. 

MARBLE,  :Manton  (1835—).  An  American 
journalist.  Jle  was  born  in  Worcester.  Mass.; 
graduated  at  Rochester  University  in  1855,  and 
became  a  journalist  in  Boston,  wliere  he  was  con- 
nected successively  with  the  Journal  and  the 
Traveller.  He  removed  to  New  York  in  1858, 
and  was  employed  during  the  next  two  years  on 
the  editorial  stall'  of  the  t^irntiig  I'ont.  In  ISUO 
he  united  with  others  in  founding  the  World, 
of  which  he  eventually  became  sole  proprietor. 
Under  his  management  the  paper  gained  inlluence 
as  a  Democratic  free-trade  organ.  In  ISTU  he 
retired  from  the  World,  and  in  1878  published 
.1  Secret  Chapter  of  Political  History,  in  which 
he  upheld  Mr.  Tilden's  claim  to  the  Presidency. 
In  1885  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Bimetallic  Con- 
gress in  Europe. 

MARBLED  GODWIT.     See  Godwit. 

MARBLED  TIGER-CAT.  A  very  distinct 
and  beautiful  wild  cat  of  the  eastern  Himalayas 
and  Malayan  region  (f'clis  mannorata) ,  which 
in  appearance  is  a  miniaiure  of  the  clouded 
leopard.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the  domestic  cat, 
and  has  unusually  soft  and  warm  fur  and  a  long 
tail,  not  ringed,  but  spotted.  The  ground  color 
is  dull  reddish  yellow,  marked  with  numerous 
elongate,  wavy  black  spots,  somewhat  clouded 
or  marbled.  There  are  dark  lines  on  the  head, 
and  the  Hanks  and  legs  are  thickly  spotted  with 
black,  wliih'  tlie  belly  is  yellowish  white.  It  has 
a  Tibetan  variety.  Its  liabits  are  little  known, 
but  arc  supposed  to  be  mainly  arboreal. 

MARBLE  FAtTN,  Tiik.  A  romance  by  Haw- 
thorne |l8(iO|.  Tlie  title  originally  pro|)osed 
was  Tlir  Traiisfuniiation  of  the  Faun,  changed 
in  the  English  edition  to  Tran.iformation,  and  in 
the  .\nierican  to  The  Marble  Faun. 

MAR'BLEHEAD.  A  town,  including  the  vil- 
lage- of  (  liftoii.  Deverenx,  an<l  .Marblehead 
Neck,  in  Essex  County,  Mass.,  18  miles  northeast 
of  Boston;  situated  on  a  rocky  peninsula  in 
Massachusetts  Bay.  and  on  the  Bo.ston  and  Maine 
Railroad  (Map:  Alassachusctts.  F  3).  It  has  a 
commodious  harbor;  is  a  popular  yachting  and 
summer  resort,  and  possess(»s  nian\'  pre-revolu- 
tionary  buildings  and  other  features  of  historic 
interest.  In  .Mibott  Hall  are  the  town  ollices, 
the  public  library,  and  an  art  gallery.  There  are 
Crneker.  Kort  Sewall,  and  Eountain  parks.  The 
principal  industries  include  boat-building  and  the 
manufacture  of  shoes,  though  fisliing  is  of  sonic 
importance.  The  government  is  adminislcred  by 
town  meetings.  Population,  in  1800,  8202;  in 
l!)On.  75S2.  Settled  in  l(i20  by  emigrants  fnmi 
the  islands  of  .Tersey  and  Guernsey.  Marblehead 
was  umler  the  jurisdiction  of  Salem  until  ItitO, 
when  it  was  incorporated  as  a  separate  town.  It 
became  for  a  time,  next  to  Boston,  the  most  pop- 
ulous community  in  the  cidony.  having  a  large 
maritime  and  fishing  trade.  Marblehead  was 
the  birthplace,  and  for  many  years  the  home,  of 
Elbridge  Gerry  and  .fudge  Slorj'.  Consult  Roads, 
The  H'sliini  and  Traditions  of  Marhlchrad  (Mar- 
blehead. IHDT). 

MARBLEHEAD.  A  sailors'  name  for  the 
North    Atbinlic    fulmar    (q.v,). 

MARBLES  AND  MAiniLE  Pi.A^TNO.  Marbles 
are  lillb'  balls  of  marble  or  some  other  hard  sub- 


stance, and  are  used  as  playthings  by  children. 
'J'hey  liave  been  in  use  from  the  earliest  times, 
and  are  to  be  found  among  all  the  peoples  of  the 
world.  They  are  manufactured  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  Saxony,  and  are  exported  to  India,  China, 
Africa,  and  practically  every  nation  of  Europe 
and  America.  Tliere  is  an  endless  variety  of 
games  of  marbles. 

MAR'BO,  or  MAROBO'DUUS  (c.U  B.C.  41 
A.U.I.  A  Germanic  chief.  King  of  the  Marco- 
manni.     See  M.^bcomanni. 

MARBOD,  nuir'bi'  (c.l035-n23) .  A  French 
bislwi])  and  author.  He  was  born  at  Angers,  the 
son  of  a  merchant,  and  taught  with  great  suc- 
cess, becoming  in  10l!7  head  of  the  diocesan 
school,  in  which  he  trained  many  j)rominent 
scholars  and  statesmen.  Marbod  was  made  arch- 
deacon in  1081  and  Bishop  of  Rennes  in  1090. 
His  works  include  biographies,  hymns,  the  Versus 
Canonivales.  valuable  as  giving  a  picture  of  the 
monkish  life  of  the  period,  and  f)e  Lnpidibus 
Pretiosis,  which,  following  a  Greek  origiiurl, 
treats  of  the  mysterious  properties  of  gems.  Jlar- 
bod's  works  are  contained  in  Jligne,  Patrologia 
Lnlina.  vol.  clxxi.    (1854). 

MARBOIS,  njar'bwii'.  Fban^ols,  Marquis  de 
Bariii:.     .\  French  statesman.     See  Baj5b£-5Iar- 

BOIS. 

MARBURG,  marliHorK.  A  town  in  the 
Crow'ilancI  of  Styria.  Austria,  40  miles  by  rail 
soutli-.southeast  of  tiratz.  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
navigable  Drave  (Mai>:  Austria,  D  3).  The  town 
has  a  cathedral,  a  castle,  and  a  casino,  and  is 
the  seat  of  the  Bishop  of  Lavant.  Its  educational 
institutions  include  schools  of  theologj'  and  peda- 
gogj'  and  a  pomological  school.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of  leather,  foot- 
wear, flour,  beer,  ami  spirits.  The  extensive  work- 
shops of  the  Southern  Railway  are  situated  in  the 
suburbs  of  Sankt  Magdalcna."  Jlarburg  carries  on 
an  extensive  trade  in  wine  and  hunber.  the  chief 
products  of  the  surrounding  counlrv.  Popula- 
tion, in  1800,  10.808;  in  1000.  24,501.  mostly 
(Jermans.  Consult  Biicking.  dcschichtliche  liiUlcr 
ails  Miirlniriis  Vergangenheit   (Marburg,  1901). 

MARBURG.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
lless<'\assau.  Prussia,  situated  on  the  Lahn, 
00  miles  by  rail  north  of  Frankfort  (Map:  Prus- 
sia, C  3).  It  is  commanded  by  a  thirteenth- 
century  castle,  originally  the  residence  of  the 
landgraves  of  Hesse,  and  later  a  State  prison.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  extensive  ancient  secular  build- 
ings in  Germany,  and  is  of  interest  on  account 
of  the  disputation  between  Luther  and  Zwingli 
which  took  place  in  the  Rittersaal  in  1520.  An- 
other architcclural  feature  of  Marliurg  is  the 
thirteenth-century  Churcb  of  Saint  Elizabeth, 
a  perfect  specimen  of  early  Gothic  architecture. 
It  was  erected  by  the  Teutonic  knights  soon  after 
the  death  of  Saint  Elizabeth,  and  was  restored  in 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  con- 
tains the  fine  tomb  of  the  Saint,  as  well  as  nu- 
merous monuments  to  the  Hessian  rulers  and 
Teutonic  knights.  Noteworthy  are  also  (he  Rat- 
haus  (1512)  and  the  arlministraf ion  buildings. 
The  educational  institutions  of  Marburg  include 
the  university  (see  Maiiihro.  rMVKiisiTV  of), 
a  gj'mnasiuni.  a  'real'  schnol,  and  an  agricultural 
school.  The  chief  manufactures  are  leather, 
potterv.  machinery,  surgical  instruments,  car- 
pets,   anrl    tobacco.      The   environs   are   of   great 


MARBURG. 


43 


MARCEL. 


natural  beaut}-.  Population,  in  1800,  14,520;  in 
UIOO,   17,.327,  cliielly  I'rotestants. 

First  iML'utioncd  in  thp  thirteenth  century,  Mar- 
Iiurg  was  cnilowed  with  municipal  rights  by  the 
Landgrave  Louis  of  Thuringia  in  1227,  and  after 
his  deatli  became  the  residence  of  his  widow, 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  later  canonized.  During 
the  tiftecntli  and  sixteenth  centuries  Marburg 
was  one  of  the  residences  of  the  landgraves  of 
Hesse.  It  passed  with  Hesse-Cassel  to  Prussia  in 
lS(i6.  The  fiirtilications  were  demolished  by  the 
French   in    1810-11. 

MARBURG,  UxiVERSlTY  of.  The  first  Prot- 
estant university  of  Germany,  founded  by  Philip, 
Landgrave  of  Hesse,  in  1527,  and  endowed  with 
the  income  of  thirteen  suppressed  monasteries. 
The  Imperial  assent  was  given  in  1541.  The  new 
foundation  drew  largely  from  Wittenberg  for  its 
early  teaching  stall',  became  a  stronghold  of 
Lutheran  doctrine,  and  flourished  accordingly.  In 
IG07  Landgrave  Moritz  converted  it  into  a  Cal- 
vinistic  school,  which  conversion  resulted  in  the 
departure  of  many  professors  and  students,  and 
the  foundation  of  the  University  of  Giessen.  The 
Thirty  Years'  War  nearly  ruined  the  university, 
which  was  reconstituted  in  1653.  Since  the  incor- 
poration of  Hesse-Cassel  with  Prussia  it  has 
flourished  greatly.  It  has  a  budget  of  about  950,- 
000  marks,  and 'in  lOOl  had  over  1200  students, 
including  about  forty  women,  in  theology,  medi- 
cine, law,  and  philosophy,  the  majority  being  in 
the  two  latter  faculties.  Its  library  contains 
about    l.-)0.000  volumes. 

MARBURY  vs.  MADISON.  The  title  of  a 
famous  decision  rendereil  by  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  in  1803  and  reported  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  Cranch's  Rfjtortfi.  Its  impor- 
tance in  the  constitutional  development  of  the 
United  States  lies  in  the  fact  that  this  was  the 
first  instance  in  which  the  Supreme  Court  as- 
sumed tlie  right  to  declare  a  statute  of  Congress 
null  and  void  on  account  of  its  repugnance  to  the 
Constitution.  It  is  popularly  regarded  as  the 
chief  basis  for  the  American  doctrine  of  the  right 
of  the  courts  to  disregard  unconstitutional  stat- 
utes, although  the  right  had  been  asserted  by 
State  courts  in  some  half  a  dozen  instances  be- 
fore the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
The  case  of  Marbury  r.5.  Madison  arose  out  of  an 
attempt  of  the  plaintifl'  to  secure  a  writ  of  man- 
damus from  the  Supreme  Court  to  compel  .lames 
Madison,  then  Secretary  of  State,  to  deliver  to 
him  a  commission  as  j\istice  of  the  peace  of  the 
District  of  Columbia.  Marbury  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  this  oflHce  by  President  Adams,  the 
Senate  had  confirmed  the  nomination,  and  his 
commission  had  been  made  out.  signed  and  sealed, 
but  had  not  been  delivered.  When  Madison  en- 
tered upon  his  duties  as  Secretary  of  State  he 
found  flic  commission  and  refused  to  deliver  it. 
Marbuiy.  in  bringing  his  suit,  relied  \ipon  an  act 
of  Congress,  which  empowered  the  Supreme  Court 
to  issue  the  writ  of  mandanuis  to  executive  offi- 
cers to  compel  them  to  perform  their  duties  in 
certain  cases.  But  as  the  Constitution  expressly 
emimerates  the  cases  in  which  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  original  jurisdiction  and  nowhere 
mentions  the  right  of  issuing  the  writ  of  man- 
damus, the  Congressional  act  in  question  was 
clearly  without  constitutional  warrant.  This 
evident  repiignance  of  the  statute  to  the  Con- 
stitution was  the  first  question  decided  b^  the 
court.  The  second  point  in  the  decision  related 
Vol.  XIII.^. 


to  the  power  of  the  court  to  declare  the  act 
null  and  void  and  to  refuse  to  be  bound  thereby 
when  its  repugnance  to  the  Constitution  was 
once  established.  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  who 
delivered  the  oiiinion  of  the  court,  declared  that 
if  two  laws  conflict  with  each  other,  the  courts 
must  decide  on  the  operation  of  each,  and  if  a 
law  be  in  opposition  to  tlie  Constitution  so  that 
the  court  would  have  to  decide  the  case  conform- 
ably to  the  law  disregarding  the  Constitution,  or 
confornuibly  to  the  Constitution  disregarding  tlie 
law,  the  court  must  decide  which  of  these  con- 
flicting rules  governs  the  case.  If  then,  he  said, 
the  courts  are  to  regard  the  Constitution,  and  if 
the  Constitution  is  supreme  over  any  ordinary 
statute,  the  Constitution  and  not  the  statute 
must  govern  the  case  to  which  they  both  apply. 
Marshall's  argument  was  readily  accepted  as  the 
only  correct  and  just  rule,  and  thus  was  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  judicial  prerogative  which  has 
immensely  influenced  the  legal  and  constitutional 
development  of  the  United  States — a  [jower,  too, 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  American  courts. 

MAR'CASITE  (Fr.  marcassite.  Sp.  mar- 
qui-aita,  from  Ar.  margashltha,  from  raqnaliu.  to 
speckle,  to  embellish ) .  An  iron  disulphide  that 
crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombie  system,  has  a 
metallic  lustre,  is  of  a  pale  bronze-yellow  color, 
and  resembles  pyrite,  from  which  it  dirt'ers 
only  in  crystalline  form.  It  is  found  in  Bohemia, 
Saxony,  Hungary,  and  in  the  United  States  at 
various  localities  in  Xew  York,  Massachusetts. 
Connecticut,  and  Xew  Hampshire.  The  mineral 
is  mined  in  some  parts  of  Europe  for  its  sulphur, 
and  for  the  ferrous  sulphate  that  may  be  made 
from  it.  The  word  was  applied  inditlerently  to 
crystallized  varieties  of  iron  sulphide  until  1845. 
when  it  was  retained  exclusively  for  the  ortho- 
rhombic  variety. 

MARCATO,  ni-ir-ka'ti'i  (It.,  marked).  In 
music,  a  term  signifying  in  a  strongly  accentu- 
ated manner. 

MARCEAU,  mar'so',  F''r.\N(;'OIS  Seveein  Des- 
GR.vviEi;s  ( I7l)11-9t)).  A  soldier  of  the  French 
Revolution,  born  at  Chartres.  He  joined  the 
army  as  a  private  at  the  age  of  si.xteen.  partici- 
pated actively  in  the  capture  of  the  Bastille,  and 
in  1702  was  in  the  Army  of  the  Ardennes  com- 
manded by  Lafayette.  His  services  under  West- 
ermann  in  La  Vendee  made  him  general  of  divi- 
sion in  1793.  With  Kleber  he  crushed  the  re- 
bellion at  Cholet,  then  fought  under  .Jourdan  at 
Fleurus.  and  in  1795  and  179(5  on  the  rthine.  at 
CoI)lenz  among  other  places.  A  Prussian  sharp- 
shooter mortally  wounded  him  at  Altenkirehen. 
In  1SS9  his  remains  were  placed  in  tlie  Pantheon 
at  Paris. 

MARCEI/,  mar'sel'.  Etienxe  (?-1.35S).  Pro- 
vost of  the  merchants  of  Paris  from  December. 
1355,  until  his  death.  After  the  battle  of 
Poitiers  (q.v. ).  JIarcel  took  the  entire  govern- 
ment of  Paris  into  his  owni  hands.  To  check  the 
abuses  to  which  the  citizens  were  subjected,  he 
had  two  of  the  most  prominent  officials  of  the 
King  put  to  death.  In  order  not  to  be  obliged 
to  obey  the  commands  of  King  .Tnlin,  who  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  English.  Marcel  induced  the 
Dauphin  to  take  the  regency.  Finding  tlie  Re- 
gent opposed  to  him.  he  sought  aid  from  Charles 
the  Bad.  King  nf  Xavnrre.  from  the  .Tacquerie 
(q.v.),  and  finally  from  the  English.  This  made 
Iiim  unpopular  and  he  was  slain  by  a  rising,  on 


HABCEL. 


44 


MARCH. 


July  31.  1358.  For  a  it-w  iiiontlis  lie  had  been  the 
most  powerful  man  in  France.  It  is  impossible 
now  to  jnilyo  bis  condufl  or  bis  aims  with  ccr- 
taintv.  Consult  Lavisse,  Uisloire  tk-  France,  vol. 
iv.,  part  i.  (Paris.  1902),  and  the  works  cited 
tb<-r<-. 

MAB  CELLITJUS,  Saint.  Bishop  of  Rome, 
or  I'ope.  2'.Mi;i04.  He  was  born  in  Komc.  but  lit- 
tle is  known  of  bis  life  or  administ ration.  There 
is  an  account  of  a  synod  held  at  Siiuicssa  in  303 
or  304,  at  which  .Marccllinus  is  said  to  have  con- 
fessed thai,  at  the  instance  of  Dioch'tian.  he  had 
■'  olFercd  incense  to  N'esta  and  Isis.  The  synod  is 
said  to  have  deposed  ilarccllinus,  who,  with 
manv  members  of  the  synod,  was  put  to  death 
by  IJicicletian.  The  story  is  denied  by  Au'.nistine 
and  Theodoret.  and  is  not  credited  by  either  the 
Roman  Catholics  or  tlie  Protestant  controver- 
sialists. The  Roman  Church  coninicmoratcs  ilar- 
ccllinus on  .\pril  24th.  Consult  l)r.llin;,'er.  Fahlcs 
J{rxi,.iti,<,i  Ih,  I'uiics  of  lliv  MUlillc  Ages  (New 
York,    1871). 

MABCELLO,  mArchel'lA.  Benedetto  (IGSG- 
lT:t!M.  .\n  Italian  composer.  He  studied  music 
under  Casparini  and  Lotti,  and  is  chielly  known 
for  a  mass,  the  oratorio  (liiulelto.  the  opera 
I'xiiche.  and  the  music  to  (iiustiniani's  para- 
phrase of  tifty  Psalms.  The  characteristics  of  his 
musical  style"  are  melody,  simplicity,  and  a  so\ind 
good  taste".  He  was  aiso  an  instructor  of  wide 
reputation,  and  a  conservatory  at  Venice  is 
named  after  him.  He  wrote  the  satire  II 
Icatro  ulla  moila   (1720). 

MARCELXTTS.  The  name  of  two  popes. 
M.MH  ti.l.rs  I..  Saint,  Pope  .308.300,  a  Roman  by 
birth,  electi'd  after  an  interrc;;num  of  four  years 
due  to  the  persecution  of  Diocletian.  A  new  out- 
break under  .Maxentius  drove  him  from  Rome, 
the  attention  of  the  heathen  atithoritics  being 
directed  to  him  by  his  severity  against  tiie 
lapsed.  He  died  in  exile,  but  his  body  was 
brought  back  to  Rome  and  l)uried  in  the  Cemetery 
of  Priscilla  with  that  of  hi*  pre.lecessor.  Marcel- 
linns. — M.MicEl.l.fS  11..  P<ipe  1. ").■>.>.  Marcello  Cer- 
vini  degli  Spannocchi.  lie  wa^;  born  in  1.501  at 
Monte|)ulciano.  and  made  Bi^liop  of  Xicastrn  and 
Cardinal  in  I.'i30.  He  was  one  of  the  legates  ap- 
pointed to  preside  over  the  Coiuicil  of  Trent,  and 
was  elected  Pope  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
the  Im|H'rial  parly.  His  reign,  however,  for 
which  bis  clmracter  and  learning  bad  given  great 
hopes,  lasted  only  twenty-two  days.  He  disliked 
the  new  polyphonic  music,  and  was  thinking  of 
prohibiting  its  nM>  in  church  when  Palcstrina 
wrote  hi-i  famous  "Mi-;sa  Pap:r  Marcelli,"  had 
it  ji<rfi>rMieil  in  the  presence  of  the  Pope,  and  SO 
charmed  liini  that  he  withilrew  his  opposition. 

MARCELLTJS,  iI.\Rrts  Ci.ai  niis.  (1)  A 
fiiiiious  Unman  general.  He  belonged  to  a  distin- 
guished plelM-ian  family.  He  was  consul  for  the 
first  time  in  li.c.  222.  and  obtained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  Insubrians  in  Cir-atpine  (!aul,  slay- 
ing with  his  own  hand  their  King.  Britomartus  or 
Viridomarus.  whose  spoils  he  ilidieateil  to  .Tupi- 
ter.  and  was  honored  with  a  triumpli.  *This  was 
the  third  and  last  occasion  in  Roman  hislnry  on 
which  xpiiUn  npimn  were  ofTcred  to  .lupiter 
Feretrius.  In  the  Second  Punic  War  Marccllus 
fought  as  prietor.  in  n.f.  21li  against  Hannibal  at 
Nobi.  in  Campania;  and  the  victory  which  he 
pained  was  the  more  important,  .ts  if  showed 
that  Hannibal  wa«  not  invincible,  and  that   the 


Romans  had  not  been  irreparably  overthrown  at 
Canna?.      In   the   course   of   two   years   he   thrice 
repul.sed  the  Carthaginian  general  at  this  place. 
Being  consul  again  in  B.C.  214.  he  was  intrusted 
with  the  command  of  the  war  in  Sicily.     He  tonk 
Leontini,  massacring  in  cold  blood  2000  Roman 
deserters    whom    he    found    there,    and    then   ad- 
vanced against  Syracuse,  which  he  tried  to  Btorni. 
All   his  ciVorts   were  rendered  unavailing  by   the 
skill   of  Archimedes,  and   he   was  compelled   to 
blockade   the   city.      Famine,   pestilence,   and    ul- 
timately treachery  on  tlie   part   of  the   Spanish 
auxiliaries  of  the  Syracusans  enabled  ilarcellus 
to  make  himself  master  of  the  place   (n.c.  212), 
after    which    the   remainder   of    Sicily   was   soon 
brought  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans.    In 
li.c.  210  he  was  again  consul,  and  was  again  op- 
posed to  Hannibal,  with  whom  he  fought  an  in- 
decisive battle  at  Numistro,  in  Lucania,  and  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  at  Canusium.   in  .\pulia, 
in  B.C.  200,  but  on  the  day  following  retrieved  the 
defeat.     In  B.C.   208   he  "was   for  the   fifth  time 
elected  to  the  consulate,  and  assumed  oiicc  more 
the  command  of  tlie  Roman  army  against  Han- 
nibal.    When   out   reconnoitring  one  day  he  fell 
into  an  ambuscade   and   was   slain.     (2)    A   de- 
scendant of  the  above,  the  son  of  Augustus's  sister 
Octavia,  born  B.C.  43.     In  B.C.  2.-j  the  Emperor 
adopted  him  as  his  son  and  successor,  and  mar- 
ried his  daughter  Julia  to  him.  but  two  years 
later  the  young  man  died.     The  famous  lines  of 
Vergil    (.KiifiV/.  vi.  800-880)    refer  to  his   death. 
Augustus  named  a  theatre  in  Rome  in  his  honor. 
MARCELLTJS,   Ttieatke   of.      A   theatre   in 
Rome,    begun    by    Julius    CiTsar.    completed    by 
Augustus  in  B.c".   13.  and  named   for  his  ncjilicw 
and  son-in-law  Marcellus.     Tlie  stage  lay  toward 
the   river.      The   semicircular   portion   is   similar 
to  the  Coliseum,  and  is  built  of  travertine  with 
Doric   arcades    in   the   lower   tier   and    Ionic   in 
the  upper.    The  pilasters  of  the  attic  were  Corin- 
thian  and   the  windows   were   rectangular.      The 
theatre  could  seat  about  13..')00  spectators.  In  the 
fourth    century    some    of    the    travertine    blocks 
were   used   in    restoring  the   Cestian   bridge.      In 
the  eleventh  century  the  building  was  turned  into 
a   stronghold   of  the   Pierleoni,  and   in  the  four- 
teenth century  it  was  purchased  by  the  Savelli, 
upon  whose  extinction  it  pa.ssed  to  the  Orsini  in 
1712.      The   palace    of   the   latter   family    stands 
upon  the  stage  and  scats  which  are  buried  under 
fifteen  feet  of  modern  soil.     Many  eorriilors  and 
chambers  of  the  original  building  are  ))reserved 
and  are  used  as  offices  of  the  palace,    The  remains 
of  the  Doric  arcades  are  used  as  low  shops. 
MARCH.     See  Marching. 
MARCH.     Sec  iloNTU. 

MARCH  (OF..  Fr.  marche,  from  Ooth..  OHO. 
niarha.  C.cr.  Mark,  AS.  mrnrc,  Ixuder:  C(mnectcd 
with  Lnt.  niarfio.  Olr.  hrii.  Welsh.  Corn,  hrn, 
Av.  m;>r,);r».  boumlary).  .\  term  aiiplicd  in  Eng- 
land iluring  the  early  Middle  Ages  and  later  to 
the  frontier  or  border  line  between  F.ngland  and 
Wales  and  between  F.ngland  and  Scotland.  In 
Anglo-Saxon  times  the  word  appears  under  the 
form  Mercia  as  the  name  of  the  most  western  of 
the  English  kingdoms.     See  Mark. 

In  Scotland  the  word  came  into  common  use  to 

designate  the  boundaries  of  real  property,  corrc- 

-|...ii.liie.'   (o   the    Knglish   term   boundary    (q.v.). 

mXrCH,  miirK   (Lat.  Mnriif:.  Slav.  }fr>rapa). 

A    tributary   of   the   Danube   and   the    principal 


MAKCH. 


45 


MARCHESI. 


river  of  Moravia  (Map:  Austria,  E  2).  It  rises 
in  till'  Sudctic  Jlouiitaiiis  (in  tln'  honndarj'  of 
.Sili'sia,  and  runs  soutlnvanl,  forniinj^  in  its  lower 
course  the  boundary  between  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary, and  entering  tlie  Danube  2(j  miles  cast  of 
Vienna,  after  a  course  of  about  217  miles,  for  tlie 
last  80  of  which  it  is  navigable.  See  Marchfelu. 
HAUCH  (Fr.  marche,  from  miirchcr,  to  walk, 
maieli,  probably  from  OF.,  Fr.  marche,  lioundary; 
or  possibly  from  Lat.  marciis,  hanuner;  connected 
with  Skt.  mar,  to  gi'ind,  on  account  of  the  beat 
of  tlie  feet).  A  musical  composition  having 
primarily  for  its  object  to  regulate  the  steps 
of  a  large  number  of  persons  in  motion.  Even 
in  remote  antiquity,  solemn  processions  were  al- 
ways accompanied  by  music.  In  the  Greek 
tragedy  the  entrance  as  well  as  the  exit  of  the 
chorus  was  so  accompanied.  The  military  march 
undoubtedly  was  developed  from  soldiers'  songs. 
The  ordinary  march  used  for  parades,  drills,  etc., 
has  about  75  steps  to  the  minute,  the  quick-step 
about  100,  and  the  dotdile  quick  or  cliarge  about 
120.  Tlie  march  as  an  art  form  was  developed 
fi'om  the  dance  forms  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Lully  in  his  operas  and  F.  C'ouperin  in  his 
piano  works  established  the  march  form  as  con- 
sisting of  two  reprises  of  eight  or  sixteen  meas- 
ures. To  this  was  added,  somewhat  later,  a  por- 
tion distinguished  by  repose  and  broad  melodic 
outline,  generally  in  a  closelj'  related  key.  This 
was  called  the  trio,  because  at  first  it  was  in 
three-part  writing  as  against  the  two-part  writ- 
ing of  the  first  section.  After  the  trio  tlie  first 
section  is  re|)cated.  To-day  the  art  form  of  the 
march  is  highly  developed  and  employed  on  vari- 
ous occasions.  A  special  kind  of  march  is  the 
funeral  march.  It  is  written  in  very  slow  time 
(grave,  lento,  adagio),  and  always  in  the  minor 
mode.  The  trio  is  in  the  relative  or  correspond- 
ing major.  Beethoven's  great  funeral  march  in 
the  Eroica  Symphoiui  is  in  C  minor  with  trio  in 
C  major;  Chopin's  funeral  march  in  the  Sonata 
op.  35  is  in  B  flat  minor  with  trio  in  D  flat 
major. 

MARCH,  ArsiAs  (  ?-c.l458).  A  Catalan  poet, 
born  in  A'alencia,  probably  before  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  He  was  admired  and  praised 
not  only  by  his  fellow  citizens  in  Catalonia,  but 
also  by  noted  Spanish  authors.  In  March's  chief 
works,  the  Cants  d'amor  and  the  CaniK  de  mort, 
he  is  visibly  under  the  influence  of  Petrarch,  as 
are  so  many  of  his  contemporaries.  He  avoided  all 
close  imitation,  however,  and  may  safely  stand  on 
his  own  merits.  Liveliness  of  fancy  and  genuine- 
ness of  sentiment  are  among  his  best  traits;  his 
chief  defect  is  a  certain  obscurity  of  expression. 
Consult  the  edition  of  his  poems  bv  Pelavo  y  Britz 
(Barcelona.  18(14).  and  that  of  Barcelona,  1888, 
neither  of  them  a  good  reproduction  of  the  six- 
teenth century  editions;  .7.  Rubio  y  Ors,  Akkihs 
March  y  su  dpoca  (Barcelona,  1802)  ;  A.  Pag&s, 
'■Pocumcnts  in<^dits  relalifs  h  la  vie  d'Aiisias 
March."  in  the  Romania,  vol.  xvii.  (Paris,  1888). 

MARCH,  Francis  Anprew  (I82.'i— ).  An 
American  philologist  and  author,  born  at  Mill- 
bury,  j\lass.  He  graduated  in  1845  at  Amherst. 
where  he  was  tutor  in  1847-49,  and,  after  study- 
ing law  in  New  York,  was  in  1850  admitted  to 
the  bar.  Havinc  taught  at  Fredericksburg.  Va,, 
from  1852  to  1855,  he  was  appointed  tutor  in 
Lafayette  College  in  the  latter  year,  and  in  1858 
became  professor  of  the   English   language  and 


comparative  philology.  In  187.3  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  American  Philological  Associa- 
tion, and  in  1891  succeeded  .lames  Kussell  Lowell 
as  president  of  the  Modern  Language  Association 
of  America.  Foreign  societies  have  honored  him 
with  various  distinctions;  and  in  1879  he  was 
chosen  to  be  the  head  of  the  American  staff  of 
A  New  Eiiylish  Diviiuitary  on  llisliiricnl  Princi- 
ples, prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  Philo- 
logical Society  of  London.  His  publications  in- 
clude: A  Method  of  Philosophical  l<tudy  of  tin: 
EnylisJ^  Languayc  (18(15);  Anylu-Haxon  Header 
(1870);  and  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  An- 
glo-Saxon Lancjuaye  (1870).  He  also  edited  a 
series  of  text-books  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors, 
and  was  consulting  editor  of  the  standard  Dic- 
tiouarij    (1890-94). 

MARCHAND,  m-ir'shaN',  Fl^iLix  C.AnRiEL 
(1832—).  A  Canadian  statesman,  born  at  Saint 
John's,  Quebec.  He  studied  at  Saint  Hyaeinthe 
College,  and  was  admitted  a  notary  in  1855.  In 
1867  he  W'as  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly  of  the  Province  of  Queliec,  and  from 
1878  to  1879  was  Provincial  Secretary.  From 
1887  to  1892  he  was  Speaker  of  the  Assembly, 
and  in  1897  was  appointed  Premier  and  Treas- 
urer. In  1800  he  established  Lc  Franco-Ganadien, 
which  he  edited  for  some  time.  Ho  wrote: 
Fatenville  (1869);  Erreur  n'est  pas  comple 
(1872)  ;  Un  bonhciir  en  attire  un  autre  (1884)  ; 
and  Les  faux  brillants   (1885). 

MARCHAND,  Jeai^j  Baptiste  (1863—).  A 
French  officer  and  explorer,  born  at  Thoissey,  Ain. 
His  explorations  in  search  of  an  improved  route  to 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea  from  the  valley  of  the  Niger 
resulted  in  a  scheme  for  the  Transnigerian  Rail- 
way between  the  Bandama  and  Niger  rivers.  In 
1898  he  established  on  the  White  Nile  the  post 
of  Fashoda,  which  resisted  attacks  from  the 
Dervishes,  but  found  a  more  formidable  foe  in 
General  Kitchener  with  British  forces  fresh  from 
their  victory  over  the  Mahdi  and  determined  to 
take  possession  of  the  country.  Major  Marchand 
refused  to  withdraw,  and  international  complica- 
tions ensued ;  but  the  afTair  was  settled  when 
the  French  Government  retired  from  the  posi- 
tion while  Marchand  was  on  his  way  home  to  re- 
port.    See  Fashoda. 

MARCHENA,  mar-chil'n:x.  A  town  of  South- 
ern Spain  in  the  Province  of  Seville,  sitiiated  28 
miles  east  of  Seville,  on  the  railroad  between 
Cadiz  and  Cordova  (Map:  Spain.  C  4).  It  is  a 
picturesque  old  town,  partly  surrounded  by  the 
grass-covered  remains  of  Moorish  fortifications, 
and  contains  a  half-ruined  palace  of  the  dukes 
of  Arcos,  and  two  notable  Gothic  churches.  In 
the  neighborhood  are  sulphur  springs;  the  sur- 
rounding region  is  fertile,  growing  fine  olives. 
Population,  in  1900,  12,255. 

MARCHES,  The  (It.  Le  Marche.  the  boun- 
daries). A  name  frequently  occurring  in  Italian 
history  as  applied  to  a  stretch  of  territory  in  the 
central  part  of  the  Peninsula,  comprising  the 
present  provinces  of  Aneona,  Ascoli-Piceno.  Ma- 
cerata,  and  Pesaro  e  Urbino. 

MARCHESA  COLOMBI.  mar-k.n'za  k.Vlrtm'- 
be.  A  pseudonym  of  the  Italian  author  Maria 
Torelli-Torriani  (q.v.). 

MARCHESI,  mar-k:"i'z4,  Mathilde,  nfe  Grau- 
MANN  (1826—).  A  German-French  singing 
teacher,    born    at    Frankfort-on-the-Main.      She 


MAKCHESI. 

studied  under  Nicolai  in  Virnnii.  and  with  Man- 
uel Uarcia  in  Paris,  afterwards  aiiiM'arin";  as 
a  concert  sin;;er  in  Londun  and  on  tlic  I'on- 
tinent.  Her  voice  was  pleasiii<r.  li\it  not  remark- 
able. In  1852  she  married  Si^Micir  Marclicsj  and 
tau^lit  sinfjin},'  at  tlie  \ienna  Conservatory  from 
1854  to  ISlil,  after  which  she  moved  to  I'aris 
and  succeeded  in  niakin<;  her  salon  one  of  the 
most  important  circles  of  musical  life  in  the 
city.  She  taught  at  Cologne  from  1805  to  1808, 
then  at  Vienna  fen-  a  nundier  of  years,  lint  ulti- 
mately settled  in  Paris.  Among  her  pupils  were 
Tremelli.  Caroline  Sulla.  Emma  Sclnik-Proska, 
Gerster,  Mclha.  Kamcs.  Calvf-.  Sihyl  Sanderson. 
Consult   11a vme,   Marcliisi  anil   Munic:   I'lLssagcs 


46  MAKCHING. 

snow.'  One  of  the  commonest  species  in  the 
I  nitcd  States  is  the  white-winged  hibio  {Bihio 
albipinnis),  which  sometimes  occurs  in  enor- 
mous numbers.  The  smallest  forms  belong  to  tlie 
genus  Scatopse  and  breed  in  decaying  animal  and 
vegetable  matter. 

MABCHIENNE-ATT-PONT,  nuirshe'en'fi'- 
jiun'.  a  town  in  the  Province  of  Uainault, 
Belgium,  two  miles  west  of  Cliarleroi.  on  the 
Sambre  River.  It  is  an  imi)ortant  coal-mining 
centre.      Population,   in    1900,    18,401. 

MARCHING.  One  of  the  essentials  to  mo- 
bility and  cireetiveness  in  the  field  is  the  ability 
of  the  sohlier  to  carry  out  long  marches  with  a 


from   ihc  Life  of  a  Famous  Singer   (New  York,     minimum  of  fatigue.     To  this  end  his  ])hysical 
laiiai  development  is  advanced  by  various  systems  of 


18!t8) 

MARCHESI,  PompeoCavaliere  (1780-1858). 
All  Italian  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Saltrio, 
near  Milan.  August  7,  1780.  and  studied  at  Rome 
under  Canova.  He  was  professor  of  sculpture  at 
Uie  Academy  of  Milan  for  many  years.  Among 
his  earliest  works  are  the  relief  sculptures  "Terp- 
Bichore"  and  "Nenus  I'rania"  for  the  Simplon 
Arch  and  the  colossal  statue  of  King  Charles  Km- 
maniid  in  the  Cathedral  at  Turin.  His  later  works 
in<lude  the  sitting  statue  of  (ioethe  for  the 
Frankfort  Library:  a  statue  of  Kmpcror  Fran- 
cis 1.  of  Austria  for  Gratz,  and  another  for  the 
Hofburg   in    Vienna.      One   of   his   best   works   is 


physical  e.xercise,  both  in  the  gymnasium  and  on 
the  drill  ground;  while  equal  inijinrtance  is  at- 
tached to  foiit-driH,  to  injure  |)rc(isiriii  and  regu- 
larity of  step.  Througluiut  the  world  drill  evo- 
lutions and  all  ceremonial  exercises  are  carried 
out  in  cadenced  step.  On  the  mardi.  troops  are 
frequently  allowed  to  lireak  or  march  in  route 
step.  Units  of  organization  are  kept  intact  as 
much  as  possible:  the  cavalry  belongs  in  front, 
and  the  engineers  and  bridge-train  must  also  be 
well  advanced  in  the  column;  the  field  artillery 
is  needed  early,  but  it  also  requires  piiilection, 
therefore  no  general  rvile  as  to  its  )iro|)cr  position 
can    be    given:    the    circumstances    must    decide. 


the  colossal  group  for  the  Church  of  San  Carlo     rj-j^^  artificry  of  position  is  in  the  main  column 


at  Milan,  in  which  is  the  figure  of  the  famou 
"Mater  Dolorosa;"  also  important  is  the  sepul- 
chral monument  for  Duke  Emmanuel  Phililx'rt  of 
Savoy  1184:!)  in  the  Turin  Cathedral.  He  died 
at  Milan,  February  fi,  1858. 

MARCHETTI,  miir-ket'tA,  Fii.i.iiTO  (1835- 
I'.tOi).  .\n  Italian  composer,  born  in  Holognola. 
His  principal  work,  (liuliclta  c  liomro,  first  pro- 
dueeil  at  'i'riest  in  1805.  and  afterwards  »l  l.a 
Scala.  Milan,  was  the  corner-stone  of  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  composer,  after  wliidi  time  A'li//  llliis 
(  1809)  was  his  only  conspicuous  success.  In 
1881  he  was  appointed  Director  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Saint  Cecilia,  Rome.  His  com- 
positions include  considerable  chamber  music,  be- 
sides several  symphonies,  choruses,  and  a  few- 
masses. 

MARCHFELD,  uilirK'feU.  A  large  plain  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite  Vienna. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  river  March.  It 
contains  (Uily  a  few  villages.  Uecause  of  the 
physical  eharacleristics.  this  has  been  a  noted 
battle  field.  Here  Marcus  Aurelius  contended 
with  the  Mareomanni.  In  l-'(iO  King  Ottokar  of 
liohcmia  defeated  Hela  IV.  of  Hungary  on  the 
Marelifcld.  On  the  same  ]dain  in  1278  Ottokar 
was  defeated  by  Hudidph  of  llapsbuig  anil  slain. 
In  modern  times  the  most  imiiortant  battles 
fought  on  the  Marehfeld  were  those  of  Asperii 
(q.v.l    ami  Wagrani    (q.v.)    in   1800. 

MARCH  FLY.  Any  one  of  the  dipterous  in- 
sects of  the  family  Ribionidic.  so  called  because 
these  Hies  are  most  common  in  the  early  spring. 
They  are  of  medium  size,  rather  thick-bodied  and 
rntlier  hairy,  but  they  are  weak  fliers.  The 
wings  are  frequently  fuscous.  More  than  300 
species  are  known.  The  larvie  feed  upon  exere- 
menlal  or  vegetable  substances,  and  are  supposed 
to  attack  the  rf«>(s  of  growing  grass.  The  larvie 
of  »ome  species  have  been  found  on  the  surface  of 


it  the  end  of  which  march  the  ammunition  col- 
umns, and  finally  the  train.  If  an  army  corps 
inarches  on  two  roads,  each  division  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  ])ortion  of  the  amniunitioii  columns  and 
the  train.  The  average  march  of  infant ry  is  a  mile 
in  from  IS  to  20  minutes,  and  an  average  of  14  (U- 
15  miles  a  ilay ,  which  in  extreme  emergency  could 
be  increased  to  :i8  or  40  miles  in  from  28  to  ,30 
hours.  I'nder  fair  to  good  conditions,  cavalry 
usually  a(c()iiii)lisli  from  .30  to  .38  miles  in  a  day 
of  24  hours — several  days  in  succession;  doing 
15  minutes  at  the  walk,  and  45  at  the  trot,  the 
average  inarch  of  14  or  15  miles  a  day  being 
accomplished  in  three  hours.  Artillery  consume 
four  hours  in  accomplishing  the  same  result,  and 
the  train  five  hours.  The  average  European  in- 
fantry division  at  war  strengtli.  marcliing  on  a 
single  road,  and  observing  the  usual  distances, 
would  occupy  a  length  of  lO'^,  mill's,  and  would 
take  4  hours  and  10  minutes  to  pass  a  given 
point.  Under  the  same  conditions  an  army  corps 
occupies  a  stretch  of  nearly  24  miles,  and  takes 
0'V|  hours  to  pass.  The  shortest  or  most  direct 
road  is  given  to  infantry,  the  best  to  artillery, 
and  the  softest  to  cavalry — when  conditions  per- 
mit. 

Halts  are  as  a  rule  governed  by  conditions, 
and  are  regulated  under  ordinary  conditions 
either  by  lime  or  distance.  The  United  States 
infantry  drill  regulations  prescribe  a  halt  of  15 
minutes  after  the  first  45  minutes'  marching,  to 
enable  the  men  to  relieve  themselves  and  to  ad- 
just their  clothing  and  accoutrements.  After- 
wards there  is  a  halt  of  10  minutes  every  hour. 
If  marching  in  the  vicinity  of  an  enemy  the 
march  is  made  in  several  columns,  avoiding  ex- 
treme depth,  and  facilitating  de]iloynieiit.  Strag- 
glers are  picked  up  by  the  |irovost -guard,  which 
marches  in  the  rear.  The  following  table  gives 
in  round  numbers  the  rate  of  marching  in  the 
leading  armies  of  the  world: 


MARCHING. 


47 


MARCOMANNI. 


Marching 


Austria 

Kn^land 

Kriiui-e 

GerniaDy 

Italy 

Russia 

United  States. 


Infantry 


Average  per 
minute 
(paces) 


115 
llfi 

lao 

114 

116 
118 
120 


Average  per 

hour 

(miles) 


3 
3 
3 
3 

2^4 

3 

3 


Cavalry 
(Averag:e  miles  per  hour) 


i 
i 

3% 

4 
4 


Trot 


8'/4 

8 

8 

7% 

7 

8 


Artillery 


Avera^iie 

per  hour 

(miles) 

3% 

31/i 

3V4 

3V4 

3 

3V' 

3Mi 


Average 

per  hour 

(miles) 

3 
3 

2% 
3 

2V4 

3 

3 


MARCHING    THROUGH    GEORGIA.      A 

widely  popular  ballad  of  tlic  Civil  War,  begin- 
ning "liring  the  good  old  bugle,  boys."  It  com- 
lueuKi rates  Sherman's  famous  march  to  the  sea, 
and  was  written  by  H.  C.  \\'ork  soon  after  the 
march  eonimenoed,  on  November  IG,  1864. 

MARCHIONESS,  The.  In  Dickens's  Old 
Curiosity  iSliop,  a  small  servant  to  Sampson 
Brass,  and  a  friend  of  Dick  Swiveller. 

MARCIANISE,  milr'che-a-ne'ze.  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  18  miles  by  rail 
from  Naples,  in  a  low,  unhcalthful  plain,  where 
are  several  small  lakes  (Map:  Italy,  J  6).  The 
raising  of  fruits  and  grain  constitutes  the  prin- 
cipal industry.  Population,  in  1901  (commune), 
12,785. 

MARCION,  miir'shon.  A  second  century 
Christian,  classed  among  tlie  heretics.  He  was 
born  in  Sinope,  Pontus,  and  died  after  160.  About 
the  year  140  he  came  to  Rome,  where  he  fell 
under  the  iuHuence  of  the  Syrian  Cerdon,  from 
whom  his  (inostic  ideas  were  perhaps  derived,  and 
here  he  founded  his  church.  He  afterwards  trav- 
eled through  the  East,  visiting  Rome  again  in 
the  episcopate  of  Anicetus  ( 1  .'54- Ui.5 ) .  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  later  life.  His  disciples,  chief 
among  whom  was  Apelles,  continued  his  work, 
and  Alarcionite  churches  were  soon  to  be  found 
scattered  over  North  Africa,  Gaul,  Asia  Minor, 
and   Egypt. 

It  is  said  that  Polycarp  (q.v.)  once  met  Mar- 
cion  in  the  streets  of  Rome  and  saluted  him  as 
"the  first-born  of  Satan.'  In  this  he  gave  expres- 
sion to  the  general  sentiment  of  the  Church,  for 
Marcion  was  attacked  by  almost  every  orthodox 
•writer  from  -Tustin  onward.  Yet  Marcion 
regarded  himself  in  the  light  of  a  reformer. 
He  believed  that  Christianity  marked  an  essen- 
tially new  dei)artnre.  but  that  it  had  already 
become  corrupted  through  the  admixture  of 
Jewish  elements.  These  nuist  be  purged  out. 
For  him  Paul  was  the  only  true  Apostle,  because 
he  alone  thoroughly  alijured  .Judaism.  The.se 
principles  appear  in  Marciou's  Scripture  canon — 
the  earliest  Cliristian  collection  known — which 
embraced  one  Oospel  (Luke,  without  the  intro- 
ductory part,  which  was  Mewish")  and  ten  of 
Paul's  Epistles  (omitting  those  of  Timothy  and 
Titus).  Church  writers  accused  him,  with  ap- 
parent justice,  of  'mutilating'  the  Scriptures, 
llis  own  chief  work,  entitled  Aiilithcsrs.  set  forth 
the  alleged  contradictions  between  Law  and  Gos- 
pel. The  Creator  of  the  Old  Testament  was  rep- 
resente<l  as  a  cruel  and  vindictive  being,  wholly 
ililTerent  from  the  God  of  love,  revealed  through 
Christ.  iMarcion's  (;hrist(dogy  was  docetic.  i.e. 
he  taught  that  Christ  sudered  only  in  appear- 
ance. (See  DocET.K.)  His  ethics  resulted  in  a 
severe  asceticism.    His  Gnostic  tendency  appears 


in  the  dualistic  tenet  that  man's  body  cannot  be 
saved,  only  his  spirit,  which  is  the  opposite  of 
matter.  This  was  a  striking  departure  from 
the  conmion  Christian  belief.  An  attempt 
has  recently  been  made  to  prove  anti-Mar- 
cionite  inlluence  in  the  formulation  of  the 
old  Roman  symbol,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of 
the  Apostles'  Creed.  The  Marcionite  Church 
was  completelj'  organized,  having  its  clergj',  its 
rites,  and  its  Scriptures.  The  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism was  administered  much  as  in  the  orthodox 
Church,  but  in  the  Eucharist  water  was  substi- 
tuted for  wine.  In  the  East  Marcionite  churches 
are  found  as  late  as  the  sixth  century,  but  in  the 
West  they  disappeared  earlier,  being  absorbed  by 
the  more  virile  Manicha-ans.  (See  MANit'ii.»:iSM.)i 
Their  downfall  was  due  in  part  to  ecclesiastical 
opposition,  and  in  part  to  hostile  legislation  un- 
der Christian  emperors  from  Constantine  on- 
ward. In  the  persecutions  througli  which  they 
passed,  not  a  few  Marcionites  suffered  a  mar- 
tyr's death,  and  the  property  of  their  churches 
was  declared  forfeited  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
For  information  as  to  the  surviving  fragiuents  of 
Marcion's  works,  consult:  Kriigcr,  History  of 
Early  Cliristian  Literature  (New  York,  1897)  ; 
Cruttwell,  Literary  History  of  Early  Christianity 
(London,  18113).  Among  the  sources  consult  the 
interesting  work  of  Tertullian,  Against  Marcion, 
trans,  in  The  Ante-Xicene  Fathers,  vol.  iii.,  ed. 
by  Roberts  and  Donaldson  (American  edition). 
In  general,  consult:  Harnack.  History  of  Dogma, 
vol.  i.  (London,  1894)  ;  Smith  and  Wace,  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography,  article  "Marcion." 

MARCO  BOZZARIS.  A  well-known  poem 
by  Fitz-tircene  Halleck  on  the  death  of  the 
Greek  patriot  Bozzaris  (q.v.).  It  appeared  in 
the  Xew  York  Review  in  182.5.  First  line:  "At 
midnight  in  his  guarded  tent." 

MARCO  DA  OGGIONE,  miii'ko  dil  6d-jo'na. 
An  Italian  painter.     See  Uuiilo.NE,  Maucu  ua. 

MAR'COMAN'NI  (Lat.,  from  QllQ .  * M arka- 
maii.  border-man,  from  marca,  border  +  n\an, 
man).  An  ancient  German  people  who,  in  the 
time  of  C:rsar,  lived  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine, 
but  afterwards,  as  appears  from  Tacitus  and 
Strabo.  settled  in  Bohemia,  from  which  they 
expelled  the  Boii.  Their  King.  Maroboduus,  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  the  tril)es  living 
aroinid  them  to  defend  Germany  against  the  Ro- 
mans. The  combined  forces  of  the  alliance  num- 
bered 70.000  men,  and  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
signed  a  treaty  with  them  in  a.d.  fi;  but  the 
Marcomaunic  alliance  was  beaten  eleven  years 
later  by  the  Cherusci  and  their  allies;  and  in 
19  the  (lOthic  Catualda  drove  Maroboduus  from 
the  throne,  and  himself  usurped  the  sovereignty. 
But  he  was  soon  overthrown,  and  the  native 
dynasty  established,  under  whose  rule  the  Mar- 


HAKCOMANNI. 


48 


coiiianiii  cxtoudid  Ihuir  teiiilmy  up  to  the  Dan- 
ube, till  llicir  uiicioachmeiils  alaiineil  the  Ro- 
mans, who  attacked  them  iu  the  time  of  Domi- 
tian.  This  war,  which  subsided  for  a  time  in 
the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  broke  out 
again  \uidcr  Alarcus  Aurelius,  and  was  carried 
on  with  bitterness  from  100  to  180,  when  it  was 
ended  by  the  I'eaee  of  Commodus.  Tlie  .Marco- 
manni  clmtinued  to  make  raids  into  the  provinces 
of  Noricum  and  Kha^tia,  and  iu  270  invaded  Italy 
as  far  as  Ancona.  Soon  after  this  their  name 
fades  away  from  history,  the  people  figuring  later 
under  tlic  name  of  Boiarii.     See  Bavakia. 

MARCO'NI,  GuGLiELMO  (1875—).  An  Ital- 
ian electrician,  inventor  of  the  wireless  telegraph. 
He  was  born  near  Bologna  at  tlrilTone,  studied 
under  Kosa  at  Leghorn,  and  then  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bologna.  There  he  came  in  contact 
with  Professor  Kighi,  who  had  long  been  inter- 
ested in  the  nature  of  the  Hertzian  waves.  The 
young  man  saw  the  possibilities  of  using  these 
waves  for  the  transmission  of  messages,  improved 
the  coherers  of  Onesti  and  Branly,  made  several 
successful  experiments  at  (iritVone  in  1805,  and 
in  1890,  having  failed  to  interest  the  Italian  Gov- 
ernment in  his  lx>half,  went  to  England,  where 
his  plans  were  laid  before  the  post-oHice  authori- 
ties. There  his  project  was  well  received.  Sir 
William  Preece,  engincer-in-chief  of  the  British 
telegraph  system,  who  had  himself  made  experi- 
ments in  18!).'!  and  18'.)4,  took  uj)  the  new  method, 
tested  it, and  declared  it  successful. but  limited  in 
application.  Almost  inunediately  afterwards, 
tests  of  the  Marconi  method  were  nuide  by  the 
Italian  Ministry  of  Marine  at  Spezzia.  In  1S!)7 
the  Marconi  VVireless  Telegraph  Company  was 
founded  with  a  large  capital.  Two  years  later 
signals  were  successfully  exchanged  across  the 
English  Channel,  and  the  system  was  established 
pretty  generally  in  the  British  and  Italian 
navies,  although  some  insular  jealo\isy  was 
aroused  in  England  that  the  scheme  of  a  for- 
eigner should  be  adopted  in  view  of  Precce's  early 
study  of  the  problem,  and  this  in  spite  of  the 
fact  "that  Marconi's  mother  was  an  Irish  woman. 
In  Ilecember.  lltOl.  from  Saint  John's.  X.  F., 
Marconi  sent  »  signal  to  the  Irish  coast,  and  on 
December  19,  1902.  succeeded  in  transmitting  a 
message.    See  Wireless  Tei.egrai'iiy. 

MARCO  POLO.     See  Polo.  Mahco. 

MARCOTJ,  mar'koo',  Jule.s  (1824-98).  A 
Ercnch  geologist,  born  in  .Salins.  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  .lura.  lie  was  educated  in  Paris,  and, 
after  completing  his  course  at  the  Collfge  Saint 
Louis,  made  geological  excursions  through  the 
Alps.  In  1H40  he  was  attached  to  the  mineral- 
opieal  department  of  the  Sorbonne.  and  conducted 
geologii'al  investigations  in  various  jiarts  of 
Europe,  and  from  1848  to  185(1  in  the  United 
States.  For  some  time  he  was  employed  by  the 
Uniti-d  .^lalea  Oovernnient  in  surveying  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  but  he  retiirneil  in  1855  to  Eu- 
rope to  nccei)t  the  chair  of  paleontological  geol- 
ogy in  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Zurich.  In  1800 
he  again  visited  the  United  States  and  was 
engaged  with  Prof.  Louis  Agnssiz  in  paleonto- 
logical researches,  and  afterward-;  end'red  the 
Government  service.  Profosor  Mareou  is  l)est 
known,  perhaps,  for  his  works.  Rirliinlirs  t/ro- 
logiqiir  siir  le  Jura  unlinnix  (1848).  and  The 
Tiicnnic  Si/stcm  nml  Itn  Posilion  in  idriil'uiriiphio 
Geology    (1885).     He  published   many  scientific 


MARCY. 

papers  besides  the  following  more  important 
works:  Vmloyy  of  Sorth  Aiiwrica  (1858)  ;  Geo- 
logical Map  of  the  M'orld  (1801);  De  la  science' 
en  France  (1809)  ;  Origin  of  the  Xanw  America 
(1875)  ;  First  Discoveries  of  California,  and  the 
Origin  of  Its  yame   (1878). 

MAR'CUS.     Bishop  of  Rome,  or  Pope,  Janu- 
ary   18   to   October  7.   333.     He  was  a   native  of  , 
Rome,  and   is  said   to   have   had   a   share   in   the           I 
building  of  two  churches,  one  of  which   still   re-            1 
mains  as  San  Marco,  although  frequently  altered 
and  repaired. 

MAR'CtrS  AURE'LIUS  ANTONI'NUS. 
See  AiRixirs. 

MAR'CY,  Mot;NT.  The  loftiest  of  the  Adiron- 
dack Mountains,  and  the  highest  point  in  New 
York  State,  situated  in  Essex  County,  10  miles 
south  of  Lake  Placid  (Map:  New  York,  G  1). 
It  is  5344  feet  high,  and  was  known  to  the  In- 
dians as  Tahawus,  the  'cloud-divider.'  On  its 
side.  4327  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  picturesque 
Lake  Tear  of  the  Clouds,  one  of  the  sources  of 
the  Hudson  River. 

MARCY,  Henry  Orlando  (1837—).  An 
American  surgeon,  born  at  Otis,  Mass.  He  volun- 
teered in  the  Union  Army  as  assistant  surgeon  in 
1SC3.  He  was  assistant  in  chemistry  at  Har- 
vard after  the  close  of  the  war;  then  studied 
surgery  at  Berlin  (1809)  and  in  England  under 
Lister,"  and  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  bac- 
teriology of  wounds,  Marcy  wrote  Best  Methods 
of  Opei'atire  Wound  Treatment  (1882),  and  the 
very  valuable  work  on  Anatomy  and  Surgical 
Treatment    of   Hernia    (1892). 

MARCY,  Randolph  Barkes  (1812-87).  An 
American  soldier,  born  at  Greenwich,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832,  was  promoted 
to  a  captaincy  in  1840,  and  served  in  the  war 
w  ith  Mexico.  "  Subsequently  he  was  engageil  in 
explorations  in  the  Red  River  country  (  1852) . 
in  operations  against  the  Seminoles  (1857),  and 
in  the  Utah  expedition  of  1857-58.  He  was  ap- 
pointed paymaster,  with  the  rank  of  major,  in 
1859.  and  "  inspector-general,  with  the  rank  of 
colonel,  in  1801;  was  chief  of  stall  to  General 
JlcCl.llan.  his  son-in-law.  in  West  Virginia,  on 
the  IVniiisula.and  in  Maryland:  and  in  1805  was 
brcvc'tted  major-general  in  the  Regular  Army  for 
faithful  and  meritorious  services  during  the  war. 
In  1808  he  was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the 
Inited  States  Army,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  and  was  president  of  the  Army  Regula- 
tion Board  until  January  1.  1881,  when  he  retired 
from  active  service.  He  published:  Ej-jiloration 
of  the  h'rr!  Hirer  (18,53):  The  I'rairie  Trarelrr 
I  18501  :  Thirlii  Years  of  Armg  Life  on  the  Bor- 
der  ilsddi;   and  Border  Reminiscences   (1871). 

MARCY,  WiLLL\M  Lear.nei)  ( 1780- 18.57 )  ._An 
Anuiiian  statesman,  born  December  12.  1780, 
at  Sdutbbridge.  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1808.  and  soon  entered  upon  the 
|)raclice  of  law  at  Troy.  X.  Y.  At  th<'  open- 
ing of  the  War  of  1812  he  entered  the  volunteer 
serv-iee  as  a  lieutenant,  and  on  October  22.  1812, 
led  a  successful  attack  upon  Saint  Regis,  a 
Canadian  post.  For  this  he  was  soon  iifler- 
wards  promoted  to  he  captain.  Before  the  end 
of  the  war  he  returned  to  Troy,  where  he  was 
aetiv"  as  .a  newspaper  writer  and  politician,  sup- 
porting the  Tompkins  faction  against  the  Clinto- 
nians.  anil  allying  himself  with  the  '.Mbany  Re- 
gency' (q.v.).     After  filling  several  minor  offices. 


MABCY. 


49 


MABE  CLAUSUM. 


and  after  a  service  of  six  years  as  Comptroller  of 
tile  .Stale,  lie  was  made  an  associate  justice  of  the 
Xew  Vork  .Supreme  C'uurt  in  1829.  In  1831  he  was 
elected  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  Demo- 
cratic Partj',  but  resigned  the  office  u])on  being 
chosen  tiovernor  of  Xcw  York  in  1832.  In  the 
iSetiate  ho 'served  as  chairman  of  the  Judiciary 
Committee,  and  gained  distinction  by  his  defense 
of  Martin  \'an  Buren  against  the  attacks  of  Henry 
Claj'.  In  the  course  of  a  speech  on  the  question  of 
ap]iointnient  to  office,  he  upheld  the  right  of  tlie 
President  to  bestow  the  offices  upon  his  political 
supporters,  sijying,  '"We  can  see  nothing  wrong  in 
the  ma.xim  that  to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils," 
thus  associating  his  name  in  history  with  the 
spoils  system.  He  served  as  Governor  for  three 
terms,  and  was  nominated  for  a  fourth  term  in 
1838,  but  was  defeated  by  William  H.  Seward 
(q.v.).  He  was  appointed  a  commissioner  on 
claims  against  the  ilexican  Government  in  the 
same  year,  and  served  in  that  capacity  until 
1842.  In  1845  he  became  the  Secretary  of  \Var 
in  President  Polk's  Cabinet.  His  ability  in  this 
position  was  severely  tested  by  the  Mexican 
\\ar.  In  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1848  he 
supported  General  Cass.  The  last  and  most  im- 
])ortant  public  station  in  whicli  he  served  was 
that  of  Secretary  of  State  during  Pierce's  admin- 
istration (1853-57).  Among  the  foreign  compli- 
cations or  treaties  which  demanded  action  on  his 
part  in  this  capacity  were  the  settling  of  the 
ilexican  boundary,  the  Canadian  reciprocity 
treaty.  Commodore  Perry's  negotiations  with 
Japan,  the  British  fishery  dispute,  the  Ostend  Con- 
ference, and  the  so-called  'Koszta  Afl'air'  (q.v.), 
whicli  added  much  to  his  popularity.  In  these 
and  in  other  matters  Marcy  successfully  defended 
the  interests  of  his  country,  and  displayed  the 
qualities  of  a  trained  statesman  and  accomplished 
diplomat.  One  of  his  notable  diplomatic  papers 
was  his  instructions  to  the  American  ministers 
abroad  to  appear  at  Court  in  the  simple  dress 
of  an  American  citizen  when  this  could  be  done 
without  detriment  to  the  interests  of  the  United 
States.  Marcy's  death  occurred  at  Ballston  Spa, 
X.  Y.,  but  a  few  months  after  the  expiration 
of  his  term  of  office.  He  is  entitled  to  high  rank 
as  a  statesman,  while  as  a  shrewd  politician  he 
was  at  his  time  almost  unsurpassed.  A  short  and 
incomplete  biography  was  printed  in  the  Lives 
nf  the  Governors  of  yew  York,  bv  .Jenkins  (Au- 
burn, 1851). 

MARDI  GRAS,  mar'de'  gra'.     See  Cabnival. 

MABDIN,  miir-den'.  The  capital  of  a  san- 
Jak  in  tlie  Vilayet  of  Diarbekir,  in  Xorthern 
Mesopotamia,  Asiatic  Turkey  (ilap:  Turkey  in 
Asia,  J  4).  It  is  strikingly  situated  on  the 
steep  slopes  of  a  conical  hill,  crowned  by  the 
ruins  of  an  old  castle.  It  has  a  number  of 
mosques,  bazaars,  and  baths,  as  well  as  Chris- 
tian churches  and  monasteries,  and  is  the  seat 
of  an  important  American  mission  with  a  church 
and  a  school.  Population,  about  15.000,  of  whom 
over  one-half  are  ^Moslem  Kurds;  the  rest  are 
Christians  of  various  Eastern  sects. 

MABDO'NITJS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  MapMvto^, 
Murdonios,  from  OPers,  Marduniya) .  A  Persian 
general,  son  of  Gobryas,  and  son-in-law  of  Darius 
Hystaspes.  In  B.C.  492  he  commanded  an  expedi- 
tion sent  out  by  Darius  to  punish  the  Eretrians 
and  Athenians  for  the  aid  they  liad  given  to  the 
lonians.     Near  Jlount  Athos.   however,   his   lleet 


was  destroyed  by  a  storm,  and  when,  shortly 
afterwards,  his  land  forces  were  cut  to  pieces,  he 
letuiiied  to  Asia,  and  was  relieved  of  his  com- 
mand by  Darius.  On  the  accession  of  Xerxes  he 
was  restored  to  favor,  and  was  appointed  one  of 
the  generals  of  the  expedition  against  Greece. 
After  the  battle  of  Salamis  (B.C.  480),  he  was 
left  by  Xerxes  with  300,000  men  to  conquer 
Greece.  In  the  following  year,  B.C.  479,  he  was 
defeated  and  probably  slain  in  the  battle  of 
Platsa,  by  the  Greeks  under  Pausanias.  (Herodo- 
tus, vi.  43-45,  94 ;  vii.  5,  9,  82 ;  viii.  100  et  seq., 
113  et  seq.,  l:i3-44;  ix,  1-4,  12-15,  38-65.) 
MAB'DUK.     See  Merodacii. 

MARE  AU  DIABLE,  miir  6  de'ilT)!',  La  ( the 
devil's  pool).  A  romance  by  George  Sand 
(1846).  The  story  of  a  young  farmer  who  seeks 
another  wife  for  the  sake  of  his  children,  and 
finds  her  in  a  young  girl  who  accompanies  him 
part  way  on  his  visit  to  a  rich  widow  recom- 
mended to  him  as  a  suitable  spouse.  The  story 
is  written  with  much  charm  and  naturalness. 

IVTAR^CHAL,  ma'ra'shal',  PiERRE  Sylvain 
(1750-1803).  A  French  atheistical  writer,  born 
in  Paris.  He  studied  law,  but  became  sub-libra- 
rian at  the  Coll&ge  Mazarin.  and  held  that  position 
until  1784.  His  parody  on  the  Psalms  (1784) 
caused  his  dismissal,  and  four  years  afterwards 
his  Almaitach  des  }wn7ictes  gens\,  a  sort  of  cal- 
endar, in  which  the  names  of  celebrated  men 
wei-e  substituted  for  those  of  saints,  earned  him 
four  months  in  prison.  His  other  works  include: 
Les  voi/ages  de  Pytliagore  (1799)  and  a  Diction- 
naire  des  athees  nnciens  et  modernes  (1800),  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Lalande,  the  astrono- 
mer. 

MABE  CLAUSUM,  ma'rg  kla'stim  or  mii'rj 
klou'siim  (Lat.,  closed  sea),  A  sea  or  portion  of 
a  sea  under  the  jurisdiction  of  one  nation  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  liigli  or  open  sea  (  mare  lihc- 
iiini].  The  two  terms  were  used  in  contra,dis- 
tinction  by  Grotius  and  Selden  in  the  seventeenth 
century  as  the  titles  of  their  respective  works, 
the  former  attacking  the  pretensions  of  Spain 
;uid  Portugal  to  universal  sovereignt}-,  the  latter 
in  his  reply  (J/are  Clausum)  defending  England's 
claim  to  control  over  her  adjacent  waters. 

Though  as  a  doctrine  of  international  law 
mare  clausum  has  practically  disappeared,  it 
formed  the  text  for  the  controversy  finally  deter- 
mining tlie  modern  principles  of  maritime  territo- 
rial jurisdiction.  'The  conditions  of  the  ancient 
world  rendered  the  sea  "open  to  all  for  depreda- 
tion;" but  during  the  Middle  Ages  the  mari- 
time [lowers  of  Europe  asserted  a  claim  to  sov- 
ereignty over  those  portions  of  the  high  seas  ad- 
jacent to  their  territories  or  by  any  assumption 
under  their  control.  Thus  England  claimed  do- 
minion over  the  Channel.  Xorth  Sea.  the  seas 
westward  from  Ireland,  and  more  vaguely  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  ocean  north  of  .Scotland. 
Denmark  and  Sweden  held  the  Baltic  jointly,  and 
the  former  disputed  England's  pretensions  to  the 
Icelandic  fisheries,  while  Venice  enforced  strict 
sovereignty  over  the  Adriatic.  This  claim  was 
not  deemed  to  carry  with  it  the  right  of  ex- 
cluding the  ships  of  other  nations  from  these 
waters,  and  was  supposed  to  involve  the  duty  of 
keeping  the  seas  free  from  pirates,  though  under 
the  pretext  of  providing  funds  for  this  purpose 
it  was  sought  to  impose  tolls  on  passing  ships, 
and  compensation  was  required  for  fishing  privl- 


MARE  CLAUSUM. 

leges  within  the  territorial  zone.  But  with  the 
impetus  given  to  commerce  and  navi^'ation  by  the 
discoverv  of  the  Xew  World  and  the  exorbitant 
l)n>ten>ions  of  ^pain  and  l'ortuj.'al,  whcrcbv  the 
former  not  only  chiimcd  tlic  I'acilic  Ocean  and  tlie 
Gulf  of  .Mexico  and  the  latter  the  Indian  Ocean 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  south  of  .Morocco,  but 
sought  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  other  nations 
to  these  waters,  the  commercial  powers  of  the 
seventeenth  century  revolted  against  these  exac- 
tions. Tile  predatory  voyages  of  Drake  and 
Cavendish  and  the  steadily  "growing  trade  of  Hol- 
land were  the  pnulical  answer  to  these  claims, 
while  the  jurists  uf  the  Xortlu  in  nations  sought 
theoretical  justification  for  their  acts  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Koman  law  that  the  ocean  was 
incapable  of  appropriation. 

England,  however,  persisted  in  her  claim  of 
sovereignly  over  surrounding  waters.  In  1009 
Grolius  published  his  treatise  on  .1/ore  Liberum, 
contending  that  the  sea  was  wholly  free  under 
the  principles  of  the  precedents  of  the  civil  law, 
though  in  a  later  work  this  doctrine  was  some- 
what modified  to  permit  the  exception  of  gulfs 
and  marginal  waters  that  could  he  reduced  to 
actual  ownership.  This  has  formed  the  founda- 
tion for  the  modern  rules  of  international  law.  In 
1035  Selden  sought  to  defenil  England's  position, 
though  maintaining  that  a  Stale  could  not  re- 
fuse the  navigation  of  the  seas  to  other  nations. 
The  contest  between  England  and  Holland  over 
the  waterways  which  fornied  the  avenues  for 
Dutch  conunerce  resulteil  in  the  series  of  wars 
terminati'd  by  the  Treaty  of  Westminster  (  1('>74), 
in  which  England's  sovereignty  was  recognized 
from  tape  Finislerre  to  Stadland  in  Norway.  Dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  recognition  of  the 
British  Hag  within  these  waters  was  strenuously 
maintained,  though  the  practical  value  of  this 
claim  gradually  iliminished.  It  proved,  however, 
an  insurmountable  ol>stacle  to  the  closing  of  ne- 
gotiations with  the  I'nited  States  in  180:?  on  the 
question  of  search,  through  tlie  \uiwillingncss  of 
the  English  (Jovernment  to  surrender  this  right 
within  the  British  Seas.  In  ISO.i  the  Admiralty 
Regulations  directed  that  foreign  ships  Iw  re- 
quired to  "strike  their  topsails  an<l  take  in  their 
flag'  within  these  waters.  The  engrossing  de- 
mands of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  however,  nullified 
this  order,  and  since  their  dose  nothing  has  been 
heard  of  the  English  claim.  The  pretensions  of 
Denmark  during  the  eighteenth  century  shrank 
to  a  prohibition  of  fishing  witliin  (l!l  miles  of 
Greenland  ami  Iceland,  but  the  dilliculty  of  en- 
forcing such  a  rule  resulted  in  its  final  surrender. 
The  only  occasion  upon  which  the  doctrine  of 
mure  rliiiisiiiii  was  invoked  during  the  nineteenth 
century  was  in  \S'M  by  the  rniled  States  in  the 
controversy  with  (Jreat  Britain  over  the  Bering 
Sea  seal  fisheries.  See  Bf.ri.nc  Ska  C'onthovkrsy. 
Thus,  partly  through  insensible  aban<hinment, 
hut  more  because  of  the  principle  that  maritime 
ocoipalion  must  be  cfTective  in  order  to  he  valid, 
the  old  doctrine  of  mtirr  rlaiistim  has  been  cur- 
tailed to  the  assertion  of  territorial  jurisdiction 
over  deeply  indenled  gulfs  or  hays  or  other 
waters  whose  peculiar  conditions  render  feasible 
a  national  control.  In  general,  such  waters  form 
the  only  exception  to  the  limit  of  one  maritime 
leagtie  from  the  shore  as  laiil  down  by  Bynker- 
.shoek.  though  the  principle  has  been  nullified 
in  practical  efTect  uy  the  increase  in  range  of 
modern   guns.      Not   only   are   territorial    waters 


50  MABENCO. 

open  to  the  commercial  vessels  of  a  foreign  State, 
but  shii)s  of  war  have  right  of  'innocent  passage.' 
Consult  the  authorities  referred  to  under  Inter- 
>ATio.NAi,   Law;    High    Sea;    and   Bebinq    Sea 

CO.NTKOVERSY. 

MAREE,  Loch.    A  beautiful  lake  in  Ross  a^id 

Ci arlyshire,    northwestern     Scotland.       It    is 

about  \2  miles  long  by  2  miles  wide,  and  very 
deep.  It  is  studded  with  islets,  and  surrounded 
liy  mountains  :iO(IO  feet  high. 

MAREI'A,  ar  MA'REO'TIS  (Lat..  from  Gk. 
MopeuJTis).  A  >alt  lake  in  the  north  of  Egv"pt, 
south  of  Alexandria,  .separated  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  a  narrow  isthmus  of  sand.  Its  mod- 
ern name  is  liirket  or  Bchcret  Maryitt.  It  is 
some  12  miles  long,  with  width  of  about  the  same 
extent,  but  in  antiquity  it  is  said  to  have  been 
somewhat  larger.  The  surrounding  district  was 
anciently  very  fruitful  and  the  ilareotic  wine 
had  a  high  reputation.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
the  lake  dried  up  because  the  canals  flowing  into 
it  from  tlie  Nile  were  choked  with  sand.  In 
ISOl  the  English,  during  the  siege  of  Alexandria, 
cut  through  the  isthmus  west  of  .Mjiikir,  allowed 
the  sea  to  How  in,  and  destroyed  1.50  villages, 
Mehemet  Ali  tried  to  reclaim  the  resulting 
salt  marsh  (0-10  feet  deep),  but  with  little 
success.  The  water  of  the  lake  is  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  salt  by  evaporation.  Consult: 
Lane-I'oole,  Ilislori/  of  Egypt  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(London,  1001);  Baedeker,  Aegypten  (4th  ed,, 
Leijizig,   ISnTi. 

MARE  ISLAND.  An  island  in  Solano  Coun- 
ty. Cal.,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Bay  of  San 
Pablo  and  opposite  the  city  of  Vallejo  (ALip: 
California,  B  2),  with  whicli  it  has  ferry  con- 
nection. On  it  is  situated  the  I'acilic  station  of 
the  L'nited  States  Navy,  its  yard  being  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  country.  It  has  a  naval  arsenal, 
sectional  lloating  dock,  an  observatory,  and,  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  island,  a  lighthouse 
of  the  first  order, 

MAREMMA,  ma-rem'niA  (corruption  of  Ma- 
lillinni.  ■■-ituateil  on  the  sea"),  A  vast  marshy 
region  of  Western  Italy,  extending  along  the  coast 
of  Tuscany,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ceeina  to 
Orbetello,  and  l.">  to  20  miles  inland  (.Map:  Italy, 
F  5),  The  Pontine  marshes  and  the  (^iinpagna 
of  Rome  are  similar  districts.  In  ancient  times 
these  districts  were  well  cultivated  and  inliabited, 
hut  the  neglect  of  watercourses  lias  lirought 
about  their  present  pestiferous  condition.  The 
area  of  land  free  here  from  the  deadly  malaria  is, 
however,  growing  steadily  larger.  The  railway 
line  along  the  coast  of  Tuscany  has  greatly  con- 
tributed to  (he  improvement  of  the  district. 

MARENCO,  ma-ren'k.'..  Caru).  Count  (1800- 
40  1.  An  Italian-dramatist,  born  at  Cassolnuovo, 
in  Piedmont.  He  was  the  author  of  some  fifteen 
tragedies,  dealing  with  mediaeval  subjects  and 
revealing  the  influence  of  .\lficri.  as  well  as  a 
tendency  to  adopt  the  methods  of  the  historical 
drama  of  Romanticism.  The  most  popular  of 
his  plays  were  Uiioiidclnioiilr,  J'it,  di'  Tolantri, 
and  Aniiihio  da  Hrrscin.  Tlie  last-named  piece 
treats  the  same  subject  as  Niccolini's  play,  but 
is  manifestly  inferior  to  it.  Consult:  the  edition 
of  his  Trng'rdir  (Turin,  l.S37-44>:  the  Trngrdie 
inSdilr,  etc,  ( Elorenee,  ISoO);  Ponte,  L'Amahlo 
da  finxcin  del  yiecoUni  e  di  C.  Marcnco  (Son- 
drio,   1880). 


MARENCO. 


51 


MAREY. 


MARENCO,  Ledi'oi.uo.  Cminl  (ISSl-ilOl.  An 
llMlinii  (icn-t  and  iliaiiialist,  burn  at  C'eva,  in 
ririlnioiit.  He  was  the  son  of  Carlo  Marenco, 
anil  wrote  liis  play  [sabclla  Orsiiii  when  only 
twenty  years  old.  His  plays  include:  Piccarda 
Uonaii  (1809)  ;  Saljo  (1880)  ;  Rosalinda  (IBHi)  ; 
l.o  s/iiritisDW  (181)9);  II  ghlacciuio  di  Moiitt; 
likuico  (1870)  ;  Quel  che  noslro  non  c  (1877)  ; 
aiori/io  Oandi  (1882);  and  Bice  (1884).  His 
collected  works  were  published  in  twenty  volumes 
( 1884  et  seq. )  at  Turin. 

MARENGO,,  nia-reij'go.  A  locality  near  Ales- 
-aniiria.  Italy,  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  Napoleon's  battles,  foufjht  on  .Tune 
14.  1800,  in  which  the  French  completely  defeated 
the  Austrians  under  General  ilelas.  In  1708  a 
second  coalition  had  been  formed,  by  England, 
Austria,  and  Russia,  against  France.  Napoleon 
was  absent  in  Egj^pt.  and  the  coalition  had  been 
completely  successful,  though  Russia  soon  de- 
serted the  allies,  the  Czar.  Paul  I.,  believing  him- 
self to  have  been  betrayed  by  Austria.  Mean- 
while on  the  ISth  Brumaire  (November  9),  1799, 
Napoleon,  who  had  returned  from  Egv'pt,  ob- 
tained complete  control  of  the  Ciovernment.  and 
a  vigorous  war  was  resolved  upon.  Moreau 
I  q.v. )  was  sent  to  Germany,  while  Napoleon 
crossed  the  Great  Saint  Bernard  Pass  into  Italy 
Avith  about  40.000  men.  Tliough  he  was  too  late 
to  relieve  Cienoa,  where  Massena  (q.v.)  had  been 
besieged  a  long  time,  the  Austrian  advance- 
guard  was  defeated  on  June  9,  1800.  at  Monte- 
bello.  and  thereby  Napoleon  barred  farther  Aus- 
trian advance.  On  .Tune  14th  !Melas  crossed  the 
Bormida,  assailed  the  French,  and  at  first  was 
successful,  but.  luckily  for  Napoleon,  at  five  in 
the  afternoon  Desai.x  (q.v.)  and  Kellermann 
(q.v.)  appeared  with  fresh  troops,  and  swept 
all  before  them,  though  the  former  lost  his  life 
in  the  charge.  The  l)attle  firmly  established  Na- 
poleon's supremacy  in  France.  General  Melas 
was  compelled  to  sign  the  Convention  of  Ales- 
sandria, by  which  he  surrendered  Genoa,  Pied- 
mont, and  the  ^Milanese,  and  promised  to  with- 
draw the  Austrian  garrisons  from  all  cities  to 
the  west  of  the  !Mincio,  Military  critics  have 
generally  maintained  that  the  ilarengo  campaign 
was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  conceptions  in  the 
history  of  warfare.    See  Napoleon  I. 

MARENGO.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Iowa  County.  Iowa,  31  miles  west  by  north  of 
Iowa  City;  on  the  Iowa  River,  and  on  the  Chi- 
cago, Rock  Island  and  Pacific  Railroad  (Jlap: 
Iowa,  E  3).  It  is  surrounded  by  an  agricviltural 
and  stock-raising  district,  and  has  some  manu- 
factures. Jlai'engo  was  settled  in  1846.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,   1710;   in  1900.  2007. 

MARENHOLTZ-BtTLOW,  mii'rcn-hr.lts  bn'- 
Irt.  I'lEirniA  \(i\  (lS10-9:i).  A  German  educator, 
born  in  Brunswick.  Attracted  by  the  ideas  of 
Friedrich  Friibel  (q.v.),  whom  she  met  in  1850, 
.she  became  his  disciple  and  devoted  her  life  to 
founding  kindergartens  in  Germany  and  many 
otlicr  European  countries.  Among  her  writings 
are:  Britriific  ziiin  Versti'iiidni.t  Friedrich  Frii- 
hrlx  (1870).  and  a  number  of  pamphlets  on  the 
kindergarten,  several  of  which  liave  been  trans- 
lated into  English.  Consult  Goldschmidt.  "Ber- 
tlia  von  Marenholtz-Biilow,"  No.  239,  in  the 
Sammhmq  icisscnscliaftlicher  Yortrige  (Ham- 
burg,  1896). 


MARENZIO,  ma  r.-n'tsi-6,  LUCA  (c.l555- 
99|.  An  Italian  composer  of  madrigals,  born  at 
Coccaglio,  between  Bergamo  and  Brescia.  He 
was  a  chorister  in  the  Brescia  Cathedral  and  re- 
ceived musical  instruction  from  its  organist,  Gi- 
ovanni Contini.  He  began  publication  in  Venice 
(1581),  with  a  collection  of  madrigals  for  five 
voices,  and  he  issued  nine  books  of  the  same 
within  ten  years.  About  1584  he  was  living  in 
Rome,  employed  by  Cardinal  d'Este  as  maestro 
ili  cappclla,  and  in  1587  he  had  a  post  at  the 
Polish  Court,  but  went  back  to  Rome  (1595), 
and  received  an  appointment  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Pope.  He  composed  a  quantity  of  Church  music, 
but  it  is  on  account  of  the  great  advance  he 
made  upon  his  predecessors  in  the  production  of 
madrigals  that  he  is  chiefly  remembered.  Six 
books  of  them  for  six  voices  were  published  in 
Venice  (15S2-1G09),  and  he  wrote  others  for 
three,   four,  eight,  and  twelve  voices. 

MARESCH,  ma'resh.  Johann  Anton  (1709- 
9t).  A  Russian  nuisician  of  Bohemian  birth, 
and  the  inventor  of  Russian  'hunting  horn'  mu- 
sic. He  was  born  at  Cliotebor.  Bohemia,  and 
studied  music  in  Dresden  and  Berlin.  He  made 
many  mechanical  improvements  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Russian  horn,  an  unbent  brass  tulie  of 
conical  shape.  In  1755  he  gave  an  exhibition 
before  the  Imperial  Court,  when  a  band  of  37 
men,  furnished  with  horns  varying  from  7  feet  to 
1  foot  in  lengtli,  produced  concerted  pieces,  each 
being  caretidly  drilled  to  sound  his  own  instru- 
ment at  precisely  the  ju'oper  instant.  For  the 
skill  and  dexterity  displayed  in  this  somewhat 
ludicrous  performance,  ilaresch  was  richly  re- 
warded by  the  Empress  Elizabeth.  He  died  at 
Saint  Petersburg. 

MARET,  ma'ra',  HuGiES  Bernaed.  A  French 
general  and  statesman.  See  Bassano,  Hugues 
Bernard  JIaket,  Duke  of. 

MARETZEK,  ma'rc-tsek,  Max  (1821-97).  A 
Gcrnuin-Amcrican  composer,  director,  and  im- 
presario, born  in  Briinn,  lloravia.  He  studied 
music  there,  and  also  at  Vienna  and  Paris. 
In  1843  he  composed  the  opera  Hamlet,  which 
secured  him  the  place  of  music  director  at  the 
Royal  Opera  in  London.  In  1847  he  went  to  New 
York,  and  in  1848  was  the  nuisical  director  at  the 
Astor  Place  Opera  House,  In  1849  he  commenced 
his  career  as  an  impresario  of  Italian  opera  in 
New  York,  and  continued  it  until  187S,  subse- 
quently teaching.  He  published  in  1855  Crotcliets 
and  Quavers:  or,  Revelations  of  an  Opera  Mana- 
tlcr  in  Amcriea :  composed  the  opera  Sleep;/  Hol- 
loir  (1879);  and  wrote  chamber  and  orchestral 
nuisic.     He  died  in  Staten  Island,  N.  Y. 

MAREY, ma'ni'.ETiENNE  Jt'XEs  (1830-1904). 
A  French  physiologist,  born  at  Beaune  (Cote- 
d'Or).  He  went  to  Paris  when  twenty  years  old 
and  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  in 
18(iO,  and  the  same  year  opened  a  course  in 
physiology  at  the  Coll&ge  de  France.  In  18G4 
he  established  a  physicjlogical  laboratory,  and 
in  1867  was  appointed  adjunct  professor  of 
physiology'  in  the  College  de  France.  He  be- 
came a  laur^at  of  the  Institut,  and  of  the 
Ecole  de  Medecine.  He  began  to  publish  scien- 
tific tracts  as  early  as  1857,  and  worked  on  the 
experimental  physiology  of  the  heart  and  circula- 
tion, on  animal  heat,  on  the  electric  phenomena 
which  provoke  or  accompany  movements  in  ani- 
mals, and  on  the  action  of  poisons  which  espe- 


MAREY. 


53 


MARGARET  OF  ANJOU. 


cially  concern  the  nerves  uml  muscles.  His 
studies  and  works  ou  motion  in  animals,  e»i)e- 
liallv  on  llie  lliylit  of  birds  and  insects,  have  given 
him  a  wide  reputation,  since  lie  devised  new 
methods  of  recording  the  motions  of  the  wings. 
His  works  in  this  direction  are:  Uu  vioufemeiit 
ddiis  Ir.s  fuitrtions  de  hi  Lie  (  l.Slill)  ;  Mtiiuiirc  sur 
Ic  vul  dcs  inscclcs  ct  dcs  oiscuiij:  (  1872)  ;  Animal 
Mechanism  :  A  Treatise  on  Terrestrial  and  Aerial 
Locomotion  (Paris,  1874;  Xew  Vork,  1879); 
Hon  m' lit    (1S!I5). 

MARFO'RIO.  The  ])o])ular  name  of  a  colos- 
sal statue  of  a  river  god,  holding  a  shell,  now  in 
the  Capitoline  iluseum  in  Home.  The  statue 
])rolial>ly  represents  the  Rhine  and  received  its 
nanu'  from  its  position  in  the  Forum  of  Mars 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  at  one  time  cus- 
tomary to  alli.x  to  this  statue  replies  to  the  gil)es 
and  satirical  notices  posted  on  the  Pasquino 
(q.v.). 

MARGADANT,  mar-gi-d-int',  SiMOX.  The 
real  name  of  the  Genuan  humanist  Simon  Lem- 
niu>   ii|.v.). 

MAR'GARET  (1353-1412).  Queen  of  Den- 
mark. Xiirway.  and  Sweden.  She  was  the  second 
daughter  of  \'aldeniar  I\'..  King  of  Denmark, 
and  the  wife  of  Haakon  VI.,  King  of  Norway, 
whom  she  married  in  1303.  On  the  death  of  her 
father  without  direct  male  heirs,  the  Danish  no- 
bles, after  an  interregnum,  offered  the  crown  in 
I37(!  to  Margaret  and  her  husband  in  trust  for 
their  infant  son  Olaf.  By  the  death  of  Haakon  in 
13S0  .Margaret  became  sole  guardian  of  (he  young 
Prince,  who  died  in  1387.  Such  was  the  skill  with 
which  she  had  conducted  the  (iovernmcnl  iluring 
her  sole  regency  that  the  estates  of  both  kingdoms 
concurred  in  electing  her  as  their  joint  .sovereign. 
With  the  concurrence  of  her  subjects,  she  nomi- 
nated her  grand-nephew,  Kric  of  Pomorania.  her 
successor:  and  although,  owing  to  Eric's  infancy 
at  the  time,  and  his  subsequent  inca])acity,  the 
real  ])ower  rested  in  the  hands  of  Margaret,  she 
contented  herself  from  that  time  with  the  title 
of  ".Margaret,  by  the  grace  of  (iod.  daughter  of 
Valdemar,  King  of  Denmark."  At  the  moment  that 
Margaret  was  cementing  the  union  of  Norway 
and  Denmark,  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Sweden 
opened  the  way  for  a  f\irther  extension  of  her 
power.  The  Swedish  King.  .\ll)ert  of  Mecklen- 
burg, had  so  thoroughly  alienated  the  afTcctiona 
of  his  subjects  that  the  nobh^s.  dcelaring  the 
throne  vacant,  offered  to  acknowledge  ilargaret 
as  their  ruler.  The  (Jueen  \iM  no  time  in  sending 
an  army  into  Sweden  to  support  her  pretensions, 
and  defeatecl  the  King's  (lerman  troo|)s  at  Tal- 
kilping  in  1380,  where  Albert  fell  into  her  hands. 
The  King  remained  in  prison  till  13!),5,  during 
which  tin)e  Miirgaret  continued  the  work  of  sub- 
jugating Sweden.  In  1307  she  effected  the  so- 
called  Union  of  Kalmar,  by  which  the  crowns  of 
the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  were  henceforth 
to  remain  united.  Kric,  who  wa^  in  his  sixteenth 
year,  was  investeil  with  the  triple  dignity.  Mar- 
garet continued  to  exert  great  influence  in  the 
Government.  She  died  toward  the  close  of  1412, 
while  she  was  attempting  to  bring  about  peace 
between  Eric  and  the  Duke  of  Holstein.  Con- 
s\ilt  Otic.  Si'iinilinnriiDi   llislcrii   (London.   1874). 

MARGARET,  or  MARGUERITE,  miir- 
jfrrt  (variously  called  of  ANfiOiii.feME,  OF  Va- 
LOIB,  OF  .\i.KNroN.  and  of  Navarrf,)  (1402- 
1549).     A  daughter  of  Charles  of  Orleans.  Duke 


of  Angouleme,  sister  of  King  Francis  I.  of 
France.  She  was  born  in  Angouleme,  April  11, 
1402.  She  married  (1509)  the  Duke  d'Alengon, 
and  later  (1527)  Henri  d'Albret,  who  became 
King  of  Xavarre.  His  small  dominions  she 
governed  after  his  death  (1544).  Their  daugh- 
ter, .Icanne  d'Albret,  was  mother  of  Henry  of 
Xavarre  (Henry  IV.  of  France).  Margaret  W'as 
active  in  politics,  in  religious  reform,  and  in 
literature.  She  favored  religious  liberty  rather 
than  Protestantism,  and  was  for  a  time  an  effect- 
ual defender  and  (latron  of  advocates  of  reform  of 
such  varied  complexion  as  Rabelais,  Desperiers, 
Marot.  Dolet,  and  many  lesser  men  of  letters 
and  learning.  Her  little  courts  at  Nerac  and 
at  Pan.  for  a  time  the  most  brilliant  intel- 
lectually in  Europe,  roused  seemingly  ground- 
less slander.  Her  literary  remains  comprise: 
Letters  (1842-43)  ;  a  collection  of  poems,  largely 
dramatic  and  religious,  poetically  called  Mar- 
ijncrites  de  la  Marguerite  (which  was  first 
])rinted  at  Paris,  1873):  and  other  ])oems  dis- 
covered in  the  National  Library  in  1805  and  pub- 
lished as  />i(Hir)("s  ;)orsK's  (Paris.  1890).  Until 
recently  Margaret  of  Navarre  was  supposed  to  be 
the  author  of  the  famous  collection  of  tales  called 
the  Hei>lameron  (q.v.),  but  this  is  now  generally 
regarded  as  the  work  of  various  hands.  Though 
apparently  of  no  great  personal  beauty,  she 
combined  in  singular  measure  sweetness  of  dis- 
position with  intellectual  strength,  and  prob- 
ably contributed  more  to  the  renaissance  of  learn- 
ing in  France  than  did  Francis  himself.  Consult: 
Brantome,  Les  dames  illustres,  vol.  vi.  (Paris, 
1008)  :  Bayle.  Dirlionnaire  historit/iie  ( ib.,  1820- 
24):  Leroux  de  Lincy,  Essai  sur  la  vie  ct  les 
ouvrages  dc  Marguerite  d'Angoulcme  (ib.,  1853)  ; 
La  Ferri&re,  Le  Hire  de  depenses  de  la  reine  de 
Xaiarre  (ib.,  1802);  Comtesse  d'llaussonville, 
Marguerite  de  Valois  (ib.,  1870)  :  Lotheissen, 
Kijiiigin  Margarcte  von  Navarra  (Berlin,  1885)  ; 
and  Freer.  The  Life  of  Marguerite  d'Angoulcme 
(London.  1895). 

MARGARET,  Saint  (c.1045-93).  A  queen  of 
Sent  land.  Slie  was  the  daughter  of  Edward  the 
Exile,  a  son  of  Ednmnd  Ironside,  and  was  born, 
according  to  tradition,  in  Hungary.  In  10t)7  she 
came  to  Scotland  with  her  brother  Edgar  Athe- 
ling  ((|.v. ),  anil  soon  after  became  the  wife  of 
King  ^lalcolm  III.  She  appears  in  thi^  chronicles 
as  a  woman  of  almost  angelic  character  and 
saintly  virtues,  and  numerous  instances  are  re- 
corch'd  of  her  works  of  piety  and  unceasing  de- 
votion to  the  cause  of  the  Church.  She  exercised 
a  refining  inlluence  on  the  rough  manners  of  the 
Scottish  Court  by  the  example  of  her  stainless 
life,  anil  advanced  the  welfare  of  her  people  by 
her  w  ide  beneficence  to  the  crippled,  the  orphaned, 
and  the  |)iior.  She  died  November  10.  1003.  after 
receiving  news  of  the  death  of  her  husband  and 
her  eldest  son  in  a  border  raid.  She  was  canon- 
ized by  Pope  Innocent  IV.  in  1250. 

MARGARET  OF  ANJOU.  iiN-zhr^r'  (1430- 
82).  Qiieen  Consort  of  Henry  VI.  of  England. 
She  was  born  on  ^larch  23.  1430.  and  was  (he 
daughter  of  RiMii'"  the  (Jood  of  .\njiiu.  titular  King 
of  Naples.  When  in  1430  the  peace  party  in  Eng- 
land, headed  by  Cardinal  Beaufort,  came  into 
jiiiwcr,  (hey  sought  to  end  the  Hundred  Years' 
War,  and  as  a  step  in  this  direction  looked 
around  for  a  suitable  French  princess  as  a  wife 
for  the  young  Henry  VI.    Their  choice  fell   upon 


MARGARET  OF  ANJOTJ. 


53 


MARGARET  OF  VAXOIS. 


Margaret,  Uicmyh  the  powerful  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter opposed  llie  iiiatcli.  In  1445  the  marriajje  took 
place,  and  wlicn  in  1447  tlie  Uuke  of  Gloucester 
fell,  .\lari;arel  obtained  complete  control  over  the 
weak  Kinj;  and  the  whole  tJovernuicnt.  She  be- 
came, however,  rapidly  unpopular,  the  loss  of  the 
Enf;lish  jjossessions  in  France  being  charged 
against  her.  When  in  1453  a  son  was  born  to  her, 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  gave  up  all  hope  of  suc- 
ceeding peacefully  to  the  crown,  and  in  1455  he 
led  the  Yorkists  in  arms  against  the  House  of 
Lancaster,  inaugurating  the  Wars  of  the  Roses. 
Margaret  became  leader  of  the  Lancastrians.  In 
1400  she  was  victorious  at  Wakefield,  w-here  the 
Duke  of  York  fell,  but  the  battle  of  Towton 
(q.v. )  in  14G1  was  disastrous  to  the  Lancastrian 
cause.  In  1464  Slargaret  made  an  attempt  to 
restore  the  fortunes  of  her  house  and  invaded 
England,  but  her  adherents  were  defeated  at 
Hexham,  after  which  she  lived  for  some  years 
with  her  father.  In  1470  Warwick  (q.v. )  joined 
the  Lancastrians  and  restored  Henry  VI.  to 
the  throne,  but  in  1471  Edward  IV.  won  a  de- 
cisive victorv  at  Barnet,  and  Henry  was  recap- 
tured, and  spent  the  remaining  month  and  a 
half  of  his  life  in  the  Tower.  Meanwhile  Mar- 
gari't  had  landed  in  England,  but  was  defeated 
and  taken  at  Tewkesbury  in  1471,  while  her  son 
lost  his  life  on  the  battlefield.  She  remained  in 
captivity  for  about  five  years,  till  Louis  XI.  re- 
deemed her  for  50,000  crowns.  She  then  retired 
to  France,  and  died  at  the  Chateau  of  Dampierre, 
near  Sauniier,  in  Anjou,  on  August  15.  1482. 
Consult:  Ramsay,  Lancaster  and  York,  vol.  ii. 
(Oxford,  1892)  ;  Gairdner's  introduction  to  the 
Paston  Leflcrs  (London,  1872-75).  See  Roses, 
Wars  of  the,  and  Henry  VI. 

MARGARET  OF  AUSTRIA  (1480-1.530). 
A  daugliter  of  Maximilian  I.  of  Austria  and  of 
Mary  of  Burgundy.  She  was  born  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  brought  up  at  the  French  Court.  Affi-, 
anced  to  the  Dauphin,  afterwards  Charles  VIII., 
by  the  Treaty  of  Arras  (1482) ,  she  was  sent  back 
in  1491  by  the  King,  who  married  Anne  of  Brit- 
tany. About  five  years  later  she  married  .John, 
Prince  of  Asturias,  heir  to  the  Spanish  throne, 
but  he  died  the  next  year.  In  1501  she  became 
the  wife  of  Philibert,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  died 
three  years  later.  In  1.507  her  father  made  her 
Regent  of  the  Netherlands.  In  this  office  she  dis- 
played great  ability,  carried  on  the  policy  of  cen- 
tralization, repressed  heresy,  but  watched  also 
over  the  material  welfare  of  the  country.  She 
participated  in  tlie  conference  at  Cambrai  in 
1508,  and  negotiated  with  Louise  of  Savoy  the 
Peace  of  Cambrai  (1529),  called  the  Pair  des 
Dames   (Ladies'  Peace). 

MARGARET  OF  FLANDERS,  or.  of  €on- 

STANTi.xoi'i.E  (c. 1200-79).  Countess  of  Flanders 
and  Hainault.  She  was  the  younger  daiisrhter  of 
Baldwin  IX..  Count  of  Flanders  and  Hainault, 
who  died  without  male  issue,  the  siieccssion  pass- 
ing to  her  elder  sister.  .leanne.  Margaret  mar- 
ried Bouchard  d'Avesnes,  bailiff  of  Hainault.  in 
opposition  to  her  sister's  wishes,  and  after  a 
number  of  years  the  marriage  was  annulled,  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  Bouchard  in  early  life  had 
taken  the  lower  orders  of  priesthood.  Bouchard 
was  taken  prisoner  by  .Teanne  and  put  to  death. 
In  1223  ifargaret  married  William  of  Dampierre, 
and  between  the  children  of  the  two  marriages 
bitter   strife   ensued    for   the   succession   to   the 


lordship  over  the  two  counties,  which  Margaret 
hail  attained  in  1244,  on  the  death  of  her  sister. 
The  dispute  was  referred  to  the  arl)itranient  of 
Louis  IX.  of  France,  who  decided  that  after  the 
death  of  ^largaret  Hainault  should  go  to  the  sons 
of  d'Avesnes,  while  the  children  of  the  second 
marriage  were  to  receive  Flanders.  Margaret's 
reign  of  thirty-five  years  seems  to  have  been  one 
of  prosperity  for  her  subjects. 

MARGARET  OF  PAR'MA  (l.V22  8ti). 
Regent  of  tlie  Netherlands.  She  was  an  illegiti- 
mate daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  and 
was  born  and  brought  up  in  Brussels.  In  1536 
she  married  Alcssandro  de'  Medici,  Duke  of 
Florence,  who  was  murdered  in  1537:  and  in 
1538  Ottavio  Farnese.  who  became  Duke  of  I'arma 
and  Piacenza.  She  was  appointed  by  Philip  II. 
in  1559  to  govern  the  Netherlands  with  (Jranvella 
(q.v.)  as  her  chief  adviser.  Though  well  in- 
clined personally  to  the  people  of  the  Netherlands 
and  their  liberties,  she  yielded  readily  to  the 
fanatic  orders  of  Philip  and  the  counsels  oft 
Granvella.  The  attempt  to  introduce  the  Inquisi- 
tion into  the  country  brought  about  the  insurrec- 
tion of  1560,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the  long 
struggle  for  independence  in  tlie  Netherlands.  In 
1567  Alva  (q.v.)  was  sent  to  crush  out  all  oppo- 
sition with  halter  and  sword,  and  Margaret  re- 
signed her  office.  She  was  a  gifted  woman,  mas- 
culine in  stature  and  in  mind,  and  liberal  in 
o])inions. 

MARGARET  OF  VAXOIS,  va'lwa',  or  of 
Frakc'e  (1553-1015).  A  French  princess,  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  II.  of  France  and  Catharine  de' 
Medici,  and  wife  of  Henrj-  IV.  She  was  born 
at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye.  May  14,  1553,  and 
received  an  excellent  education.  Her  marriage  to 
Henry  of  Navarre  at  Paris  on  August  18,  1572, 
was  intended  to  be  a  bond  of  perpetual  reconcilia- 
tion between  Catholics  and  Huguenots,  but  was 
followed  after  a  week  by  the  massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew.  With  no  love  lost  on  either  side, 
husband  and  wife,  during  Henry's  forced  sojourn 
at  the  French  Court,  lived  in  good-natured  tolera- 
tion of  each  other's  transgressions.  After  the 
tliglit  of  Henry  of  Navarre  in  February.  157li.  she 
was  detained  for  some  time  as  a  hostage,  but  in 
1578  rejoined  her  husband  at  Pavi.  in  Gascony. 
There  she  remained  for  four  years  and  then  re- 
turned to  Paris.  Her  intrigues  at  Court  aroused 
the  resentment  of  Henry  III.,  who  subjected  her 
to  repeated  humiliations,  imprisoned  her.  and 
finally  destroyed  her  reputation  entirely  by  a 
public  investigation  into  her  conduct  (1583). 
From  1587  to  1605  she  lived  at  the  Chateau 
of  Usson  in  Auvergne.  and  there  wrote  her 
Memoires,  which  are  frank  and  light-hearted 
in  tone,  and  evince  liut  an  elementaiy  grasp 
on  certain  moral  truths.  In  1599.  after 
the  death  of  Gabrielle  d'Estrfes.  the  favor- 
ite of  Henry  IV..  •whom  Margaret  greatly  de- 
tested, she  consented  to  a  divorce  from  the  King, 
who  for  a  number  of  years  had  been  desirous 
of  an  heir.  In  1006  she  returned  (o  Paris,  where 
she  lived  on  the  best  of  terms  with  Henry,  even 
attendina'  the  coronation  of  her  successor.  ^laria 
de'  Medici,  in  1610.  Her  hotel  in  the  Rue  de 
Seine  was  a  centre  for  Paris  learning  and  fashion 
until  her  death,  which  occurred  March  27.  1015. 
With  her  the  House  of  Valois  became  e.vtinct.  Her 
Memoires,  Poesies,  and  Lettres  were  published  by 
Guessard  (Paris,  1842).  Consult  Saint-Poncy, 
Histoire  de  Marrjuerite  de  Talois  (Paris,  1887). 


MARGARET  TUDOR. 


54 


MARGHERITA. 


MAR'GARET  TU'DOR  ( 14S1I-1541).  The 
wife  of  the  Scottish  King  James  IV.  (q.v.).  She 
was  born  at  Westminster,  November  20,  1480, 
the  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  by  Elizabeth  of  York. 
She  was  married  after  considerable  negotiation 
to  King  .lames  IV.  of  Scotland  on  August  8, 
1503.  She  played  a  considerable  role  in  the 
shifting  politics  of  her  time,  especially  after  the 
death  of  her  husband  in  1513,  but  her  importance 
to  posterity  consists  chiclly  in  the  fact  that  from 
her  James"  VI.  of  Scotland  derived  his  claims 
to  the  English  throne,  which  he  ascended  as 
James   1.  (il   England  in   1U03. 

MARGARIC  ACID  (from  Lat.  margarila, 
from  (;k.  iiapyapiTi]!,  maryaritfs,  pearl,  from 
ftdpyapot,  iiKiriiurijs,  pearl-oyster;  so  called  from 
being  deposited  as  pearly  scales  during  cool- 
ing in  alcohol  in  which  it  has  been  dissolved), 
C',,Hj,C0011.  An  artificial  solid  fatty  acid,  sim- 
ilar to  stearic  acid  and  melting  at  about  (iO"  t'. 
It  is  said  to  occur  in  adipocere.  An  acid  having 
the  same  molecular  composition  as  margaric  acid, 
but  melting  at  a  somewhat  lower  temperature 
(55°  C),  has  been  found  in  the  seeds  of  Datura 
Stramonium,  Linn*;,  and  is  therefore  named 
daturic  acid.  The  name  margaric  acid  was  for- 
merly applied  to  a  mixture  of  palmitic  and 
stearic  acids  that  occurs  in  certain  natural  prod- 
ucts. The  fact  that  this  substance  was  a  mi.x- 
ture,  and  not  a  dclinile  chemical  com])ound,  was 
demonstrated  by  lleintz. 

MARGARITA,  miir'ga-re'tii.  An  island  in 
the  (■:irilibi':iii  Sea  close  to  the  coast  of  Venezuela, 
to  which  country  it  belongs,  constituting  since 
1001  the  State  of  Xueva  Esparta  (Map:  Vene- 
zuela, El).  It  is  situated  on  the  meridian  of 
Ciiman/i,  and  is  about  45  miles  long  and  from  5 
to  20  miles  broad,  with  an  area  of  450  square 
miles.  It  consists  of  two  mountain  ranges,  one  of 
them  over  4000  feet  high,  which  are  separated 
by  a  low  isthmus  surrounding  a  central  lagoon. 
There  is  a  little  agriculture  and  cattle-raising, 
but  the  principal  industries  are  fisheries  and  the 
]U-odueti<)n  of  salt.  Formerly  there  were  valu- 
able pearl  fisheries,  whence  the  island  received 
its  name,  which  means  'pearl.'  The  population  is 
about  40.000.  mostly  civilized  Indians.  The  capi- 
tal of  Nueva  Esparta  is  Asuneito.  The  island 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498. 

MAR'GARITE  (OF.  marguerite,  Fr.  »ia»-- 
garilr,  nnirin"  ril<;  pearl,  from  Lat.  margarila, 
pearl  I.  or  I'karl  Mr  a.  .\  hydrated  calcium- 
aluminum  silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the  mono- 
olinic  system.  It  is  of  a  light  gray,  red.  or  yel- 
low color,  and  is  foimd  associated  with  corun- 
dtim,  especially  in  the  emery  deposits  in  Asia 
Jlinor  and  the  islands  of  the  (irecian  Archipel- 
ago; also  in  Chester.  Mass.,  I'nionville,  Pa.,  and 
various   localilie-.    in   Xnrth   Carolina. 

MAROARITONE  D'AREZZO,  miir'giir*- 
to'nft  dft-re't.sfl  (e.l23e-80).  The  earliest  jiromi- 
nent  Tuscan  painter  after  Ciunta  I'isano.  Jle 
was  a  native  of  Arezzo.  Italy.  His  frescoes  in 
San  Clemente  at  Arezzo  have  perished,  but  his 
Madonna  and  his  Cnu'ifix  at  San  I'"ran<Tsco.  his 
altar-piere  at  the  National  Callerv,  and  his  vari- 
ous portraits  of  Saint  Francis,  show  crude  color, 
childish  drawing,  and  lack  of  life;  he  was  a 
representative  of  the  end  of  the  IlaloHvzanllne 
decline  rather  than  a  herald  of  the  C^iottesque 
revival.  Portraits  of  Saint  Francis  were  his 
favorite  theme ;  several  remain,  both  signed  and 


un>igned,  in  the  Vatican,  at  Siena,  Florence, 
i'isa,  Castiglione,  and  elsewhere.  Vasari's  con- 
tention that  he  excelled  as  a  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect is  open  to  doubt,  as  the  works  he  attributes 
to  him — the  Church  of  San  Ciriaco  at  Ancona 
and  the  monument  of  Gregory  X.  at  Arezzo — are 
not  of  his  age  or  manner. 

MAR'GATE.  A  popular  watering  place  in 
the  Isle  of  1  hanet,  Kent,  England,  70  miles  east- 
southeast  of  London  (ilap:  England,  H  5).  It 
has  important  fisheries,  but  is  more  noted  for  all 
the  usual  resources  of  a  watering  place,  theatre, 
baths,  libraries,  zoological  gardens,  esplanade, 
etc.  It  is  the  great  resort  for  Londoners.  The 
shore,  covered  with  fine,  firm  sand,  afl'ords  good 
sea-bathing,  and  there  are  many  pleasant  walks 
along  the  sands  and  clifl's,  and  inland.  The  town 
owns  its  water  supply.  Its  ancient  name  was 
Meregate — the  gate  to  the  sea.  Its  interesting 
])arish  churcli  was  founded  in  1050.  Population, 
in   1801.   18,000;   in   1901,  23,000. 

MARGATE  FISH,  or  ilAKGARET  Grunt.  A 
food  fish  (Hamulun  album),  one  of  the  grunts 
or  roncos  of  the  (iulf  of  ilexico  and  southward, 
where  it  is  common  in  water  of  moderate  dcptli, 
and  reaches  a  length  of  two  feet  or  more.  It  is 
white,  with  olive-colored  back  and  fins  and  in- 
distinct spots ;  the  mouth  is  orange.  In  some 
places  no  one  will  eat  it,  but  at  Pensacola  and 
Key  West,  and  in  Xassau  and  other  parts  of  the 
British  West  Indies,  it  is  commonly  sold  in  the 
nuirkcts.  fre(iuently  under  the  name  'porgv'.' 

MARGAY,  miir'gA  (Brazilian  name).  A  wild 
eat  (Fclis  tigriiw)  of  the  forested  parts  of  tropi- 
cal America.  The  animal  is  so  variable  in  size, 
color,  and  markings  that  several  species  have 
been  described  from  its  varieties.  It  seems  to 
difl'cr  little  from  cats  generally  in  its  habits,  and 
occasioiuilly  is  domesticated. 

MARGELAN,  miir'ge-liin'.  Old  and  Xew. 
Two  towns  in  the  Territory  of  Ferghana,  Rus- 
sian Turkestan  (Map:  Asia,  Central.  Ml).  Old 
Margclan,  about  40  miles  east  of  Khokand.  is 
an  .\siatic  city,  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  con- 
taining mosques  and  bazaars,  etc.  Pop\ilation, 
in  1807.  .3I!.502,  mostly  Sarts,  Tajiks,  and  Jews. 
New  Margclan.  situated  about  10  miles  south  of 
the  old  town,  is  the  seat  of  tlie  administration  of 
the  Territory,  and  had  in  1807  a  population  of 
8077,   mostly  Russians. 

MARGGRAFF,  miir'graf,  Hermann  (1809- 
04).  .\  (;erm;in  jioet  and  hinuorous  author.  He 
was  br)rn  at  Ziillichau;  studied  at  Berlin,  and, 
devoting  himself  to  journalism,  lived  and  wrote 
in  Leipzig.  Munich.  Augsburg,  and  Frankfort, 
finally  settling  in  l^ipzig  (1853)  as  editor  of 
the  lUiillir  fiir  litcrarixchc  Vtitcrhaltung.  He 
wrote  the  critical  essay.  Drutschlands  jiirig.tir 
Littcratur  und  Kulfurcpoclic  (1839):  several 
plays;  humorous  novels,  including  .fuxtus  und 
<'hni<io.<ilomu.i,  Qchriidrr  Prch  (1840).  Johanitci 
Uarhd  (1841).  and  Fritz  Brule}  (18.->5):  a  bi- 
ography of  Ernst  Schuize  (Leipzig,  18.55)  ;  Srhil- 
liiR  und  Krinirrn  Frruiidsehaflshuiid  (1S50); 
(ledirhlr  (IS.")  ;  and  lialladruchroiiik  (1862). 

MARGHERITA  (Maria  Maroeif.rita  Te- 
KE.'SA  (IiovANNA  OK  Savoia)  (1851  — ).  Quccn 
Dowager  of  Italy,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Genoa.  She  was  married  in  1808  to 
her  cousin,  Humbert,  the  Prince  Royal,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Victor  Emmanuel  I.,  as  King 


MARGHERITA. 


MABHEINEKE. 


of  Italy,  Jainiary  0,  1S7S,  ami  «lio  was  assas- 
siiiaU'if  at  Muii/.a  on  July  20,  1900.  llcr  charm 
of  iiiaiiiicr  and  swoptnrss  of  disjiositiiiii  made 
her  fxtifiiii-ly  iiuiiular  in  Italy. 

MARGIN  BEAXS  (OF.  margine,  from  Lat. 
marijo.  boundary).  Transactions  in  which  one 
person,  in  the  character  of  purchaser,  puts  up 
collateral  .security  for  the  peiformance  of  his 
agreement  to  purchase.  At  times,  they  are  legal 
transactions.  l'"or  example,  a  person  employs  a 
broker  to  purchase  stock  or  other  property  for 
him.  Not  liaving  the  money  with  which  to  pay 
tlie  price,  the  broker  advances  it.  upon  receiving 
from  the  buyer  (his  principal)  the  deposit  of  a 
specilied  sum  and  an  agreement  that  he  (the 
broker)  may  sell  the  stock  in  case  it  depreciates 
so  that  the  stock  and  margin  are  no  longer  ample 
security  for  his  advance.  Such  a  transaction  is 
perfectly  valid  and  enforceable  at  common  law. 
By  constitutional  or  statutory  provisions  in  some 
of  our  States,  however,  even  margin  deals  of  that 
sort  have  been  jnit  under  the  ban  and  are  void. 
In  such  jurisdictions  the  bu.ver  may  repudiate 
the  agreement  and  recover  from  the  broker  any 
moneys  put  into  his  hands  as  a  margin. 

The  term  is  more  frequently  applied  to  con- 
tracts entered  into,  and  deposits  made,  to  dis- 
guise gambling  transactions  in  stocks  or  in  prop- 
erty sold  for  future  delivery.  Deals  of  this  sort 
are  illegal  and  void  at  common  law.  Not  only 
is  the  contract  itself  unenforceable,  but  nego- 
tiable paper  or  other  securities  given  as  a  part 
of  the  transactions  are  void,  and  property  de- 
posited as  .a  margin  may  be  recovered.  Margin 
deals,  which  are  in  reality  gambling  transac- 
tions, are  punishable  in  some  of  our  States  as 
criminal  ofl'enscs.  Consult:  Mechem,  The  Law  of 
Aficiicy  (Chicago,  1889);  Constitution  of  Cali- 
fornia. Art.  4.  §  20;  Sheeby  vs.  Shim.  10.3  Cal. 
Rep.,  p.  3-25.  or  .37  Tac.  Rep.,  p.  31)3  (1894)  ;  Ir- 
win vs.  Willard,  110  U.  S.  Rep.  499,  or  4  Sup.  Ct. 
Rep.  UiO   (  1884). 

MARGITES,  miir-ji'tez.  A  mock-heroic  epic, 
ascribed  to  Homer  by  .\ristotle,  and  by  him  con- 
sidered to  be  the  germ  of  comedy.  It  has  also 
lieen  attributed  to  Pogres  of  Halicarnassus,  the 
brother  of  Queen  Artemisia.  It  describes  the  va- 
rious predicaments  in  which  Margites.  a  foolish 
young  fellow,  who  knew  many  things  badly,  was 
[daced. 

MARGOLIOUTH.  miir-gr/li-nnt,  D.win  Sam- 
uel (IS.i8 — ).  An  English  Arabic  .scholar,  born 
in  London.  He  studied  at  Winchester  and  New 
College.  Oxford,  was  fellow  of  New  College 
( 1881 ).  and  in  1889  became  Laudian  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Oxford.  Sinniltaneously  he  held  the 
post  of  assistant  keeper  of  Oriental  books  and 
manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum.  Among  his 
publications  are;  Anahcta  Oricntalin  ad  Poeti- 
cam  Aristoteleam  (1888)  ;  Jepheth  Brn  Eli,  Com- 
mrntriri/  on  the  Book  of  Daniel  (1889)  ;  Arabic 
Papi/ri  of  the  Bodleian  Libranj  (1893)  ;  Chresto- 
malhiii  Baidawiana  (1894):  Letters  of  Abul 
'Ala  (189S)  :  and  Lines  of  Defense  of  the  Bibli- 
cal Rrrrlation   (1900). 

MARGRAVE  (Ger.  Markgraf.  border-count). 
In  early  medi;eval  times  the  military  ehieftains 
or  guardians  to  whom  was  intrusted  the  defense 
of  the  border,  with  the  government  over  such 
frontier  provinces,  known  as  marks  or  marches. 
In  Continental  Europe  these  margraves  at  first 
held  their  offices  only  during  life,  but  as  they 


became  more  independent  and  powerful,  their 
positions  and  titles  became  vested  in  the  same 
line,  and  they  were  establishad  as  a  powerful 
hereditary  order  of  nobility.  In  England  the 
lords  or  wardens  of  the  marches  were  appointed 
to  guard  the  frontiers  of  Wales  and  Scotland,  and 
the  office  was  long  regarded  as  special  or  tem- 
porary: the  term  marquis  was  not  applied  to 
the  office  until   138.5.     See  Graf;   Mark;   ALvr- 

QUIS. 

MARGRY,  miir'gre',  Pierre  (1818-94).  A 
French  hi-storian,  born  at  Paris.  He  became  a.s 
a  young  man  adjunct  curator  of  the  archives 
of  the  department  of  the  Minister  of  Ma- 
rine, and  in  1842  was  intrusted  with  the 
task  of  studjing  the  colonial  history  of  France 
in  America.  Among  his  works  are:  La  na- 
vigation du  Mississippi  et  les  pricurseurs  de 
Fulton  aux  Etats-Vnis  (1859);  Les  Normands 
dans  les  vallees  de  I'Ohio  et  du  Mississippi 
(1860);  Les  navigateurs  frangais  et  la  revolu- 
tion maritime  du,  XlVeme  aii  XVIeme  siecle 
(1867);  Relations  et  memoires  pour  servir  A 
Vhistftire  de  la  France  dans  les  pags  d'outre  mer 
(1867)  ;  Les  seigneurs  de  la  Martinique  (1879)  ; 
Deeouvertes  et  etablissements  des  Frangais  dans 
I'Amerique  septentrionale  (1879-88);  and  Le 
conqu^rant  de&  lies  Canaries  (1880).  He  edited 
Les  souL-enirs  d'un  homme  de  lettres,  based  on 
Augustin  Jal's  manuscripts   ( 1877  ) . 

MARGUERITE.       A     garden     plant.       See 

CllRYSANTHEMlM. 

MARGUERITE,  or  MARGARET.  The  prin- 
cipal female  character  in  Goethe's  Faust. 

MARGUERITTE,  mar'g'-ret',  Paul  (1860 
— ).  A  French  novelist,  born  at  El  Aghuat,  in 
Algeria.  His  early  work  was  naturalistic,  minute 
in  observation  of  common  life,  but  preserving 
an  artistic  sense  and  showing  a  tendency  to 
introspective  reverj'.  Characteristic  of  this 
first  period  are  Tons  quatre  (1885);  La  con- 
fession posthume  (1886);  and  Maison  ouverte 
(1887).  With  ripening  talent  his  art  was  dig- 
nified by  a  deeper  sense  of  the  responsibilities 
of  literature  to  morals.  He  has  become  one  of 
the  most  purposeful  of  the  younger  school  of 
French  novelists.  This  change  appears  in  Pascal 
flcfo.sse  (1887).  and  grows  more  defined  in  Jours 
d'cpreuve  (1889);  La  force  des  ehoses  (1891); 
Le  cuirassier  blanc  (1892)  ;  Ma  grande  (1893)  ; 
La  tourmente  (1894);  Fors  I'honneur  (1895); 
the  short  stories  contained  in  Simple  histoire 
(1895);  L'essor  (1897);  Le  ddsastre  (1897); 
Trongons  du  glaive  (1900);  and  Fenimcs  nou- 
velles  (1900),  the  last  three  written  in  collabora- 
tion with  his  brother  Victor.  In  all  these  the 
style  is  nervous,  sometimes  crude,  but  showing  a 
growing  delicacy  and  tenderness  of  sympathy,  a 
patriotic  eflfort  to  rouse  and  fortify  the  national 
will.  Especially  in  the  later  novels  there  is  a 
virile  grappling  with  the  problems  of  duty.  Con- 
sult: Lenialtre.  Contemporains.  vol.  v.  (Paris, 
1886  et  seq. )  ;  and  Pelli.ssier.  Essais  de  litfSra- 
ture  contemporaine    (Paris.   1893). 

MARHEINEKE,  miir-hl'np-kr,  PniLiPP  KoN- 
RAi)  (17S0184()).  A  Gerniiin  theologian.  He 
was  born  at  Hildcsheim,  May  I,  1780;  educated 
at  Giittingen ;  became  repetent  there  1804;  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  theolog;\-  at  Heidelberg, 
1805;  professor  ordinary  there  1809:  and  in 
1811  was  called  to  the  same  position  at  Berlin 
and  chosen  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Trinity, 


MARHEINEKE.  56 


MARIAGE  DE   FIGARO. 


■where  he  became  a  colleague  of  Schleiermacher. 
His  studies  lay  principally  in  the  direction  of 
Christian  symbolism  and  dogmatics.  To  the 
former  he  devoted  his  Chrislliche  SymboUk 
(lSlO-14)  and  his  Inslilutiones  Symbolicm 
( 1812)  ;  to  the  latter,  his  (Iruttdtehrcn  dfr  christ- 
lichcii  Dof/malik  (1819).  His  method  of  treat- 
ment is  historical  rather  than  dogmatic  and  his 
position  entirely  independent.  The  positive  form 
of  his  theology  may  be  found  in  his  Enttrurf  dcr 
praktischcn  Tlieologie  (1837).  He  wrote  many 
liooks  besides  those  named,  including  the  impor- 
tant GiSchichte  dcr  deutschcn  Jirformnlioii 
(181G)  and  Die  Reformation,  ihrc  Entslehung 
viid  Vcrhrcitiinfi  in  Deiil.ichlnnd.  dcm  dctitscltcn 
Voikc  crziihlt  (1840).  He  died  in  Berlin.  Jlay 
31,  1840.  His  Thculogischc  Vorlesuiigeii  apj)cared 
posthumously  (1847-49),  with  biographical 
sketch.  Consult  Weber.  Le  systime  doymutique 
de  Marhriiickr   (Strassburg,  1857). 

MARIA  CHRISTINA,  kris-te'nii  (1800-78). 
Queen  of  Spain.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Francis 
I..  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  was  born  in 
Naples,  .April  27.  1806.  In  1829  she  lieeame  the 
fourth  wife  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain.  In  1830 
Ferdinand  restored  the  law  by  which,  in  default 
of  male  issue,  the  right  of  inheritance  was  given 
to  females.  In  October  of  that  year  tlie  (Jueen 
gave  birth  to  a  daughter.  Isabella.  The  Spanish 
Liberals  gladly  embraced  the  cause  of  the  (Jueen, 
rejoicing  to  see  Ferdinand's  lirother,  the  reac- 
tionary Don  Carlos  (q.v. ),  further  removed  from 
the  succession  to  the  throne.  Ferdinand  died 
September  29,  1833.  and  by  his  testament  his 
widow  was  appointed  guardian  of  her  children — 
the  young  Queen  Isabella  and  the  Infanta  Louisa 
— and  Regent  until  tlie  Queen  should  attain  the 
age  of  eighteen.  A  civil  war  at  once  broke 
out  between  the  opposing  parties  known  as  Car- 
lists  and  Cristinos.  but  the  Queen  motlier  seemed 
indilTerent  to  everything  except  the  company 
of  Don  Fernando  Mufioz,  one  of  the  royal  body- 
guard, whom  she  made  her  chamberlain,  and 
with  whom  she  was  imitcd  in  December.  1833. 
in  a  morgjinatic  marriage.  Her  practice  as  Regent 
was  to  adopt  the  course  agreeable  to  the  Minis- 
ter of  the  day,  and  thus  her  Government  was 
despotic  under  one  Ministry  and  liberal  under  an- 
other. She  contrived,  however,  upon  many  oc- 
casions to  embrace  the  proceedings  of  her  more 
liberal  or  constitutional  Ministers;  but  when  she 
sanctioned  by  her  signat\ire  the  law  respecting 
the  local  liberties  of  tlie  cnnniuuies  (see  .\vrNT.\- 
MIK.NTO),  a  popular  commotion  ensued  and  she 
was  compelled  to  resign  the  regency  (1840),  be- 
ing succeeded  by  tlie  Prime  Minisler  Fspartero. 
She  retired  to  France,  but  continued  to  interfere 
in  the  affairs  of  Spain.  After  the  fall  of  F.spar- 
tero  (1843)  she  returned  to  Mailrid.  and  in  Octo- 
ber, 1844,  her  marriage  with  Alufioz.  who  was 
now  made  D\ike  of  Rianzarcs.  was  publicly  solem- 
nized. Her  participation  in  the  schemes  of  Louis 
Philippe  in  the  matter  of  tlie  marriage  of  her 
daughters,  in  1H40,  and  the  continued  exercise  of 
all  her  inllueiice  in  a  manner  unfavorable  to  con- 
stitutional liberty,  made  her  the  object  of  great 
dislike  to  the  whole  Lil«Tal  Party  in  Spain.  At 
length,  in  .Inly.  18.54,  a  revolution  expelled  her 
from  the  country,  and  she  again  took  refuge  in 
France.  She  returned  to  Spain  in  1804.  only  to 
retire  again  in  1808.  She  died  at  Havre,  August 
22,  1878.     See  Spais. 


MARIA  CHRISTINA  (1858—).  A  Queen 
of  Spain.  She  was  the  daugliter  of  Archduke 
Karl  Ferdinand  of  .\ustria.  and  in  1879  married 
-Mfonso  XII.  of  Spain,  to  whom  she  bore  a  post- 
humous son  in  1880.  Alfonso  XIII.  She  acted  as 
Regent  until  Alfonso  XIII.  was  declared  of  age, 
-May  17.  1902.  carrying  on  the  Government  with 
iiuicli  ability  and  tact. 

MARIA  DE'  MEDICI,  ma-re'il  da  ma'df-che 
(1573-1042).  The  second  wife  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Francis  1., 
tirand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  was  born  at  Flor- 
ence, April  26,  1573.  She  was  married  to  Henry 
IV.  in  1600,  and  in  1001  gave  birth  to  a  son, 
afterwards  Louis  XIII.  The  union  did  not 
prove  happy.  Maria,  though  beautiful,  was 
an  obstinate,  ambitious,  passionate,  and  duU- 
lieaded  woman,  and  her  quarrels  with  Henry 
over  her  favorites  and  the  King's  gallantries 
soon  became  the  talk  of  Paris.  Two  Italians, 
Leonora  Galigai  and  her  husband.  Concini  (see 
AxcHE),  exercised  a  powerful  infhience  over  her 
mind,  and  encouraged  her  dislike  to  her  husband, 
who  on  his  part  avoided  her  as  much  as  possible. 
She  was  not  publicly  crowned  as  Queen  until 
the  day  before  Henry's  assassination  (May.  1010). 
For  the  next  seven  years  she  govcrnetl  as  Regent, 
but  proved  incapable  as  a  ruler.  After  the 
murder  of  Concini.  in  1017,  Louis  XIII.  as- 
siiiiie<l  royal  ])ower.  aided  by  his  favorite,  the 
Duke  de  Luynes,  who  hail  put  Concini  out  of  the 
way.  Maria  was  kept  under  surveillance  in  the 
castle  at  Hlois.  She  escaped  in  1019.  and  bcg.an 
a  war  against  the  King  and  Court,  lieing  allied 
with  certain  of  the  disappointed  nobles.  The  con- 
llict  was  brief,  and  ended  in  the  discomfiture  of 
Maria.  In  1021  the  death  of  Luynes  led  to  her 
return  to  Court.  JIaria  hoped  to  win  over 
Richelieu  to  her  party,  and  be  was  created  car- 
dinal and  Minister  of  State,  partly  through 
her  inllucnce.  She  soon  found  out.  how- 
ever, that  he  had  no  mind  to  be  ruled  by 
her,  whereupon  she  resolved  to  undermine  his 
intluenec  with  the  King.  Her  intrigues  for  this 
purpose  in  1030  failed,  and  she  was  imprisoned 
in  Compif'gne.  wlience  she  escaped  to  Brussels 
in  1031.  She  finally  found  her  way  to  Eng- 
land to  the  Court  of  her  sonin-law.  Charles  1., 
but  was  coin[)elled  to  leave  London  in  1041,  and 
her  last  years  were  spent  in  utter  destitution. 
She  died  at  Cologne  on  .Tuly  3,  1642.  Maria 
de'  ^ledici  was  a  lover  and  patron  of  the 
tine  arts,  and  Paris  owes  to  her  the  Luxem- 
bourg Palace  and  other  nuhlic  works.  Consult: 
Pardoe,  Life  and  Times  of  Marie  de'  Medici 
(London,  1852):  Zeller,  Henry  IV.  el  Marie  de 
Mi'diris  (Paris,  1877),  and  La  minority  de  Louis 
XIII.— Marie  de  Mi'diris  el  foully.  llUO-1612 
(ib..  1892):  id..  La  minorild  de  Lonin  XIII. — 
Marie  de  Midiiiit  el  Villrrny  (ib.,  1897)  :  Freer, 
Henry  IV.  and  Marie  de'  .Mcdiei  (London,  1861). 
S<'e  Henry  IV.:    Franci;. 

MARIAGE  DE  FIGARO,  ina'ryazh'  Ac  ft- 
ga'n'/,  Le.  oi'  i..\^  Foi.i.e  .1o\  rn^e.  A  five-act 
comedy  by  Beaumardiais,  ]>ro(luce(l  at  the  ComC'- 
die  Frani.aise  in  1784,  It  forms  the  continu- 
ation of  the  liarhirr  de  SH-illr.  and  represents 
the  situations  produced  by  Figaro's  schemes  to 
render  ineffectual  .Mmaviva's  pursuit  of  Su- 
zanne, the  barlier's  fianciV.  The  play  is  brilliant 
thouL'h  unequal.  It  embodies  in  a  .Spanish  set- 
ting an  attack  on  the  French  nobiljty  and  inagis- 


MARIAGE   DE   FIGARO. 


57 


MAEIAMNE. 


tracy,   and    was   considprcd   l)y   Louis   XVI.   too 
daiif;cnnis   for  ]>uldic   representation. 

MARIAGE  FORCE,  ma'ri-azli'  f.".r'sa',  Le 
(Fr.,  the  forced  marriage).  A  one-act  prose 
comedy-ballet  by  Molifre  (1664).  The  old  Sgana- 
rcllc.  under  promise  of  marriage  to  a  young 
coquette,  Dorimf'ne,  hesitates  to  fulfill  his  pi-(im- 
ise  and  .seeks  advice  without  result  from  two 
philosopher  friends,  but  is  finally  forced  to  con- 
sent by  her  brother  Alcidas.  The  piece  bore  the 
name  "liallet  du  roi,"  because  Louis  XIV.  danced 
in  it  as  a  gypsy. 

MA'RIA  GENS.  A  plebeian  gens  at  Rome. 
It  was  never  divided  into  families.  Its  most 
celebrated  member  was  Caius  Marius,  conqueror 
of  the  Cimtiri  and  Teutones. 

MARIAGER,  niu're-a'ger,  Peter  (1S27— ). 
A  Danisli  novelist,  born  at  Nyborg.  He  became 
known  through  translations  from  tlie  French  and 
Gei'man,  such  as  that  of  Flammarion's  Inhahited 
irorWs.  His  original  works  are:  Fia  Hellas, 
Fern  antike  Forlallinger  (1881)  ;  Den  sidste  La- 
mia. o(t  andre  antilce  FortcelliiKjer  (1884)  ;  ilag- 
tharrren  pan  Rliodox  (ISSo)  •.Ni/haris.  a  drama; 
Droiiningcn  af  Kyrene,  og  andre  onltke  Fortcel- 
linf/er  (1801);  and  Ft  linjlhip  i  Katakombcnw 
(1803).  -Ml  of  his  stories  relate  to  Greek  and 
Roman  subicets. 

MARIA  II.  DA  GLORIA,  ma-re'a  da  gld'- 
re-a  (1819-.53).  A  Queen  of  Portugal.  She  was  a 
daughter  of  Dom  Pedro  I.,  Emperor  of  Brazil, 
and  a  granddaughter  of  King  John  VI.,  of  Portu- 
gal. She  succeeded  to  tlie  Portuguese  throne  in 
1820  on  the  death  of  her  grandfather.  Pom  Pedro 
renouncing  his  claim  to  the  throne  in  her  favor, 
and  though  only  a  child  was  promised  in  mar- 
riage to  her  uncle.  Dom  Miguel,  who  was  to  act 
as  Regent.  The  latter,  however,  in  1S28  usurped 
the  throne.  In  1832-33  Dom  Pedro  successfully 
attacked  Dom  Jliguel  by  land  and  sea.  and  in 
1834  tlie  usurper,  yielding  to  the  threats  of  Eng- 
land and  France,  submitted.  Maria  was  estab- 
lished on  the  throne,  and  in  1835  she  married  the 
Dnke  Charles  Augustus  of  Leuchtenberg,  who 
ilied  a  few'  months  later.  The  next  year  she  mar- 
ried Duke  Ferdinaiul  of  8axe-Coburg-Gotha-Ko- 
harv.  She  was  succeeded  by  her  eldest  son, 
Pedro   V. 

MARIA  LESZCZYNSKA,  lesh-chin'ska 
(1703-68).  Wife  of  King  Louis  XV.  of  France. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Stanislas  Leszczynski, 
King  of  Poland,  and  was  born  in  Breslau  before 
he  came  to  the  throne.  Maria  accompanied  her 
father  in  his  wretched  wanderings  after  his  ex- 
pulsion from  Poland.  He  settled  in  Alsace  in 
1710,  after  the  death  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 
and  there  the  Duke  of  Bourbon  saw  ilaria,  and 
arranged  her  marriage  with  Louis  XV.,  who  was 
seven  years  her  Junior.  She  lived  in  retirement, 
devoting  herself  to  acts  of  piety  and  charity,  and 
died  at  Versailles,  survived  by  four  daughters. 
Consult:  d'.Armaille,  La  reine  Marie  Leszezi/nslxa 
(Paris,  1870).  and  Des  Reaux.  Le  roi  Stanislas 
et  Marie  Le.'izc::)nish-a   (Paris,  1895). 

MARIA  LOUISA  (1751-1810).  Daughter  of 
Duke  Philip  of  Parma,  and  wife  of  King  Charles 
IV.  of  Spain  (q.v.),  whom  she  married  in  1705, 
while  he  was  still  Infante.  When  he  succeed- 
ed to  the  crown  in  1788,  she  and  her  lover, 
Godoy,  Duke  of  .\leudia,  managed  to  secure 
practical  control  of  the  Government.  After  the 
revolution  in  1808  which  placed  Ferdinand  VII. 


on  the  throne  of  his  father,  slie  and  her  hus- 
band tied  to  France  and  a[)pcaled  to  Napoleon, 
who  induced  the  young  King  to  restore  the  crown 
to  his  father  and  then  persuaded  the  latter  to 
cede  it  to  him ;  whereupon  he  promptly  bestowed 
it  on  his  brother  .Joseph  (q.v.).  Maria  spent  the 
remainder  <if  her  life  in  exile  at  Marseilles  and 
Nice  and  latterly  at  Rome,  where  she  died. 

MARIA  LOUISA  (1782-1824).  Queen  of 
Etruria,  daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of  S])ain  (q.v.) 
and  Maria  Louisa  of  Parma  (q.v.).  She  married 
Louis,  eldest  son  of  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Parma. 
In  1801  her  husband  was  invested  by  Napoleon 
with  the  Kingdom  of  Etruria  (Tuscany),  the 
consideration  being  tliat  Parma  sliould  revert  to 
France  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand.  When  Louis 
died  in  1803,  her  son.  Charles  Louis,  succeed- 
ed to  the  Etrurian  throne  under  her  regency, 
but  the  kingdom  was  incorporated  in  1807  in  the 
French  dominions.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  in 
compensation  gave  the  young  prince  Lucca,  which 
his  mother  governed  as  Regent  until  he  came  of 
age,  and  in  a  subsequent  treaty  it  was  stipulated 
that  Parma  should  revert  to  him  on  the  death 
of  the  ex-Empress  Maria  Louisa.  The  Queen's 
memoirs  were  published  under  the  title  Meinoires 
de  la  reine  d'Etriirie  (Paris,  1814). 

MARIA  LOUISA  (1791-1847).  The  second 
wife  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  She  was 
boi'n  December  12,  1701,  the  daughter  of  the 
Archduke  Francis,  afterwards  the  Emperor  Fran- 
cis I.  of  Austria,  and  was  married  to  Napoleon 
on  April  2,  1810.  The  nuirriage  seemed  to  give 
stability  to  the  Bonaparte  dynasty,  and  in  some 
measure  to  afford  a  prospect  of  peace  to  Europe. 
On  March  20,  1811,  she  bore  a  son,  who  was 
called  King  of  Rome.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
campaign  of  1813  Napoleon  appointed  her  Regent 
in  his  absence,  but  under  many  limitations.  On 
the  abdication  of  Napoleon  she  was  not  permitted 
to  follow  lier  husband,  but  went  with  her  son  to 
Schilnbrunn,  where  she  remained  till,  in  1816, 
she  received  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and 
Guastalla.  In  1821  she  contracted  a  morga- 
natic marriage  with  her  chamberlain.  Count  von 
Neipperg,  who  died  in  1829.  In  1833  she  entered 
into  a  secret  marriage  with  Count  Bombelies, 
likewise  her  chamberlain.  She  died  at  Vienna, 
December  17,  1847.  Consult:  the  works  of  Ini- 
bert  de  Saint  Amand,  The  Happi/  Days  of  the 
Fnrpress  Marie  Louise  (trans.  New  York,  1890- 
01);  Marie  Louise  and  the  Decadence  of  the 
Empire  (trans.  New  York,  1801)  ;  Marie  Louise 
and  the  Lnvasion  of  ISl.)  (trans.  New  York, 
1891);  Marie  Louise,  the  Island  of  Elba,  and 
the  Hundred  Dai/s  (trans.  New  York,  1891); 
and  Marie  Louise  et  le  Due  de  Reichstadt  { Paris, 
1802).     See  N,\poleon  L 

MARIA  LOUISA,  OnnER  of.  A  Spanish 
order  founded  by  Cliarles  IV.,  in  1792,  and  be- 
stowed by  the  Queen  on  women  of  the  old  no- 
bility. The  recipient  is  expected  to  devote  her- 
self to  charitable  and  pious  works.  The  order 
has  one  class. 

MARIAMNE,  ma'ri-am'ne.  Wife  of  Herod 
the  Great  (q.v.).  She  belonged  to  the  family  of 
the  ilaccabees  (q.v.).  Vjcing  the  granddaughter 
of  Hyrcanus  II.  Although  she  was  deeply  be- 
loved by  her  husband,  he  had  her  put  to  death 
in  a  tit  of  jealousy,  and  remorse  for  the  act  em- 
bittered the  later  years  of  his  life.  She  is  famed 
for  her  beauty  as  well  as  her  tragic  fate. 


MARIAMNC. 


58 


MARIA  THERESA. 


MARIAMNE.  The  title  of  plays  by  Alex- 
andre Hardy  (1610),  Tristan  rErmite  "(1637), 
and  Voltaire  (1723),  based  on  tlie  story  of  Mari- 
anme.  wife  of  Herod  the  Great. 

MARIAlf A.  ( 1 )  In  Shakespeare's  Measure 
for  Miusure,  the  charming  and  womanly  lover 
of  Angelo.  Tennyson's  Mariana  in  the  Moated 
Oranye  and  Mariana  in  the  Huuth  were  based  on 
her  character.  (2)  In  Knowles's  The  H'l/e,  a 
gentle  and  faithful  character  married  to  Leo- 
nardo. 8lie  is  the  victim  of  a  plot  to  make  her 
appear  f.iiilty  of  inlidelity  with  a  countryman, 
who  luriis  out  to  be  her  brother. 

MARIANA.  The  name  given  by  Capt.  John 
Mason  to  the  land  granted  him  by  the  Council  for 
New  England  on  March  i),  ll)21.  The  patent, 
which  was  the  second  granted  by  the  Council, 
covered  the  lands  lying  between  the  Xaumkeag 
( Salem )  and  Merrimac  rivers,  with  the  islands 
within  three  miles  of  the  shore,  and  was  included 
in  the  present  territory  of  Massachusetts. 

MARIANA,  mii'r^-ji'ni.  Juan  (1336-1623). 
A  distinguished  Spanish  historian  and  scholar, 
born  at  Talavera.  In  1.5.i4  he  entered  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits.  His  early  studies  in  languages 
and  theology  were  so  brilliant  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  teach  in  the  schools  of  his  Order,  first 
at  Rome  (where  the  celebrated  liiOlarmine  [q.v.] 
was  one  of  his  scholars)  in  1561,  afterwards  in 
Sicily  in  1565,  and  finally  in  Paris  in  1569. 
After  a  residence  there  of  seven  years  he  settled 
at  Toledo,  where  he  resided  till  his  death,  at  an 
c.Ktrcme  old  age.  His  retirement,  however,  was 
passed  in  sustained  literary  activity.  From  an 
early  period  he  devoted  himself  to  writing  a  his- 
tory of  Spain  (1592-1605).  The  originafof  this 
history  was  Latin,  the  elegance  and  purity  of 
which  have  secureil  for  Mariana  a  place  among 
the  most  distinguished  of  modern  Latinists. 
Mariana  himself  published  a  Spanish  translation, 
which  still  remains  one  of  the  classics  of  the 
language.  Among  bis  other  productions  are  a 
scholia  of  the  Bible  and  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  Isidore  of  Seville.  Hut  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  works  of  .Mariana  is  his  well-known  treatise. 
Dc  lityc  <t  Hiijis  Instilutionc  {  15!li|).  in  which  is 
raised  the  imjiorlant  question  whetlier  it  is  law- 
ful to  overthrow  and  kill  a  tyrant.  .Mariana  de- 
cides that  it  is  right  for  every  man  to  do  so.  even 
where  the  tyrant  is  not  a  usurper,  but  a  lawful 
king,  and  esteems  .Jacques  Clf^ment  (q.v.)  equally 
with  Hrutvis.  This  tyrannicide  doctrine  drew 
much  oilium  upon  the  entire  Order  of  .Jesuits; 
but  the  same  doctrines  were  taught  in  almost  the 
same  words  by  several  of  the  Protestant  contem- 
poraries of  Mariana  (consult  Hallam.  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Literature  of  Europe.  5th  ed..  J>ondon, 
1855  56).  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Mariana's 
book  was  c'ondemned  by  the  general,  Aequaviva. 
Mariana's  views  on  other  subjects  were  broad- 
miu'b'.l  ;iiid   libi-ral. 

MARIANA  ISLANDS.  See  Ladhone  Isl- 
ands. 

MARIAN'NA.  .\  town  and  the  covmty-seat 
of  l^e  County.  .\rk..  160  miles  east  of  Little 
Rock,  on  L'.\nguille  River,  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion, nnil  on  the  Saint  Louis.  Iron  Mountain  and 
Southern  Railroad  (Map:  .Arkansas.  F,  3).  It 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  cotton,  and  has 
cotton  pins,  cottonseed-oil  mills,  lumber-mills, 
etc.     The  water-works   are  owned   and   operated 


by  the  municipality.  Population,  in  1890.  1126; 
in   I '.mo,  1707. 

MARIANNE,  md're-an',  ov  les  Avextubes 
DE  L.\  CoMTEssE  DE.  .  .  .  An  unfinished  ro- 
mance by  Marivau.K  (1731-41),  to  which  a  second 
part  was  added  in  1755  by  Madame  Riceobini. 
The  novel  has  been  said  to  be  the  origin  of  Pa- 
mela. It  is  important  as  the  first  novel  of  analy- 
sis rather  than  of  incident,  and  contains  minute 
pictures  of  bourgeois  and  conventual  life. 

MARIANNE    (ma'ri-an')     ISLANDS.      See 

L.VDHU.XE    ISL.iNDS. 

MARIATJUS  SCO'TITS  ( 1028-C.1082  i .  An 
Irisli  chronicler,  whose  real  name  was  Moellirigtc. 
He  left  his  native  land  at  the  age  of  twenty-lour, 
when  he  became  a  monk,  and  in  1056  entered 
the  monastery  at  Cologne,  where  he  remained 
for  two  years.  He  then  went  to  Fulda  for  ten 
years,  and  became  a  recluse  there  in  1059  and  at 
Mainz  in  1069.  His  claim  to  remembrance  rests 
upon  a  Chrunicon  Universale,  extending  from  the 
birth  of  Christ  to  1082,  which  contains  extracts 
from  Bede  and  other  chroniclers,  besides  new  ma- 
terial. The  first  printed  edition  was  made  at 
Basel  in  1559.  and  others  appeared  in  1601,  1613. 
and  17l'i;. 

MARIA  OF  AUSTRIA  (1505-58).  A  Queen 
of  Hungary,  a  daughter  of  Philip  the  Fair  of 
Burgundy  and  Joan  of  Castile,  and  sister  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  Ferdinand  I.  of 
Hapsburg.  She  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1505. 
She  married  Louis  II.  of  Hungary  in  1522.  and 
became  a  widow  in  1526,  when  her  husban<l  was 
overwhelmed  by  the  Turks  at  Mohacs.  In  1530 
'  she  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Neth- 
erlands by  Charles  V.,  succeeding  Margaret  of 
Austria.  There  she  ruled  ably  and  firmly.  In 
general,  she  aided  Charles  in  his  foreign  policy, 
often  acted  as  mediator  between  him  and  Ferdi- 
nand, and  resigned  from  her  otiice  in  the  Xether- 
lands  upon  the  abdication  of  Charles  (1555). 
She  retired  to  Spain,  and  died  at  Cigales.  ilaria 
was  a  patron  of  arts  and  letters,  and  left  a  valu- 
able collection  of  manuscripts  now  in  the  Bur- 
gundian   Library  of  Brussels. 

MARIA  STUART.  A  tragedy  by  Schiller, 
first  undertaken  about  1787.  then  abandoned,  and 
resumed  in  1799.  It  was  printed  and  presented 
in  1800.  It  was  based  on  a  considerable  study 
of  the  period  by  Schiller,  but  takes  great  license 
with  historical  facts, 

MARIA  THERESA,  nuVri'A  tc-re'sft  (1717- 
80).  (.Uiecii  ot  llniigarv  and  Bohemia  ami  .-\rch- 
dvichoss  of  .Austria,  and  wife  of  the  (Jerman  Em- 
peror. Francis  I.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.  (q.v.).  and  was  born  at 
Vienna,  May  13.  1717,  By  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion ((|.v. )  her  father  sought  to  secure  from  the 
European  powers  her  undisputed  succession  to 
the  Hapsburg  dominions.  On  F'ebrmirv  12.  1736, 
she  married  Francis  Stephen.  Duke  of  Lorraine 
(soon  after  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany),  and  on 
the  death  of  her  father.  Octol)er  20.  1740.  she 
succeeded  to  the  hereditary  possessions  of  the 
House  of  .\ustria,  wliich.  in  addition  to  the 
German,  Ihuigarian.  and  Slavic  lands,  included 
Lombardy  and  the  Belgian  N'etherlands,  .She 
found  the  monarchy  exhausted,  the  finances  em- 
barrassed, the  people  discontented,  and  the  army 
weak:  while  Prussia.  Bavaria.  Saxony.  Naples, 
and  .Sardinia,  stirred  up  by  France,  put  forward 
claims    to    portions    of    her    dominions,    chiefly 


MAKIA  THERESA. 


59 


MARIE  ANTOINETTE. 


founded  on  the  extinction  of  tlie  male  line  of 
the  House  of  Hapsburg  and  in  eontiavention 
of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  The  War  of  the 
Austrian  Succes.sion  (1740-48)  ensued,  in  which 
England  supported  Austria.  (See  SrccESSiox 
Wars.)  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  soon  made 
himself  master  of  Silesia;  Spain  and  Naples  laid 
hands  on  the  Austrian  dominions  in  Italy;  and 
the  French,  Bavarians  (whose  ruler  was  elected 
Holy  Roman  Emperor  as  Charles  VIl.  in  1742), 
and  Saxons  overran  the  hereditary  Austrian 
territories.  The  young  Queen  was  in  the  utmost 
danger  of  seeing  her  realms  dismembered,  but 
was  saved  by  the  chivalrous  fidelity  of  the  Hun- 
garians, the  assistance  of  England,  and  most 
of  all  by  her  own  resolute  spirit.  Her  enemies 
quarreled  among  themselves ;  and  the  war  of 
the  Austrian  Succession  was  terminated  by  the 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  Maria  Theresa 
lost  Silesia  and  Glatz  and  the  duchies  of 
Parma.  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla.  In  1745  her 
husband  (Francis  I.)  had  been  raised  to  the  Im- 
perial throne  of  Germany  on  the  death  of  Charles 
VII.  During  the  period  of  peace  that  followed 
she  initiated  great  financial  reforms;  agriculture, 
manufactures,  and  commerce  flourished,  the  na- 
tional revenues  greatly  increased,  and  the  bur- 
dens of  the  peasantrv"  were  diminislied.  All  this 
time  she  was  strengthening  her  resources  in  an- 
ticipation of  a  renewal  of  the  war  with  Freder- 
ick the  Great.  Her  indomitable  pride  and  her 
devout  Catholicism  would  not  permit  her  to  re- 
linquish Silesia  as  long  as  she  could  fight  for  it. 
She  found  in  Kaunitz  (q.v.)  a  minister  pos- 
sessed of  the  wisdom  and  energy-  requisite  for  the 
conduct  of  afTairs,  and  in  him  she  placed  almost 
unlimited  confidence.  He  effected  the  alliance 
with  France  which  disturbed  all  existing  inter- 
national arrangements  (17.50).  In  the  Seven 
Years'  War  (q.v.)  ilaria  Theresa  and  her  allies 
well-nigh  achieved  the  ruin  of  Frederick  the 
Great;  but  the  generalship  of  the  indomitable 
Prussian  King,  the  incapacity  of  the  generals 
of  Louis  X\'.,  and  Russia's  abandonment  of  the 
cause  of  Maria  Theresa,  enabled  Frederick  to 
emerge  from  the  struggle  with  his  dominions 
intact.  The  war  reduced  Austria  to  a  state  of 
great  exhaustion:  but  when  it  was  concluded,  Jla- 
ria  Theresa  renewed  her  efforts  to  [irnmote  the  na- 
tional prosperity,  and  made  many  important  re- 
forms, ameliorating  the  condition  of  "the  peasan- 
try and  mitigating  the  penal  code.  Her  son 
.Toseph  (II.)  became  Holy  Roman  Emperor  on 
the  death  of  her  husband  in  1705.  Maria  Tlieresa 
associated  him  with  herself  in  the  government  of 
her  hereditary  States,  but  in  reality  committed 
to  him  the  charge  only  of  military  affairs.  She 
joined  with  Russia  and  Prussia  in  the  first  parti- 
tion of  Poland  (1772).  Galicia  falling  to  her 
share.  She  also  compelled  the  Porte  to  give  up 
Bukowina  to  her  (1777).  The  brief  War  of  the 
Bavarian  Succession  (1778-70)  ended  in  her  ac- 
quisition of  a  di.strict  along  the  Inn  (Innviertel) , 
but  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Fiirstenbund  or 
League  of  German  Princes,  which  set  bounds  to 
the  Austrian  power  in  Germany.  Maria  Theresa 
died  in  Vienna.  November  20,  1780.  Throughout 
her  reign  she  displayed  a  resolute  and  masculine 
character.  Although  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
she  maintained  the  rights  of  the  Crown  against 
the  Court  of  Rome,  and  endeavored  to  correct 
some  of  the  worst  abuses  in  the  Church.  She 
prohibited  the  presence  of  priests  at  the  making 
Vol.  XIII.— 6. 


of  wills,  abolished  the  right  ut  u^ylum  in  churches 
and  convents,  and  suppressed  the  Inquisition  ia 
Milan.  Her  son  succeeded  her  as  Joseph  II. 
(q.v.). 

Consult:  Arneth,  (Jcschichte  Maria  Theresias 
(10  vols.,  Vienna,  1803-70);  Kern,  "Die  Refor- 
men  der  Kaiserin  Maria  Theresias,"  in  Bistor- 
isches  Tascliciibiich,  xi.  (I.«ipzig.  1809)  ;  Broghe, 
Frederick  the  (Jreat  and  Maria  Theresa,  from 
unpublished  documents,  translated  (London, 
1883)  ;  id.,  Marie  Thcrese,  Iinpiratriee,  i7.J.}-.}6" 
(Paris,  1888)  ;  Villermont,  Marie  Therese,  77/7- 
80  (Paris.  1895);  Bright,  Maria  Theresa  (Lon- 
don, 1807).  Her  correspondence  has  been  edited 
by  Kervyn  de  Lettenhove,  Lettres  inedites  de 
Marie  Thirese  et  de  Joseph  II..  Royal  Academy 
of  Belgium,  and  by  Arneth   (Vienna,  1807-81). 

MARIA  THERESA,  Order  of.  An  Aus- 
trian order  conferred  exclusively  for  distin- 
guished conduct  in  war,  founded  in  1757.  The 
monarch  is  the  head  of  the  order.  Pensions  rang- 
ing from  000  to  0000  llorins  are  given  to  mem- 
bers.    The  distinction  is  very  sparingly  conferred. 

MARIA-THERESIOPEL.       See     Theresio- 

rr.L. 

MARIAZELIi,  ma're-a-tsel'.  A  village  in  the 
Crownland  ot'  Styria,  Austria,  CO  miles  southwest 
of  Vienna  (Map:  Austria,  D  3).  It  is  the  great- 
est pilgrim  resort  of  Austria-Hungary,  being 
visited  annually  hy  about  200,000  people.  The 
church  containing  the  famous  image  of  the  Vir- 
gin was  originally  founded  in  1363  and  rebuilt 
in  1827.     Population,  in  1890,   1152. 

MARIBOJOC,  mu're-bo-Hok'.  A  town  of  Bo- 
liol.  Philippines,  situated  on  high  ground  on 
the  southwestern  coast,  7%  miles  north  of  Tag- 
bilaran  (Jlap:  Philippine  Islands,  H  10).  It  is 
an  important  road  centre.  Population,  in  1800, 
10,852. 

MARICOPA,  mii're-kcypa,  or  Coco-3\Lvricop.\. 
A  tribe  of  Yuman  stock  (q.v.),  formerly  living 
about  the  junction  of  the  Gila  and  Coloradn 
rivers,  soutliwestern  Arizona.  About  seventy 
years  ago.  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the 
Yuma,  they  moved  up  the  Gila  and  confederated 
with  the  Pima  (q.v.),  with  whom  they  are  now 
living  upon  the  Gila  River  reservation.  They  de 
pend  upon  agriculture  by  irrigation  and  formerly 
raised  large  crops,  but  both  they  and  the  Pima 
are  now  reduced  to  a  condition  of  chronic  starva- 
tion on  account  of  the  cutting  off  of  their  water 
supply  by  white  settlers.  They  live  in  hou.se.s  of 
corn-stalks  and  straw  woven  upon  a  framework 
of  poles,  with  storehouses  and  arbors  surround- 
ing. Their  women  arc  superior  potters,  basket- 
makers,  and  weavers  of  native  cotton.  The  men 
formerly  wore  only  the  G-string.  while  the  women 
wound  a  strip  of  cotton  cloth  about  the  waist. 
The  hair  was  worn  flowing  and  cut  across  the 
forehead.  At  present  they  are  practically  civil-, 
ized  through  missionary  effort  and  have  a  high 
reputation  for  industry  and  general  good  quali- 
ties. They  number  abovit  .150.  .\  sample  of 
their  work  is  shown  on  the  Plate  of  Indi.\x 
Baskets. 

MARIE  AMELIE  DE  BOURBON,  m4'ry 
a'mA'lf  dp  boor'hoN'.  Queen  of  the  French. 
See  Amai.ie,    ■\T.\rie. 

MARIE  ANTOINETTE,  iix'twa'ngt'  (1755- 
93).  Wife  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France.  She  was 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Emperor  Francis  I.  and 


MARIE  ANTOINETTE. 


60 


MARIE  DE  FRANCE. 


Maria  Tlieresa,  and  was  born  at  Vienna,  Xoveni- 
ber  2,  17.55.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  she  was 
betrothed  to  the  French  Daupliin.  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  married  at  Versailles.  Her  re- 
ception by  her  husband  and  the  King,  Louis  XV., 
was  flattering;  but  her  nai'vcti'-.  unceremonious 
pleasantry,  and  detestation  of  rigid  etiquette 
scandalized  Versailles.  Soon  after  the  accession 
of  Louis  XVI.  (1774),  libels  were  circulated  by 
her  enemies,  chief  among  them  being  the  Count 
of  Provence,  younger  brother  of  the  King,  who 
subsequently  ruled  as  Louis  XVI II.,  accusing  her 
of  constant  intrigues,  not  one  of  which  has  ever 
,  been  proved.  Her  faults  as  a  queen  (and  in  that 
age,  rapidlj-  growing  earnest,  angry,  and  iinl)it- 
tered,  they  were  fatal  ones)  were  a  certain  levity 
of  disposition,  girlish  love  of  ]ilcasure,  banquets, 
and  fine  dress,  an  aristocratic  indifTerence  to 
general  opinion,  and  a  lamentable  incapacity  to 
see  the  actual  misery  of  France.  She  attempted 
to  use  her  inlluence  witli  Louis  X\'l.  to  shape 
the  foreign  jjolicy  of  France  in  accordance  with 
the  interests  of  Austria,  but  her  unconcealed 
pro-Austrian  .sympathies  aroused  dissatisfaction 
among  the  nation  and  gained  her  the  unpleasant 
epithet  of  "the  .\ustrian  Wonum"  (  r.lulrichif/ntc) . 
The  affair  of  the  Diamond  Necklace  (q.v.),in  178.5. 
hopelessly  compromised  her  good  name  in  the  eyes 
of  the  public.  Her  intluence  on  the  internal  politics 
of  the  eoinitry  was  not  more  fiirtunale.  Lomonie 
de  Bricnne  and  Calonnc  were  ministers  of  her 
choice,  and  she  shared  the  ii])pr(ibriuMi  called 
down  upon  them  for  their  n'ckless  squandering 
of  the  national  finances.  She  strongly  opposed 
the  summoning  of  the  Notables  (1787).  and  of 
the  States-General  (1789);  and  she  had  good 
reason  to  dread  their  convocation,  for  one  of  the 
very  first  things  the  Notables  did  was  to  declare 
the  Queen  the  cause  of  the  derangement  of  the 
finances.  From  the  lirsl  hour  of  the  Revolution 
she  was  an  object  of  fanatical  hatred  to  the  iiioli 
of  Paris,  who  regarded  her  as  conspiring  willi 
her  brother.  Leopi>lil  II.  of  .\ustria.  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  al)solute  monarchy.  In  hours 
of  crisis  her  resolute  bearing  spurred  on  the 
weak-willed  Louis  XV'I.  to  spasmodic  assertions 
of  his  authority  without  bringing  him  to  take  a 
decisive  step  in  defense  of  his  rights.  After  the 
removal  of  the  royal  family  from  Versailles  to 
the  Ttiileries  (October  0,  178!)).  she  attempted 
on  various  occasions  to  coniiliate  the  good  will 
of  the  people,  but  failed  before  the  vindictive 
enmity  of  the  Parisian  jiopulace.  Out  of  hatred 
of  Mirabean  she  could  not  be  brought  to  accept 
the  aid  of  the  man  who  alone  might  have  saved 
the  monarchy  from  destruction.  At  last  she  re- 
solved on  flight.  Her  husband  long  refused  to 
abandon  his  country,  but  .she  could  not  go  with- 
out him.  and  finally  the  King  consented.  The 
flight  took  place  on  the  night  of  .Tune  iOth.  but 
the  royal  fugitives  were  recognized  and  turned 
back  at  Varennes.  The  flight  to  Varennes  only 
served  to  confirm  tlie  popular  belief  as 'to  the 
(Jueen's  intrigiu'  with  foreign  powers,  and,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  no  doubt  that  Marie 
Antoinette  had  corresponded  and  continued  to 
correspond  with  her  brother  relative  to  the  in- 
vasion of  France  by  an  .Austrian  army  for 
the  purpose  of  rescuing  the  royal  family.  On 
June  20,  1702.  a  mob  invaded  the  Tiiileries. 
forced  Louis  XVI.  to  don  a  liberty  cap,  and 
heaped  outrageous  insults  on  the  (,)ueen  as  thev 
filed  past  her  throughout  the  .Ti-niir  pnrl   fif  I  lie 


afternoon.  On  August  10th  came  the  final  storm- 
ing of  the  Tuileries.  Marie  Antoinette's  guards 
wvve  murdered  at  her  chamber  door,  and  the 
unhappy  Queen  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge 
with  her  liu.sband  in  the  hall  of  the  Conven- 
tion, whence  they  were  consigned  on  the  13th 
as  prisoners  to  the  Temple.  Louis  XVI.  was 
executed  on  January  21,  1793.  Marie  Antoi- 
nette was  separated  from  her  son  July  3,  1793, 
and  on  August  1st  was  removed  to  the  C'oncier- 
gerie.  Twice  while  she  was  a  jjrisoner  in  the 
Temple  were  unsuccessful  attempts  made  to  ell'ect 
her  escape.  On  October  14th  she  was  brought  be- 
fore the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  and  charged 
with  fomenting  civil  war  and  lending  coiuisel  to 
the.  foreign  enemies  of  France.  Testiniimy 
against  her  was  given  by  the  unspeakable  H<'l)crt, 
who  sought  to  blacken  her  personal  character 
with  trumped-up  charges.  She  was  found  guilty 
of  treason  after  a  two  days'  trial,  was  condeimied 
to  death  on  October  Kith,  and  was  executed 
tlie  same  day. 

The  tragic  fate  of  JIarie  Antoinette  has  given 
rise  to  a  voluminous  literature,  in  which  the 
Queen  has  been  depicted  as  the  victim,  the  sainted 
martyr,  almost,  of  the  Revolution.  In  reaction 
against  tliis  view,  other  writers  have  dealt  with 
her  character  and  with  her  role  in  French  his- 
tory in  a  spirit  of  cruel  analysis  that  probably 
sins  in  its  way  as  much  as  the  exaggeration  of 
the    sentimentalists. 

liiiii.i()(;i!Ai>iiv.  The  memoirs  of  Madame  de 
Canipan,  lady-in-waiting  to  the  Queen,  are  im- 
portant. They  were  first  ])ublished  in  France  in 
1822,  and  liave  since  appeared  in  numerous  French 
and  Knglish  editions.  The  latest  edition  in  Eng- 
lish is  entitled  The  I'rivate  Life  of  Marie  An- 
loiiiettc.  Queen  of  Frnnee  and  Sararre  (New 
York,  1887).  Much  of  the  Queen's  correspondence 
lias  been  published  by  Von  .\rncth.  d'Hunolstcin, 
I)e  Reisct.  and  (i<'lii(iy.  Tlie  iiiciiioirs  of  the 
Prince  de  Ligne  anil  tlie  Duke  de  Choiseul  are  of 
value.  Consult,  also :  MieUnell,  The  .S'(on/  of  Marie 
Antoinette  (New  York.  1897):  .Jacob.  "I'ebcr 
den  politischen  Einfiuss  der  Konigin  Marie  An- 
toinette von  Frankreich."  in  IliKlorisehcs  Ta- 
.iclunbtieh,  vol.  ix.  (Leijizig,  1838),  with  a  list  of 
authorities;  Lenotre,  La  eaplirite  et  la  mart  de 
Marie  Antoinette  (Paris,  1897);  Weber,  La 
jeunesse  de  Marie  Antoinette  (ib.,  1897);  Les- 
cure.  IjU  vraie  Marie  Antoinette  (ib.,  1863)  ;  E. 
and  .T.  de  Goncourt.  Ilistoire  de  Marie  Antoinette 
(ib..   18r.8  and   1S7S). 

MARIE  DE  FRANCE,  dc  friiNs  (twelfth 
century  y).  The  earliest  l'"rench  poet.  She  was 
born  in  France.  She  dedicated  her  fables  to 
a  certain  William,  whom  some  have  identified 
with  William  Longsword  of  Salisburv;  and  she 
alludes  in  her  Falilen  to  a  king,  sometimes  iden- 
tified with  Henry  III,  of  England.  If  these 
hypotheses  be  correct,  it  would  appear  that 
she  lived  in  England  and  in  the  early  thirteenth 
ceilturv.  but  textual  evidence  points  to  an  earlier 
date.  She  wrote  Lais  and  a  collection  of  animal 
fables,  a  so-called  Ysopit.  A  poem  of  2300  lines 
on  Saint  Patrick's  purgatory  ( L'lxitufiatnire 
ffeint  Patriz)  she  derived  from  a  Latin  treatise 
by  Henry  of  Saltrey,  written  before  ll8o.  The 
Lais  are  fourteen  narrative  poems,  ranging 
in  length  from  100  to  1200  verses.  Of  these 
the  best  known  is  the  Chivrrfruillr.  describ- 
ing an  episode  in  the  loves  of  Tristan  and 
Isenlt  (Isolde)  ;  the  finest  is  Elidue.    Noteworthy 


MARIE  DE  FRANCE. 


61 


MARIETTA. 


also  are  Lc  rossignol,  Lcs  deux  uniants,  yoneo 
(a  fairy  talc  of  the  bluebird),  and  Lanval.  These 
Marie  got  from  Kymric  sources.  Marie  says 
she  translated  her  103  fables  from  an  English 
version  by  King  Alfred  (roi  Alrrez),  or,  as  two 
^ISS.  read,  "'King  Henry."  The  English  version 
from  which  she  worked  is  lost ;  the  Latin  that 
stood  behind  it  comprised  nearly  all  the  collec- 
tion of  Romulus  (ninth  century),  supplemented 
from  the  Jewish -Oriental  fables  preserved  in  the 
collection  of  Berachyah  and  Pisore  Alphonse,  and 
apparently  also  from  early  native  sources.  The 
poems  of  Marie  de  France  arc  edited  by  Roque- 
fort (Paris.  1820),  and  better  by  Warnke  in  vol. 
iii.  of  liibliothcca  Xorniannica,  with  an  essay  by 
Riihler  (Halle;  1885).  Consult:  Bedier,  "Les  Lais 
de  Marie  de  France,"  in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes 
(Paris,  1891),  and  on  the  Ysopet,  a  chapter  by 
Sudre  in  Petit  de  Julleville,  Histoire  de  la  langiie 
et  de  la  littcrature  fraitcaise,  vol.  ii.  (Paris, 
1896)  ;  also  Warnke,  Die  Quellen  des  Esope  der 
Marie   de   France    (Halle,    1900). 

MARIE  GALANTE,  ga'lilNt'.  An  island  in 
the  West  Indies,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  It 
belongs  to  France,  and  lies  seventeen  miles 
southeast  of  Guadeloupe,  of  which  it  is  an 
administrative  dependency  (Map:  West  Indies, 
R  7).  It  is  nearly  circular  in  shape;  area.  60 
square  miles.  It  consists  of  a  limestone  plateau, 
300  to  600  feet  high,  surrounded  by  steep  rocky 
shores.  The  chief  products  are  sugar,  coffee, 
and  cotton.  The  chief  town  is  Grandbourg,  on 
the  southwest  coast.  The  population  in  1890 
was  14.000,  Marie  Galante  is  so  called  from 
the  name  of  the  ship  commanded  by  Columbus 
when  he  discovered  the  island  in   1493. 

MARIENBAD,  ma-re'cn-bat.  One  of  the 
most  famous  watering  places  of  Europe,  situated 
near  the  western  border  of  Bohemia,  Austria, 
amidst  pine-clad  hills,  at  an  altitude  of  nearly 
2100  feet,  47  miles  by  rail  northwest  of  Pilsen 
(Map:  Austria,  C  2).  It  is  a  small  town,  with 
a  fine  Roman  Catholic  church  (1844-,')0)  in  By- 
zantine style,  a  tasteful  synagogue,  a  theatre, 
and  a  military  'curhaus.'  Its  fine  promenading 
grounds  are  adorned  with  monuments.  The 
springs  do  not  differ  essentially  from  those  of 
Karlsbad  except  that  they  are  cold.  They  range 
in  temperature  from  48°  to  53°  F.  The  prin- 
cipal springs  are  the  saline  Kreuzbrunnen  and 
Ferdinandsbrunnen.  used  both  for  bathing  and 
drinking.  Thcv  yield  large  quantities  of  water 
for  export.  The  Marienquelle  is  used  only  for 
bathing,  and  contains  a  large  proportion  of  car- 
bonic acid.  The  chalybeate  Ambrosius-  and 
Karolinenbrunnen  are  used  both  for  drinking  and 
bathing.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  springs 
there  are  at  Marienbad  baths  of  nnid.  pine  cones, 
and  gas,  and  a  new  hydropatliic  establishment. 
Consideral)le  quantities  of  salt  are  exported.  Al- 
though the  springs  of  Marienbad  enjoyed  a  local 
reputation  long  before  the  nineteenth  century,  it 
was  only  in  1808  that  the  first  bathing  estab- 
lishment was  opened,  and  the  place  assumed  its 
present  name.  Population,  in  1900,  4588,  chiefly 
Germans, 

MARIENBURG,  ind-reVn-bTiorK.  An  old 
town  of  Prussia,  30  miles  northeast  of  Danzig, 
on  the  Nogat  River  (Map:  Prussia,  HI).  It  is 
chiefly  interesting  because  it  was,  for  one  and  a 
half  centuries,  the  seat  of  the  grand  masters  of 
the   Teutonic    Order.      These   knights   built    the 


ilarienburg  Schloss,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
strongly  fortilied  buildings  in  Germany,  and  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  secular  buildings  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Marienburg  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  knights  till  1457,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
Poles.  The  town  has  large  wool-cleaning  works, 
and  manufactures  of  machinery.  It  trades  in 
grain,  wood,  linen,  and  horses.  Poi)ulation.  in 
1900,  10,732.  Consult  Bergau,  Das  Ordenshaupt- 
hatis  Marienburg  in  I'russia  (Berlin,  1871). 

MARIENWERDER,  ma-re'en-ver'der.  The 
capital  of  a  district  in  the  Prussian  Province  of 
West  Prussia,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Vistula, 
about  fort} -five  miles  south  of  Danzig  (Map: 
Prussia,  H  2).  It  has  a  fourteenth-century  cathe- 
dral and  a  castle  built  by  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
the  founders  of  the  town,  in  1233.  The  principal 
industries  are  sugar-refining  and  the  manufacture 
of  cloth  and  machinery.  There  is  a  considerable 
trade  in  fruit.     Population,  in  1900,  9680. 

MARIE  THERESE  (ma're'  ta'res')  of  Aus- 
tria ( 1638-83) .  A  wife  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  born  in  Ma- 
drid. By  the  terras  of  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees 
(1659)  she  was  married  to  Louis  XIV.  (1600). 
She  lived  very  unhappily  with  Louis,  but  at 
length  seemed  to  find  comfort  in  religion.  Con- 
sult Duclos,  Mine,  de  la  Vallidre  et  Marie  Therese 
(Paris,   1869). 

MARIETON,  ma're-a'toN',  Paul  (1862—). 
A  French  poet  and  critic,  born  at  Lyons.  He 
early  became  associated  with  the  Provencal  move- 
ment in  Southern  France,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  that  revival.  His  writings  include:  .S'o«- 
venance  (1884),  a  poem;  La  riole  d'ainour 
(1886)  ;  and,  in  poetry,  Hellas  (1888)  ;  La  terre 
proren^ale  (1890);  and  Le  livre  de  melancolie 
(1896). 

MARIETTA,  ma'ri-et'Ui.  A  city  and  the 
county-seat  of  Cobb  County,  Ga.,  20  miles  north 
by  west  of  Atlanta;  on  the  Nashville,  Chatta- 
nooga and  Saint  Louis  Railroad  (Map:  Georgia, 
B  2).  It  has  the  Clarke  Library  of  5000  vol- 
umes. In  the  large  National  Cemetery  here 
there  are  10,279  graves.  2967  of  unknown  dead. 
Kenesaw  Mountain  (q.v. )  is  situated  a  short 
distance  west.  The  city  is  the  centre  of  a  farm- 
ing and  stock-raising  district,  and  has  extensive 
marble  works  and  chair  factories,  besides  mis- 
cellaneous manufactures.  Marietta,  first  incor- 
porated in  1852,  is  governed,  under  a  charter  of 
1885.  by  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  city 
council,  chosen  at  large.  Population,  in  1890, 
3384;  in  1900,  4146. 

MARIETTA.  A  city  and  the  county-se:it  of 
Washington  County,  Ohio,  125  miles  southeast 
of  Columbus;  at  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and 
the  Muskingum  rivers,  the  farmer  being  spanned 
by  a  bridge  connectinc  with  Willi:imstowM.  W. 
Va. ;  and  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwest- 
ern, the  Cleveland  and  Marietta,  the  Toledo  and 
Ohio  Central  Extension,  the  Zanesville  ;ind  Ohio 
River,  and  other  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  H  7). 
It  is  the  seat  of  Marietta  College  (q.v.).  with  a 
library  of  60.000  volumes,  and  has  a  city  park, 
set  apart  in  17S8.  and  the  oldest  church  and  the 
oldest  building  in  tlie  Northwest  Tirritory,  the 
latter  having  been  the  office  of  the  Ohio  Land 
Company,  In  the  cemetery  are  buried  many  Rev- 
olutionary soldiers.  The  city  is  in  a  petroleum, 
coal,  and  iron  region,  and  has  large  commercial 
interests  through  its  river  trade;  it  manufactures 


MARIETTA. 


62 


MARINA. 


flour,  lumber  products,  oliairs.  tables,  and  furni- 
ture, cars,  laiuii'd  Icatlicr.  carriages  and  wajjons, 
relincd  petroleum,  boats,  oil-well  tools,  boilers, 
wooden  bicycle  rims,  brick,  harness,  glass, 
caskets,  etc.  The  government  is  administered 
under  a  charter  of  185.3.  by  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  subordinate  ollicials,  the 
majority  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  exec- 
utive subject  to  the  consent  of  the  coumil,  the 
school  board  and  water  works  trustees  alone 
being  chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  city  owns 
and  operates  the  water  works  and  electric-light 
plant.  Population,  in  1890,  8-273 ;  in  1900, 
13,348. 

-Marietta,  the  first  settlement  within  the 
present  limits  of  Ohio,  was  founded  in  1788  by 
Kufus  Putnam  and  a  colony  from  New  England 
under  the  authority  of  the  'Ohio  Company'  ( ci.v.  \ . 
It  was  named  in  honor  of  Marie  Antoinette.  In 
July,  1788,  the  Xorthwest  Territory  was  formally 
orgimized  here  by  Governor  Arthur  Saint  Clair. 
Blennerhas-set  Island,  twelve  miles  below,  was 
the  scene  of  various  incidents  in  the  'Bvirr  Con- 
spiracv.'  Marietta  was  first  incorporated,  as  a 
town,  "in  1800.  In  1890  the  village  of  llarniar, 
where,  in  1785.  Fort  Harniar  had  been  built,  was 
annexed.  Consult  Hoar.  Ornlion  nl  Ihc  Celrhra- 
lioii  of  the  Cetitenninl  of  ihc  Founding  of  the 
Tiorthiicfil   at   Marirttn    (Washington,   1888). 

MARIETTA  COLLEGE.  .V  co-educational 
institution  of  learning  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  founded 
in  1835.  It  lias  a  clas>ical.  a  I.atin-scientitic.  and 
a  modern  languages  course,  departments  of  art, 
nnisic,  and  military  science,  and  a  preparatory  de- 
partment. Marietta  Academy.  The  eour.scs  are 
])artially  elective,  and  lead  to  the  B.A..  Ph.B., 
and  B.L.  degrees.  Provision  is  made  for  grad- 
uate instruction  and  for  summer  courses.  Tlie 
librari-.  of  about  flO.OOO  volumes,  is  especially 
strong  in  the  history  of  the  old  Xorthwest  Terri- 
tory. In  1902  the  college  had  a  faculty  of  24 
instructors,  and  an  attendance  of  270.  in- 
cluding 94  collegiate,  100  academic,  and  78  music 
students.  Its  endowment  was  .$205,000.  its  in- 
come $22,000.  the  value  of  its  grouniis  and  build- 
ings .$250,000.  and  the  total  value  of  the  college 
property  $5.50.000. 

MARIETTE,  ma're'et',  AffifSTE  EnorARo 
(1821-Sll.  .\  French  Egyptologist,  born  at 
Boulognesur-Mer.  He  became  in  1840  assist- 
ant in  the  Egyptian  museum  at  the  T.ouvre. 
He  was  sent  to  Egypt  to  collect  Coptic  manu- 
scripts, but  there  l)ecame  interested  in  the  ruin« 
of  .Memphis  and  in  excavations.  Aided  finan- 
cially by  the  French  Government  and  by  the 
Duke  de  Luynes.  he  excavated,  in  1851.  the  Sera- 
peum  near  the  modern  Sakkara  and  the  tombs 
of  the  Apis  bulls,  finding  thousands  of  inscrip- 
tions and  statues,  as  well  as  many  mummies  of 
sacred  bulls  and  cows,  which  went  chielly  to 
Paris.  In  1854  he  returned  to  Paris  and  was 
made  curator  in  the  Egyptian  Museum.  In  1858 
he  went  to  EgA'jtt  and  became  director  of  the 
governmental  excavations  and  curator  of  the 
monuments.  .Acting  in  this  capacity,  he  cleared 
most  of  the  ancient  temples,  the  great  Sphinx, 
the  tombs  at  Sakkara.  and  other  historic  spots 
from  sand  and  rubbish,  and  formed  the  Egyptian 
National  Museum.  In  1873  he  received  the  l>ien- 
nial  prize  of  20.000  francs  from  the  Institute  of 
France.  The  Egyptian  Government  gave  him 
the  title  of  Bey.  later  that  of  Pasha.  He  died 
in  1881  and  was  buried  in  a  huge  stone  sarcopha- 


gus standing  before  the  museum.  A  statue  was 
erected  to  him  at  his  native  town,  Boulogne-sur- 
Mer.  He  produced,  with  the  aid  of  collaborators 
and  draughtsmen,  many  books,  among  them: 
ilcmoire  sur  la  mire  d'Apis  (1856)  ;  Renseigne- 
menta  sur  Ics  G'l  apis  trouies  dans  les  souler- 
rains  du  .sVra/)<-^»i  ( 1850)  ;  C'hoix  de  monnments 
et  de  dessins,  decouverts  ou  exicutfs  pendant  le 
deblayement  du  l<crupcum  de  Memphis  (1850); 
Le  Si-rapcum  de  Memphis  ( 1857  et  seq. )  ;  Aperru 
de  I'histoire  d'Egyple  (1867);  Ahydos  (1870); 
l.Fs  papyrus  ^gyptiens  du  musee  de  lioulaq 
(1872-77);  Denderah  (1869-75);  Monuments 
divers  (1872  et  seq.);  Deir-el-Bahari  (1877): 
Earnali  (1875);  Voyage  dans  la  Haute  Egypte 
(1878);  Catalogue  des  monuments  d'Abydos 
(18801;  Lrs  Mastabas  de  I'ancien  empire  (1881 
et  seq). 

MARIGLIANO,  miir.'-lyii'no.  A  town  in  the 
Proviiuc  of  C'aserta.  Italy,  situated  on  the  rail- 
way line  N'aples-Bajano.  about  10  miles  north- 
east of  Naples  (Jlap:  Italy,  J  7).  It  has  a 
fine  church  and  a  large  palace.  It  markets  grain 
and  wine.  Population  (commune),  in  1901, 
12.491. 

MARIGNANO,  mii're-nyil'no.  A  town  of 
Northern  Italy.     Sec  Melegnaxd. 

MARIGOLD  (Mary,  in  .allusion  to  the  Virgin 
Mary.  ijuUI).  .\  name  given  to  certain  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Compositae,  chietly  of  the  gen- 
era Calendula  and  Tagetes.  The  genus  Calen- 
dula comprises  about  twenty  annual  and  peren- 
nial herbs  and  shrubs,  of  which  some  of  the 
former  are  found  in  the  countries  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean,  the  latter  chietly  in  South 
Africa.  Pot  marigold  [Calendula  o/lieinalis)  is 
a  common  cultivated  annual,  native  of  Southern 
Europe,  with  an  erect  stem.  1  to  2  feet  high, 
obovate  lower  leaves  on  long  stalks,  and  large, 
deep  yellow  flowers.  There  are  a  number  of 
varieties,  some  of  which  have  double  flowers. 
The  whole  plant  has  a  slight  aromatic  odor,  and 
a  bitter  taste.  The  dried  florets  are  often  em- 
ployed to  adulterate  safTron.  and  sometimes  for 
coloring  butter  or  cheese.  They  are  also  used 
in  th'?  preparation  of  soups.  The  plants  are 
propagated  by  seeds  sown  in  spring  in  ordinary 
garden  .soil  in  sunn.v  or  half  shady  places.  Later 
they  are  thinned  to  about  one  foot  apart.  The 
genus  Tagetes  consists  of  annual  and  perennial 
herbs,  natives  of  the  wanner  parts  of  .\merica. 
Although  Tagetes  ereela,  one  of  those  most  fre- 
i]uently  cultivated.  iM'ars  the  name  of  .\frican 
marigold,  and  Tagetes  patulu,  another  well- 
known  annual,  is  called  French  marigold,  both 
species  are  Mexican.  They  have  been  long  in 
cultivation,  and  by  starting  the  seeds  in  a  hot- 
bed in  spring,  succeed  well  even  in  northern  lati- 
tudes, and  are  much  admired  for  the  brilliancy  of 
their  flowers.  Corn  marigold  is  a  chrysanthe- 
mum. Marsh  marigold  has  no  botanical  alTuiity 
with  the  true  marigolds. 

MARIKINA,    mar'i-ke'nft.      See    Marmoset. 

MARINA,  ma-re'na.  or  Mali.xtzi.v.  mii'- 
li^n-tsen'.  .\  Mexican  woman.  She  was  born  in 
(Joazacoalco.  probably  in  the  early  years  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  She  was  of  a  noble  family. 
I)ut  when  a  child  was  sold  in  slavery  to  the  Ta- 
bascan  Indians.  Soon  after  Cortfs  invaded  ilexi- 
co  she  iM'came  his  interpreter  and  his  mistress. 
.'<lie  <'onstantly  acted  as  intermediary  between 
the  Spanish  and   the  natives,  and   thus  became 


MARINA. 


63 


MARINE  INSURANCE. 


prominent  in  all  the  allairs  of  the  Conquest. 
Their  son.  Don  Martin  Cortfe,  attained  to  con- 
siderable importance  in  ile.xico.  She  was  after- 
wards married  to  .Juan  de  Jaramillo,  and  was 
living  as  late  as  1550. 

MARINDUQUE,  miiren-dou'ka.  A  province 
of  the  Philippines,  comprising  the  islands  of 
Marinduque  and  Mindoro  (qq.v.)  with  their  de- 
pendent islands. 

MARINDUQUE.  One  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, situated  in  the  Visayan  Sea,  19  miles  south 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Tayabas.  separating  North 
from  South  Luzon.  It  is  roughly  circular  in 
shape,  with  a  diameter  of  20  miles  and  an  area 
of  GUI  square  miles,  or.  with  the  dependent  islets, 
681  square  miles.  The  interior  is  mountainous 
and  forested,  with  some  fine  grazing  grounds. 
The  principal  occupations  of  the  inhabitants  are 
cattle-raising  and  the  cultivation  of  rice  and 
hemp,  the  latter  being  of  fine  quality.  Copra  is 
also  manufactured  and  exported.  The  population 
is  48,000,  almost  entirely  Tagtilog.  JIarinduque 
was  a  separate  province  until  .June  23,  1902,  when 
the  large  island  of  Mindoro  (q.v.)  was  annexed 
to  it.  The  capital  is  Boac,  a  strongly  fortified 
town  near  the  northwestern  coast,  with  a  large 
stone  church,  straight  and  regular  streets,  and 
a  population  of  14.722.  Marinduque  has  an  ad- 
vantageous position  as  a  port  of  call  on  the  main 
line  of  commtmieation  between  Luzon  and  Minda- 
nao, and  steamers  visit  it  weekly. 

MARINE  CORPS  (OF.,  Fr.  mariit,  from  Lat. 
marinus.  pertaining  to  the  sea,  from  mare,  sea; 
connected  with  Goth,  mnrci,  AS.  mere,  OHG. 
mari,  Ger.  .1/eer,  Ir.  miiir,  OChurch  Slav,  moryc, 
Lith.  mares,  sea;  possibly  connected  with  Gk. 
/3pif ,  bryx,  sea-depth ) .  A  body  of  soldiers  en- 
listed for  service  in  the  navy,  either  on  board 
ship  or  on  shore  at  naval  stations  or  elsewhere. 
Marines,  as  these  soldiers  are  called  in  the  United 
States  and  British  navies,  are  a  relic  of  the  days 
when  ships  were  manned  by  soldiers  as  their 
fighting  complement.  Instead  of  constituting  the 
greater  part  of  a  ship's  company,  they  now  form 
usually  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  it. 

At  the  present  time  marines  are  used  in  the 
United  States  Navy  on  board  ship  and  to  guard 
naval  stations  at  home  and  in  the  instilar  pos- 
sessions; and  when  on  board  ship  they  constitute 
a  quickly  available  infantry  force  for  service 
abroad.  Sailors  are  also  drilled  as  infantry  and 
artillery,  but  as  their  chief  duties  are  connected 
with  the  ship,  when  tliey  are  landed  the  fighting 
efficiency  of  the  ship  is  greatly  reduced. 

A  small  number  of  sea  soldiers  were  perma- 
nently kept  on  men-of-war  even  in  very  ancient 
times,  the  number  varying  from  15  to  50, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  vessel.  When  the 
heav^•  guns  of  ships  had  gradually  caused  the 
employment  of  soldiers  as  the  fighting  comple- 
ment of  ships  to  be  done  away  with,  there  ensued 
an  interval  in  which  there  were  no  marines. 
In  l(i5.3  Admiral  Blake  embarked  a  number  of 
soldiers  on  his  ship  to  act  as  riflemen  in  his 
action  against  Van  Tromp.  The  British  marine 
corps  was  first  established  in  l(l(i4.  but  it  was 
several  times  wholly  nr  partly  abolished. 

In  the  United  States  Navy  the  provision  for 
(he  enlistment  of  marines  antedates  the  actual 
formation  of  the  regular  establishment  of  the 
navy,  being  authorized  in  an  act  of  Congress 
dated  November  10.  1775.  This  act.  however, 
really  intended  to  provide  for  a  naval  establish- 


ment under  the  desiguiitiou  of  marines,  as  the 
enlisted  men  and  otlicers  were  required  to  be 
"good  seamen,  or  so  acquainted  with  maritime 
a  Hairs  as  to  be  able  to  serve  to  advantage  by 
sea  when  required."  The  actual  establishment  of 
the  corps  dates  from  June  25,  1770,  when  a 
marine  corps,  consisting  of  1  major  (Samuel 
Nichols),  9  captains,  10  first  lieutenants,  and  7 
second  lieutenants,  was  provided  for  and  the 
oflicer.s  appointed.  After  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tion the  navy  was  practically  abolished,  and, 
with  other  branches,  the  marine  corps  disap- 
[jcared.  Wlien  the  reorganization  of  the  navy 
took  place,  in  1798,  the  marine  corps  was  again 
established,  with  an  authorized  strength,  ollicers 
and  men,  of  881,  commanded  by  a  major. 

In  1899  the  number  of  men  and  officers  was 
greatly  increased.  In  1902  it  consisted  of  1  brig- 
adier-general and  commandant.  5  colonels  of  the 
line,  3  colonels,  who  are  heads  of  stall  depart- 
ments, 6  lieutenant-colonels,  10  majors  of  the 
line,  4  majors  of  the  staff,  56  captains  of  the 
line,  3  captains  of  the  staff,  50  first  lieutenants, 
56  second  lieutenants,  and  0000  enlisted  men. 
Consult  Collum,  The  History  of  the  Marine  Corps 
(New  York.  1902). 

MARINED.  A  term  in  heraldry,  applied  to 
an  animal  whose  lower  extremity  terminates  in 
a  tail  like  that  of  a  fish.     See  Heraldey. 

MARINE  HOSPITAL  SERVICE.  A  bu- 
reau in  the  Treasury  Department  of  the  United 
States,  charged  with  the  management  of  marine 
hospitals  and  relief  stations  for  the  cure  of?  sick 
and  disabled  seamen  of  the  American  merchant 
marine.  It  has  also  under  its  supervision  the 
national  quarantine  stations,  the  supervision  of 
local  quarantines,  the  investigation  and  suppres- 
sion of  epidemics  and  plagues,  the  collect i(m  and 
dissemination  of  mortality  statistics  and  sani- 
tary information,  the  scientific  investigation  of 
sanitary  problems,  and  the  examination  of  immi- 
grants under  the  laws  excluding  those  affected 
with  contagious  diseases.  At  present  there  are 
23  marine  hospitals,  a  sanitarium  for  consump- 
tive seamen  in  New  Mexico,  and  115  relief  sta- 
tions. The  Marine  Hospital  Service  of  the  United 
States  owes  its  origin  to  an  act  of  Congress  of 
•Jtily  16,  1798.  For  a  long  time  the  service  con- 
sisted mainly  of  independent  hospitals  built  as 
necessity  arose  and  placed  under  charge  of  a  sur- 
geon appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
In  1871  the  service  was  reorganized  and  all  the 
hospitals  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  supervising 
surgeon-general  with  an  office  in  Washington.  In 
1902  the  staff  consisted  of  a  surgeon-general,  29 
surgeons,  21  passed  assistant  surgeons,  and  56 
assistant  stirgeons,  all  commissioned  officers,  ap- 
pointed by  the  President.  There  were  besides  129 
acting  assistant  surgeons  appointed  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treastiry.  The  marine  hospitals  are 
located  on  both  the"  Atlantic  and  Pacific  sea- 
boards, on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  in  several  of  the  larger  river  cities, 
and  in  Alaska,  while  relief  stations  exist  in  the 
new  insular  possessions.  By  an  act  of  Congress 
of  .July  1,  1902,  the  official  title  of  the  service 
was  changed  to  the  Public  Health  and  Marine 
Hospital  Service.  Consult  the  annual  reports 
and  pulilic  addresses  of  the  Surgeon-General. 

marine;  INSURANCE.  The  practice  of 
marine  insurance,  at  least  on  a  purely  commer- 
cial basis,  antedates  by  centuries  the  application 


MARINE  INSURANCE. 


64 


of  the  insurantc  piinciple  to  other  kinds  of  risks. 
Even  ill  ancient  times  there  was  developed  a 
system  of  quasi-insurance  in  the  form  of  loans  on 
bottomry  by  which  risks  were  at  least  partially 
transferred'  In  the  Middle  Ages  marine  insnr- 
niiee  on  a  commereial  basis  tirst  appeaivd  as 
early  as  the  thirteenth  century  in  FUuuUrs  and 
in  Portugal.  The  oldest  legal  ducuinenl  relating 
to  insurance  which  has  come  down  to  us  consists 
of  the  ordinances  issued  by  the  magistrates  of 
Barcelona  in  14."i.5  to  regulate  the  business  of 
marine  insurance.  Marine  underwriting  appears 
to  have  Im'cu  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Lombards  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  By 
the  eighteenth  century  that  country  had  obtained 
the  leading  |)nsition  in  t)ie  business,  which  she 
has  since  maintained. 

For  many  years  marine  underwriting  in  Eng- 
land was  carried  on  exclusively  by  unassociated 
individuals  and  continued  to  be  conducted  on  a 
strictly  individual  basis  until  late  in  the  eigli- 
teenth" century.  The  first  step  toward  the  regula- 
tion of  marine  underwriting  by  the  Lloyds  .Asso- 
ciation (q.v.)  was  taken  in  1779,  when  a  printed 
form  of  policy  was  adopted,  practically  the 
same  as  the  one  still  in  use.  In  1S71  the  Lloyds 
Association  was  incorporated  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment, the  articles  of  incorjioration  stating  as 
the  main  objects  of  the  organization  the  conduct 
of  the  business  of  marine  insurance,  the  protec- 
tion of  the  interests  of  the  members  of  the 
association,  and  the  collection  and  publication  of 
information  in  regard  to  shipping.  It  is  for 
the  faccomplishment  of  the  last-named  purpose 
that  the  association  has  developed  its  remarkable 
system  of  agencies,  whose  intelligence  and  dis- 
patch in  gathering  and  reporting  shipping  news 
are  uneipialed  in  any  similar  organization. 
Mari]i<>  underwriting  at  Lloyds  is  still  exclu- 
sively an  individual  transaction,  though  under 
the  general  supervision  of  the  association.  The 
method  of  transacting  business  is  as  follows:  .\ 
merchant  having  a  ship  to  insure  sends  through 
n  broker  a  slip  setting  forth  the  characteristics 
of  the  risk  he  desires  insurcil.  .\ny  underwriter 
who  desires  to  assume  a  ])art  of  the  risk  places 
on  the  slip  his  initials  and  the  amount  he  is 
willing  to  assume.  No  one  underwriter  assumes 
very  large  risks,  a  ship  and  cargo  being  usually 
underwritten  by  a  large  number  of  individuals, 
each  of  whom  carries  from  £100  to  £.^00.  The 
responsibility  of  each  underwriter  is  limited  to 
the  amount  for  which  he  has  subscribed.  When 
the  entire  amount  has  lieen  subscribeil.  the  policy 
is  maile  out  and  signed  by  those  who  have  already 
]iut  their  initials  on  the  slip. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  two  insurance  com- 
panies, the  Royal  Exchange  ami  the  London,  were 
authorized  to  transact  a  marine  business,  while 
the  privilege  was  denied  to  all  other  companies. 
These  two  companies  appear  to  have  done  little 
nmrine  underwriting.  In  18'2)  the  monopoly  re- 
strict icm  was  removed,  and  since  that  time  many 
companies  have  gone  into  the  business.  Even 
these  companies,  however,  find  it  advantageous 
to  work  through  Lloyds,  each  of  thcni  having  a 
representative  on  the  lloor  of  that  association. 

In  .America  marine  insurance  was  the  first 
form  to  h(.  written.  In  1750  the  first  office  was 
established,  although  a  large  amount  of  indi- 
vidual underwriting  had  previously  been  carried 
on.  This  ollice  was  opened  in  New  York,  and 
was    known    as    the    Old    Insurance    Olfice.      The 


MARINE  INSURANCE. 

method  of  conducting  business  was  by  individual 
underwriting,  after  the  manner  of  the  English 
Lloyds. 

It  was  not  until  near  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  that  corporations  took  up  the  business 
of  marine  underwriting.  The  first  in  the  field 
were  the  Insurance  Comi)any  of  North  America 
and  the  Insurance  Company  of  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Both  were  located  in  Philadelphia, 
and  both  began  marine  underwriting  in  1794. 
The  growth  of  the  business  was  rapid  and  was 
greatly  stinuilated  by  the  expansion  of  American 
shipping  during  the  period  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars  in  Europe.  The  companies  rapidly  ab- 
sorbed the  entire  business  of  the  country,  and  by 
the  year  182.)  individual  underwriting  was  prac- 
tically at  an  end  in  the  I'nited  States. 

The  period  of  the  Civil  War  subjected  the 
marine  companies  to  a  severe  strain,  and  several 
of  them  succumbed.  Since  that  time  the  condi- 
tion of  marine  underwriting  has  rellected  the  con- 
dition of  the  shipjiing  industry  of  the  country. 
The  great  growth  of  the  business  has  been  seen, 
not  in  the  insurance  of  risks  on  the  high  seas, 
but  in  the  insurance  of  risks  on  inland  waters. 
The  lieadi|uarters  for  the  insurance  of  shipping 
on  the  laKcs  is  Chicago.  The  business  is  espe- 
cially hazardous  on  account  of  the  limited  area 
over  which  the  operations  extend,  and  a  conse- 
quent great  fiuctuation  in  loss-rate. 

The  general  principles  on  which  marine  in- 
surance is  based  are  not  different  from  those 
underlying  other  forms  of  insurance,  but  in 
practice  the  former  presents  a  number  of  peculiar 
features. 

The  Policy.  The  common  form  of  marine  pol- 
icy is  the  'voyage'  policy,  that  is,  a  policy  to  be 
in  force  for  a  voyage  from  one  specified  ])ort  to 
another.  Occasionally,  however,  a  ship  is  in- 
sured under  a  'tin)e'  policy,  which  is  to  be  in 
force  for  a  specified  time,  usually  a  year.  The 
chief  practical  distinction  between  the  two  is 
that  with  a  voyage  policy  there  is  always  a  war- 
ranty, express  or  implied,  that  the  ship  is  sea- 
worthy at  the  beginning  of  the  voyage,  while  with 
a  lime  ]iolicy  no  such  warranty  is  implied. 

.\n  'op<'ir  policy  is  one  which  provides  that  in 
case  of  total  loss  the  amount  of  the  indemnity 
shall  be  ile(i>rmined  by  ascertaining  the  amount 
of  loss  actually  sulVercd.  It  is  incumbent  upon 
the  insured  to  prove  the  value  of  the  destroyed 
projicrty.  A  'valued'  policy,  on  the  other  hand, 
jirovide's  that  in  case  of  total  loss  the  amount 
slated  in  the  policy  shall  be  regarded  as  the 
value  of  the  insured  property  and  paid  as  in- 
demnity. Valued  policies  are  more  frequently 
issued  on  the  ship,  while  the  cargo  is  more  com- 
monly covered  by  an  open  policy.  The  use  of 
the  valued  policy  has  undoubtedly  teniled  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  over-insurance  and  delib- 
erate destruction  of  vessels.  This  practice  is 
especially  easy  under  the  system  of  individual 
underwriting  prevailing  at  Lloyds,  since  the  un- 
derwriter frequently  knows  little  or  nothing 
about  the  ship  he  is  insuring  beyond  what  is 
slated  in  the  slip. 

Oii.iK<r.s.  Tin-  objects  most  commonly  insured 
under  a  marine  policy  are  ship,  cargo,  and 
freights.  Sometimes  other  objects  are  covered, 
such  as  (he  expected  profits  of  the  voyage,  or, 
more  frequently,  the  liability  for  damages  on  ac- 
count of  collision.  The  insurance  of  freight  is 
an   illustration  of  a   peculiar  feature  of  marine 


MARINE  INSURANCE. 


65 


MARINE  INSURANCE. 


insurance.  In  all  other  forms  of  insurance  of 
jiroperty  the  amount  of  in<iemnity  that  can  be 
recovercJ  in  case  of  loss  is  dcterniined  by  tlie 
value  of  the  pro2)erty  destroyed,  damnum  emer- 
gens. In  nuuine  insurance  it  is  possible  to 
insure  au  expected  gain  and  to  obtain  indemnity 
if  the  occurrence  of  any  of  the  events  covered 
by  the  policy  makes  it  impossible  to  realize  the 
gain,   lucrum   cessans. 

Danckhs.  a  marine  policy  covers  a  far  greater 
number  and  variety  of  dangers  than  any  otluT 
form  of  polii'V  issued,  licsidcs  the  more  char- 
acteristic perils  of  (lie  seas,  such  as  wind  and 
wave,  lire,  collision,  stranding,  jettison,  and  the 
like,  the  policy  covers  three  distinct  kinds  of 
danger — war  risks,  including  detention  as  well  as 
capture  or  destruction;  pirates,  rovers,  and 
thieves;  and  barratry,  or  illegal  acts  of  captain 
or  crew.  As  to  tlie  losses  caused  by  the  jierils 
of  the  sea,  they  must  be  due  to  extraordinary 
action  of  wind  and  wave,  or  to  some  other  un- 
usual cause.  The  losses  caused  by  ordinary 
forces  are  known  as  wear  and  tear,  and  are  not 
covered  by  the  insurance.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  kinds  of  losses  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  nuich  litigation,  and  the  present  condi- 
tion of  the  law  of  the  subject  is  precise  but 
complex.  Modern  policies  cover  some  further 
kinds  of  loss,  especially  liability  for  damages  on 
account  of  collision. 

IN.SIRAXCE  After  the  Loss.  Uncertainty  a.s  to 
the  fate  of  a  vessel  may  continue  for  an  indefinite 
time  after  the  loss  has  occurred.  Insurance 
may  be  taken  out  on  an  overdue  ship,  and  even 
though  it  should  afterwards  appear  that  the  ves- 
sel had  already  suffered  shipwreck  at  the  time 
when  the  insurance  was  effected  the  indemnity 
could  still  be  collected.  The  premium  rate  on 
an  overdue  ship  indicates  the  judgment  of  the 
underwriters  as  to  the  probability  that  the  vessel 
has  already  sulTercd  disaster. 

Rein.si  RANCE.  Individual  underwriters  enjoy 
to  only  a  limited  extent  the  advantages  that  come 
from  tlie  combination  of  a  large  number  of  risks 
in  a  group,  and  consequently  single  losses  may 
involve  a  considerable  share  of  their  capital.  They 
avoid  this  danger  partly  by  underwriting  only 
a  small  portion  of,  the  value  of  each  ship  they 
insure,  and  partly  by  resorting  to  reinsurance. 
As  it  is  always  possible  to  insiire  a  ship  as  long 
as  it  is  unknown  whether  she  has  suffered  dis- 
aster or  not.  it  is  customary  for  those  who  have 
insurance  in  force  on  a  vessel  that  is  overdue  to 
protect  themselves  by  reinsuring  her.  They  are 
naturally  obliged  to  pay  higher  premiums  than 
they  themselves  received.  If  this  process  of  rein- 
surance is  repeated  several  times,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  the  effect  is  that  a  loss  is  distributed  in 
small  proportions  over  a  large  number  of  under 
writers. 

The  Loss.  Loss  may  be  complete  or  partial. 
When  it  is  complete  the  settlement  between  the 
insured  and  the  underwriters  is  comparatively 
simple.  On  a  valued  policy  an  insurer  becomes 
liable  for  the  amount  stated  in  the  face  of  the 
policy.  In  the  ease  of  an  open  policy  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  insured  to  prove  the  value  of  the 
property  destroyed  or  the  amount  of  freight  lost. 
Unless  otherwise  agreed,  (he  value  of  the  shij)  is 
its  value  at  the  time  of  starting  on  the  voyage 
with  the  value  of  the  ship's  stores  included;  the 
value  of  the  cargo  is  its  invoice  value  with  the 
addition     of     insurance     premium     and     other 


charges;  and  the  value  of  the  freight  is  the 
amount  the  ship  would  have  earned  if  she  had 
reached  her  destination  in  safety. 

AisA.NDONMENT.  A  peculiar  feature  of  marine 
insurance  is  the  practice  of  abandonment,  when 
the  insured  surrenders  or  abandons  to  the  under- 
writers the  property  covered  by  the  policy  and 
demands  his  entire  indemnity.  This  right  does 
not  always  exist,  but  arises  only  when  the  in- 
sured property  has  suffered  so  serious  damage 
from  perils  covered  by  the  policy  that  it  amounts 
to  'constructive'  total  loss.  With  regard  to  the 
ship  or  the  c:irgo  there  is  held  to  be  constructive 
total  loss  when  the  damage  exceeds  one-half  the 
value  of  the  ves.sel  or  cargo  respectively,  and 
when  the  vessel  is  captured  by  the  enemy  or  de- 
tained by  embargo.  There  is  constructive  total 
loss  of  cargo  when  it  is  so  badly  injured  that  it 
has  to  be  sold  at  some  other  place  than  its  orig- 
inal destination.  There  is  constructive  loss  of 
freight  when  the  ship  is  unable  to  complete  her 
voyage,  or  the  goods  on  which  tlie  freight  is  to 
be  paid  are  so  badly  damaged  that  they  cannot 
be  carried  to  their  original  destination. 

When  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  give  a 
legal  right  to  abandon,  it  is  optional  with  the 
insured  whether  he  will  take  advantage  of  the 
right  or  not.  If  he  decides  to  do  so  he  must  give 
notice  to  the  insurer  wi(hin  a  reasonable  time; 
and  having  once  elected  to  abandon,  it  is  im- 
possible for  him  to  draw  back.  The  effect  of 
abandonment  is  (o  ves(  the  title  to  the  insured 
property  in  the  underwriter  and  to  convey  (o  liim 
all  rights  and  claims  on  account  of  the  shiji  and 
cargo. 

Average.  When  there  is  partial  loss  and  the 
insured  cannot  or  does  not  elect  to  abandon 
and  receive  the  entire  indemnity,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  ascertain  the  amount  for  which  the 
insurer  is  liable.  Such  partial  losses  are  know^n 
by  the  name  of  average,  a  term  borrowed  by 
marine  insurance  from  gcner.al  maritime  law.  It 
is  frequently  necessary  to  sacrifice  some  part  of 
the  ship  or  cargo  in  order  to  save  the  rest.  It 
is  obviously  unjust  to  have  the  entire  burden  of 
loss  under  such  circumstances  fall  upon  the  party 
whose  property  is  thus  voluntarily  destroyed  or 
injured.  Maritime  law  therefore  prescribes  the 
way  in  which  such  losses  shall  be  apportioned 
or  'averaged'  among  all  the  interests  at  stake. 
The  term  average  was  later  extended  to  include 
losses  of  all  kinds.  To  distinguish  those  losses 
which  are  of  sucli  a  nature  that  they  ought  to  be 
apportioned  among  all  the  parties  from  (hose 
which  ought  to  be  borne  entirely  by  the  i)arty 
whose  property  is  damaged,  the  former  kind  of 
loss  is  called  general  average,  the  latter  particu- 
lar average.  In  the  case  of  the  ship,  the  volun- 
tary cutting  away  of  a  mast  to  save  the  ship 
would  be  general  average;  the  loss  of  a  mast 
through  (he  violence  of  the  wind  would  be  par- 
ticular average.  There  is  general  :iverage  on  the 
cargo  when  a  part  of  it  is  jettisoned,  or  thrown 
overboard  to  lighten  the  ship;  there  is  particular 
average  when  a  part  of  it  is  damaged  as  the 
result  of  the  action  of  forces  which  are  included 
in  the  policy.  So  far  as  the  insurance  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  the  general  rule  that  the  insurer 
is  liable  for  all  general  averages  under  all  con- 
ditions, in  tlie  absence  of  fraud.  His  liability 
for  particular  average,  however,  is  usuallv  lim- 
ited in  the  policy.  For  certain  kinds  of  com- 
modities the  policy  exempts  the  insurer  from  all 


MARINE  INSUBANCE.  66 

liability;  for  others,  from  liability  for  losses 
of  less  than  o  per  cent.,  or  some  iilhcr  specified 
proportion,  unless  the  ship  be  stranded,  while  for 
all  other  commodities,  and  for  ship  and  freight, 
liability  does  not  atlacli  iinlcss  the  loss  exceed 
3  per  cent,  or  the  ship  he  stranded.  When  sev- 
eral successive  losses  are  experienced  during  the 
same  voyage,  the  sum  of  all  tlie  losses  is  the 
amount  considered  in  determining  whether  the 
percentage  of  loss  is  high  enough  to  render  the 
underwriters  liable. 

The  measure  of  the  liability  of  the  insurer  for 
particular  average  on  the  ship  is  the  cost  of 
repairs,  incUuIing  all  extra  expenses  which  they 
involve,  with  a  deduction,  usually  of  one-third, 
from  the  value  of  new  material  used  in  repairing 
the  ship;  in  the  case  of  freight  it  is  the  amount 
actually  lost  through  the  dimin\ition  in  the 
weight  of  the  cargo;  and  for  the  cargo  it  is  that 
part  of  the  invoice  value  of  the  damaged  goods 
which  remains  after  there  has  been  subtracted 
from  their  total  value  such  a  proportion  of  the 
total  value  as  tlie  gross  value  of  the  damaged 
goods  at  the  piut  of  destinaliim  is  of  the  gross 
value  of  similar  goods  in  a  sound  condition. 

Gexerai.  Average.  In  the  absence  of  insurance 
general  average  wmild  be  api)ortioned  among  all 
the  owners  of  ship,  cargo,  and  freight.  Each 
party,  including  the  one  whose  property  was 
sacrificed,  would  make  contribution  in  propor- 
tion to  the  value  of  the  ])ropcrty  he  had  at  stake. 
In  estimating  that  value  the  value  of  ship  and 
largo  is  usually  taken  at  their  actual  value  when 
they  leach  their  destination,  while  the  value  of 
the  freight  is  ascertained  by  subtracting  the 
wages  of  captain  and  crew  from  the  gross 
amount  received  as  freight.  \Mien  the  different 
parties  are  insured,  general  average  is  paid  by 
the  underwriters  and  not  by  the  owners  of  the 
proiierty.  So  far  as  general  average  is  con- 
i-erned.  insurance  is  a  transfer  from  owners  to 
un<lerwriters  of  liability  for  contributions  to  re- 
imburse tho'^e  whose  property  has  been  sacrificed 
for  the  general  good. 

'Sl'E  AND  Lauor.'  When  loss  or  disaster 
threatens  a  ship  or  cargo,  the  master  of  the 
vessel  is  hound  to  do  everything  in  his  power 
to  avoid  the  danger  or  avert  the  loss.  Whatever 
expense  is  incurred  for  that  purpose  the  luider- 
writers  are  responsible  for,  mider  the  so-called 
■-■uing  and  laboring'  clause,  which  reads  as  fol- 
lows: "In  cas<^  of  any  loss  or  misfnrtune,  it  shall 
be  lawful  lo  the  assured,  their  factors,  servants 
and  assigns,  to  sue,  labor,  and  travel  for,  in, 
or  about  the  defense,  safeguard,  and  recovery 
of  the  said  goods  and  merchandise,  or  ship,  or 
any  jiarl  thereof,  without  prejudice  to  this  in- 
surance: to  the  charges  whereof,  we.  the  ns.sur- 
crs.  will  contribute,  each  one  according  to  the 
rate  and  ipianlity  of  the  sum  herein  insured." 
While  the  clause  says  that  the  insured  'may' 
so  sue  and  labor,  it  is  the  est:iblislied  rule  of 
law  that  be  is  bo\nid  sn  to  act.  The  general  rule 
is  that  in  case  of  damage  or  partial  loss  the 
insured  i>  bound  to  act  as  a  prudent  man  would 
act  under  the  circumstances  if  he  were  unin- 
sured, 

MARINE  RAM.     See  RASr,  -MakIiNE. 

MARINER'S  COMPASS.     See  Compa.ss. 

MARINETTE.  niar'I  nf't'.  A  city  and  the 
county  *e.il  i.f  Marinette  County.  Wis..  IfiS  miles 
north  of  Milwaukee:  on  the  rhicapo,  ^liKvaukee 


MABINONI. 


and  Saint  Paul,  the  Chicago  and  Xorthwesteni, 
and  the  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  railroads  (Map: 
Wisconsin,  !•"  3).  It  is  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Menominee  River,  on  (jreeu  iiay,  opposite 
Menominee,  .Mich.,  with  which  it  is  connccle<l  by 
bridges,  and  by  steam  and  electric  trams,  ilari- 
nette  has  a  line  harbor,  and  carries  on  an  ex- 
tensive lake  commerce:  and  its  good  water  power 
and  proximity  to  vahuible  forests  have  developed 
its  extensive  lumlicr  interests,  which  are  among 
the  most  im|)ortant  in  the  Northwest.  There 
are  also  large  box  factories,  .several  establish- 
ments making  various  cedar  products,  pail  and 
broom  factories,  paper  and  ])ulp  mills,  iron 
works,  and  manufactories  of  steam  threshing 
machines  and  gas  and  traction  engines.  Settled 
al)out  1850,  Marinette  was  incorporated  in  1887. 
The  government  is  administered  under  a  general 
charter  of  1808,  which  provides  for  a  nuiyor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil.    I'opulation.  ill  1890,  11.523;  in  1900,  10,195. 

MARINI,  ma-re'ne,  (Jiambattista  (1569- 
Iii25).  All  Italian  poet,  born  at  Naples,  Octo- 
ber 18,  lot)!).  lie  entered  vipon  the  study  of 
jurisprudence,  but  lived  so  wildly  that  his  father 
eventually  banished  him  from  home.  He  was 
received  into  the  house  of  the  chief  admiral  of 
Naples  as  a  secretary,  but  the  part  that  he  played 
in  connection  with  a  certain  abduction  finally 
forced  him  to  tiee  to  Rome.  There  he  prospered, 
and  before  long  (  1(;03)  he  was  able  to  undertake 
a  journey  to  V'cniee  to  superintend  the  publica- 
tion of  his  verse.  Attached  to  the  household  of 
Cardinal  .Aldolnandini.  he  traveled  with  him  in 
Italy,  and,  under  his  auspices,  came  into  contact 
with  many  men  (}f  letters  of  the  time.  He  next 
won  the  favor  of  the  ducal  ruler  of  Turin,  Charles 
Emmanuel  I.,  but.  being  suspected  of  a  quip  upon 
the  Duke,  he  was  arrested,  and  upon  his  release 
went  to  I'aris,  where  he  succeeded  in  recommend- 
ing himself  to  the  good  graces  of  Maria  de'  ile- 
dici.  He  remained  in  Fnince  from  1615  to  1623, 
and  then,  reluniiiig  lo  Italy,  he  was  everywhere 
received  with  extraordinary  honor.  He  died  at 
Naples,  March  25,  1(525.  '  liefore  his  twentieth 
year,  JIarini  had  already  gained  considerable  re- 
pute by  his  Canzone  de'  bad.  The  first  collection 
of  his  verse  was  that  of  Venice  (160214).  en- 
titled La  lira,  in  which  there  is  an  obvious  imita- 
tion of  Ovid.  Tiluillus,  Spanish  writers,  and 
earlier  Italian  poets.  His  inost  noted  production 
is  the  .l(/o)i<'  (Paris.  1623).  a  Ion;;  jioem  in  oc- 
taves, ostensilily  on  the  loves  of  Venus  and 
.\donis.  but  containing  long  digressions.  What 
most  attracted  attention  in  this  work  was  its  man- 
nerisms, the  excess  of  imagery,  and  its  over- 
wrought style.  Marini  is  equally  reprehensible 
for  the  notorious  license  and  indecency  of  many  of 
his  writings.  Cf.  the  ed.  of  the  Ailniic  of  Florence, 
1886:  the  flallrria  (Vhnice.  1619)  ;  his  f.ellere 
I  Venice,  1647)  :  AI.  Alenghini,  La  rita  r  Ic  opere 
ili  U.  IS.  Marini   (Kcimc.   1888). 

MARINO  FALIERO,  niiVrf-'nA  fii-ly.i'rfi.  A 
drama  by  Uyron  (  18201.  II  is  the  sti.rv'of  a  tra- 
gedy of  1355.  when  the  Doge  Kaliero.  cletcctcd  in 
a  cimspiracy  lo  overthrow  the  Venetian  Republic, 

w;ls    iK'hr.'liIrd, 

MARINONI,  mli're-no'nA.  HiPPOLYTE  (1825- 
1904;,  .\  Kreneh  inventor,  born  at  I'aris,  He 
invented  a  rotary  press  which  could  print  40,000 
copies  in  an  hour,  and  another  which  printed 
polychromes  in  six  colors  at  the  rale  of  20.000 
an  hour,  as  well  as  many  other  improvements  in 


MARINONI. 


67 


MARION. 


printing.     His  rotarj    press   was  used  by  news- 
papers in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

MARIO,  niii're-ii,  GiusKi"i>ii,  Marquis  di  Can- 
dia  (lHlO-8.'}).  An  Italian  dramatie  tenor  singer, 
born  at  tjagliari,  Sardinia.  In  18;iO  he  received 
his  eomniission  as  oiKcer  in  the  Chasseurs 
Sardes,  but  abandoned  his  conunission  and  lied 
to  Paris,  where  he  later  secured  the  appointment 
of  tirst  tenor  at  the  opera.  At  the  same  time 
he  changed  his  name  to  Mario.  After  two  years' 
study  at  the  conservatory  he  made  his  debut  in 
IS.'fS"  in  Kobirt  Ic  Dinble.  and  achieved  the  first 
of  a  long  series  of  operatic  triumphs.  From 
1S45  to  1850  he  fulfilled  an  engagement  in  Rus- 
sia, and  on  his  return  appeared  in  London,  and 
.  in  1854  he  went  to  America.  In  his  private  life 
he  was  known  for  generosity  to  struggling  artists. 
His  repertoire  embraced  all  the  staged  operas  of 
Rossini,  Bellini,  Donizetti,  and  Verdi.  In  1844 
he  married  the  singer  Grisi.    He  died  in  Rome. 

MARION",  mar'i-on  or  ma'ri-on.  A  town  and 
the  county-seat  of  Perry  County,  Ala.,  28  miles 
northwest  of  Selma ;  on  the  Southern  Railroad 
(Map:  Alabama,  B  3).  It  has  tlie  .Judson  Fe- 
male Institute  (Baptist),  opened  in  18.39; 
Marion  ImmiuiIc  Seminary,  opened  in  1836;  Mar- 
ion Jlilitary  Institute;  and  the  Lincoln  Normal 
School  for  colored  ptipils  (Congregational).  An 
agricultural  country  surrounds  the  to\vTi.  Pop- 
\ilatioi].   ill    1890,   1982:   in   1900,   1698. 

MARION.  A  city  and  the  eoimty-seat  of 
Williamson  County,  111.,  Ill  miles  southeast  of 
Saint  Louis.  Mo. ;  on  the  Illinois  Central  Rail- 
road (Map;  Illinois,  D  6).  It  has  a  trade  in 
grain  and  live  stock,  and  manufactures  of  flour, 
cigars,  etc.  In  the  vicinity  are  fine  timber  lands 
and  deposits  of  coal,  the  mining  of  which  con- 
stitutes the  leading  industry.  Fruit-growing  is 
of  some  importance.  Population,  in  1890,  1338; 
in  1900,  2510. 

MARION.  A  .city  and  the  eounty-.seat  of 
(irant  County,  Ind..  65  miles  northeast  of  In- 
dianapoli.s;  on  the  Mississinewa  River,  and  on  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis; 
the  Pittsburg.  Cincinnati.  Chicago  and  Saint 
Louis:  the  Toledo.  Saint  Louis  and  Kansas  City, 
and  the  Cincinnati,  Richmond  and  Muncic  rail- 
roads (Map:  Indiana.  D  2).  lntcrurl>an  electric 
lines  connect  the  city  with  Indianapolis  and 
cities  of  the  vicinity.  It  has  a  hamlsomo  court 
house,  a  large  normal  college,  and  a  .$65,000  pub- 
lic library  building.  A  National  Soldiers'  Home, 
which  cost  over  .f  1.500,000.  is  three  miles  south 
of  the  city.  Marion  is  the  centre  of  a  farming 
section  and  has  good  water  power  and  a  supply 
of  natural  gas.  There  are  extensive  maniifae- 
tures,  principally  of  window  glass,  fruit  jars, 
bottles,  l)ar  iron,  and  bedsteads;  also  flouring, 
saw  and  planing,  linseed  oil.  an<l  |)ulj)  and  paper 
mills;  foundries,  cornice  and  brick  works,  etc. 
The  government  is  vested  in  a  nuiyor.  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  Mar- 
ion owns  and  operates  its  water-works  and  elec- 
tric lit'hl  plant.  Population,  in  1890.  8769;  in 
1900.   17.337. 

MARION.  .\  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Linn  County.  Iowa,  6  miles  northeast  of  Cedar 
Rapids;  at  the  junction  of  divisions  of  the  Chi- 
cago. Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad  (Map: 
Iowa.  F  2).  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  agricul- 
tural country  and  is  a  healthful  residential  city, 
and  has  the  county  buildings,  a  public  library, 


and  a  park  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  There  are 
large  freight  jards  and  repair  shops  of  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad;  also 
flouring  mills,  cigar  factories,  a  creamery,  a  broom 
factory,  and  two  greenhouses.  Marion  was  settled 
in  1839  and  was  incorporated  in  1852.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  3094;   in  1900,  4102. 

MARION.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
.Marion  County,  Kan.,  116  miles  southwest  of 
Topeka ;  on  the  Cottonwood  River,  and  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fc  :inil  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific  railroads  (iMap:  Kansas, 
F  3).  It  has  considerable  trade  as  a  centre  of 
a  farming  and  stock-raising  region,  and  some 
manufactures,  principally  of  flour.  Population, 
in   1890,  2047;   in   1900,  "1824. 

MARION.  A  city  and  the  county-scat  of 
Marion  County,  Ohio,  45  miles  north  of  Colum- 
bus ;  on  the  Cleveland.  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and 
Saint  Louis,  the  Hocking  Valley,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  Erie  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  D  4). 
There  are  a  public  library,  a  normal  school,  the 
Saw3'er  Sanitarium,  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building. 
Marion  is  the  centre  of  a  farming  district,  and 
has  lime  works,  malleable  iron  works,  silk-mills, 
a  piano  factory,  and  manufactories  of  engines, 
steam  shovels,  agricultural  machines,  etc.  Pop- 
ulation,  in    1890,  8,327;   in   1900,    11,862. 

MARION.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Marion  County,  S.  C,  95  miles  west  of  Colum- 
bia ;  on  the  .Atlantic  Coast  Line  Railroad,  and  the 
terminus  of  the  Carolina  Northern  Railroad 
(Map:  .South  Carolina.  E  2).  It  is  in  a  fertile 
region  interested  chiefly  in  cotton  and  tobacco 
growing,  and  has  cotton  and  cottonseed  oil  mills, 
a  foundry,  lumber  mills,  etc.  There  is  a  public 
library.  Population,  in  1890,  1640;  in  1900, 
1831. 

MARION.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Smyth  County.  Va.,  107  miles  west  by  south  of 
Roanoke;  on  the  N/)rfolk  and  Western  Railroad, 
at  the  terminus  of  the  JIarion  and  R.ye  Valley 
Railway  (Map:  Virginia,  C  5).  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  Southwesteni  State  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane, aceonnnodating  about  four  hundred  inmates, 
and  of  the  JIarion  Female  College  (Lutheran). 
The  principal  industries  are  wood-working,  mill- 
ing, mining,  and  stone-quarrying.  Settled  in  1832, 
Marion  was  first  incorporated  in  1871.  The  town 
has  its  own  water  supply,  obtained  by  the  gravity 
system  from  springs  which  are  about  three  miles 
distant.  Population,  in  1890,  1651;  in  1900. 
2045. 

MARION,  Francis  (17.32-95).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  at  Winyah.  near  George- 
town, S.  C.  in  which  neighborhood  his  grand- 
father, a  Huguenot  refugee,  had  settled  soon 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  in 
1685.  In  1759  he  removed  to  Pond  BIulT.  near 
Eutaw.  In  1775  he  represented  Saint  John's 
Parish.  Berkeley  County,  in  the  Provincial  Con- 
gress, which  adopted  the  Bill  of  Rights,  and 
voted  to  raise  forces  after  the  battle  of  Lexing- 
ton. He  was  commissioned  a  captain  in  Colonel 
Moultrie's  regiment.  .Tune  2Ist.  and  took  part 
in  the  occupation  of  Fort  .Tohnson,  which  caused 
the  night  of  the  royal  Governor.  Lord  William 
Campbell.  After  his  promotion  to  major,  in 
1776.  he  was  stationed  at  the  unfinished  Fort 
Sullivan  (afterwards  called  Fort  Moultrie),  in 
Charleston  Harbor.  He  showed  great  coolness 
during  Sir  Peter  Parker's  bombardment,  June  28, 


MAKION. 


68 


MARIS. 


1770,  and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
regular  service.  For  a  time  he  was  in  connnand 
of  Fort  Jloullrie,  and  then  took  part  in  the  un- 
successful attack  of  D'Estain>^  and  Lincoln  on 
Savannah  in  1779.  When  the  15ritish  captured 
Charleston  in  1780  and  began  to  overrun  the 
State.  .Marion  tied  to  North  Carolina,  where  he 
met  General  (iates,  who  received  him  coldly.  Soon 
he  was  asked  to  command  four  companies  of  ir- 
rej^ilar  cavalry,  which  had  been  raised  around 
W  illiamsburg.  S.  C,  and  in  August.  1780.  Gov- 
ernor Untledge  gave  him  a  commission  as  briga- 
dier-general of  State  troops.  After  tlic  defeat 
of  Gates  at  Camden  and  of  Sumter  at  Fishing 
Creek,  this  was  for  a  time  the  oi\ly  American 
force  of  any  strength  in  the  State.  The  men 
furnislicd  their  own  eiiuipment  and  came  and 
went  almost  at  will,  as  it  was  necessary  to  pro- 
tect their  families  from  the  Tories  and  to  plant 
their  crops. 

Tlie  first  important  action  was  on  August  2, 
1780.  at  Nelson's  Ferrj',  where  two  companies  of 
British  regulars  were  routed  and  l.iO  Conti- 
nental soldiers  taken  at  Camden  were  recap- 
tured. Marion's  men  ca\ised  nnich  trouble  to 
Cornwallis  by  intercepting  cimimunications.  cap- 
turing foraging  and  scouting  parties,  and  intimi- 
dating the  Tories.  Major  Wemyss  and  Colonel 
Tarleton  were  especially  instructed  to  take  him. 
For  a  time  Marion  was  forced  to  retreat  toward 
North  Carolina,  but  in  1781  he  established  him- 
self at  the  continence  of  Lynch's  Creek  and  the 
Pedec  River,  in  a  swampy  forest  known  as  Snow's 
Island.  He  took  Fort  Watson  in  conjimction 
with  Col.  Henry  Lee.  ca))tured  Fcirt  ilotte  and 
Georgetown,  fought  at  Quinby's  Bridge  and  Park- 
er's Ferry,  and  at  Eutaw  Springs.  The  force 
was  not  disbanded  until  after  the  British  evac- 
iiation.  in  Deceml)er,  1782.  Marion  was  elected 
to  the  General  Assembly  in  1782.  and  was  pub- 
licly thanked  by  that  body  in  1783.  As  he  had 
been  ini|iiiverished  by  the  war.  the  sinecure  of 
commandant  of  Fort  .Johnson  was  created  for 
him.  .\fter  his  marriage  to  a  wealthy  woman, 
Mary  Videau.  he  represented  Saint  .Tohn's  in 
the  State  Senate  and  in  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  1700.  Consult:  Sinims.  ]/ife  of  Fran- 
cin  Marion  (18441.  and  Tarleton,  ffintory  of  the 
Camimi'imt  of   IISDHSI    (Dublin.    1787)." 

MARION  DELORME,  nia'rfr>N'  de-lOrm'. 
A  drama  by  Victor  Hugo  (18.'?1).  based  on  the 
life  of  the .  notorlinis  courtesan  of  that  name. 
She  appears  in  Pe  Vigny's  Cinq-Marfi  and  in  Bul- 
wer's  liirhi  lirii. 

MARIONETTE  (Fr.  tnnrionnrltr.  diminutive 
of  Mininri.  diiMiiiiilive  iif  Mnrir.  Mary,  denoting 
originally  a  little  ligure  of  the  \"irgin  Mary).  \ 
small,  jointed  figure,  representing  a  character  in 
the  miniature  drama  of  a  puppet  theatre.  See 
I'l  I'CKr. 

MARIOTTE,  niiVr^ot'.  KnMK  (c.l020-a4).  A 
distinguished  French  natural  philosopher.  He 
was  born  in  Burgimdy.  and  was  the  prior  of 
Saint  Martinsous-Beaune.  near  Dijon.  He  was 
active  in  developing  experimental  research  in 
France  and  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
.Acadf-mie  des  Sciences,  founded  in  irififi.  Ho 
repeated  Pascal's  experiments  on  gravitation, 
anil  ileteited  some  peenliarilic'i  whieb  lunl  ('■;• 
caped  that  philosopher;  confirmed  Galileo's 
theorv  of  motion:  enriched  hvdraulics  with  a 
multitude  of  di-^cnveries:  and  finallv  made  a 
■thorough    investigation    into   the   subject    of   the 


conduction  of  water,  and  calculated  the  strength 
necessary  for  pipes  under  ditierent  circumstances. 
His  collected  works  were  published  at  Leyden 
in  1717  and  at  The  Hague  (2  vols.,  4to)  in  1740. 
His  Traiic  du  mouvement  des  eaiix  was  pub- 
lished at  Paris  in  1080.  Mariotte's  name  is 
a.ssociated  with  the  law  of  gases  discovered  four- 
teen years  previously  by  Uobert  Boyle,  this  law 
l)eing  always  known  in  France  as  Mariotte's  law. 
It  is  in  sul)stance  that  the  volume  of  a  gas  varies 
invriscly  :is  tlie  pressure  it  is  under. 

MARIOTTE'S  LAW,  often  referred  to  as 
'the  law  of  Boyle  and  .Mariotte.'  See  Boyle's 
L.\w;    G.\SES.   Gexer.vl   Properties  of. 

MAR'IPO'SA  (Sp..  butterfly).  A  local  name 
in  Califoiiiia   iov  the  opah    (q.v.).  • 

MARIPOSA  GROVE.  A  tract  of  land  four 
sipiaie  iiiiii'>  ill  rxlcnt  in  .Mariposa  County,  Cal.. 
containing  two  groves  of  the  Secjuoia  gigantea, 
consisting  of  al)Out  40")  fine  specimens.  The  largest 
of  the  trees,  the  '(irizzly  (!i;int.'  has  a  circum- 
ference of  04  feet,  and  its  ni:iin  limb,  at  a  height 
of  200  feet,  is  6',->  feet  in  diameter.  The  road 
between  the  groves  passes  through  an  opening 
9V(;  feet  wide,  cut  through  the  heart  of  one  of  the 
trees.  The  tallest  tree  is  272  feet  high,  and  a 
ntimber  exceed  250  feet.  The  tract  is  resen'ed 
as  a  State  park. 

MAR'IPO'SAN,  or  Yokut.  A  linguistic  stock 
or  family  of  Xorth  .Vmerican  Indians,  formerly 
located  in  southern  California,  about  Tulare 
Lake,  and  extending  as  far  north  as  the  junction 
of  the  Fresno  with  the  San  .Toaquin.  Twenty- 
four  sub-tribes  are  mentioned  by  Powell.  Every 
village  consisted  of  a  single  row  of  wedge-shaped 
huts  of  tule,  with  an  awning  of  brush  stretched 
along  the  front.  These  houses  were  used  for 
sleeping  purposes  only.  The  mountainous  con- 
dition of  the  country  was  naturally  productive  of 
a  series  of  isolated  areas,  in  which  each  camp 
with  its  separate  captain  and  medicineman  re- 
sided. It  is  noteworthy  th;it  the  l>raves  took  no 
scalps  in  war.  ditTering  herein  from  most  India.n 
trilics.  The  main  sources  of  their  food  supply 
were  fishing,  hunting,  and  gathering  acorns.  Their 
w'eapons  were  sinew-backed  bows  and  excellent 
arrows.  There  are  no  more  delicate  and  beauti- 
ful baskets  made  anywhere  than  in  the  villages 
which  constitute  at  once  the  Yokut  tribe  and  the 
Mariposan  stock,  and  s|)ecimens  are  to  be  seen 
in  every  fine  collection.  These  Indians  are  espe- 
cially interesting  to  the  ethnologist,  since  they 
preserve  ancient  industries  and  social  customs 
which  antedate  even  the  coming  of  the  I'tc  tribes 
into  their  area.  Fish-weirs,  fishing  booths,  fish- 
traps,  tule  boats  are  survivals  of  ancient  life. 
Consult:  Powers.  Contributlnnx  to  Xorlh  Amrri- 
ran  FJhniihi(iii.  vol.  iii.  (Washington.  1877): 
Powell.  Krrrnlh  Annual  Report  of  the  liurcnu  of 
Elhnolofni   ( ih..  1S9I). 

MARIQUINA,  inii'rAkc'na.  A  town  of  Lu- 
zon. Philipi)in(>s.  in  the  Province  of  Rizal  (Map: 
laizon.  F  S).  It  is  situated  eight  miles  north- 
east of  Manila,  at  the  intersection  of  sevi^ral  im- 
portant roads,  and  has  manufactures  of  shoes  and 
otlii'r  leather  work.  In  the  neighl)orhood  are  the 
medicinal  iron  springs  of  Chorillo.  Population. 
lo.:!no. 

MARIS,  ma'ris.  .Takor  (1S37— ).  A  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  The  Hague.  He  studied  in  .\nt- 
werp  under  De  Keyser  and  Van  I,erius.  and  then 
in  Paris,  and  became  a  ptipil  of  HObert   (180(5). 


HABIS.  6!) 

His  works  include:  "Tlie  Seaweed-Gatherers." 
'"View  in  Holland,"  "On  the  Beach,"  and  "Sou- 
venir of  Dordiccht." 

MA'RISTS  (Xeo-Lat.  Marista,  from  Lat. 
Maria,  -Mary).  A  name  applied  to  two  rclijjious 
congregations  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  Society  of  Fathers  of  Mary  was  founded  at 
]>yons  in  1816  for  missionary  work,  and  con- 
firmed by  Gregory  XVI.  in  183G.  Its  first  for- 
eign mission  was  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 
It  was  introduced  into  Australia,  at  Sydney,  in 
1845.  Almost  simultaneously  with  this  society, 
another  of  Brothers  of  Mary  was  founded  in  1817 
by  Abl)e  Chaminade  at  Marseilles,  which  did 
much  for  Christian  education  in  the  south  of 
France  and  extended  its  work  to  England  and 
her  colonics,  and  to  the  foreign  mission  stations, 
where  they  have  frequently  worked  in  concert 
with  the  Fathers  of  Mary.  They  entered  the 
United  States  in  1849.  and  have  now  70  members 
there,  with  four  houses  and  a  college  in  the 
Catholic  University  at  Washington.  In  all  the}- 
number  about  G500  members. 

MARITIME  LAW  (Lat.  maritinius,  relating 
to  the  sea,  from  Lat.  mare,  seal%  In  its  broadest 
sense,  that  system  of  law,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate, which  relates  to  commerce  and  navigation 
upon  the  high  seas  or  other  navigable  waters. 
The  sources  of  the  law  of  the  sea  as  now  applied 
in  England  and  the  United  States  are  more  an- 
cient and  perhaps  more  complex  than  those  of 
any  other  branch  of  English  law.  Some  of  its 
doctrines,  as  the  law  of  general  average,  are 
traceable  to  the  Rhodian  laws,  dating  as  early 
as  B.C.  900.  from  which  they  were  adopted  into 
tlie  civil  law,  and  by  it  transmitted  to  modern 
Europe.  Many  of  them  may  be  attriljuted  to 
customs  established  by  the  revival  of  trade  in  the 
countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean  and  in 
Southwestern  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries.  During  this  period  the  com- 
mercial States  and  cities  began  the  eoinpilation 
of  the  usages  and  customs  of  sea  commerce  and 
the  judgments  of  the  various  maritime  courts. 
The  earliest  of  these  is  the  Consolato  del  mare 
(q.v. ).  A  later  compilation,  having  even  greater 
inttnence  upon  English  law-,  was  the  laws  of 
Oleron.  (See  Olerox.  )  The  laws  of  Wisby, 
being  a  compilation  of  mercantile  customs  and 
usages  adopted  by  a  congress  of  merchants  at 
Wisby  in  the  island  of  Gotland  in  the  Baltic 
Sea.  about  12SS.  which  became  the  basis  of  the 
ordinances  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  W'ere  also 
of  great  intluenee  in  the  development  of  the 
modern  laws  of  the  sea ;  as  were  also  those  ordi- 
nances themselves,  and  French  marine  ordinance, 
promulgated  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1G81.  by  wliich 
the  whole  law  of  shipping,  navigation,  marine 
insurance,  bottomry,  etc.,  was  collected  and  sys- 
tematized. The  local  ordinances  of  Barcelona. 
Florence.  Amsterdam.  Antwerp.  Copenhagen,  and 
Ki'lnigsberg  were  also  not  witho\it   influence. 

The  earliest  English  compilation  of  maritime 
law  appears  to  have  been  the  Black  Book  of  the 
Admiralty,  supposed  to  have  been  published 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  but  later  addi- 
tions were  made.  It  was  based  substantially  upon 
the  laws  of  OlSrnn.  England  never  passed  general 
maritime  ordinances,  but  the  maritime  law- 
drawn  from  the  sources  here  indicated  has  been 
embodied  in  a  series  of  decisions  of  the  courts 
of  admiralty  jurisdiction,  which,  with  the  de- 
cisions of  our  own  Federal  courts  rendered  since 


MARITIME  LAW. 


the  American  Revolution,  constitute  the  niaritimo 
law  of  the  United  States.  .See  the  article  .\i)- 
.MiK.vi.TV  L.\w:  and.  for  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  pul)lic  maritime  law.  see  Intebnatioxal 
Law  and  the  titles  belonging  to  that  subject. 

Maritime  law  is  administered  in  England  bv 
the  courts  of  admiralty:  in  the  United  States 
by  the  Federal  courts,  which,  by  the  United 
States  Constitution,  have  jurisdiction  over  all 
causes  in  admiralty.  This  jurisdiction  of  the 
Inderal  courts  is  not.  however,  exclusive,  and  a 
suitor  may  seek  his  remedy  at  conunon  law  in  the 
State  courts  wherever  the  common  law  is  com- 
petent to  give  a  remedy.  In  England  maritime 
causes  are  said  to  be  those  which  directly  atlect 
commerce  or  navigation  upon  waters  in  which 
the  tide  ebbs  and  flows.  In  the  United  States, 
where  the  conditions  are  different,  maritime 
causes  are  deemed  to  be  these  directly  affecting 
commerce  upon  navigable  waters  which  in  them- 
selves or  by  means  of  other  waterways  form  a 
continuous  highway  to  foreign  countries.  Hence 
the  fact  that  connnerce  in  a  given  case  is  car- 
ried on  only  upon  waters  within  a  single  State 
does  not  necessarily  aft'eet  jurisdiction  of  the 
Federal  courts :  and  jurisdiction  is  not  dependent 
upon  the  power  of  Congress  to  regulate  commerce, 
ilaritime  jurisdiction  therefore  depends  upon  the 
subject  matter  and  not  the  parties,  hence  a  Unit- 
ed States  court  nuiy  take  jurisdiction  over  a 
maritime  cause  arising  in  a  foreign  vessel  be- 
tween foreigners.  The  exercise  of  jurisdiction 
over  foreigners  is,  however,  purely  discretionary, 
and  may  be  refused ;  and  it  is  a  general  prin- 
ciple that  a  maritime  court  will  not  take  juris- 
diction over  a  ship  of  war  of  a  friendly  foreign 
nation. 

Liability  for  torts  is  recognized  and  enforced 
by  the  maritime  law.  Maritime  torts  include  all 
wrongful  acts  or  direct  injuries  arising  in  con- 
nection with  commerce  and  navigation  occurring 
upon  the  seas  or  other  navigable  waters,  includ- 
ing negligence  and  the  wrongful  taking  of  prop- 
erty. The  maritime  law,  however,  regards  only 
actual  damages,  and  allows  no  recovery  for 
merely  nominal  damages.  The  test  for  deter- 
mining whether  a  tort  is  of  a  maritime  nature  is 
the  locality  where  the  tortious  act  is  consum- 
mated or  takes  effect.  Thus  an  injury  to  a 
bridge  or  wharf  by  a  sliip,  inasmuch  as  the  in- 
jury is  effected  upon  land,  is  not  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  admiralty  court,  but  an  injury  to  a 
ship  by  a  draw-I>ridge  is  a  maritime  tort,  of 
which  the  admiralty  court  has  jurisdiction.  The 
maritime,  like  the  common  law.  does  not  recog- 
nize a  right  of  recovery  for  wrongful  death,  but 
a  statute  may  confer  the  right,  which  will  then 
be  recognized  in  admiralty  in  accordance  with 
the  settled  principle  that  both  the  Federal  courts 
of  admiralty  and  of  equity  will  provide  a  remedy 
for  new  s\ibstantive  rights  created  by  State 
statute.  See  Collisions  of  Vessels;  Bounty; 
Barratry. 

The  maritime  law  recognizes  and  enforces  con- 
tracts by  awarding  damages  or  enforcing  liens 
which  it  recognizes  as  created  on  the  basis  of 
contract.  In  general  the  essential  elements  of 
a  contract  are  the  same  under  the  maritime  a.i 
at  the  common  law.  The  maritime  law  differs 
from  the  common  law  only  in  the  method  by 
which  it  may  enforce  the  contract  and  in  attach- 
ing to  the  various  classes  of  contracts  certain 
legal  incidents  peculiar  to  each  class.    A  contract 


MARITIME  LAW. 


ro 


MARITIME  PROVINCE. 


is  deemed  to  be  of  a  maritime  nature  so  as  to  be 
within  tlie  jurisdiction  of  an  admiralty  court 
when  in  its  essence  it  is  purely  maritime,  relat- 
ing to  commerce  and  navigation  upon  navigable 
waters  as  already  defined,  as  contracts  for  the  bet- 
terment of  a  vessel  in  aid  of  navigation  or  for  the 
sustenance  and  relief  of  those  engaged  in  conduct- 
ing commercial  operations  at  sea.  Thus  a  con- 
tract of  partnership  in  a  vessel  is  nut  a  mari- 
time contract,  neither  is  a  contract  to  build  a 
vessel,  nor  is  a  preliminary  agreement  leading  to 
a  maritime  contract,  as  a  contract  to  procure 
marine  insurance,  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
admiralty  court.  For  a  fuller  discvission  of  the 
various  forms  of  maritime  contracts  and  their 
iniidonts.  see  such  special  articles  as  Bottomry 
Bond;     KK.>ii"()M)KNT[A ;     Charter-Party  ;     Af- 

KRKIGHT.ME.NT:  .MARINE  InSURA>"CE;  SALVAGE; 
WlIARFAOE;      DemIRRAGE. 

The  jurisdiction  of  maritime  courts  also  ex- 
tends to  all  prize  causes  growing  out  of  captures 
of  vessels,  of  ships  of  war  or  privateers,  made 
upon  navigable  water,  or  started  there,  although 
consummated  on  land.  In  England  the  law  of 
prize  is  administered  fn  a  separate  department 
uf  the  Admiralty  Court,  as  distinguished  from 
the  instance  court  in  admiralty.  In  the  United 
^^tates  no  distinction  is  made  between  prize  and 
other  admiralty  causes,  all  being  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  District  Courts  of  the  United 
States.  By  act  of  Congress  captures  made  upon 
inland  waters  of  the  United  States  are  deemed 
not  to  be  prizes,  and  consequently  are  not  within 
the  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States 
courts.     .See  Prize:   International  Law. 

The  adjustment  of  the  rights  of  the  parties  to 
a  marine  venture  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  "general  average'  is  also  an  important 
function  of  maritime  courts,  and  the  doctrines  of 
general  average  are  among  the  most  important  of 
the  maritime  law.  (See  paragraph  on  Arwrage, 
in  Marine  Insirance.)  The  ICnglish  admiralty 
cdurts  received  jurisdiction  over  crimes  com- 
mitted on  the  high  seas  outside  the  marine  league 
Similar  jnri-^diction  is  conferred  on  the  United 
States  District  Courts,  except  over  crimes  pun- 
ishable by  death,  which  are  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Circuit  Courts. 

The  peculiarities  of  maritime  law  and  the 
character  of  the  jurisdiction  exercised  by  mari- 
time courts  is  best  illustrated  by  the  law  relat- 
ing to  maritime  liens,  which  are  enforced  by 
proceedings  in  rem.     See  In  Hem;  Lien. 

A  maritime  contract  may  give  rise  to  a  mari- 
time lien  when  made  for  the  benefit  or  assistance 
of  a  marine  venture,  and  when  made  on  the 
credit  of  the  ve-~el  rather  than  on  the  credit  of 
the  owner  or  charterer.  There  is  a  presumption 
that  all  contracts  for  necessary  supplies  and  re- 
pairs to  a  ve,s.sel  are  made  on  the  credit  of  the 
owner  if  in  a  home  port,  but  upon  the  credit  of 
the  vessel  if  in  a  foreign  port.  The  seamen  and 
subordinate  ollicers.  but  not  the  master  of  the 
ship,  have  a  lien  upon  the  ship  for  wages  due. 
The  marine  carriers  also  have  a  lien  for  freight 
and  dennirrage. 

Analogous  fo  the  contract  lien,  although  strict- 
ly not  ba.sed  on  contract,  is  the  lien  which  any 
party  to  a  marine  venture  who  has  made  a  gen- 
eral average  sacrifice  has  tipon  vessel  or  cargo, 
or  both,  to  secure  eontributiim  in  general  average. 
Jfaritime  liens  may  also  decide  rx  dilirto  for  all 
wrongs  or  injuries  caused  by  the  ship,  or  by  col- 


lision, or  by  failure  of  tlie  ship  as  a  common  car- 
rier to  carry  or  deliver  goods  safely. 

It  is  a  general  principle  of  the  maritime  law 
that  the  master  has  the  power,  when  necessity 
arises  and  he  is  unable  to  communicate  with  the 
owners,  to  sell  both  slii])  and  cargo  and  confer 
a  valid  title  on  the  purcliascr  to  sell  free  of  liens, 
which  then  attach  to  the  proceeds.  Lienors  do 
not  share  i/ro  rata  in  the  subject  of  the  liens,  but 
have  priority  according  to  their  importance  as 
contributing  to  the  safety  or  preservation  of  the 
property.  Thus,  as  between  difterent  voyages, 
liens  have  priority  in  the  inverse  order  of  their 
creation.  In  the  same  voyage  the  order  of  pri- 
ority is  as  follows:  (1)  Costs  of  litigation;  (2) 
salvage;  (3)  salary  of  seamen,  cost  of  supplies 
and  repairs,  bottomry  and  respondentia,  pilotage 
and  towage. 

The  procedure  of  maritime  law  is  extremely 
simple,  never  having  been  characterized  by  com- 
plex and  technical  rules,  as  was  the  procedure 
at  common  law.  The  most  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic is  the  power  of  the  plaintiff  to  make  the 
proceeding  purely  one  in  nm,  that  is,  one  di- 
rected solely  to^rd  the  property  which  the  plain-- 
tiff  wishes  to  subject  to  tlie  maritime  lien  which 
he  claims.  The  procedure,  however,  may  be  at 
the  plaintiff's  option  one  in  pursuance  of  which 
a  personal  judgment  may  be  recovered  against 
the  defendant ;  or.  in  the  absence  of  rules  of 
court  to  the  contrary,  it  may  be  both  in  rem  and 
in  personam.  The  proceeding  in  admiralty  is 
begun  by  tiling  a  libel  (q.v.).  Upon  filing  of  the 
libel  the  court  issues  its  writ  or  mesne  process, 
which  is  executed  by  the  marshal  or  correspond- 
ing officer  by  attaching  the  ir.s,  if  the  proceeding 
is  in  rem,  or  by  citing  the  respondent  to  appear 
and  answer,  if  the  proceeding  is  in  personam. 
The  respondent  is  then  required  to  file  his  answer, 
or  he  may  file  exceptions,  which  correspond  to 
the  demurrer  in  an  action  at  law.  The  issues 
raised  are  laid  before  a  judge  without  a  jury, 
or,  as  is  more  usually  done,  the  testimony  in  the 
case  is  taken  before  a  commissioner  or  correspond- 
ing officer,  who  reports  it  to  the  judge.  The  judge 
does  not  usually  assess  damages,  but  refers  that 
question  to  a  commissioner  by  an  interlocutory 
judgment ;  and  upon  the  commissioner's  report 
renders  a  final  judgment  fixing  the  rights  of  the 
parties.  See  Aomiralty  Law;  Coirts;  Carrier, 
CoMMo.N;  Master:  etc.:  and  consult  the  authori- 
ties referred  to  under  such  titles.  Consult,  also, 
Abbott,  Lair  of  Merchant  Ships  and  Seamen 
(14th  ed.,  London.  1!)03)  :  Pritchard.  Pifiest  of 
Admiralty  and  Maritime  t,aw  (3d  ed.,  London, 
1887),  containing  notes  of  cases  on  French  and 
other  foreign  law;  Parsons,  Treatise  on  Maritime 
Lair    (  Hiistdii.   18.58 K 

MARITIME  PROVINCE  (Russ.  Primor- 
skaya  (thlast ) .  An  eastern  province  of  Siberia.  It 
extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where  it  reaches 
as  far  west  as  Tchaun  Bay,  to  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  Korea.  Its  western  boundary  runs  alon..» 
the  Stanovoi  Mountains  to  about  longitude  I, 'JO" 
E..  then  southeast  and  .south  to  the  Amur  (which 
traverses  the  province  in  a  northeasterly  direc- 
tion), then  along  the  I'suri.  which  forms  part  of 
the  boundary  of  Manchuria,  and  finally  south- 
west to  the  Korean  border,  along  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Manchuria  to  Korea  (Map:  .Asia.  O 
.3).  Its  area,  including  Kamtchatka  (q.v.)  and 
the  island  of  .Saghalien  (q.v.),  is  over  710,000 
square  miles.    The  northern  portion,  forming  the 


MARITIME  PKOVINCE. 


MAKItrS. 


northeastern  oxtn'mity  of  A^^ia,  is  a  mountainous 
peninsula,  exiveding  8000  feet  in  elevation  in 
the  northern  part  and  watered  by  the  Anadj'r  and 
many  other  rivers.  Its  eoasts  are  deeply  in- 
dented anil  present  a  number  of  i)romontories 
toward  Bering  Strait  and  Bering  Sea — promon- 
tories that  range  from  1000  to  2000  feet  in 
height.  The  central  part  of  the  province  is  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  along  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
occupied  by  the  Stanovoi  Mountains  and  inter- 
sected by  numerous  short  streams. 

The  southern  part  is  somewhat  lower  west  of 
the  Amur,  wliile  the  portion  east  of  that  river  is 
occupied  to  some  extent  by  the  mountainous  dis- 
trict of  Sikhota  Alin,  rising  above  5000  feet  in 
its  highest  peaks.  The  flora  of  the  northern  part 
is  extremely  poor,  consisting  only  of  some 
lichens,  mosses,  and  dwarf  trees.  The  lower 
mountain  slopes  of  the  central  portion  of  the 
province  and  the  deep  river  valleys  are  tliickly 
wooded.  The  same  is  true  of  the  mountains  in 
the  southern  part,  where  the  lowlands  are  cov- 
ered with  thick  grass,  and  some  plants  peculiar 
to  warmer  regions,  such  as  the  wild  vine,  are 
found.  Northern  Siberia  has  long  been  famous 
for  its  rich  fauna,  but  many  species,  such  as 
the  blue  fox,  the  black  sable,  the  sea-otter,  the 
sea-lion,  the  sea-cow,  and  the  whale,  have  either 
entirely  disappeared  or  are  rapidly  approaching 
extinction.  The  fauna  of  the  southern  region  is 
remarkable  for  its  variety,  including  such  differ- 
ent species  as  the  tiger  and  the  bear.  The  rivers 
in  this  part  of  the  country  are  exceedingly  rich 
in  fish,  and  it  is  along  their  banks  that  the 
population  of  the  province  is  concentrated.  The 
northern  part  of  the  province  is  inhabited  chief- 
ly by  the  Tchuktches,  who  are  engaged  in  fish- 
ing on  the  coast,  and  in  reindeer  breeding  and 
himting  in  the  interior.  Besides  the  Tchuktches 
there  are  found  some  Koryaks  on  the  coast. 
The  central  part  of  the  province  is  inhabited  only 
by  a  few  Tunguses. 

The  climate  necessarily  presents  great  variety, 
owing  to  the  large  extent  of  the  region,  but  even 
in  the  southern  part  it  is  very  severe.  The  tem- 
perature at  Vladivostok,  at  the  southern  end  of 
the  province,  averages  only  39.5°  F..  while  at 
Nikolayevsk.  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  it  is 
below  the  freezing  point.  The  summers  in  the 
southern  part  are  extremely  wet,  and  inundations 
are  not  infrequent. 

Agriculture  is  confined  by  natural  conditions 
to  the  southern  portion  of  the  province  and  is 
progressing  very  slowly.  Hunting  and  fishing  are 
still  the  chief  occupations.  Some  gold  is  pro- 
duced along  the  Anmr.  Immigration  has  made 
some  progress  of  late,  owing  no  doubt  to  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway.  Many  Little  Russian 
peasants  and  Cossacks  from  the  Don  territory 
and  Orenlnirg  have  been  transported  to  the  prov- 
ince by  the  Government.  Roads  are  very  scarce, 
but  a  branch  of  the  Trans-Sil)erian  line  traverses 
the  province  from  Khabarovsk  to  Vladivostok 
for  a  distance  of  4(i9  miles.  Nikolskoye,  69  miles 
north  of  Vladivostok,  is  the  eastern  terminal  of 
tlie  Manchurinn  branch  of  the  Trans-Siberian  line. 
The  population  in  1897  was  248,823,  including 
about  4.1.000  natives,  more  than  23,000  Koreans, 
and  over  29,000  Chinese.  The  Russians  constitute 
over  one-half  nf  the  entire  population.  The  orig- 
inal Russian  population  is  organized  on  a  mili- 
tary basis,  and  the  inhabitants  are  known  as  Cos- 
sacks. The  capital  of  the  province  is  Vladivostok. 


MARITZA,  ma-re'tsa  ( Lat.  Bcbrus) .  The 
principal  river  of  European  Turkey  (Map:  Tur- 
key in  Europe,  E  4).  It  rises  in  the  Balkans, 
Hows  .southeast  through  the  Province  of  Eastern 
Rumelia  past  the  town  of  i'hilippniiolis,  and  con- 
tinues in  that  direction  as  far  as  Adrianoi)lc. 
where  it  bends  south  and  falls  into  the  -Egean 
Sea  near  its  northeast  corner.  It  is  300  miles 
in  length,  and  is  navigable  for  small  boats  to 
Adrianoplc.  about  100  miles  from  its  mouth. 

MARIUPOL,  ma're-<l<i;'p61-y'.  The  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the  Government 
of  Ekaterinoslav,  Russia,  situated  on  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azov^  63  miles  west  of  Tagan- 
rog (Map:  Russia,  E  5).  It  has  two  gymnasia, 
a  theatre,  and  a  custom  house.  Soap  and  leather 
are  its  chief  manufactures;  it  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  grain.  Its  harbor  is  visited 
annually  by  over  1300  coasting  and  about  100 
sea-going  vessels.  Mariupol  was  founded  in 
1779  by  Greek  emigrants  from  the  Crimea.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1897,  31,600,  chielly  Greeks  and  Jews. 

MA'RIUS,  (Jaius  (c.156-86  B.C.).  A  Roman 
general,  l)orn  of  an  obscure  family,  at  the  village 
of  Cereatae,  near  Arpinum,  about  B.C.  156.  In  the 
Nuniantine  War  (B.C.  134-133)  he  served  with 
great  distinction  under  the  younger  Scipio  Afri- 
canus.  In  B.C.  119  he  was  elected  tribune  of  the 
plebs,  and  vigorously  opposed  the  nobles,  by  whom 
he  was  intensely  hated.  He  acquired  political 
influence  by  his  marriage  with  .Tulia,  aunt  of 
Julius  C;esar.  In  B.C.  114  he  went  to  Spain  as 
proprsetor,  and  cleared  the  country  of  the  robbers 
who  infested  it.  He  accompanied  Q.  Coecilius 
Metellus  to  Africa  in  B.C.  109,  was  elected  consul 
two  years  after,  and  intrusted  with  the  conduct 
of  the  .Jugurthine  War,  which  he  brought  to  a 
successful  close  in  the  beginning  of  B,C.  106. 
Marius  sent  Sulla,  then  his  quiestor,  to  receive 
Jugurtha.  and  this  laid  the  foundation  of  future 
personal  enmity.  The  military  success  of  Marius 
had  now  made  him  the  most  conspicuous  officer 
in  the  Roman  army,  while  he  had  aroused  enthu- 
siastic admiration  among  his  soldiers.  Meanwhile 
an  immense  horde  of  Cimbri,  Teutones,  and  other 
northern  barbarians  had  burst  into  Gaul,  and  re- 
peatedly defeated  the  Roman  forces  with  great 
slaughter.  Marius  was  again  called  to  the  con- 
sulate for  the  year  n.c.  104,  and  for  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  times  in  B.C.  103-101.  for  it  was 
felt  that  he  alone  could  save  the  Republic.  The 
war  against  the  Teutones  in  Transalpine  Gaul 
occupied  him  for  more  than  two  years ;  but  he 
finally  annihilated  them  in  a  battle  of  two  days' 
duration  at  Aquip  Sextia'.  now  Aix,  in  Provence, 
where  200.000— according  to  others,  100,000— 
Teutones  were  slain.  After  this  he  assumed  the 
chief  command  in  the  north  of  Italy  against  the 
Cimbri  (q.v.),  whom  he  also  overtlircw  on  the 
Raudian  Fields  with  a  like  destruction  (n.c  101). 
The  people  of  Rome  knew  no  bounds  to  their  joy. 
Marius  was  declared  the  savior  of  the  State,  the 
third  foimder  of  Rome,  and  his  name  was  men- 
tioned along  with  those  of  the  gods  at  banquets. 
He  was  made  consul  for  the  sixth  time  in  n.c.  100. 
When  Sulla,  as  consul,  was  intrusted  with  the 
conduct  of  the  Mithridatic  War.  Marius,  who 
had  long  manifested  an  insane  jealousy  of  his 
patrician  rival,  and  was  himself  an  aspirant  for 
the  command  of  the  war,  attempted  to  deprive  him 
of  the  command,  and  a  civil  war  began  (n.c.  88) . 
By  procuring  a  new  organization  of  the  Roman 


MABinS. 


MARK. 


tribes,  tliiou};li  passage  of  a  law  to  distribute  the 
Italian  allies  among  all  tlie  tribes,  Marius  se- 
iiind  an  cleetion  to  the  eoniniand  of  tlie  war. 
Sulla  lleil  to  his  army  at  Nola,  refused  to  resign 
the  command,  and  marched  on  Home.  .Marius 
was  soon  forced  to  flee,  and  after  enduring  the 
greatest  hardships,  and  making  numerous  hair- 
breadth escapes,  he  reached  -Africa,  where  he 
remained  until  a  rising  of  his  friends  took 
place  under  Cinna.  He  then  hurried  back  to 
Italy,  in  the  absence  of  Sulla,  and,  along  with 
Cinna,  marched  against  Rome,  which  was  obliged 
to  yield.  Marius  was  delirious  in  his  revenge 
upon  the  aristocracy;  a  band  of  4000  slaves  is 
said  to  have  carried  on  the  work  of  murder  for 
five  days  and  nights.  Marius  and  Cinna  were 
elected  consuls  together  for  the  year  B.C.  86. 
Marius  was,  however,  already  in  his  seventy- 
first  year,  and  died  after  he  had  held  the  office 
seventeen  days. 

Unlettered,  arrogant,  and  rude  of  manner, 
Marius  did  not  po.ssess  the  qualifications  requisite 
for  maintaining  influence  in  times  of  peace.  The 
effect  of  his  personal  presence  is  illustrated  by 
the  scene  when,  during  his  flight  to  Southern 
Italy,  a  barbarian  entered  his  room  with  drawn 
Bword  to  assassinate  him.  When  .Marius  called 
out  in  the  darkness,  "Jlan,  durst  thou  murder 
C.  Marius''"  the  intruder  dropiH'd  liis  swonl  in 
terror  and  tied.  See  Beeslv,  Miniiis  and  fiulla 
(New  York,   1878). 

MAKIUS,  -MERrATOR  (?-44n?).  An  ecclesias- 
tical writer  of  the  earlier  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, born  in  Africa.  He  was  living  in  Rome, 
418,  and  ten  years  afterwards  in  Constantinople, 
but  authorities  dilTcr  a<  to  whether  he  was  priest 
or  layman.  He  is  known  to  have  been  a  friend 
and  defender  of  Augustine,  a  denouncer  of  the 
Pelagian  and  Nestorian  doctrine.  His  determined 
opposition  to  the  promulgators  of  these  heresies 
bore  fruit  in  their  expulsion  from  Constantinople. 
He  made  Latin  translations  of  Nestorius,  Theo- 
dosius  of  Mopsuestia,  Cyril  of  .•Mexandria,  Pro- 
clus,  Theodoret,  and  other  Greeks  which  are  in- 
valuable to  students  of  Church  history.  These, 
together  with  his  own  controversial  writings, 
were  twice  published  in  Paris  with  different 
editor-;.  HiT.'!  iind  1084. 

MARIVAXJX,  mi'r*'v6',  Pierre  Cablet  de 
Chamhi-.m.n  i>k  (lfi8a-170.3).  .\  French  dram- 
atist important  in  the  development  of  French 
comedy,  and  a  novelist,  epoch-making  in  the 
evolution  of  French  fiction.  He  was  born  in 
Paris.  February  4,  1088:  his  father  was  a 
Xorman,  director  of  the  Mint  at  Riom  in  .\u- 
verpne,  where  and  at  Limoges  Marivaux  passed 
his  youth.  His  literary  taste  developed  early.  .At 
eighteen  he  had  written  a  play,  /,<  y/in  firuilmt 
ct  /iiuitablr  (published  1712),  and  bctwcen'1713 
and  1715  he  produced  three  romances,  F.ffits  mir- 
prrniints  tlr  lit  stnitfnitbir.  Lit  roitttrr  i  tnhotirhic, 
and  Lr  Don  Qiiirhoir  moilirni .  all  wholly  out  of 
key  with  his  later  work.  Then,  falling  \in<ler 
the  influence  of  the  parodist  La  Motte.  he  under- 
took to  travesty  Homer  and  PYnelon.  but  turned 
from  this  ignoble  task  to  the  production  of  essays 
in  the  vein  of  the  Sprrlnlor  for  the  journal  J,e 
Mrriurr  {  1717).  These  showed  kecnnrsa.  hut  also 
preciosity.  The  year  1720  marks  a  turning  point 
in  Marivaux's  genius  and  fortune.  lie  lost  his 
considerable  wealth  in  the  Mississippi  scheme, 
became  dependent  on  his  pen,  wrote  n  poor 
tragedy,  Annihal,  and  a  good  comedy,  ;4r/c9Utn 


poli  par  I'amour,  and  started  llie  Spcctateur 
/'raHfHis,  a  weekly  "Spectator."  that  might  have 
succeeded  if  his  unmethodical  habits  had  allowed 
it  to  appear  regularly.  For  tlie  next  twenty 
years  he  supported  himself  as  a  playwright,  suc- 
ceeding in  comedy  at  the  Italian  Theatre  and 
failing  in  tragedy  at  the  Theatre  Frangais.  The 
more  noteworthy  of  his  thirty  plays  are:  Les 
surprises  dc  I'anioiir  (17221:  Le  Iriomphc  de 
Plutus  (1728)  ;  Lc  jcii  de  Vamour  el  dii  hasard 
(1730)  ;  Le  legs  (1730)  ;  and  Les  fausses  confi- 
dences (1737).  He  founded  two  other  unsuc- 
cessful journals,  and  in  1731  began  the  publica- 
tion of  a  novel,  Marianne,  which  he  left  incom- 
plete at  its  eieventli  part  in  1742.  Madame 
Ricciboni  finished  it.  In  1735  he  began  Le 
paysan  parvenu,  which  also  remained  a  torso. 
Vet  these  are  his  most  important  works.  In  1736 
he  was  elected  to  the  .\cademy.  Late  in  life  he 
received  a  pension  from  Helv^tius  (q.v.)  and  an- 
other from  Madame  de  Pompadour  (q.v.).  He 
died  February  12,  1703.  Marivaux  shows  him- 
self in  his  dramas  and  in  his  fiction  interested 
primarily  in  the  analysis  and  display  of  human 
feeling.  He  drew  in  both  his  novels  pictures  of 
contemporary  society  and  of  Parisian  street  life 
tliat  renmined  imequaled  for  a  century  in  their 
impressionistic  realism,  but  his  delight  is  in 
verbal  surprise — a  somewhat  atTccted  style  known 
in  French  literature  as  inarivaudaqe.  Marivaux's 
TTorfcs  arc  in  10  vols.  (Paris,  1827-30).  There  is 
a  modern  edition  of  the  plays  by  Fournier  and 
also  of  .l/anVi)i»e.  Consult:  SavoUf-e,  .Varifaua 
inconnu  (Paris,  1880);  Fleurs-,  Marivaux  et  le 
marivaudage  ( ib..  1881);  Gossot.  Mariraux  mo- 
raliste  (ib.,  1881)  :  Larroumet.  Mariraux,  sa  vie 
et  ses  ocurres  (ib.,  1804)  ;  and  Deschamps,  Mari- 
raux (ib.,  1807). 

MARJOKAM  (OF.  marjolaine,  margrlgne.  Fr. 
marjohiinr.  It.  majorana,  magginrana,  from  JIL. 
iiiajoranca,  from  Lat.  amaracus,  ainariicum,iTum 
Gk.  t'l/tdfniKor,  amarah'os,  ofiapaKov,  atnarnkon,  mar- 
joram, prolial)ly  connected  with  Heb.  ma<-aq, 
to  purify;  infiucnced  by  popular  etymology  with 
Lat.  major,  greater).  Origanum.  A  genus  of 
annual,  perennial,  and  shrubby  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Labiata-,  natives  chiefly  of  the  East, 
and  of  the  Mediterranean  region.  Some  of  the 
species  abound  in  a  yellow  essential  oil.  marjo- 
ram oil  or  oil  of  origanum,  which  is  obtained  by 
distillation.  The  common  marjoram  lOrignntim 
rulgiire).  which  has  become  naturalized  in  the 
United  States,  is  a  j)erennial  plant,  one  foot  high 
with  ovate  leaves,  and  roundish,  panicled  crowned 
heads  of  purple  flowers,  with  large  bracts.  It  is 
vised,  as  are  also  other  species,  as  a  seasoning  in 
cookery,  and  is  said  to  be  stimulant  and  Ionic. 
Sweet  marjoram  {Origanum  majorana)  is  an  an- 
nual plant,  a  native  of  Greece  and  the  Fast,  with 
ovate  grayish-green  leaves,  wrinkled  bracts,  and 
small  white  fiowers.  Its  uses  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  common  marjoram,  being  commonly 
used  for  garnishing. 

MARJORIBANKS,  mjirch'hanks,  Edward, 
F^eciind    lianm   Tweedmouth.     See   Tweed-MOUTH, 

MARK,  miirk  (Ger.,  border,  march).  A  Ger- 
man geographical  term,  signifying  primarily  the 
marl:  of  a  countrV's  limits  (the  march),  and 
hence  applied  as  a  designation  of  the  border 
countries  or  districts  of  the  German  Empire,  con- 
quered from  neighboring  nations.  Prussia  began 
its  existence  a.s  the  north  mark,  erected  against 


MARK. 


MABK. 


the  invasion  of  the  Wends,  while  Austria  arose 
from  the  east  mark,  erected  against  the  Hun- 
garians. Tile  governor  intrusted  with  the  charge 
of  one  of  these  border  districts  was  called  mark- 
graf,  or  margrave  (q.v.).  There  has  been  a  long 
dispute  among  scholars  as  to  the  original  mean- 
ing of  mark.  On  this  dispute,  consult:  F'ustel  de 
Coulanges,  Histoire  des  institutions  politirjues  de 
Vancioiiw  Fniiicc  (Paris,  1875-90);  JIaurer,  (le- 
schichte  der  ilarkcnverfassung  in  Deutschland 
(Erlangen,  1856). 

MABK  (AS.  man;,  Ger.  Mark;  perhaps  iden- 
tical originally  with  mark,  token,  boundary). 
Originally  the  term  appears  to  have  been  used  to 
designate  a  unit  of  weight,  most  commonly  of 
gold  or  silver.  It  was  about  equal  to  eight 
ounces,  but  it  varied  from  country  to  country. 
In  1524  the  Cologne  mark  was  made  the  standard 
weight  for  gold  and  silver  throughout  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  but  the  standard  was  never 
properly  enforced.  In  Anglo-Saxon  times  the 
term  mark  was  used  to  designate  a  money  of 
account,  consisting  of  100  pennies — in  the  twelfth 
century,  160  pennies.  In  1663  a  silver  mark 
was  issued  in  Scotland  which  was  valued  at  13s. 
Id.  English  money.  In  the  nineteenth  century 
the  mark  was  a  common  small  coin  among  the 
German  States,  varying  considerably  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Germany.  In  1873  the  gold  mark 
of  100  pfennige  was  adopted  as  the  monetary 
unit  of  the  German  Empire.  It  represents  .3982 
grammes  of  gold  (900  fine)  and  is  valued  at 
$0.23821  in  American  money. 

MABK  (Lat.  Marcus,  Gk.  Udpms,  Markos), 
or  JoHNj  with  the  surname  JIakk  (Acts  xii. 
12).  The  writer  of  the  second  Gospel.  Tlie  in- 
cidental notices  in  the  Xew  Testament  give  the 
following  facts:  Mark  was  the  son  of  a  certain 
Mary,  a  householder  of  Jerusalem,  at  whose 
home  the  early  Christians  held  meetings  in  the 
days  of  persecution  (Acts  xii.  1-12).  He  was  a 
cousin  of  Barnabas  (Col.  iv.  10),  hence,  possibly, 
in  case  the  relationship  was  on  the  fathers'  side, 
of  Levitical  descent.  An  old  tradition  says  that 
he  had  his  thumbs  cut  off  so  as  to  be  unfit  for 
the  priesthood.  Peter  calls  him  his  'son'  (1.  Pet. 
V.  13),  which  means  proliably  that  he  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity  under  Peter's  ministry  in 
Jerusalem.  He  came  to  .^ntioch  from  Jerusalem 
with  Barnabas  and  Paul  (Acts  xii.  25).  and  ac- 
companied them  as  an  assistant  on  their  first 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.  5).  But  he  left 
them  at  Perga  and  returned  to  .Jerusalem  (Acts 
xiii.  13;  cf.  xv.  37-39).  Again  at  Antioch  he  ac- 
companied Barnabas  to  Cyprus,  Paul  being  un- 
willing *to  take  him  with  liini  on  the  second 
journey  {Acts  xv.  37-40).  This  was  about  A.D.  .50. 
We  hear  nothing  more  of  him  until  the  time 
of  Paul's  first  Roman  captivity  (c.60  a.d), 
when  we  learn  (Col.  iv.  10:  Philem.  24)  that 
he  was  then  in  Rome,  reconciled  to  Paul  and 
esteemed  by  him.  and  was  about  to  visit  Asia 
Minor.  He  may  have  come  to  Rome  with  Peter. 
who  mentions  him  (I.  Pet.  v.  13)  as  with  him  in 
the  city.  The  proposed  journey  to  Asia  was 
probably  undertaken,  as  he  was  in  the  East  when 
Paul  wrote  from  Rome  (c.65)  to'  Timothy  at 
Ephesus  (?),  asking  him  to  bring  ilark  with 
him  (II.  Tim.  iv.  11).  .\t  Rome,  according  to 
early  tradition,  he  wrote  his  Gospel,  not  alto- 
gether as  his  own  work,  but  as  containing  the 
svibstance  of  Peter's  preaching.     Another  tradi- 


tion makes  him  the  organizer  and  first  Bishop  of 
the  Alexandrian  Church.  In  the  nature  of  the 
case,  such  traditions  are  dillieult  of  proof.  Con- 
sult the  commentaries  on  Mark,  especially  that 
of  Swete;  Zahn.  Eiiileitung  in  das  Seue  Testa- 
ment, vol.  ii.  (Leipzig,  1900).  See  Mabk,  Gos- 
pel OF. 

MABK,  Go.sPEL  OP.  The  second  of  the  Xew 
Testament  Gospels.  Its  first  ver.se  opens  with  a 
phrase  ("The  beginning  of  the  Gospel  of  .Jesus 
Christ'')  that  is  evitlently  intended  to  be  a  cap- 
tion for  the  narrative  which  follows.  I'nlike 
Matthew,  who.se  tendency  is  to  a  topical  treat- 
ment of  his  material,  and  Luke,  who  gives  himself 
to  rhetorical  enrichment,  Mark  arranges  his  nar- 
rative siniplj'  and  in  an  order  which  shows  itself 
to  be,  generally  speaking,  the  normal  chrono- 
logical order  of  the  Gospel  events.  There  is  first 
the  preliminary  history  reciting  the  ministry  of 
John  the  Baptist  and  the  entrance  of  .Jesus  upon 
His  work,  through  the  symbolic  act  of  the  bap- 
tism and  the  personal  experience  of  the  tempta- 
tion (i.  2-13).  There  then  follows  the  main 
portion  of  the  narrative,  which  gives,  fir.st, 
Jesus'  popular  work  in  Galilee  (i.  14-vii.  23) 
and  His  similar  work  in  the  region  north  of  Gali- 
lee (vii.  24-viii.  26 1 .  and  then  breaks  in  upon 
this  northern  work  with  a  presentation  of  it  in 
the  light  rather  of  a  work  of  instruction,  chietty 
to  His  disciples,  tlian  a  work  of  construction 
among  the  people  (viii.  27-ix.  29).  This  new 
character  of  Jesus'  work  is  carried  on  into  what 
may  be  generally  considered  His  journey  toward 
Jerusalem  { ix.  30-x.  52 ) .  The  event  that  marks 
this  change  is  the  disciples'  confession  of  Je.sus' 
Messiahship  given  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cicsarea 
Philippi,  which  was  followed  by  .Jesus'  first 
clear  declaration  of  His  coming  death  (viii.  27- 
ix.  1 ) .  This  is  evidently  considered  by  the 
Evangelist  as  the  turning  point  in  .Jesus'  work, 
leading  Him  to  a  change  in  its  character  and 
method.  Chaps,  xi.-xiii.  are  given  to  the  final 
work  in  .Jerusalem,  which  Mark,  in  common 
with  the  other  Evangelists,  presents  as  a  work 
in  which  .Jesus'  Messianic  claims  are  openly 
laid  before  the  nation's  religious  leaders.  The 
narrative  closes,  as  in  all  the  Gospels,  with  the 
Passion  and  Resurrection   (xiv.-xvi.). 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  verses  9-20  of 
the  last  chapter  (xvi.)  are  a  later  addition  to  the 
Gospel,  the  original  ending  having  been  lost. 
.Just  how  much  further  the  narrative  went  and 
whether  it  included,  as  Luke  alone  can  be  pos- 
sibly said  to  do,  an  account  of  the  Ascension 
can  only  be  conjectured. 

In  comparison  with  the  other  Synoptists  Mark 
is  quite  distinctly  the  shortest  Gospel,  consider- 
able portions  of  the  history  appearing  in  Mat- 
thew and  Luke  being  absent  from  Mark — such  as 
the  Nativity,  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  that 
part  of  Luke  which  is  devoted  apparently  to  a 
story  of  .Jesus'  last  journeyings  to  the  Holy 
City;  and  yet  where  Mark  gives  the  narrative 
in  common  with  the  other  two,  he  gives  it  with 
a  fullness  of  graphic  detail  which  the  others  do 
not  possess.  It  is  also  characteristic  of  Mark  that, 
though  he  has  an  account  of  the  parables  by  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  he  does  not  give  the  dUcourses  of 
Jesus  in  a  measure  equal  to  that  of  .Matthew 
and  Luke.  In  the  opinion  of  most  critics  this 
indicates  that  Mark  had  not  access  to.  or.  at 
least,  did  not  make  use  of  the  Logia  collection  of 
Matthew.     See  Matthew,  Go.spei.  of. 


MARK.  74 

It  is  plain  that  this  Gosi)cI  was  written  by  a 
Jewish  Christian — not  because  of  any  Jewish 
cast  of  the  Gospel,  as  in  the  case  of  .Matthew,  for 
such  a  east  it  does  not  possess — but  because  (a) 
of  the  author's  familiarity  with  .lewish  things 
and  his  ready  ability  in  explainiiij,'  tliem  (cf. 
ii.  IS:  vii.  :i  siiq.;  xii.  18;  xiv.  12;  xv.  tl.  42), 
and  (b)  because  of  his  acquaintance  with  the 
Aramaic  language,  which  he  frequently  trans- 
lates (cf.  iii.  17;  v.  41;  vii.  11,  34;  ix.  43;  x.  40; 
xiv.  3ti;  XV.  22,  34).  On  tlic  otlier  hand,  it  is 
clear  that  the  readers  were  Gentile  Christians — 
not  simply  because  they  were  iuiac(|uaintcj  with 
Palestinian  customs  and  speech,  for  .so  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  were  the  .lewisli  readers  of  Matthew, 
but  because  this  ignorance  seems  to  l)e  not  only 
very  much  more  extensive  on  the  part  of  Jlark'e 
readers,  but  also  to  be  surrounded  by  a -very  gen- 
eral Latin  atmosphere,  as  th<mgh  the  readers 
not  merely  neeiled  the  above  inteipretations  and 
explanations,  but  needed  them  cast  in  this  mold 
(ef.  v.  !1;  vi.  27.  37;  vii.  4;  xii.  42;  xv.  10.  .39). 
As  to  the  place  of  the  Gospel's  origin  there  is 
nothing  deliiiite  to  be  gathered  from  the  eon- 
tents,  though  perhaps  it  is  more  likely  to  have 
been  written  outside  of  Palestine  than  within  it. 
The  Latin  atmosphere  would  most  easily  be 
thrown  around  the  narrative  in  a  Latin  country. 
As  to  date,  it  is  universally  admitted  that  what- 
ever may  be  the  year  of  its  composition,  it  gives 
every  evidence  of  being  the  earliest  of  all  the 
Gospels.  In  fact,  a  comparison  of  Mark's  order 
of  narrative  with  that  of  Matthew  and  Luke 
shows  that  Mark's  order  was  that  which  Matthew 
and  Luke  had  before  them  when  they  wrote.  If. 
therefore,  there  is  any  likelihood  that  either  of 
these  latter  wcrewritten  prior  to  tlie  <hstnietion  of 
Jerusalem,  it  becomes  almost  necessary  to  place 
Mark  before  that  event.  See  JL\ttiiew.  CJospel 
OF;  LlTKE,  Gospel  of. 

In  all  of  this  there  is  nothing  that  would  make 
impossible  an  authorship  by  Mark;  but  such  an 
origin  would  seem  almost  necessitated  by  the 
clear  testimony  of  patristic  evidence.  This  evi- 
dence, in  brief,  ascribes  the  authorship  of  the 
Gospel  to  Mark,  and  to  ^lark  as  in  some  way 
eonnecte<l  in  the  writing  with  Peter.  The  varia- 
tifin  in  the  evidence  is  at  the  latter  point.  Some 
of  the  Fathers,  as  .Jerome  and  Origen,  make  the 
relation  that  of  an  amanviensis;  others,  as  Euse- 
bius.  that  of  a  reporter;  others  again,  as  Clem- 
ent of  .\lexandria.  .Justin  Martyr,  and  Irena>us. 
that  simply  of  a  disciple  recalling  his  Master's 
words.  The  most  explicit  testimony,  and  that 
which  seems  to  bear  upon  its  face  tlie  strongest 
profif  of  cre(lil)ility.  is  the  testimnny  from 
Papias,  who  describes  ^tark  as  the  interpreter 
of  Peter'.s  preaching,  and  Mark's  Gospel  as  his 
conscientious  reproduction  of  what  Peter's  dis- 
courses contained.  This  testimony  of  Papias 
would  agree  with  the  original  Greek  chnrncter 
of  the  Gospel's  composition;  for.  acconling  to 
this  testimony,  the  service  which  Mark  renilered 
to  Peter  was  evidently  that  of  interpreting  his 
Aramaic  discourses  into  the  Greek  which  his 
audiences  could  understand.  It  would  further 
agree  with  the  fresh  and  vivid  style  of  the  Gos- 
pel's narrative;  since  such  immediate  contact 
with  Peter's  reminiscences  as  Mark  must  have 
had  would  give  the  stamp  of  an  eyewitness  to  all 
•his  record.  And  it  would  yet  further  agree  with 
n  certain  Petrine  element  wlii<'h  seems  to  be 
present  at  frequent  points  throughout  the  Gospel; 


MARKET  AND  MARKETING. 


sinci',  however,  JIark  may  have  reconstructed 
these  discourses  of  Peter's,  he  is  not  likely  to 
have  lost  out  of  them  altogether  the  personal 
element  they  must  have  contained. 

Accordingly,  the  general  verdict  of  criticism  is 
that  the  second  canonical  Gospel  is  from  the 
hand  of  ilark,  reproducing  Peter's  personal 
knowledge  of  and  participation  in  the  Gospel 
events.  .\t  the  same  time  this  verdict  attaches 
only  to  the  substance  of  the  Gospel;  since  there 
are  evidences  which  seem  to  show  that  Mark's 
product i(jn  has  undergone  editing  to  bring  it  to 
its  present  form,  while  there  are  clear  traces  of 
documentary  sources  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
Gospel  which,  if  belonging  to  .Mark's  original 
work,  show  him  to  have  gone  outside  of  Peter 
for  a  considerable  amount  of  his  material. 

Naturally  in  proportion  as  JMark's  Gospel  is 
the  reproduction  of  Peter's  preaching,  so  far  must 
its  purpose  be  a  honiiletic  r.ather  than  a  purely 
historical  one.  This  purpose  may  be  described 
as  the  evidencing  of  Jesus'  Jlessiahship  through 
the  acts  and  deeds  of  His  earthly  life.  .\s  a 
matter  of  fad.  this  evangelistic  element  is  promi- 
nent througliout  the  narrative  and  is  due,  not 
merely  Id  the  spirit  of  .Jesus'  own  ministry,  but 
also  to  the  method  of  the  general  ajioslolic  mis- 
sion, which  was  not  so  much  to  tell  the  story  of 
.lesus'  life,  as  rather  to  testify  to  the  impres- 
sion which  .Tesus  Himself  had  made  upon  their 
spiritual  experience. 

HlULlo(iK.\i-iiY.  Besides  the  usual  New  Testa- 
ment Introductions,  the  introductory  portions  of 
the  more  recent  commentaries  on  JIark.  and 
the  special  Synoptic  works  referred  to  in  the  lit- 
erature attached  to  the  article  on  (he  (Jospel  of 
.Matthew,  consult:  Hadham.  Saint  MnrL's  /»- 
iiebtednef>s  to  Saint  Matthew  (London.  1807); 
Titius,  Dos  \'crli.altnis/i  der  Herrcmixirte  in 
Marliis  Eraiiiirlium  eu  den  Logia  dcs  Malth.iius, 
in  ••Theohigiscbe  .Studien"  (G;>ttingen.  1807)  ; 
Hadorn,  Pie  ICntstehung  des  Mnrkn.ievangelium 
((Jlitersloh.  1808);  Blass,  I'liiloloqie  der  Evan- 
gelieii  (  Kng.  trans..  London.  ISO.S)  ;  (^linjes.  Mar- 
Kiis  Stmlirii  (Berlin.  ISOO);  Du  Hnissoii,  (Origin 
of  the  Oosprl  of  Saint  Mark  (Oxford,  1896); 
.\bhott.  The  Corrections  of  Mark  (London,  1901). 

MARK,  KnwAitn  T>.\fRENS  (1847—).  .\n 
American  zoJilogist.  born  at  Hamlet,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1871, 
and  in  1 872-73  acted  as  assistant  astronomer  on 
the  railed  States  Northern  Boundary  Survej'.  He 
then  studied  zoidogy  in  P]urope  under  Lenckart, 
Haeekel.  and  others,  and  obtained  a  degree  in 
Leipzig.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  instructor  in 
zoCdogy  at  Harvard  College,  in  ISS3  assistant 
professor  of  zoiilogj-.  and  in  18S(>  Ilersey  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy.  Tlie  most  important  of  his 
publications  are  the  following:  Maturation,  Fe- 
cundation, and  Segmentation  in  Liina.r  Campes- 
tris  (1881)  :  Simple  Eyes  in  Arthropod.')  (1887)  ; 
Triehinir  in  Sirlne  (1880);  Studie.')  on  l.r/iidos- 
tens  (1890).  He  has  also  translated  several  im- 
portant (ixt  brinks  fr*m  the  German. 

MARK    ANTONY.       See    Antoniu.s.    Mab- 

(TS. 

MARKET  and  MARKETING  (AS.  mcrr- 
ket.  from  Lat.  nirrralus,  traflic,  market,  from 
me.reari,  to  trade,  from  men,  merchandise,  from 
nirrerp,  to  earn,  deserve;  connected  with  Gk. 
u4pot,  mcros.  share).  A  market  may  lie  defined 
as  an  assemblage  of  people  for  buying  and  selling 


MARKET  AND  MARKETING. 


MARKHAM. 


goods.  The  liiiii  i.-<  applic'il  at  tlic  picsi'iit  time 
more  jmrticularly  tu  certain  pulilif  places  or 
buildings  where  goods  are  ollered  for  purchase 
and  sale.  In  a  hroader  sense,  it  is  the  country, 
city,  or  locality,  where  goods  are  bought  and 
sold,  as  the  foreign  market,  domestic  market, 
New  York  market,  etc.  Markets  have  existed 
from  the  time  when  men  first  l)egan  to  diversify 
their  products.  They  were  the  meeting  idaces 
f(ir  barter  and  exchange,  and  during  the  .MidiUe 
Ages  were  a  source  of  considerable  revcmie  to  the 
State.  The  State  authorized  them,  made  laws 
for  their  control,  and  collected  certain  tolls.  In 
Europe  to-day  nearly  every  town  and  in  America 
nearly  all  the  large  cities  have  one  or  more 
market  places.  These  may  be  simply  open  public 
squares  in  some  centrally  located  district,  or  they 
may  be  a  commodious,  substantial  building,  fitted 
up  with  stalls,  booths,  and  containing  cold  stor- 
age rooms  for  the  preservation  of  quickly  perish- 
able goods.  Modern  stores  and  shops  are  the 
outgrowths  of  the  early  markets  and  have  de- 
veloped in  comparatively  recent  times. 

Owing  to  local  productions,  to  transit  facili- 
ties, or  to  some  other  favorable  circumstances, 
many  cities  have  developed  special  markets,  as 
for  example  the  Liverpool  wheat  market.  Bullalo 
live-stock  market.  New  Orleans  cotton  market, 
Leipzig  book  and  fur  market,  etc.  The  manner 
of  marketing  has  changed  greatly  in  modern 
times.  JIuch  of  the  produce  formerly  .sold  in 
bulk  is  now  marketed  in  small  attractive  pack- 
ages ready  for  family  use.  .Many  firms  have  built 
up  a  lucrative  business  by  buying  commodities 
in  bulk  and  repacking  them  in  smaller,  more 
convenient  and  attractive  packages. 

The  development  of  the  cold  storage  system,  in- 
cluding the  use  of  refrigerator  cars  for  goods  in 
transit,  has  in  recent  years  profoundly  affected 
the  niethods  of  marketing  perishalde  products 
and  indefinitely  prolonged  the  season  during 
which  many  kinds  of  agricultural  products  may 
be  found  on  sale,  even  in  the  markets  of  regions 
remote  from  the  place  of  original  shipment.  Con- 
sult United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  f)2.  Marketiiiri  Farm  Produce 
(Washington,    1807). 

MARKET  OVERT  ( Fr.  ouvert.  open).  In 
the  English  law.  certain  'open'  or  public  markets, 
where  the  law  protects  a  purchaser  in  his  title 
to  any  goods  which  he  may  buy  in  good  faith, 
even  though  the  tradesman  did  not  own  or  have 
a  right  to  sell  them.  The  law  originated  in  an 
old  Saxon  custom  which  prohibited  the  sale  of 
anything  alxive  the  value  of  twenty  pence,  except 
in  open  market  an<l  in  the  presence  of  witnesses. 
The  theory  was  that  lost  or  stolen  goods  would 
probably  be  identified  in  a  public  market  by  the 
owner,  before  the  tradesman  or  original  thief 
<'ould  dispose  of  them.  This  custom  became  the 
law  of  England  after  the  Conquest,  and  was 
modilled  to  include  goods  of  any  value,  and  by 
dispensing  with  the  necessity  of  witnesses.  It 
is  applied  to  every  kind  of  personal  property 
except  horses.  By  sub.sequent  statutes  the  law- 
was  further  modified  so  that  at  present  if  stolen 
goods  are  sold  in  open  market,  the  title  revests 
in  the  owner  upon  the  conviction  of  the  thief. 
Only  certain  ancient  markets  have  this  character, 
outside  of  London,  where  every  public  shop  is  a 
market  overt  and  every  day  is  market  dav.  This 
law  never  existed  in  the  United  States.  See 
S.\LES. 

Vol.  XIII.— 6. 


MARKET  VALUE.  Ihc  value  of  an  article 
as  established  by  public  sales  of  such  property 
in  a  particular  locality.  At  times  this  value  is 
proved  by  regular  market  quotations.  It  is  also 
proved  by  persons  familiar  with  the  price  at 
which  such  property  sells  regularly  in  the 
market.  If  the  market  price  is  abnormally  en- 
hanced or  depressed  at  the  time  and  place  for 
delivery  of  any  goods,  b}-  wrongful  cond)ination3 
or  by  an  illegal  monopolj-,  other  evidence  than 
the  market  sales  may  be  resorted  to  for  the  pur- 
po.se  of  showing  the  fair  value  of  the  property  in 
question.  Consult  the  authorities  referred  to 
under  Tort ;  Damages;  Cri.minai.  Law. 

MARK'HAM,  Albert  (1841  —  ).  A  vice- 
admiral  of  the  English  Royal  Xav}',  born  at 
li.ign&res.  After  his  education  in  the  Royal 
Navy  Academy  at  Southsea,  he  entered  the  navy 
and  served  in  China,  taking  an  active  part  in 
the  fall  of  Peking.  He  rose  to  lieutenant  (1862), 
commander  (1872),  captain  (1876),  and  rear- 
admiral  (1802).  He  commanded  the  Ahrl  in  the 
Arctic  expedition  of  1875-76,  when  he  planted 
the  Union  Jack  in  the  most  northern  point 
reached  up  to  that  time  (83°  20'  26").  He  ex- 
plored Davis  Strait.  Lancaster  Sound,  Nova 
Zemlila,  and  Hudson  Bay.  His  contributions 
to  the  periodicals  are  numerous.  Among  his  pub- 
lications arc:  The  Cruise  of  the  Rosario  (1873)  ; 
The  Great  Frozen  Sea  (1877);  Xorthirard  Bo! 
(1878)  ;  The  Life  of  John  Daris  the  Navigator 
(18821:  .-1  Polar  Reconnaissance  (1880);  and 
Life  of  Sir  John  Franklin   (1890). 

MARKHAM,  Sir  Clemext.s  Robert  ( 18.30 
— ).  An  English  traveler,  geographer,  and  au- 
thor, born  at  Stillingfleet,  County  York.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster,  and  in  1844  entered  the 
navy.  In  18.50  he  was  commissioned  lieutenant,  and 
the  ne.>;t  year  accompanied  the  expedition  sent 
to  search  for  Sir  .lohn  Franklin.  He  traveled 
in  Peru,  aceompanjed  the  British  military  ex- 
pedition against  Abyssinia  in  1867-68.  entered  the 
geographical  department  of  the  India  Office,  and 
later  he  became  editor  of  the  (leofiraphiral  Maga- 
zine and  secretary  of  the  Royal  (ieographical  So- 
ciety and  of  the  Hakluyt  Society.  He  published: 
Franklin's  Footsteps  (18.52)  ;  Trarels  in  Peru  and 
India  (1862)  ;  A  History  of  the  Aiyssiniati  Ex- 
pedition (1809)  ;  The  Threshold  of  the  Unknou-n 
Region  (1874)  ;  Major  James  Rennell  and  the 
Rise  of  Modern  English  Geography  (1895)  :  and 
Richard  Hakluyt:  His  Life  and  Work,  icith  a 
Short  Account  of  the  Aims  and  Achievements  of 
the  Hakluyt   Society    (1896). 

MARKHAM,  Edwin  (1852—).  An  Ameri- 
can i)uet,  born  in  Oregon  City.  Ore.  When  five 
years  old  he  was  taken  to  live  in  California  and 
struggled  for  an  education  there  while  engaged 
in  general  farm  work.  He  began  to  write  verse 
for  the  California  papers  at  an  early  age,  be- 
came a  teacher,  and  rose  to  be  principal  and 
school  superintendent.  In  1899  he  removed  to 
Brooklyn.  N.  Y..  and  subsequently  to  Staten  Isl- 
and. His  best-known  poem  is  The  Man  with  the 
Hor.  nublisbed  in  book  form  with  other  verses 
in  1890.  His  other  books  inchule  Linroln  and 
Other  Poems  (1901)  ani  Field  Folk :  Interpreta- 
tions of  Millet   (1901). 

MARKHAM,  Oerva.se  (c.  1.568- 1637).  .\n 
Kmrlisli  author,  born  at  Ootham.  Nottingham- 
shire. He  ser\ed  as  a  soldier  in  the  Low  Coim- 
tries.   and  attained   a  captaincy   in  the  English 


KABKHAH. 


army.  Well  versed  in  the  classical  and  modern 
lanfi'iiages,  he  took  up  literature  as  a  means  of 
livelihood  and  prepared  numerous  volumes  for 
the  press,  lie  wrote  largely  on  topics  connected 
with  sport,  and  is  also  known  for  some  inditferent 
poetrj'.  .\  few  works  atlrihuted  to  liim  were 
certainly  written  by  others,  but  tlio.se  regarded 
as  genuine  include:  The  Most  Honorable  Trafiedic 
of  Sir  llichard  Urincile  (150.5);  The  Poem  of 
I'ocnis  (1.595)  :  f'arelariee,  or  the  Liiglish  Uome- 
miin   ( lUOT  )  :  and  Hunger's  Prevention   (1021). 

MARKHAM,  Wiluam  (c.1G35-1704).  An 
American  Colonial  Governor,  born  in  England. 
He  was  a  cousin  of  William  Pcnn.  and  was  sent 
to  America  as  Deputy  Governor  of  Pennsylvania 
after  tlie  grant  in  1081.  On  his  arrival  at  New 
York,  Brockholls.  acting  Governor  in  the  absence 
of  Andros.  surrendered  his  authority  over  Penn's 
grant  and  gave  him  a  letter  to  the  local  authori- 
ties. Proceeding  to  Pennsylvania.  .Markham 
called  a  council  August  3.  "itiSl.  and  almost 
immediately  began  a  controversy  witli  Lord  Balti- 
more about  the  Maryland  bmiiidary.  He  chose 
the  present  site  of  Philadelphia  for  the  great  city 
to  be  built,  instead  of  that  of  Upland  (Chester), 
which  was  Penn's  choice.  W  hen  Penn  arrived  in 
ItiSi.  Markbam  went  to  England  to  represent  the 
colony  in  the  boundary  dispute,  and  when  Penn 
returned  was  made  Secretary  of  tlie  Province 
and  the  Territories  (the  lower  counties  on  the 
Delaware).  He  was  Deputy  Governor  of  the  Ter- 
ritories in  IGOl.  and  was  Lieutenant-Governor  for 
(;overnor  Fletcher  of  Xew  York  (1093  to  1695). 
the  Crown  having  revoked  the  grant  made  to 
Penn  and  assumed  control.  He  was  continued  in 
ollicc  until  1099  by  Penn.  who  in  1095  had  again 
secured  possession,  and  during  this  time  the  new 
Constitution  was  passed.  Many  charges,  such  as 
conniving  at  jiiracy  and  using  courts  to  protect 
fraud,  were  made  against  him.  Penn  was  not  al- 
together satisfied  witli  his  course,  but  ordered 
him  to  be  appointed  Register-General  of  Wills  in 
1703. 

MABKHOR.     Sec  Goat. 

MARKING-NUT.  The  fruit  of  Semecarpus 
.\iiacardium.  a  large  tree  of  the  natural  order 
.\nacar<liace:r.  a  native  of  the  mniintains  of  India. 
It  has  oblong  leaves  and  terminal  panicles  of 
flowers.  The  fruit  is  a  hearlshaped,  black  nut, 
.seated  on  a  large  swollen  receptacle,  which, 
when  ripe,  is  roasted  and  eaten,  although  when 
raw  it  is  astringent  and  acrid.  Between  the 
two  coats  of  the  nut-shell  is  a  black,  acrid  juice, 
much  in  use  for  marking  cotton  cloths,  a  mixture 
of  quicklime  and  water  being  a|>plied  to  prevent 
it  from  running,  and  to  briglilen  the  color.  It  is 
also  u-ed  as  an  external  ap|)lication  in  rheu- 
matism. 

MARKIRCH.  miir'keriv  ( l"r.  Sainte-Marie- 
auJcMiiii s\.  .\  town  of  I'pper  .Msace.  Germany, 
situateil  about  forty  miles  southwest  of  Strass- 
burg  (Map:  (Jermany.  B  4).  It  is  an  important 
manufacturing  centre  for  cotton  and  woolen 
poods,  the  industry  having  been  introduced  there 
nliout  the  miildle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
the  Midille  .\ges  the  town  was  famous  for  its 
silver  mines,  which  have  -^inee  been  abandoned. 
Population,  in  1900,  1-2,3"fi.  about  one-half  Prot- 
estants. 

MARKT-AND,  .Tfremiaii  (10931770).  An 
?)nglisli  classical  -scholar  and  text  critic.  He 
was   born   at   C'hildwall,   England,   and   was   ed- 


76  MARL. 

ucated  at  London  and  Cambridge.  His  works 
included  a  number  of  emendations  of  the  text 
of  Lvsias  and  of  Euripides;  an  edition  of  the 
ditliciilt  .Si/((f  of  Statius  (1728;  1824),  which 
is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  acute  criticism; 
and  Ucinurlcn  on  the  Epistles  of  Cicero  to  Brutus 
( 1745),  in  which  he  tried  to  prove  them  spurious. 
His  attacks  on  the  authenticity  of  the  Ciceronian 
orations  Pro  Domo  Sua,  Post  liedilum  in  Sena- 
tu,  Ad  Quirilcs.  and  the  Dc  Haruspicum  lieapon- 
sis.  in  which  he  was  afterwards  followed  by  F.  A. 
Wolf,  started  a  famous  and  longstanding  con- 
troversy. Consult  Wolf,  Litterarische  Analekten 
(Berlin,  1817-20). 

MARKS,  Henry  Stacy  (1829-98).  An  Eng- 
lisli  genre  painter,  born  in  London.  He  studied 
at  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy,  London, 
and  under  Picot  in  Paris.'  In  1853  he  began  to 
exhibit  at  the  Aeademy.  and  was  elected  a  Royal 
Academician  in  1878.  His  works  are  often  of  a 
humorous  nature,  and  he  painted  many  scenes 
from  Shakespeare.  "Saint  Francis  Preaching 
to  the  Birds"  (1870)  is  one  of  his  most  charac- 
teristic paintings.  He  was  very  fond  of  intro- 
ducing birds  into  his  works,  and  i>ainted  them 
with  particular  care.  His  paintings  in  water 
color  are  also  notable. 

MARK  TWAIN.  The  nomde  plume  of  S. 
L.   Clelliclis. 

MARL    (OF.  marie,  merle.  Ft.   marne,  OHG. 
mrrfiil.  (icr.  Mergcl.  from  ML.  mariiila.  diminu- 
tive   of    Lat.    marya.    marl,    from    Gall,    miiriia, 
Bret,    marg,    marl.    Gk.    iIp7iXos,    arijilos,    white 
clay).      .V   somewhat   indefinite    term    applied    in 
diii'ercnt  localities  to  widely  difTereiit   materials. 
In  a  general  sense  it  means  essentially  a  natu- 
rally occurring  mixture  of  calcium  carbonate  and 
clay  with  more  or  less  sand,  which  usually  falls 
to  pieces  on  exposure  to  the  air.     .Mtliough  prob- 
ablv    the    greater    nunil>er   of    the    marls    of    the 
I'nited    States    conform    to    this    definition,    and 
depend  for  tlieir  aL'ricultural  value  on  their  lime 
content,  there  are  quite  extensive  deposits  of  the 
Cretaceous    marls,    known    as    greensand     (espe- 
cially   in    Xew   .lersey).   which    contain    variable 
but    usually    small    amounts    of    lime    and    con- 
siderable  amounts   of    potash    (mainly   silicate) 
and   phosphoric   acid.     The   name   is  also  some- 
times  applied   to    friable   clays,   or   mixtures  of 
clay  and  sand,  in  which  there  is  almost  no  trace 
of  iime.     Marl  beds  are  widely  distributed  in  the 
L'nited  St;itcs  and  have  beeu  exploited  to  a  con- 
siderable extent   ill   New  .Jersey.   Maryland.   Vir- 
ginia,   Kentucky,    Xorth    Carolina,    ami    South 
Carolina.     The  marls  of  these  deposits  generally 
belong  to   three   classes   and   occur   in   geological 
formations  which  are  found,  as  a  rule,  one  above 
the  other   in   immediate  succession.     The  upper 
iaver.   blue   or   shale    marl    (Neocene) ,   generally 
found  at  or  near  the  surface,  consists  chiefly  of 
sea    mud   with    partially    decomposed    shells   and 
bones.      Its   v.ilue   depends   mainly   upon    its  con- 
tent  of  carbonate  of  lime    (40-50  per  cent.),   al- 
though it   contains  in  addition  small  percentages 
of  poliish   (.25  to  4.75  per  cent.)    and  phosphoric 
acid    (trai'C   to   1.75   per  cent.).     This  class  pre- 
dominates   in    Maryland.    Virginia,    and    North 
Carolina,   and    has   been    used    to   a    considerable 
extent    with    good    results    on    worn-oiit    or    nat- 
urallv   infertile  soils.     The  second   class.   Eocene 
or   chalky    marl,    is   commonly    a    coarse,  'friable 
chalk,  consisting  of  comminuted  shells  and  corals, 


MARL. 


of  a  light  yellowisli  or  grayish  color  to  white, 
sometimes  compaetcd  into  a  solid  limestone.  Its 
content  of  lime  is  greater  (50-11,3  jjer  cent.)  than 
that  of  the  shell  marl  and  the  percentage  of  pot- 
ash and  phosjihoric  acid  is  smaller.  In  the 
lower  layer  occur  the  Cretaceous  marls  (green- 
sand),  which  vary  considerably  in  chemical  com- 
position and  agricultural  value.  Their  fertilizing 
value  is  determined  largely  l)y  their  con(cnt  of 
potash  (.'S.5  to  T.jjcr  cent.)  and  phosphoric  acid 
(1  to  4  per  cent.),  although  many  are  calcareous 
(1.25  to  'J  per  cent,  of  lime).  These  marls  have 
long  been  used  with  beneficial  results  by  New  Jer- 
sey farmers,  although  the  benefit  is  more  marked 
in  case  of  marls  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  and  lime 
than  in  case  of  pure  greensand  containing  a  high 
percentage  of  potash,  probably  because  tiie  potash 
is  in  the  form  of  an  insolul)le  silicate  (glau- 
conite)   and  is  very  slowly  available  to  plants. 

Marl  is  l)otli  a  direct  and  an  indirect  fertilizer, 
improving  both  the  chemical  and  physical  condi- 
tions of  soils,  correcting  acidity,  unlocking  in- 
soluble plant  food,  and  promoting  nitrification. 
It  is  very  lasting  in  effect  and  has  been  used 
from  ancient  times  for  restoring  worn-out  lands 
to  fertility  or  for  improving  naturally  infertile 
soils.  But  because  lime  (q.v.)  is  quicker  in 
action  and  of  greater  efficiency  it  has  been  used 
in  many  eases  instead  of  marl,  although  some 
kinds  of  marl  are  extremely  useful  on  certain 
soils.  On  account  of  its  bulkiness  and  the  large 
amounts  which  must  be  applied  in  order  to  secure 
beneficial  results,  marl  can  be  used  profitably 
only  in  close  proximity  to  the  deposits.  Booth, 
in  a  report  of  the  State  geologist  of  Delaware, 
recommends  60  to  100  bushels  per  acre  as  the 
proper  amount  to  be  applied  on  poor  light  soils, 
100  to  200  bushels  on  clay  soils,  while  200  to  500 
bushels  may  lie  used  with  advant.age  on  soils  of 
good  quality  abundantly  supplied  with  humus. 
The  addition  of  quicklime  to  marl  (30  to  40  bush- 
els of  lime  to  .300  to  400  bushels  of  marl)  has 
been  found  to  quicken  the  action  of  the  marl. 
It  is  generally  advisable  to  let  marl  lie  exposed 
to  the  air  some  time  before  it  is  incorporated 
with  the  soil,  thus  destroying  any  poisonous 
compounds  which  may  be  present. 

Consult;  Rulfin,  Calcareous  Manures^;  Ullmann, 
Kalk  und  llerf/el;  State  Geological  reports  of 
Delaware,  Kentucky.  Maryland.  Xew  .Jersey, 
North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina ;  Maryland 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Report,  1880. 

MARLBORO,  miirriiur-fl.  .\  city,  including 
several  villages  in  Middlesex  County.  Mass.,  25 
miles  west  of  Boston ;  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  and  the  Boston  and  Maine 
railroads  (Map:  ilassachusetts,  D  3).  Among 
the  features  of  Marlboro  are  .a  handsome  city 
hall,  public  library,  high  school  building,  and  a 
soldiers'  monument.  There  are  extensive  boot 
and  shoe,  box,  automobile,  and  carriage  factories, 
electric.'il  macliine  and  lamp  wcu'ks,  and  manu- 
factories of  shoe-making  machinery,  hose  pipe, 
and  bicycle  and  automobile  tires.  The  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  annually  elected,  a  bi- 
cameral council,  and  administrative  departments. 
The  members  of  the  license  de]iartmenl  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  mayor:  of  the  police,  fire,  and 
street  departments,  by  the  mayor  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  council:  while  the  members  of  the 
water,  health,  and  poor  departments  are  elected 
by  the  council.  The  city  owns  and  operates  the 
water-works.      Population,    in    1890,    13,805;    in 


77  MARLBOROUGH. 

1900,  13,009.  Seltkd  in  lOoli  by  a  company  from 
Sudbury,  Jlarlboro  was  incorporated  as  a  town 
in  lOtiO,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1890.  In 
1670,  during  King  Philip's  War.  it  was  almost 
wholly  destroyed  by  the  Indians.  Out  of  parts 
of  the  original  township,  Westborough  was 
formed  in  1717,  Southborough  in  1727,  and  Hud- 
son in  1806.  Consult  Hudson.  Hinlory  of  the 
Town  of  Marlboro,  Masmichusctts {Boston,  1862). 

MARLBOROUGH,  marl'bc-ru.  An  old  and 
interesting  town  in  Wiltshire,  England,  pleas- 
antly situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Kennet,  75 
miles  west-southwest  of  London  (Map:  England, 
E  5).  The  chief  edifice  is  the  'college,'  a  hand- 
some building  occupying  the  site  of  the  old  castle. 
As  early  as  the  days  of  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion 
there  was  a  castle  at  Marlborough;  and  a  Parlia- 
ment, who.se  enactments  were  called  the  'Statutes 
of  JIarlbridge,'  was  held  there  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  The  town  corporation  dates  from 
1200.  It  owns  remunerative  real  estate  and  a 
water  supply,  and  maintains  an  isolation  hospital 
and  sewage  farm.    Population,  in  1891,  3012;  in 

1901,  3046. 

MARLBOROUGH.  The  northeastern  dis- 
trict of  South  Island,  New  Zealand.  .\rea,  3.000.- 
000  acres,  about  one-fifteenth  of  which  is  suitable 
for  agricultural  purposes  and  nearly  one-half  for 
grazing  (Map:  New  Zealand,  D  4).  Coal,  gold, 
and  copper  are  found  in  the  district.  Population, 
in  1896,  12,483. 

MARLBOROUGH,  John  Churchill,  first 
Duke  of  (1650-1722).  A  celebrated  English  gen- 
eral. He  was  born  probably  June  24,  1650,  at 
Ashe  in  the  Parish  of  Musbury,  Devonshire,  the 
second  son  of  Sir  Winston  Churchill,  a  politician 
and  historian,  and  a  stanch  supporter  of  the 
Stuarts.  John  Churchill  was  educated  at  Saint 
Paul's  School,  but  early  in  life  entered  the  army. 
He  saw  some  service  at  Tangier  against  the 
Moors,  and  from  1672  to  1677  he  bore  arms  on 
the  Continent  against  the  Netherlands,  serving 
part  of  the  time  under  the  great  Turenne.  A 
new  era  in  the  history  of  war  was  then  beginning. 
Artillery  and  musketiy  had  displaced  entirely 
the  old  pikeman,  and  rapidity  of  movement  hence- 
forth decided  campaigns.  In  1674  T.ouis  XIV. 
made  Churchill  a  colonel  of  his  regiment,  and  in 
IC78  he  was  made  colonel  of  foot  in  the  English 
service.  Though  there  was  no  question  of  Church- 
ill's ability,  still  the  rapidity  of  his  promotion 
was  due  also  to  the  fact  that  some  time  between 
1665  and  1668  his  sister  Arabella  had  become  the 
mistress  of  the  Duke  of  York.  .\bout  1676 
Churchill  fell  in  love  with  Sarah  .Jennings  (q.v.), 
who  was  a  lady-in-waiting  of  Princess  Anne 
(later  Queen  Anne),  and  noted  fiu'  her  imperious- 
ness  and  her  beauty.  Throughout  life  she  was  tlu' 
one  person  to  whom  Churchill  was  faithful  : 
otherwise  he  was  ever  ready  to  betray  if  it 
suited  his  interests.  The  couple  were  married 
early  in  1678,  and  thus  Churchill  gained  the 
favor  of  Princess  ,\nne,  who  was  under  the 
complete  domination  of  her  dictatorial  attend- 
ant. In  the  following  years  he  was  occasion- 
ally employed  in  diplomatic  missions  to  Hol- 
land, but  usually  he  was  in  attendance  on 
the  Duke  of  York.  In  1682  he  was  created  a 
baron.  When  in  1685  the  Duke  of  York*  as- 
cended the  throne  as  .James  TI.  Churchill  be- 
came still  more  prominent.  He  commanded  a 
body  of  troops  to  suppress  the  rebellion  of  the 


MARLBOROUGH.  78 

Duke  of  Monmouth  (q.v.),  and  liis  coolness  pre- 
vented a  serious  disaster  to  the  royal  troops  at 
bedgeuioor  (q.v.).  Churchill  was  .stronfjiy  at- 
tached to  the  English  Church,  and  his  eulogists 
have  maintained  that  he  would  not  have  betrayed 
it  under  any  circumstances.  This  may  he  douhted. 
hut  he  certainly  did  not  desert  the  cause  of  the 
Church  when  he  noticed  the  current  ot  jiuMic 
opinion  turning;  more  and  more  a^^ainst  Kini; 
James.  The  result  was  that  he  witlidrew  ijradu- 
ally  from  participation  in  the  acts  of  this  rcigii. 
and.  though  still  aUVctiiij;  loyalty  to  the  King,  lie 
began  negotiations  with  William  of  Orange,  and 
when  the  latter  landed  in  England  in  lliS8. 
Churchill  wa-<  one  of  the  first  to  go  over  to  him 
with  his  troops.  During  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  William  111.  he  was  in  liigli  favor:  in 
1080  was  made  Earl  of  Marli>orough.  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  greatly  during  the  invasion 
of  Ireland,  but  lost  all  favor  when  he  was  sus- 
pected, and  justly  so,  of  preparing  to  betray  Wil- 
liam 111.  and  aid  James  II.  to  recover  the 
throne,  of  which  he  had  helped  to  deprive  him. 
Nevertheless,  on  the  coiiimcnccMient  of  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  in  1701  Marlborough  was 
jntrustetl  by  William  III.  with  the  comnumd  of 
the  British  army  in  the  Xetlicrlands,  On  March 
8,    1702,   however,   the   King  died. 

With  the  accession  of  .\nne  began  the"  great 
epoch  of  Marlborough's  life.  Through  his  wife 
he  controlled  the  Queen,  while  the  son  of  the 
powerful  minister  (iodolphin  (q.v.)  had  in  1008 
married  his  daughter.  Thus  he  had  a  fairly  free 
hand  to  carry  out  his  great  military  exploits, 
though  the  .\llie-i.  Diitch  and  (icrmaiis,  often 
caused  dilTiculties.  The  troops  of  the  Emperor  Leo- 
pold 1.  were  commanded  by  the  great  Prince 
Eugene  (q.v.).  Marlborough,  who  had  been 
elected  also  CaptaintJeneral  of  the  Dutch  forces, 
took  conunand  in  ^lay.  1702,  and  in  December 
was  created  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  had  un- 
der him  about  10,000  English  troops,  20.000 
Dutch  troops,  and  as  many  mercenaries,  chielly 
Germans.  He  was  opposetl  by  a  Krench  army  of 
seventy-five  thousancl  men.  The  great  dangi'r  to 
the  Allies  was  that  the  French  wouhl  control  the 
Rhine  Valley,  and  thus  completely  isolate  .\us- 
tria.  In  onli'r  to  prevent  this,  Marlborough,  who 
had  l)een  conducting  a  series  of  brilliant  opera- 
tions in  the  Low  Countries,  in  the  sununer  of 
1704  made  a  rapid  march  to  Bavaria,  and  there 
joined  Prince  Eugene.  His  march  was  not  so 
marvelous  a  performance  a~  has  sometimes  Im-cii 
claimed,  but  it  enabled  the  .Mlies  to  meet  the 
French  on  equal  terms  at  Blenheim  (q.v.)  on 
.\ugilst  13,  1704.  The  battle  was  decided  when 
Marlborough,  by  a  skillful  use  of  his  cavalry, 
broke  through  the  French  centre,  and  the  enemy 
retired  in  great  confusion.  In  this  series  of 
operations,  in^tcail  of  the  old  method  of  detailed 
operations  and  sieges,  the  two  great  leader-*  hail 
concentrated  all  their  forces  in  the  important 
territfiry,  and  there  by  one  decisive  victory  had 
won  the  whole  campaign.  Xot  the  whole  credit 
of  the  succeiies  of  the  .Allies  is  due  to  Marl- 
borough, a  full  half  belonging  to  Eugene.  For 
this  victory  great  honor'*  and  pecuniary  rewards 
were  bestowed  on  Marlborough,  and  he  wa-i  made 
a  Prince  of  the  Empire  (.Austria).  (.Se<>  Hi.en- 
IIKIM  HorsK.  I  He  won  other  important  vii'tories 
during  the  war.  as  when  he  com[)elleil  the  French 
under  \'illerol  to  evacuat>'  the  whole  of  Flander» 
bv    his   victorv    at    Itamillies    on    Mav    2.'t,    I7IH«, 


MARLBOROUGH. 


and.  together  with  Eugene,  defeated  VendSme 
at  t)udenarde  on  July  11,  1708.  By  this  last 
victory  and  the  capture  of  Lille  the  road  to 
I'aris  was  opened,  but  ilarlborough  had  no  longer 
a  free  hand.  His  wife  had  had  several  quar- 
rels with  Anne,  and  the  Queen  Avas  ridding  her- 
M'lf  of  the  complete  ascendency  of  the  Duchess, 
.Moreover,  England  was  sutTering  from  the  bur- 
dens imposed  by  the  long  struggle,  and  the  Tories, 
who  opj)oscd  the  war,  were  coming  into  power. 
On  Sepfcnilicr  11,  1700.  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
won  a  doubtful  victory  at  Malplaquet,  but  it  was 
the  last  great  battle  of  the  English  general.  The 
same  year  the  Duchess  was  dismissed  by  Anne,  a 
Tory  Ministry  assumed  ollice,  and  in  1711  Marl- 
borough was  relieved  of  his  command.  His 
enemies  accused  him  of  having  embezzled  the 
|)ublic  money,  and  for  a  time  he  was  deprived  of 
Ills  ollices,  though  the  charge  was  not  pressed. 
In  his  last  years  he  was  without  influence  or 
friends,  being,  in  spite  of  his  victories,  impopu- 
lar  on  account  of  his  avaricf,  Godol[)hin  ha<l 
died  and  most  of  the  great  lords  were  his  ene- 
mies. Upon  the  accession  of  George  I.  in  1714 
he  was  made  Captain-Cieneral  and  master  of 
the  ordnance,  but  took  little  part  in  public  af- 
fairs. He  died  June  16,  1722,  leaving  a  large 
fortune, 

Marlborough  ha.s  often  been  severely  treated  by 
historians,  lie  was  unquestionably  unscrupidous 
and  avaricious.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  a  time 
when  this  was  true  of  nearly  all  public  men,  re- 
gardless of  party,  and  Marlborough  has  received 
more  blame  simply  because  he  was  more  promi- 
nent. His  military  abilities,  however,  have  never 
been  questioned.  Inlike  his  two  great  sue 
cessors,  Frederick  the  (Jrcat  and  Napoleon,  he 
was  never  entirely  unhampered.  He  was  al- 
ways compelled  to  have  regard  for  the  wishes  of 
his  allies  and  the  political  situation  in  England, 
But  he  was  the  first  since  classic  times  to  im- 
press upon  generals  the  need  of  rapidity  of  move- 
ment and  the  execution  of  campaigns  as  a  whole. 
Moreover,  he  had  the  ability,  which  only  the 
greatest  commanders  have,  to  amalgamate  the 
ditTcrcnt  elements  of  his  army,  to  become  the 
hero  of  his  soldiers.  His  campaigns  always 
showed  a  grasp  of  the  proportion  of  things.  He 
never  frittered  his  strength  away  on  details.  b\it 
waited  for  the  decisive  battle.  Among  generals, 
he  is  one  of  the  very  few  who  never  lost  a  bat- 
tle, and  never  failed  in  a  campaign. 

Consult:  Murray,  Lettrns  and  Diapnlche/t  of 
John.  Diil.r  nf  Mnrlhoroui]]!.  from  1702  to  1712 
(  "i  vols..  London,  184.t1  :  id..  Private  Correspond' 
rnre  of  thr  Piikr  tinil  niichesa  of  ilarlhoroiifjh  (2 
vols.,  London,  1838)  :  id.,  ficllrnt  nf  thr  DurhrDs 
of  Mnrtltorouijh  (London,  187,t).  The  most  com- 
plete life  is  that  of  Coxe,  .1/cnioir,?  nf  the  Duke  nf 
Marllmrniirfh  Ci  vols.,  London,  1847-48),  but  it 
is  too  partial  to  Marlborough.  A  bitter  attack  on 
Marlborough  is  in  Macaulay's  niston/ :  while  an 
impartial  character-study  is  to  be  fovind  in 
Saintsbury,  Marllinmiirih  (London,  1870).  For 
the  military  history  of  Marlborough,  and  an 
cstimat(>  of  lilm  as  a  L'cneral,  con-iult  :  Dodge,  flux- 
liiiiii!  Adolphns  and  Ihr  Tlryrlnpmrnt  nf  thr  Art 
of  \\'nr  (Boston  and  New  A'ork,  180.5)  ;  FortesciH', 
"Marlborough,"  in  From  CrnmtreU  to  Wellinfiton 
(London,  1800);  .\lison,  MilHarit  Life  of  the. 
rtiile  nf  Marlhnrniitih  (London,  1870)  :  also  gen- 
eral histories  like  Oreen,  niston/  of  the  English 
J'rnplr   (New  York.   1870). 


MARLBOROUGH  HOUSE. 


WA^RLO^f^E. 


MARLBOROUGH  HOUSE.  A  numsion  on 
(lie  r~iiutli  side  of  Pall  ilall,  London,  erected  in 
1710  by  Sir  L'lu■i^toplu■r  Wren  for  tlie  first 
Duke  of  Marlborough.  It  was  bought  by  the 
Ciovermnent  in  1817.  In  it  Princess  Charlotte 
and  her  husband.  Prince  Leopold,  and  subse- 
quently the  Queen  Dowager  Adelaide,  lived.  In 
1863  it  became  the  property  and  city  residence 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

MAR'LIN.  A  cit}'  and  the  county-seat  of 
Kails  County,  Tex.,  27  miles  southeast  of  Waco; 
at  the  junction  of  the  International  and  (ireat 
Northern  and  the  Houston  and  Texas  Central 
railroads  (Map:  Texas,  V  4).  It  is  in  a  noted 
cotton-growing  district  and  carries  on  an  im- 
portant trade  in  cotton,  grain,  and  live  stock. 
Among  the  industrial  plants  are  several  cotton 
gins,  a  cotton  compress,  and  a  large  cottonseed- 
oil  mill.  As  a  health  resort,  ilarlin  has  con- 
siderable reputation,  derived  from  its  hot  ar- 
tesian well.  SS.'jO  feet  deep,  the  waters  of  which 
liave  a  temperature  of  147°  F.  and  possess  valu- 
able medicinal  properties.  There  are  fine  hotels 
and  sanatoriums.  a  court-house,  an  opera  house, 
and  a  new  school  building  costing  $23,000.  Pop- 
ulation,  in    KS9U,   2058;    in    1900,   3092. 

MARLIN.     A  godwit   (q.v.). 

MARLING  SPIKE  (from  iiiarline.  from 
Dutch  tnarlijii,  from  nKirroi,  to  bind,  Goth. 
marzjan,  OHG.  marrjan,  dialectic  Cier.  merren, 
to  retard,  hinder,  Eng.  mrir  +  lijn,  Eng.  line), 
or  Marline  Spike.  A  ])ointed  iron  instrument, 
Tised  by  sailors  in  knotting,  splicing,  serving,  etc. 
It  is  generally  eight  to  twelve  inches  long,  about 
an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  head  and  tapering  to 
a  ])oint  at  the  other  end.  Its  chief  use  is  in 
separating  the  strands  of  rope  or  in  opening  out 
a  knot  which  is  jammed  so  tightly  that  it  cannot 
be  untied  otherwise.  In  marling  and  in  serving 
it  is  used  as  a  heaver  to  haul  the  turns  taut.  A 
large  wooden  instrument  of  the  same  general 
shape  is  termed  a  fid.  .See  the  article  Knotting 
AND  Splicing. 

MARLIN-SPIKE.  The  New  Englanil  name 
for  the  boatswain  bird    (q.v.). 

MAROilTT,  E.,  the  pseudonvm  of  Eugenie 
•  roMN  (182.5-87).  A  popular  German  novelist, 
born  December  5,  1825,  at  Arnstadt,  where  she 
died,  June  22,  1887.  Her  father  was  a  portrait 
painter:  her  patroness  was  the  Princess  of 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.  who  sent  her  to 
Vienna  to  study  music.  She  became  deaf,  lived 
for  eleven  years  at  Court,  and  then,  withdrawing 
to  Arnstadt,  began  there  her  novelistic  career. 
Die  zwolf  Apostel  (1805);  (toldeise  (1868): 
hnx  Oeheimnis  der  alien  Mamsell  (1868)  ;  Thilr- 
iiuier  Erziihhinyen  (1869);  Rrichsfirafin  (Jisela 
(1870);  neideprinzesschen  (1872);  Die  zweite 
Frail  (1874)  ;  and  other  novels  are  familiar  in 
English   translations. 

MAR'LOW,  or  CIreat  Marlow.  A  mnnici- 
l)al  borough  in  Buckinghamsliire,  England,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Thames,  31  miles  north- 
west of  London  (Map:  England,  F  5).  It  is  a 
picturesque  fishing  resort.  Here  Shelley  wrote 
the  Revolt  of  Islam.  It  has  manufactures  of 
silk,  lace,  and  paper.  Population  (urban  dis- 
trict), in   1901,  4526. 

MARLOW.  In  Goldsmith's  She  Stoops  to 
Conquer,  a  man  of  great  modesty  with  virtuous 
women  of  station  and  vei-y  free  "with  women  of 
another  class.     He  mistakes  Hardcastle's  house 


for  an  inn.  and  makes  love  to  Miss  Hardcastle, 
supposing  her  to  be  the  barmaid. 

MARLOWE,  mar'lo,  CnRisTOPliER  (1564- 
93).  A  great  English  dranuitist,  the  most  im- 
portant of  Shakespeare's  predecessors,  and  in 
some  sense  his  master.  He  was  born  at  Canter- 
bury, jirobably  in  February,  1564,  and  educated 
at  the  King's  School  there  and  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1583. 
Here  he  made  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the 
Latin  classics,  and  translated  Ovid's  Amores  into 
English  verse.  His  life  after  leaving  Cambridge 
is  hard  to  trace  in  detail.  It  seems  to  have  been 
S[)cnt  chiefly  in  London  and  to  have  been  char- 
acterized by  a  revolt  against  conventional  moral- 
ity and  established  religion  which  makes  its 
close  in  a  drunken  brawl  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine 
an  unhappily  fitting  climax.  His  reputation  for 
heresy  and  irreligion  (possibly  grounded  origi- 
nally on  his  association  with  his  old  Cambridge 
tutor.  Francis  Kett,  who  was  burned  as  a  heretic 
at  Norwich  in  1589)  had  caused  a  warrant  for 
his  arrest  to  be  issued  a  few  days  before  he  thus 
passed  beyond  the  jurisidiction  of  the  Privy 
Council.  It  is  pleasanter  to  dwell  on  his  inter- 
course with  the  chief  men  of  letters  in  his  time, 
including  Kyd,  Nash,  Greene,  Chapman,  Ral- 
eigh, and  probably  Shakespeare.  Whatever  his 
life  may  have  been,  there  can  be  no  question  of 
the  magnificence  of  his  genius  and  the  far-reach- 
ing influence  which  he  had  upon  the  development 
of  the  English   drama. 

Not  only  did  he  establish  the  iambic  pentam- 
eter as  the  recognized  vehicle  for  serious  drama, 
but  he  made  it  something  more  than  it  had 
been  in  various  experiments  since  Corboduo 
(1562).  The  metre  became  a  living  thing  in 
his  hand;  by  skillful  variation  of  pause  and 
accent,  by  the  swift  and  smooth  carrying  along  of 
the  thought  from  line  to  line,  it  grew  to  be  that 
blank  verse  which  Jlilton  perfected  into  one  of 
tile  glories  of  English  poetry.  But  his  work  was 
wider  than  this.  Drop]iing  the  imitation  of 
Seneca  which  had  been  trying  to  naturalize  itself 
in  England,  he  struck  out  boldly  to  create  Eng- 
lish tragedy  by  the  laws  of  his  own  genius.  Tlie 
prologue  to  Tomhiirlnine  contains  what  is  really 
a  manifesto,  not  only  promising  to  lead  his  audi- 
ence away 

From  jig:gin^  veiiiH  of  rliyniin^-  iiiotlipr-wits 

by  his  blank  verse,  but  proclaiming  a  doctrine  of 
unity  far  more  healthful  than  the  classical  tradi- 
tion which  was  endeavoring  to  impose  itself  upon 
England — the  unity  which  comes  from  centring 
the  action  about  one  great  passion,  one  mighty 
character.  Great  as  was  the  age.  stupendous  as 
were  its  flights  beyond  what  had  been  thought 
the  uttermost  limits  of  the  possible.  Marlowe  is 
able  to  keep  up  with  them,  to  find  for  them  the 
'high  astounding  terms'  which  lend  his  tragedies 
such  sublimity.  In  humor  he  was  deficient:  his 
touch  is  not  always  sure,  and  in  his  search 
for  effect  he  sometimes  overleaps  himself  and 
falls  into  bathos;  but  as  a  daring  pioneer  he 
won.  and  now  more  than  ever,  since  Lamb  and 
Ilazlitt  restored  him  to  his  place,  keeps  a  rank 
among  the  very  highest.  It  is  hard  to  set  limits 
to  what  he  might  have  been  had  his  life  been 
prolonged;  but  after  all  his  achievement  is  ample 
in  that  he  made  Shakespeare  possible.  After 
Tamhurhiine  (?1587;  printed  1590),  comes  prob- 
abl}'  the   first  dramatic  rendering  of  the  Faust 


MARLOWE.  80 

legend  in  iJuclor  I'liiislus  (?1589;  printed 
1604)  ;  The  Jew  of  Malta,  specially  noteworthy 
for  its  relation  to  the  llcrcliant  of  Venice 
(?15S9:  printed  1G33)  ;  his  most  successful  at- 
tempt at  English  historical  drama,  Edward  II. 
CAa^i:  printed  1594).  The  probable  sources 
of  Marlowe's  important  plays  may  Ix'  indi- 
cated here.  In  his  Tamhurlainc  he  seems  to 
have  relied  mainly  on  Fortescue's  translation 
(1571)  of  Pedro  Mexias's  Spanish  life  of 
Timur  (1543).  supplemented  by  hints  from 
the  Vita  Magni  Tamerlanis  of  Perondino 
(1551).  Doctor  Faust  us  was  based  on  a  story 
familiar  enough  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  used  in 
a  variant  form  by  Calderon  in  AV  .l/o;;iVo  Prodi- 
gioso:  its  earliest  literary  form  appeared  at 
Frankfort  in  1587.  and  was  soon  translated  into 
English  as  The  History  of  the  Damnable  Life 
and  Deserved  Death  of  Dr.  .John  Faustus.  Tlie 
source  of  The  .Jew  of  Malta  is  unknown,  but 
Symonds  conjectures  that  it  was  taken  from  a 
Spanish  novel.  For  Edward  II.,  like  Shake- 
si>eare.  he  makes  free  use  of  the  chronicles 
of  Stowe  and  Holinshcd.  with  some  slight  indebt- 
edness to  Fabyan.  Tn  other  works  lie  collaborated 
with  Xash.  and  possibly  with  Sliakespeare.  a 
share  in  at  least  the  second  and  third  parts  of 
Henry  17.  being  plausibly  attributed  to  him. 
Of  his  non-ilramalic  work  the  most  impor- 
tant things  are  his  unfinished  paraphrase  of 
the  Bero  and  Leander  of  Musseus,  and  the  famous 
lyric,  "Come  live  with  me  and  be  my  love."  Con- 
sult his  Works,  ed.  by  Dyee  (3  vols.,  London, 
1850)  :  by  Bullcn  (3  vols.^  Boston,  1885)  ;  four 
plays,  ed.  by  Ellis,  with  an  introduction  by  Sy- 
monds. in  the  "Mermaid  Series"  (London.  1887)  ; 
also  Symonds.  fthakespeare's  Predecessors  (ib., 
1884)  ;"  Ward,  History  of  English  Dramatic  Lit- 
erature (2d  ed..  ib..  1899);  TvCwis.  Christopher 
Marlowe  (ib..  1891)  ;  Verity,  Marlowe's  Influence 
on  Shakespeare  (ib.,  1886)  ;  Fischer,  Zur  Charuc- 
teristik  lUr  Itnimen  Marlowcs  (Jlunich.  1889). 

MARLOWE,  .Til.TA  (1870—).  \n  .\merican 
actress,  born  near  Keswick.  England,  .■\ugust  17, 
1870,  her  real  name  being  Sarah  Frances  Frost. 
She  came  with  her  parents  to  this  country  when 
five  years  old.  Her  later  childhood  was  passed 
in  Cincinnati,  where  at  the  age  of  twelve  she 
began  her  <lraniatic  experienies  in  a  juvenile 
opera  company.  Four  years  afterwards  she  be- 
gan seriously  to  study  for  the  stage  and  in  1887 
she  appeared  in  New  York,  but  it  was  in  Boston, 
in  December,  1888,  that  she  won.  as  Parthenia  in 
Ingomar,  an  assured  place  as  a  star.  She  is  an 
actress  of  unusual  personal  charm,  and  soon  be- 
came a  popular  favorite  in  a  variety  of  ri5les, 
especially  as  \'inla  in  Twelfth  yight  and  as  Rosa- 
lind in  .l.-t  Vol/  Like  It.  In  1894  she  was  married 
to  Robert  Taber.  with  whom  for  a  time  she 
played,  but  they  separated,  and  in  1899  were 
divorced.  Among  Aliss  Marlowe's  successes  in 
modern  plays  may  be  mentioned  her  Highland 
Mary  in  For  Bonnie  Prince  Charlie  (1897); 
Barbara  Frietchie  in  Clyde  Fitch's  play  of  that 
name  (1899);  and  Charlotte  Puraiid  in  the 
dramatization  of  Cable's  Cavalier  (1902).  Con- 
sult: McKav  and  Wingate,  Famous  .imrrican 
Actors  of  ToDay  (New  York.  1896)  ;  Strang. 
Famous  .ietresses  of  the  Day  in  .imeriea  (Bos- 
ton. 1 899). 

MAR'MADUKE,  .Tonx  Sappinoton  (1833- 
87).  .\n  .\nierican  soldier,  born  near  .Arrow 
Rock,  Mo.     He  studied  for  two  years  at   Yale 


MARMION. 


and  for  one  at  Harvard,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1857,  and  saw  service  in  the  West,  participat- 
ing in  the  L'tah  expedition.  On  April  17,  18G1, 
he  entered  the  Confederate  Army  as  first  lieu- 
tenant, though  almost  inmiediately  promoted  to 
be  lieutenant-colonel.  In  1862  as  colonel  of  an 
Arkansas  regiment  he  bore  the  guiding  colors 
at  Shiloh  and  captured  the  first  prisoners.  He 
was  seriously  woimded  on  the  second  day,  and 
while  recovering  was  recommended  for  promotion 
to  brigadier-general.  During  1SI>3  he  was  in 
Missouri  and  defeated  the  Federal  forces  at 
Taylor's  Creek.  He  commanded  tlie  cavalry  at 
Price's  defense  of  Little  Rock  and  here  fought  a 
duel,  killing  Gen.  L.  M.  Walker.  The  next  year 
he  was  promoted  to  be  major-general  and  led 
one  of  the  three  columns  in  General  Price's  Mis- 
souri raid,  was  taken  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  was 
held  until  after  the  close  of  hostilities.  He  then 
engaged  in  the  commission  and  insurance  busi- 
ness for  sever;il  years,  was  editor  of  several 
papeis  in  1871-74,  and  was  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  in  1874.  From  1875  to 
1880  he  was  a  railroad  commissioner.  In  1884 
he  was  elected  Governor  of  Missouri  and  died  in 
ollice. 

MARMANDE,  raar'mii.xd'.  The  capital  of 
an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Lot-et- 
Garonne,  France,  40  miles  southeast  of  Bordeaux, 
on  the  (iaronne  River  (ilap:  France.  G  7).  Its 
only  interesting  feature  is  the  parish  church,  a 
thirteenth-century  Gothic  edifice.  Marmande  is 
situated  in  a  region  extensively  engaged  in  agri- 
culture and  the  cultivation  of  the  vine.  Popula- 
tion, in  1901.  9873. 

MARMAROS-SZIGET,  miir'mo-r.'.sh  si'gSt. 
iir  M.vHAMAiios.SzicKT.  A  town  of  Xortheastem 
Hungary,  caiiital  of  the  County  of  Marmaros. 
It  is  beautifully  situated  on  theTheiss  and  at  the 
base  of  the  wooded  Carpathians.  225  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Budapest.  It  has  important  salt 
mines  worked  from  ancient  times  ami  still  giving 
a  large  output.  There  are  also  steam  sawmills 
and  trade  in  lumber.  Population,  in  1890,  14.- 
7.j8:    in    1900.    17.445. 

MARMIER,  nmr'mya',  Xavier  (1809-92).  A 
French  autlior.  born  in  Pontarlier.  He  trav- 
eled extensively  in  Switzerland.  Holland,  and 
Germany.  In  1835  he  was  attached  to  the  scien- 
tific voyage  of  the  Recherche  to  the  Arctic  Sea, 
at  which  time  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the 
Danish,  Swedish,  and  Finnish  languages.  On 
his  return  in  1839  he  was  made  professor  of  for- 
eign literature  at  Rennes,  and  two  years  later 
received  a  sinecure  under  the  Minister  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction.  In  1842-49  he  was  again  travel- 
ing, everywhere  studying  languages,  idioms,  and 
literature.  His  numerous  works  include  narra- 
tives of  his  journeys  and  translations  from  the 
German  and  Scandinavian,  such  as  Hisloire  de 
la  litterature  en  Danemark  et  en  Hui'de  (1839)  ; 
Du  Rhin  au  XH  (1846)  ;  Toi/age  piltoresque  en 
Allemagne  (18.58-i59):  Cimaro.w  (1867);  and 
Cnntcs  rus.ies  (1889).  Consult  the  Life  bv  Esti- 
gnanl   (1893). 

MARMIOIT.  .\  metrical  romance  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott  (1808).  Lord  Marmion.  a  messen- 
ger from  Henry  VIII.  to  .Tames  IV.  of  Scotland, 
was  conducted  on  part  of  his  journey  by  a 
palmer,  who  proved  to  be  De  Wilton,  supposed 
to  have  been  killed  by  Marmion.  The  latter 
is  killed   in  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field,  after 


MABMION. 


81 


MABMOKA. 


which   De  Wilton   ixcovercd  his  betrothed,   Lady 
Chile. 

MAR'MION",  SiiACKERLEY  (1603  30).  An 
English  dramatist,  educated  at  Wadhani  College, 
0.\ford,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  11)22  and 
M.A.  in  1G24.  After  trying  his  fortune  in  the 
Low  Countries,  he  settled  in  London.  There  he 
heeanie  associated  with  Ben  Jonson,  Heywood, 
and  other  literary  men.  He  accompanied  Sir 
.Iiihn  Suckling  on  the  showy  expedition  to  Scot- 
laiid  ( 1038) .  Falling  ill  at'Vork.  lie  was  brought 
back  to  London  to  die.  llarmion  made  a  verse 
paraphrase  of  the  Cupid  and  Psyche  of  Apuleius 
(1G37),  which  was  greatly  admired  by  his  con- 
temporaries. It  was  reprinted  by  S.  \V.  Singer 
in  1820.  For  the  Court,  Marmion  wrote  several 
comedies,  which  are  still  interesting.  They  com- 
prise Holland's  Lear/iicr  (performed  1632)  ;  A 
Fine  Companion  (printed  1633)  ;  The  Antiquary 
(performed  1636).  Consult  his  Dramatic  WorJ;s, 
ed.  by  Maidment  and  Logan   (Edinburgh,  1875). 

MARMOL,  mar-m5l',  Jose  (e.1818-71).  A 
South  American  poet  and  patriot,  born  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  As  Deputy  and  Senator  for  his 
native  province,  he  took  so  firm  a  stand  for  the 
rights  of  the  people  that  he  was  banished  by 
Rosas.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  dictator 
Marniol  was  again  Senator  for  Buenos  Ayres 
and  had  charge  of  the  National  Library  until  he 
lost  his  eyesight.  In  1856  he  published  Pere- 
f/rino  and  Armotiias,  then  two  plays,  El  cru- 
'^ado  (18G0)  and  El  poeta  (1862),  and  La  Ama- 
lia  (1866),  an  historical  romance  of  the  period 
of  Rosas's  control  of  Buenos  Ayres.  After 
his  death  some  of  his  poems  and  dramas  were 
collected  and  published  in  Paris  under  the  title 
Obras  poeticas  y  dramuticas  de  Jos6  Marmol 
(1875). 

MARMONT,  mar'moN',  Auguste  Fr£:d£ric 
Louis  Viesse  de,  Duke  of  Ragusa  (1774-1852). 
A  marshal  of  France,  born  July  20,  1774,  at 
Chatillon  -  sur  -  Seine.  He  entered  the  French 
Army  in  1791  and  was  rapidly  promoted.  He 
met  Bonaparte  at  Toulon,  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Italian  campaign,  particularly  at  Lodi 
and  Castiglione,  and  later  accompanied  Bona- 
parte to  Egy])t,  where  he  became  brigadier-gen- 
eral. On  returning  to  France  Marmont  sup- 
ported Napoleon  in  the  coup  d'ftat  of  the 
eighteenth  Brumaire,  and  afterwards  continued 
in  active  military  service.  After  the  battle  of 
Marengo  (1800)  he  was  made  a  general  of  divi- 
sion. In  1801  he  was  inspector-general-in-chief 
of  artillery,  and  in  1805  he  was  made  command- 
ant of  the  army  in  Holland.  His  services  in 
defending  the  Ragusan  territory  against  the 
Russians  and  Montenegrins  in  1806-07  won  him 
his  title,  of  Duke  of  Ragusa.  After  the  battle  of 
Wagrani  (1809)  he  was  intrusted  with  tlie  pur- 
suit of  the  enemy,  and  after  the  battle  of  Znaim 
he  was  made  a  marshal.  He  was  thereafter  for 
eighteen  months  Governor  of  the  lUyrian  prov- 
inces, and  in  1811  succeeded  Mass^na  in  the  chief 
command  in  the  Peninsula,  where  he  assumed  the 
offensive,  and  kept  Wellington  in  check  for  fifteen 
months,  but  was  eventually  defeated  in  the  battle 
of  Salamanca  (July  22,  1812).  A  wound  com- 
pelled him  to  retire  to  France.  In  1813  he  fought 
at  the  battles  of  Liitzen,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden. 
He  maintained  the  contest  with  great  spirit  in 
France  in  the  beginning  of  1814:  and  it  was  not 
until  further  resistance  was  hopeless  that  he  con- 


cluded a  truce  with  Prince  ScliwarzenlK-rg.  which 
was  followed  by  the  abdication  of  Najioleon.  The 
Bourbons  at  first  loaded  Marmont  with  honors 
and  distinction.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon  from 
Elba  Marmont  was  excluded  from  the  general 
amnesty,  and  he  fled  to  Aix-la-Chapelle.  After 
the  second  Restoration  he  spent  much  of  his 
time  in  agricultural  pursuits,  till  the  Revolution 
of  1830,  when.,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops, 
he  attempted  in  vain  to  put  down  tlie  insurrec- 
tion, and  finally  retreating  with  6000  Swiss,  and 
a  few  battalions  that  had  continued  faithful  to 
Charles  X.,  conducted  him  across  the  frontier. 
From  that  time  he  resided  chiefiy  in  Vienna.  He 
died  in  Venice,  JIarch  2,  1852.  He  was  the 
last  survivor  of  the  marshals  of  the  first  French 
Empire.  His  Memoires  (9  vols.,  1856-57)  are 
valuable  for  the  history  of  his  time.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  Voiiage  en  Hongrie  (1837)  and 
Esprit  des  institutions  militaires   (1845). 

MARMONTEI/,  miir'moN'tiel',  Antoine  Fran- 
cois (1816-98).  A  French  pianist,  born  at  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Puy-de-Donie.  He  studied  in  1828- 
32  at  the  Paris  Conservatory,  where  he  returned 
to  teach  in  1836,  and  in  1848  succeeded  his 
former  master,  Zimmermann,  as  pianoforte  pro- 
fessor. He  published  three  books  of  piano 
studies,  besides  sonatas,  nocturnes,  serenades, 
minuets,  reveries,  and  mazurkas,  and  his  literary 
productions  are:  Art  classique  et  moderne  du 
piano  (1876)  ;  Elements  d'eS'thrPtque  musicale  et 
considerations  sur  le  beau  dans  les  arts  (1884)  ; 
and  Histoire  du  piano  et  de  ses  origines   (1885). 

MARMONTEL,  Jean  Francois  (1723-99). 
A  French  dramatist,  novelist,  and  critic,  born  at 
Bort,  .Inly  11,  1723,  best  known  for  two  series  of 
Contcs  ntoraux  (1761-S6).  and  the  moralizing 
novels  Belisairc  ( 1767  )  and  Les  Incas  (  1777  ) .  He 
studied  for  the  Church,  but  was  attracted  to  let- 
ters by  the  patronage  of  Voltaire,  went  to  Paris 
(1745),  became  a  journalist,  and  won  some  suc- 
cess by  his  tragedies:  Diniis  le  ti/ran  (1748) 
and  Aristomrne  (1749).  In  1753  a  sinecure 
office  attached  him  to  the  Court  at  Versailles. 
During  1758  and  1759  he  edited  the  Mercure. 
He  was  imprisoned  ten  days  in  the  Bastille  for 
political  .satire  in  1760,  was  elected  to  tlie  Acad- 
einy  in  1763,  and  made  its  permanent  secretary  in 
1783.  His  numerous  contributions  to  tlie  Encg- 
clopidie(see  Didebot)  were  collected  as  Elements 
de  littfrature  in  1787.  He  wrote  also  Memoires 
and  a  treatise  on  French  versification  (1763). 
Marmontel's  Worlcs  were  edited  by  himself  in  17 
volumes,  to  which  14  were  subsequently  added. 
Thev  have  been  reedited  bv  Villeneuve  (Paris, 
1819-20),  and  Saint-Surin '( ib..  1824-27).  The 
Memoires  are  best  edited  by  Tourneux  (Paris, 
1891).  Consult  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  du  lundi, 
vol.  iv.    (Paris,  1857-62). 

MARMORA,  mar'm6-ra.  Sea  op  (anciently 
Propontis  ) .  A  small  sea  between  European  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  communicating  with  the  ^Egean 
Sea  by  the  Strait  of  the  Dardanelles  (anciently 
Hellespont) .  and  with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Strait 
of  Constantinople  (anciently  Bosporus)  (Jlap: 
Turkey  in  Europe.  G  4).  It  is  of  an  oval  form, 
140  miles  in  length  by  45  miles  in  breadth,  and 
the  eastern  shore  is  indented  by  the  two  large 
gulfs  of  Ismid  and  Injir  Liman  fMudania).  The 
depth  is  generally  over  600  feet,  and  in  some 
places  reaches  over  4000.  There  is  a  current  run- 
ning through  it  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the.-'Egean. 


MABMOSA. 


82 


Its  navigation  is  not  difficult  and  it  is  a  great 
avenue  of  conimerce.  It  contains  many  islands, 
of  which  the  largest  is  Marmora  or  iMarniara, 
famous   for  its  marble  quarries. 

MARMOSET  (OF.  marmoset,  marmoiisct,  Vv. 
mannousvt,  puppet,  from  JIL.  muniioiitiini, 
marble  figure,  from  Lat.  marmor,  tik.  napfiapoi, 
marmaros,  marble,  from  impimlpuv,  mnrmaircin, 
to  sparkle).  One  of  the  small  :uul  jirptty  Ameri- 
can monkeys  of  the  family  Hapa!id;c.  These  lit- 
tle creatures  are  distinguished  from  all  other 
American  monkeys  by  several  features  besides 
their  diminutive  size,  long  hind  legs,  Umg  fur, 
and  penciled  ears.  Their  dentition  is  like  that 
of  the  Old  World  monkeys  in  that  it  comprises 
only  'i'i  teeth,  without  the  four  "wisdom'  molars 
possessed  by  the  t'ebidae.  (See  Mo.nkky.  I  Their 
thumbs  are  not  opposable,  their  nails  are  in  the 
form  of  claws.,  and  their  tails  (which  are  lung 
and  bushy)  are  not  prehensile.  These  and  other 
characters  place  them  at  the  foot  of  the  scale 
of  the  monkeys,  and  next  to  the  lemurs.  They 
are  arboreal  in  habits  and  climb  about  in  small 
parties  in  search  of  fruit  and  in.sects,  much  as 
squirrels  do;  and  they  habitually  produce  two  or 
three  young  at  a  birth  instead  of  one,  as  is  usual 
with  higher  monkeys.  Two  genera  are  estab- 
lished, one  the  typical  marmosets  or  "ouistitis' 
(Hapale).  and  the  other  the  silky  marmusets  or 
'tamarins'  (Midas).  Of  the  former,  the  com- 
mon ouistiti  (Hapale  jacchus)  of  Brazil  is  a 
familiar  pet  throughout 
tropical  .America,  and  is 
often  brought  to  the  United 
States  or  taken  to  Europe, 
but  rarely  survives  even  the 
first  northern  winter.  It  is 
not  larger  than  a  half-grown 
kitten,  and  is  usually  black- 
ish, with  the  hack  and  thighs 
banded  with  gray,  and  two  great  tufts  of  hair 
on  the  ears  pure  white;  the  tail  is  ringed  with 
black  and  gray.  Several  other  sjiecics  and  va- 
rieties are  known,  some  of  which  arc  varicolored, 
and  others  pure  white.  The  smallest,  and  one 
of  the  most  widely  distributed,  is  only  seven 
inches  long. 

The  tamarins  or  marmosets  of  the  genus  Midas 
differ  in  ilentition  and  also  in  the  absence  of 
tufts  on  the  ears,  and  the  rings  of  color  on  the 
tail.  Like  the  others,  they  are  eonunon  jx-ts  in 
South  and  Central  .Xmerica,  and  some  kinds 
stray  as  far  north  as  Central  Mexico.  Several 
species  are  well  known,  especially  the  negro 
tainarin  i  Midiis  iirxiiliix)  of  the  lower  .\maziiM 
Valley;  the  queer  little  pinche  (Miilns  fT-V/i/ii/.s) 
of  the  Isthmus,  which  has  a  great  growth  of 
white  hair  on  the  bead;  and  the  silky  marmoset, 
or  "marikina'  I  Midnx  rnmilin),  which  is  clothed 
in  long  silky  hair  of  a  golilen  hue;  this  hair 
forms  a  long  mane  on  the  head  and  neck,  giving 
the  name  'lion  monkey'  to  some  varieties.  This 
species  is  often  seen  in  menageries,  and  is  a 
common  pet  in  its  own  country.  Consult  authori- 
ties mentioned  under  MoxkeV;  especially  Hates, 
.•t  ynturalim  tin  Ihr  Hirer  .ImnroH  (London, 
1802).     See  Plate  of  .American  Monkey.s. 

MARMOT  (Fr.  mnrmotlr,  from  Tt.  mnrmotta. 
mnrnifiiilinifi.  frpm  Rumanian  murmnni,  from 
OH<i.  murmuulo.  Oer.  Vtirmrl,  from  ML.  iiii/.i 
monlanun.  mountain  mn\i«e.  nmrniot).  A  genus 
of   rodents    (Aretomys)    of   the   ground   squirrel 


UE.N'TITION  or  THE 
MABM08ET8. 


MARNIAN  EPOCH. 

family.  They  resemble  squirrels  in  their  denti- 
tion, although  in  their  form  and  habits  they  more 
resemble  rats  and  mice.  The  animal  to  which  the 
term  (now  little  used)  was  first  applied  was  the 
common  species  (Arctumys  alpimis)  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Kurope.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit, 
grayish  yellow,  brown  toward  the  head.  It  feeds 
on  roots,  leaves,  insects,  and  the  like,  is  gregari- 
ous, and  often  lives  in  large  societies.  It  digs 
large  burrows  with  several  chambers  and  two 
entrances,  generally  on  the  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains, where  the  marmots  may  be  seen  sporting 
and  basking  in  the  siuishine  during  the  fine 
weather  of  suunncr.  They  spend  the  winter  in 
their  burrows,  in  one  chamber  of  which  is  a  store 
of  dried  grass;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  winter 
is  [xisscd  in  torpiditj-.  The  alpine  marmot  is 
easily  tamed.  These  features  and  habits  are 
characteristic  of  the  group.  A  half  dozen  other 
species  occur  in  Europe.  Asia,  and  North  Amer- 
ica. The  best  known  American  species  are  the 
woodcbuik  and  its  larger  relative  of  the  Rocky 
.\l(MnilMiri>.     See  WiIISTLEK;   WooDCIIlCK. 

MARMOUSETS,  miir'moo'za'  (Fr.,  little 
men).  .\  name  given  in  contempt  to  the  coun- 
cilors of  t  liarlcs  \'.  and  Charles  VI.  of  France 
(q.v. ).  They  were  for  the  most  part  members  of 
the  lesser  nobility  or  of  the  citizen  cla.ss  and 
were  despised  by  his  uncles,  who  governed  the 
kingdom  during  the  minority  of  Charles. 

MARNE,  niiirn  (Lat.  Malrona).  A  river  of 
Franci'.  llic  principal  tributary  of  the  Seine 
(Map:  France,  K  2).  It  rises  in  the  Plateau 
of  Lungrcs,  tlijws  first  northwest,  then  westward, 
with  iii;iny  windings  througli  the  departments  of 
llautc-.\l;irne.  .\Iarne,  .Visiic,  ;uul  Seine-et-.Marne, 
passes  CbauiMont,  Saint-Dizier,  CliAloiis,  I'^pernay, 
and  Mcaux.  and  joins  the  Seine  at  Charenton, 
about  four  miles  above  Paris.  Its  length  is  .'ViS 
miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  221!  miles  to  Saint- 
Dizier.  It  is  a  rather  rapid  stream,  supplying 
power  to  a  number  of  mills.  Its  large  trallie  has 
been  extended  by  means  of  canals,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  the  Marne-Rhine  Canal,  which 
extends  lil5  miles  from  Vitry  to  Strasshurg.  pass- 
ing Ihniugh  several  tunnels. 

MARNE.  .\n  inland  department  in  the  north- 
cast  iif  France,  part  of  the  old  Province  of 
Champagiu'.  extending  southward  from  the  fron- 
tier dep:irtinent  of  .\rdennes  (Map:  Fr;inie.  K 
3).  Area,  .31:>!)  sqiiarc  miles.  The  department 
is  traversed  by  the  Marne  River.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile  in  the  south,  but  chalky  and  arid  in 
the  north;  on  this  dry  and  chalky  soil,  however, 
the  best  grapes  for  champagne  wine  are  grown, 
•■specially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kpernay  and 
.\vizc  and  between  the  M;irne  and  the  Veslc. 
Cotton,  niet:il.  and  woolen  manufactures  are 
largelv  I'lirried  on.  Capitiil.  ChAlons.  Popula- 
tion, in  ISltC,  4,3n,.i77;    in  1901.  4,32,882. 

MARNE,  H.M'TE.  A  department  of  Friince. 
Sei'  II.M  tk-Mahnk. 

MAR'NIAN  EPOCH.  The  name  applied  to 
the  second  Iron  .\ge.  or  culture  stage  of  Europe. 
It  is  so  {'ailed  from  the  I>epartment  of  Marne, 
in  Northeastern  France;  also  termed  La  T?ne 
Period,  from  a  station  of  that  name  in  Switzer- 
land. It  lasted  until  the  first  century  n.c.  in 
France.  Rohemia,  and  England,  and  until  the 
tenth  century  A.n.  in  Scandinavia.  Tt  corre- 
sponds with  the  late  Celtic  of  English  areh.ToIo- 
gists.     The  Marnian  or  La  T&ne  culture  probably 


MABNIAN  EPOCH. 


83 


MARONITES. 


came   to   Western    Kurope    through   Greece   and 
lllyria. 

MABrNIX,  niiir'niks,  Philip  van.  Baron 
Sainte-AI(lcf,'onde  (Ir)38-!I8).  A  Flemish  states- 
man and  writer,  boru  at  Brussels.  He  studied 
theology  at  (ieneva  and  returned  to  his  native 
country  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Hefornied  re- 
ligion and  a  sworn  foe  of  the  Spanish  Government 
and  the  Inquisition.  Upon  the  appointment  of 
the  Duke  of  Alva  to  the  governorship  of  the 
Netherlands  (1567)  Marnix  sought  refuge  in 
Germany.  He  shared  in  the  labors  of  William  of 
Orange,"  who,  in  1572,  sent  him  as  his  repre- 
sentative to  the  first  meeting  of  the  Estates  of 
Holland  at  Dordrecht.  After  a  year's  captiv- 
ity in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards  he  entered 
upon  an  active  diplomatic  career  as  representa- 
tive of  the  Protestant  provinces  at  Paris  and 
London,  and  in  1578  at  the  Diet  of  Worms.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Union  of  Utreeht.  (See  Netiieri,.\M)S.)  In  1583 
he  Iw'came  burgomaster  of  Antwerp,  and.  after 
a  siege  of  over  a  year,  was  forced  to  surrender 
the  city  to  Alexander  of  Parma  (1585).  There- 
after he  took  little  share  in  political  life.  His 
writings  in  prose  and  verse  form  a  part  of  the 
classic  literature  of  the  Netherlands.  Of  these 
the  most  important  are:  De  roomsche  hyen- 
korf,  a  satire:  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
Psalms,  and  Wilhehiius  van  Nassoiiire.  which  has 
become  one  of  the  national  hymns  of  the  Nether- 
lands. His  works  were  published  at  Brussels  in 
seven  volumes  ( 1855-57  ) .  Consult  .Juste,  Vie  de 
Marnix  dc  flainte-Aldegonde   (Brussels,  1858). 

MARNO,  mar'nA,  Ernst  (1844-8.3).  A  Ger- 
man explorer  of  Western  Africa.  He  was  born  at 
Vienna,  and  in  18G6  went  to  Abyssinia.  Three 
years  later  he  traveled  to  Khartum,  then  south 
to  Fadasi,  and  in  1871  and  1872  explored  the 
upper  course  of  the  White  Nile.  In  1874  he 
joined  Gordon,  who  in  1878  put  him  in  command 
of  the  District  of  Galabat.  where  he  did  much  to 
suppress  the  slave  trade.  He  died  in  Khartum. 
He  wrote  Reisen  im  GeMet  des  ireisscn  und 
blaven  Mil  (1874),  and  Reise  in  der  agyptischen 
Aequatorialprovinz  und  in  Kordofan  in  den  Jah- 
ren  /S7-',-7fi  (1878). 

MAROCCO.   ma-r6k'6.     See  Morocco. 

MABOCHETTI,  ma'ro-ket'te.  Carlo,  Baron 
(1805-08).  A  French  sculptor.  He  was  born 
at  Turin,  studied  under  Basio,  in  Paris, 
and  resided  at  Rome  from  1822-30.  In  1827  he 
received  a  medal  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  for 
his  "Girl  Playing  with  a  Dog."  His  first  im- 
portant work  was  a  statue  of  Emmanuel  Phili- 
bert  of  Savoy  at  Turin,  which  he  presented  to 
his  native  city,  in  recognition  of  which  service 
he  was  made  a  baron.  He  subsequently  returned 
to  Paris.  The  most  important  of  his  works  at 
Paris  include:  "Battle  of  .Temappes."  a  relief 
upon  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  de  I'Etoile ;  a  monu- 
ment to  Bellini  in  Pf're-la-Chaise  Cemetery:  and 
the  high  altar  of  the  Church  of  the  Madeleine. 
He  received  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1839.  In 
consequence  of  the  revolution  of  1S48  he  emi- 
grated to  England.  At  the  Great  Exhibition  of 
1851  he  exhibited  a  colossal  equestrian  statiie  of 
RicharxJ  Ceenr  de  Lion,  which  was  placed  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Crystal  Palace  and  was  cast  in 
bronze  by  national  subscription.  His  other 
works  in  England  include:  An  equestrian  statue 
of  the  Queen  and  of  Wellington,  for  Glasgow;    a 


portrait  bust  of  Prince  Albert;  a  statue  of 
Lord  Clyde,  in  Saint  James  Park,  and  that  of 
Thackeray  in  Westminster  Abbey.  He  was  made 
an  Academician  in  1800.  He  died,  near  Paris, 
.lanuary   4,    1808. 

MARONI,  ma'ro-ne'  (Dutch  Marowijnc).  A 
river  forming  the  boundary  between  Dutch  and 
French  Guiana  (Map:  South  America,  G  2). 
It  rises  in  the  Tumue  Humac  Mountains  on  the 
frontier  of  Brazil,  and  Hows  northward  through 
a  densely  forested  region,  falling  in  a  number  of 
cascades  over  the  successive  escarpments  of  the 
terraced  plateau.  It  enters  the  Atlantic  after  a 
course  of  425  miles.  Below  the  last  cascade,  40 
miles  from  its  mouth,  it  is  a  wide,  deep,  and 
beautiful  stream,  connected  with  the  estuary  of 
the  Surinam  by  the  navigable  Cottica  Creek 
running  parallel  with  the  coast. 

MAR'ONITES.  A  Christian  sect  of  Syria,  of 
very  ancient  origin.  The  most  probable  ac- 
count represents  them  as  descendants  of  a 
remnant  of  the  Monothelite  sect  (see  MoNO- 
thelitism)  wlio,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth 
century,  settled  on  the  slopes  of  the  Lebanon, 
their  chief  seats  being  around  the  monastery 
of  Maron,  a  saint  of  the  fourth  century, 
whose  life  is  found  in  Theodoret's  Religious  His- 
tories (iii.  p.  1222).  The  emigrants  are  said  to 
have  elected  as  their  chief  and  patriarch  a  monk 
of  the  same  name,  with  the  title  of  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  and,  throughout  the  political  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  succeeding  centuries,  to  have  main- 
tained themselves  in  a  certain  independence 
among  the  Moslem  conquerors.  In  the  twelfth 
century,  on  the  establishment  of  the  Latin  King- 
dom of  Jerusalem,  the  Maronites  abandoned 
their  distinctive  monothelite  opinions,  and  rec- 
ognized the  authority  of  the  Roman  Church.  In 
1445  they  entered  into  a  formal  act  of  union  with 
Rome.  In  1584  a  college  was  founded  in  Rome  by 
Gregory  XIII.  for  the  education  of  the  Maronite 
clergy' ;  and  in  1730  they  formally  subscribed  to 
the  decrees  of  the  (^uncil  of  Trent.  Neverthe- 
less, altlunigh  united  with  Rome,  they  are  per- 
mitted to  retain  their  distinctive  national  rites 
and  usages.  They  administer  comniiuiion  in 
both  kinds;  they  use  the  ancient  Syriac  lan- 
guage in  their  liturgy;  their  clergy,  if  married 
before  ordination,  are  permitted  to  retain  their 
wives;  and  they  have  many  festivals  and  saints 
not  recognized  in  the  Roman  calendar.  The 
IMaronites  at  present  are  about  125,000  in  ntim- 
ber.  Tlieir  patriarch  is  still  styled  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  and  resides  in  the  Convent  of  Kanobin, 
in  the  heart  of  the  Lebanon.  He  is  chosen  by  the 
bishops  subject  to  the  approval  of  Rome,  and 
always  bears  the  name  Butrus  (Peter).  Kvery 
tenth  year  he  reports  the  state  of  his  patriarchate 
to  the  Pope.  I'nder  him  are  14  bishops,  to 
whom  are  subject  the  officiating  clergy  of  the 
smaller  districts.  The  revenues  of  all  orders  of 
ecclesiastics,  however,  are  very  narrow,  and  the 
inferior  clergy  live  in  great  measure  by  the 
labor  of  their  hands.  Very  many  convents  for 
both  sexes  are  spread  over  the  country,  contain- 
ing, on  the  whole,  from  20.000  to  25.000  members, 
who  all  wear  a  distinctive  costume,  but  follow  the 
rule  of  Saint  Anthony.  The  chief  seat  of  the 
Maronites  is  the  district  called  Kesrowan.  on  the 
western  declivity  of  ]\Iount  Lebanon :  but  they 
are  to  be  founil  scattered  over  the  whole  territory 
of  the  Lebanon,  and  in  all  the  towns  and  larger 
villages   toward   the   north    in  the   direction  of 


MARONITES. 


84 


MARPUKG. 


Aleppo,  and  southward  as  far  as  Nazareth.  Their 
political  constitution  is  a  kind  of  military  re- 
public, regulated  for  the  most  part  by  ancient 
usages  and  by  unwritten,  but  wellreeojinized 
laws.  Like  the  Arabs  of  Syria,  they  have  a  po- 
litical hierarchy,  partly  hereditary,  partly  elec- 
tive. The  chief  administration  is  vested  in  four 
superior  slieiks,  who  possess  a  sort  uf  |)atriar- 
chal  authority,  and  under  these  are  subordinate 
chiefs,  with  whom,  as  in  the  feudal  system,  the 
people  hold  a  military  tenure.  They  are  bitter 
enemies  of  their  neighbors,  the  Druses  (q.v. ).  In- 
tellectually and  morally  they  are  on  a  low  plane. 
Their  cliief  occupations  are  cattle-raising  and  silk 
culture.      Consult:    Socin.   FaUistina    und  Syrien 

(Leipzig,  18S0)  ;  Bliss,  "Essay-S  on  the  Sects  of 
Syria  and  Palestine — the  ilaronites,"  in  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  iitatenicnt 

(London.  I8'.l2l  ;  KoeMer,  Die  kat hoi ischc  Kirche 
der  Moryinliinder  (Darmstadt,  1886). 

MAROON  (Fr.  marron.  chestnut,  chestnut- 
colored,  from  It.  marrone.  chestnut).  A  subdued 
crimson  color,  not  so  yellow  as  chestnut  (mar- 
ron ) ,  from  which  the  name  is  probably  de- 
rived, nor  so  brilliant  as  magenta. 

MAROONS  (Fr.  marron,  apocopated,  from 
siinarrun.  Sp.  cimarron,  fugitive,  from  cima, 
mountain-top,  twig,  from  Lat.  cyma,  Gk.  Kir/ta, 
kynia.  sprout,  from  Kieiv,  lyein,  to  conceive). 
A  name  given  in  .Jamaica  and  Dutch  Guiana  to 
runaway  negro  slaves.  The  term  was  first  ap- 
plied to  those  slaves  who  ran  away  and  took 
refuge  in  the  uplands  when  their  Spanish  mas- 
ters were  driven  out  by  the  British  after  the  lat- 
ter conquered  .Jamaica,  in  10.55.  For  one  liun- 
dred  and  forty  years  they  maintained  a  constant 
warfare  with  the  British  colonists;  but  in  1705 
they  were  subdued,  and  a  portion  of  them  re- 
moved to  Nova  Scotia,  where  they  gave  so  nnich 
trouble  that  most  of  them  were  transported  to 
Sierra  Leone.  The  Maroons  of  Dutch  Guiana 
still  form  a  number  of  small  independent  com- 
nninities  practicing  various  pagan  rites,  some 
nf  which  can  be  traced  to  analogous  African 
ceremonies.  They  are  now  known  more  common- 
ly as  Bush  negroes. 

MAROS,  mo'rfish.  The  principal  river  of 
Eastern  Hungary.  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of 
Eastern  Transylvania,  and  Hows  westward, 
emptying  into  the  Theiss  at  Szegedin,  after  a 
course  of  .543  miles  (Map:  Hungary.  G  3).  It  is 
navigable  about  two-thirds  of  it.s  length  to  Karls- 
burg.  hut  its  navigation  is  impeded  by  the  great 
irrcgiiliirity  of   its   volume. 

MAROS-VASARHELY,  vii'shiir  hcl  y".  A 
royal  free  town  and  capital  of  the  County  of 
MarosTorda  in  Transylvania.  Hungary,  situ- 
ated on  the  river  Maros.  ;)0  miles  east-southeast 
of  Klausenlnirg  (Map:  Hungary,.!  3).  It  has  a 
castle  which  is  now  used  for  barracks,  and  eon- 
ni'cted  with  which  is  a  fifteenth-century  (iothic 
duirch :  a  palace  with  a  fine  library  of  over 
tiO.OOfl  volumes  (including  a  manuscript  of  Taci- 
tus), and  a  natural  history  collection;  a  techni- 
cal school,  twr)  gymnasia,  and  an  industrial 
museum.  The  industries  of  the  town  include  the 
manufacture  of  .sugar,  spirits,  tobacco,  beer, 
trinuned  lumber,  anil  the  refining  of  jietroleum. 
Po|niIiilion.  in   1800.  L5.204;  in  inOf).  19.001. 

MAROT,  mft'rA'.  Ci.ftMEXT  (140.51.544).  A 
French  poet,  born  at  Cahors.   In  youth  he  studied 


law  at  Paris,  but  early  abandoned  this  for  litera- 
ture. He  soon  won  the  passing  favor  of  Francis 
I.  and  the  enduring  patronage  of  ilargaret  of 
Navarre.  He  accompanied  Francis  in  the  cam- 
])aigns  of  1.520  and  1525  and  was  wounded  at 
Pavia.  Taken  prisoner,  but  soon  released,  he  re- 
turned to  France,  was  suspecteil  of  Protestantism, 
and,  in  spite  of  a  strong  denial,  imprisoned  first 
in  Paris,  then  less  rigorously  at  Chartrcs.  He 
was  fiecd  by  the  King  in  1527,  but  soon  reimpris- 
oned  on  another  charge.  Again  released,  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  royal  valet  de  ehambre  and  in 
1532  published  a  volume  of  verses,  the  .Ido/cscciiea 
Clementine,  followed  by  a  second  volume  in  1333. 
He  now  fell  once  more  under  suspicion  of  heresy, 
lied  to  Margaret's  Court  in  1534,  and  thence  to 
Italy.  Hence  he  returned  to  Lyons  in  1536  and 
enjoyed  seven  years  of  court  favor,  terminated 
by  his  translation  of  Psalms  i.-l.  (1541),  which 
was  conilenuied  by  the  Sorbonne.  It  was  com- 
pleted l)y  Beza  and  is  still  used  in  French  Protes- 
tant churches.  Marot  lied  to  Geneva  (1543), 
quarreled  with  Calvin,  and  went  to  Turin,  where 
he  died.  The  best  of  Marot's  poetry  is  his  lighter 
work,  fables,  epistles,  epigrams,  songs.  Ma- 
rot's Works  were  frequently  collected  ( 1538, 
1.544,  etc.).  best  by  .Januet  "(4  vols.,  1863-72), 
and  by  Pifteau  (4  vols.,  1884).  An  elaborate 
edition  by  Guiffrcy  in  six  volumes  is  not  yet  com- 
pleted (vol.  iii.  1881).  There  is  a  Life  by  Douen 
(Paris.  1878-79),  and  a  study  with  a  good  bib- 
liography l>y  Bourciez  in  Petit  de  .luUcville.  His- 
toire  de  la  langue  et  de  la  littirature  frantaise, 
vol.  iii.    (ib.,  1898). 

MARO'ZIA.  A  Roman  lady  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury who  played  an  important  part  in  the  political 
history  of  the  times.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
the  infamo\is  Theodora  (q.v.)  and  Theophylact, 
'Consul  and  Senator  of  the  Romans.'  Her  first 
husl>and  was  .\lberic  (q.v.)  ;  after  his  death  she 
married  Guido  of  Tuscany:  and  after  the  death 
of  the  latter,  Hugo,  King  of  Italy.  By  the  power 
of  her  family  and  by  her  marital  alliances  she 
had  entire  control  of  Rome  for  some  years.  She 
deposed  Pope  .lohn  X.  in  928.  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  either  strangled  or  starved  to 
death.  A  little  later  she  bestowed  the  Papacy 
upon  her  son  .John  XL,  who  by  popular  rumor 
was  supposed  to  be  the  otVspring  of  her  guilty  love 
with  Pope  ."sergius  III.  She  styled  herself  'Sena- 
trix'  of  all  the  Romans,  and  'Patricia.'  Soon 
after  her  third  marriage  Miirozia  and  her  hus- 
band were  thrown  into  prison  in  932  by  her  son 
.liberie  II.  (q.v.).  Her  husband  esca|)ed.  but 
nothing  is  known  of  her  fate.  Consult  Gregoro- 
viiis.  History  of  the  City  of  Rome  in  the  Middle 
Aiics.  translated  bv  Hamilton  (London.  1894- 
1  ;i()0 ) . 

MARPLOT.  A  med<lling.  good  natured  busy- 
body in  till'  Husyhody  (q.v.). 

MARPLOT,  OR  TiiK  .SF.roNo  Part  of  the  BrsT- 
minv.  .\  lomedy  by  Susanna  Ccntlivre  (cpv.). 
It  was  jicrformed  at  the  Dniry  Lane  Theatre  De- 
cember 10.  1710,  and  afli'rwanls  altered  liy  Henry 
Woodward  and  called  The  Marplot  of  Lisbon. 
This  character  reappears  in  1825  as  Paul  Pry  in 
the  comedy  by  .John  Poole,  and  resembles  Sir 
Martin  Marall  in  Dryden's  successful  comedy, 
founded  on  Lord  Newcastle's  Marplot,  a  transla- 
(i<m  nf  ^Illli^n''s  L'F.tonrdi. 

MARPURG.  miir'pnrJrK,  FRiF.nRicit  \Vii,hei.m 
(1718-05).     A  German  writer  on  music,  born  at 


MARPURG. 


Seeliausen  in  Prussian  Saxony.  Little  is  known 
of  liis  early  life,  but  in  174(i  lie  was  secretary 
to  General  von  Rotlienburg  at  Paris,  where  he 
met  Kanieau,  Voltaire,  and  D'Alembert.  From 
there  he  went  to  Hamburg,  and  in  1703  was 
made  director  of  the  Government  lottery  in  Ber- 
lin. He  composed  six  clavier  sonatas,  organ 
pieces,  and  sacred  and  secular  songs.  He  is,  how- 
ever, better  known  as  a  writer  on  nuisic,  his 
most  noteworthy  works  being:  Abhandluiig  von 
der  Fuge  (17o;j-54),  a  standard  w'ork ;  Haiidbuch 
beim  Ucnrralbass  und  der  Composition  (1755- 
58)  ;  AnlcituiKj  sum  Clavierspielen  (1755)  ;  and 
Anleitung  zur  Musik  iiberhaupt  und  zur  Sing- 
kunst  insbcsondere  (1763),  which  are  of  inter- 
est at  the  present  time. 

MARQXTAND,  miirkand',  Henry  Gurdon 
( 1S1!)-1',M)2) .  .\n  American  capitalist  and  philan- 
thro|)ist,  born  in  New  York  City,  He  prepared  for 
college,  but  went  into  business  as  agent  of  his 
brother,  Frederick  ilarquand  (1799-1882),  a  New 
York  jeweler  and  a  benefactor  of  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  and  Y'ale  Divinity  School.  This 
post  the  younger  brother  held  for  twenty  years, 
after  Frederick's  retirement  in  1839.  Afterwards 
he  became  prominent  in  Wall  Street,  especially  in 
connection  with  railroad  enterprises.  Among  his 
benefactions,  mention  should  be  made  of  a  chapel 
and  gymnasium  presented  to  Princeton  Univer- 
sity, of  a  pavilion  to  Helle\'ue  Hospital,  and  of 
contributions  of  paintings  and  other  beautiful 
objects  to  the  Jletropolitan  JIuseum  of  Art. 

MARQUARDT,  nuir'kvart,  Jo.\chim  (1812- 
82).  A  Carman  historian,  bom  at  Danzig.  He 
studied  at  Berlin  and  at  Leipzig,  and  in  1859  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Gotha, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  His  chief 
work  was  his  continuation  of  W.  A.  Becker's 
Handbuch  der  roiiiischen  Altertiimer  (1849-67). 
To  the  second  edition  (1871-82),  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Theodor  Jlommsen.  he  contributed 
Romische  iStnatsirfrwaltuiig,  vols,  iv.-vi.  ( 1873- 
78.  1881-85)  :  and  Dos  Privatleben  der  Romer, 
vol.  vii.   (1879-82;  2d  ed.   1886). 

MARQUE  (Fr.,  seizure).  Letters  of.  Com- 
missions issued  by  a  belligerent  State  to  vessels 
owned  and  manned  by  private  persons  authorizing 
them  to  carry  on  hostilities  at  sea  against  the 
other  belligerent.  The  usage  originated  in  the 
practice  of  issuing  letters  of  license  to  go  across 
the  bormdary  (mark  or  inarch)  and  make  re- 
prisals.    See  Privateering. 

MARQUESAS  (mar-ka'sas)  ISLANDS,  or 
MENDANA  (man-da'ny^O  ISLANDS  (Fr.  le.i 
ilarijuiscs) .  A  group  of  islands  in  Polynesia, 
in  about  latitude  10°  S.,  and  longitude  140°  W. 
Area.  494  square  miles  (Map:  World,  Western 
Hemisphere.  K  7  ) .  The  most  important  members 
of  the  group  are  Nukahiva  ( 183  square  miles) ,  and 
Hiva-oa  (153  square  miles).  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  atolls,  the  islands  are  mountainous, 
falling  abruptly  into  the  sea  on  all  sides,  and 
reaching  in  Hiva-oa  an  altitude  of  4158  feet.  The 
summits  are  bare,  and  only  the  narrow  valleys, 
terminating  in  small  bays,  and  filled  with  luxuri- 
ant vegetation,  are  inhabited.  The  climate  is 
hot  and  generally  humid,  though  for  six  months 
in  the  year  there  is  very  little  rainfall.  The 
chief  product,  like  that  of  Polynesia  in  general, 
is  copra  ;  oranges  are  also  produced.  The  IVfarque- 
sans  form  an  interesting  group  of  the  Polynesian 
race,  of  which  they  are  physically  among  the 


85  MARQUETTE. 

best  representatives.  They  are  very  tall,  with 
sub-dolichocephalic  head-form.  In  language  they 
are  clo.sely  related  to  the  llawaiians,  and  some 
hold  that  the  Hawaiian  Islands  were  peopled 
from  the  Jlarquesas.  The  .Marquesans  themselves 
seem  to  have  received  their  human  inhabitants 
from  the  Society  and  Friendly  Islands.  Among 
Marquesan  things  worthy  of  note  are  the  carved 
and  ornamented  a.xes  and  oars,  the  figures  on 
which  recall  somewhat  the  'writing'  of  the  Faster 
Islanders;  feather  diadems;  coeoanut  slings; 
carved  paddle-shaped  clubs,  etc.  Their  food  con- 
sists very  largely  of  breadfruit.  The  Marque- 
sans appear  to  have  been  warlike,  and  traces  of 
cannibali-sm  lingered  long  among  them.  The  stone 
terraces  of  Waiko  are  of  interest  in  connection 
with  similar  remains  elsewhere  in  Polynesia. 
The  inhabitants  are  steadily  decreasing  in  num- 
bers. In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  population  was  estimated  at  20.000;  in 
1876  it  was  5240,  and  in  1900  4300.  The  Mar- 
quesans are  all  civilized  and  Christians;  there 
are  very  few  Europeans  in  the  islands.  The 
group  is  administered  by  native  chiefs  subject  to 
the  French  Resident  at  Hiva-oa.  The  southern 
group  of  the  Marquesas  was  discovered  in  1595 
by  MendaBa  de  Nej'ra,  a  Spanish  navigator;  the 
northern  group  was  discovered  in  1791  by  an 
American,  Ingraham,  who  gave  it  the  name  of 
Washington  Islands.  They  were  left  vei-y  much 
to  themselves  until  1842,  when  the}-  were  an- 
nexed by  France.  Consult  Vincendon,  lies  Mar- 
quises   (Paris,   1843). 

MAR'QUETRY  (Fr.  marqueferie,  from  mar- 
qucter,  to  inlay,  from  marque,  mark;  connected 
with  AS.  mearc,  Eng.,  Icel.  mark).  The  art  of 
inlaying  wood  with  wood  of  other  colors  or  with 
other  materials,  as  metal,  ivory,  shell,  etc.  See 
BouLLE.  Andre  Charles;  Iniaying;  Mosaic. 

MARQUETTE,  mar-kef.  A  city  and  the 
county-.seat  of  JIarquette  Countj;,  Mich.,  170 
miles  west  of  Sault  Sainte  Marie;  on  Marquette 
Bay,  an  inlet  of  Lake  Superior,  and  on  the  Du- 
luth.  South  Shore  and  Atlantic,  and  other  rail- 
roads that  connect  with  the  mining  centres  of  the 
Lake  Superior  mineral  region  (Map:  Michigan, 
F  2 ) ,  The  city,  noted  for  its  charming  scenery, 
clear  and  cool  atmosphere,  and  fine  buildings 
and  streets,  is  popular  as  a  summer  resort,  and 
is  the  principal  shipping  point  for  the  mineral 
wealth,  mainly  iron,  of  the  region.  It  has  a 
fine  harbor  and  regular  steamship  communication 
with  important  lake  ports,  and  its  ore  docks,  well 
equipped  with  the  latest  devices  for  handling 
traffic,  are  among  the  largest  in  the  world.  There 
are  a  large  brownstone  quarry-iron  works,  foun- 
dries, and  machine  shops ;  carriage,  sash,  door, 
and  blind  factories;  brick  yards;  lumber  and 
flouring  mills,  etc.  Among  the  notable  struc- 
tures are  the  LInited  States  Government  building, 
city  hall,  Northern  Normal  School,  new  manual 
training  and  high  school,  opera  house.  Peter 
White  Public  Library,  Protestant  Episcopal  and 
Roman  Catholic  cathedrals,  and  the  Upper  Penin- 
sula State  Prison  and  House  of  Correction. 
Presque  Isle,  a  headland  of  400  acres  north  of 
ilarquette,  was  presented  to  the  city  by  the 
Federal  Government  and  has  been  converted  into 
an  attractive  park.  The  water-works  and  electric 
light  plant  are  owned  by  the  municipality.  Mar- 
quette, named  in  honor  of  P6re  Marquette,  the 
French  missionary  explorer,  was  settled  in  1845, 


MARQUETTE.  86 

when  tlie  rich  deposits  of  iron  ore  began  to  be  ex- 
ploited. Tlie  first  dock  was  completed  in  1854 
and  a  railroad  to  the  mines  three  years  later. 
The  i-itv's  sub.se(iiient  prosperity  has  been  marked. 
Population,  in  18SI0,  90!I3;  in  1900,  10,058. 

MARQUETTE,  J.\C(iLKs  |l(i;i7  75).  A 
French  missionary  and  explorer  in  .Vmerica.  He 
was  born  at  Laon,  in  France.  When  seventeen 
he  entered  the  Jesuit  Order,  and  in  ItiUO  was 
sent  as  a  missionary  to  Canada.  There  his 
superiors  sent  him  to  tlie  country  of  the  Upper 
Lakes,  and  in  llitiS  he  founded  tlie  Mission  of 
Sault  Sainte  .Marie.  In  107.'}  Marquette,  who 
was  then  in  charge  of  the  newly  founded  mission 
at  .Mackinaw,  was  instructed  to  accompany  Louis 
.loliet  on  his  expedition,  sent  by  the  Governor, 
Count  Frontenac,  to  find  the  Mississippi.  Seven 
men,  in  two  birch  canoes,  set  out  on  May  17th. 
They  went  to  Crcen  Bay,  up  the  Fox  River,  tlie 
rapids  of  which  they  passed  hy  portage,  and  then 
on  to  its  source,  where  guides  were  obtained  from 
an  Indian  village.  They  crossed  to  the  Wisconsin 
and  lliiated  down  that  stream  for  a  week.  On 
•lune  17th  they  entered  the  Mississippi,  on  the 
waters  of  which  another  week  was  passed  before 
they  reached  a  village  of  Illinois  Indians.  They 
passed  the  junction  of  the  Mississijipi  and  Mis- 
souri rivers,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  .\rkansas 
found  Indian  villages,  whose  occii])ants  received 
them  with  great  kindness  and  no  little  curiosity. 
The  voyagers  continued  southward  to  latitude 
30°.  then,  fearing  lest  they  should  be  made 
prisoners  by  the  Spaniards,  they  started  on  the 
return  trip.  On  reaching  the  Illinois  River  they 
ascended  it,  and  are  siippose<l  to  have  made 
the  portage  from  the  head  of  this  stream  to 
1-ake  Michigan,  at  or  near  the  site  of  Chi- 
cago. After  an  absence  of  four  numths,  and 
a  voyage  in  canoes  of  2.'>rj0  miles,  they  again 
made  (Ireen  Hay.  in  the  latter  ])art  of  Septem- 
ber. Ill  ()ctol>er  (1074)  Maniuette  obtained  per- 
mission from  his  superior  to  found  a  mission 
among  the  Illinois  Indians.  With  ten  canoes  he 
went  to  (ireen  Bay,  made  a  dillicult  portage 
through  the  forest  to  Lake  Michigan,  and  fol- 
lowed the  west  shore  of  the  lake  to  the  (^hicago 
River,  where  the  party  built  a  hut  and  passed 
the  winter,  as  Marquette  had  become  so  en- 
fechled  by  illness  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  proce<>d  farther.  In  March  he  was  able 
to  resume  the  journey.  The  parly  crossed  the 
jiortage  to  the  Illinois  River,  and  were  most 
hospitably  received  at  the  Indian  town  of  Ka.s- 
kaskia.  Marquette's  condition  was  so  serious 
that  his  parly  was  forced  to  turn  homeward. 
They  reached  Lake  Michigan  and  followed  the 
eastern  shore  toward  MichiliTnackimic.  Mar- 
quette did  not  live  to  reach  his  post,  dying  on 
.May  18.  l(!7r),  near  a  small  stream,  a  little  south 
of  that  which  now  hears  his  name.  He  was 
buried  in  the  wilderness,  but  in  107fi  the  bones 
were  exhumed  hy  a  party  of  Ottawa  converts  and 
carried  to  the  mission  of  Saint  Ignace,  north  of 
.Mackinaw,  where  they  were  interred  beneath 
the  floor  of  the  chapel.  Marquette  was  a  man  of 
sintnibir  -weetncss  and  ..eri'iiily  of  disposition, 
and  his  innui'nce  over  the  Indians  was  great  and 
beneficent.  For  a  detailed  account  of  his  voyages 
consult :  Pnrkman.  nisrnrrrii  of  the  Clrrnl  Wr.vt 
(Boston.  ISfiOt  :  Shea.  Diirnrrrii  nnd  Explora- 
linn  of  Ihr  ytississippi  Vallrit  (New  York.  18.52)  : 
id..  Eiirhi  Voniifirn  T'p  nnil  noun  Ihr  \f i.isi.inippi 
(Xew  York.  1802),  containing  translations  from 


MARRIAGE. 

the  original  narratives,  which  will  be  found  in 
full  in  77ie  Jesiiil  Rclutivns  (Cleveland,  181IG 
.sqq. )  ;  also  Thwaitcs,  Father  Marquette  (New 
York.   I<lti2). 

MARQUEZ,  nuir'kas,  Leon-.\ut)o  (e.  1820-?). 
A  Mexican  general.  He  served  against  the  United 
States  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  a  prominent 
supporter  of  Santa  .Vnna  in  the  rev(dutiunary 
movement  of  184!1.  After  the  fall  of  tliat  dictator 
-Marquez  espoused  the  cause  of  .Miiamuii  and 
Zuloaga  against  .luaicz.  In  18(!2  lie  took  up 
the  cause  of  the  French,  and  rendered  important 
service  to  the  establishment  of  the  power  of 
Ma.ximilian.  by  whom  he  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  regular  army,  and  was,  in  I8li4,  given  the 
mission  to  Constantinople.  He  retunicd  in  18(i0, 
and  a  year  later,  when  the  French  withdrew,  he 
undertook  to  organize  a  native  army  to  support 
the  Kmpiic.  lie  joined  Maximilian  at  (i)uen'taro, 
l)Ut  broke  through  the  besiegers  and  made  his 
way  to  -Mexico  City  for  the  purpose  of  organizing 
a  force  to  relieve  tlie  Kinjieror.  Finding  this 
impossible,  he  conceived  the  plan  of  setting  up 
an  independent  government  of  his  own  in  the 
Southern  States,  with  Puebla  as  its  capital.  He 
was  defeated  before  he  could  reach  that  city  and 
returned  to  .Mexico,  where  he  was  besieged  by  (Jen- 
eral  Diaz.  The  city  was  captured,  .lune  21,  1867, 
and  Manpicz.  after  remaining  in  coiu-calment  for 
several  months,  made  his  way  to  \'era  Cruz,  and 
then  to  Havana.  He  was  expressly  excluded  from 
the  amnesty  of  1870.  As  a  soldier  and  politician 
his  motives  were  less  marred  by  personal  ambition 
than  those  of  most  of  the  lea<lers  of  Mexican 
airairs.  He  was  fanatical  and  cold-blooded  in  his 
disregard  of  human  life,  receiving  the  nickname 
of  "The  Tiger  of  T.iciibaya"  for  the  wholesale 
executions  which  followeil  one  of  his  guerrilla 
victories  in  1859.  For  an  account  of  Marquez's 
military  career  consult  Bancroft.  "History  of 
Mixico."  vols.  v.  and  vi.,  in  his  llislori/  of  the 
I'rici/ic  SIdIt  f:   (San  Francisco,  ISS-JIKI).' 

MARQUIS,  niiir'kwis.  or  MARQUESS  (OF. 
niarkis,  murt/itis.  Fr.  marquis,  from  ML.  mar- 
chciisis,  prefect  of  a  frontier  town,  from  mnrrha, 
iiiiirca.  from  OHG.  markn.  boundary,  march). 
The  (legiee  of  nobility  which  in  the  peerage  of 
Englaiiil  ranks  next  to  duke.  .Mar<|uises  were 
originally  commanders  on  the  borilers  or  fron- 
tiers of  countries,  or  on  the  scacoast,  which 
they  were  bound  to  protect ;  the  Oernian  equiva- 
lent is  Markiirnf.  The  first  English  nianpiis  in 
the  modern  sense  was  Rohert  de  Vere,  Earl  of 
Oxford,  who  was  created  Marquis  of  Dublin  bv 
Richard  II.  in  l.'!S5.  The  oldest  existing  marquis- 
ate  is  that  of  Winchester,  created  bv  Edward 
\'l.  in   1551.     See  M.vrk. 

MARRADI,  ma  rii'dc.  Giovanni  (18!i2— ). 
.\n  Italian  poet,  born  at  Leghorn.  He  was  edu- 
cateil  at  the  University  of  Pisa  and  afterwards 
stiulicd  at  Florence.  He  is  a  disciple  of  Car- 
ducci,  a  writer  of  force  and  charm,  and  a  word 
painter  of  more  than  usual  excellence.  His 
works  are:  Canzoni  modernc  (1878):  Fnntnxie 
marine  (1881):  Canzoni  e  fnntasie  (1883): 
Hirordi  liriei  ( 1S84)  :  Poesic  ( 1887)  :  Xuovi  canti 
(1891);   and   nallalr  modernc    (1895). 

MAR'RAM  GRASS.     See  Ammophit.a. 

MARRIAGE  (OF..  Fr.  mnriapr.  from  AfT.. 
marilatlrum,  marriage,  from  marilus,  husband, 
from  max.  male,  husband).  .\  consorting  or 
union   of   man   and   woman   which   is   sanctioned 


MARRIAGE. 


87 


MARRIAGE. 


by  the  conmiunitj'.  Tlie  sanction  may  be  moral, 
roliyious.  or  legal.  This  definition  is  broader 
than  that  of  legal  usage,  which  makes  marriage 
only  a  legal  form  or  the  status  corresponding 
thereto;  and  it  is  not  so  broad  as  Westerniarck's 
delinition,  "a  more  or  less  durable  connection 
between  male  and  female,  lasting  beyond  the 
mere  act  of  propagation  till  after  the  birth  of 
the  oH'spring."  Pro])erly  speaking,  the  mating 
of  animals  is  not  marriage,  and  in  no  community 
of  human  beings  is  sexual  union  regarded  as  mar- 
riage until  it  is  socially  sanctioned  in  some  waj'. 
On  the  other  hand,  communities  which  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  a  positive  law-  not  infre- 
quently attach  the  deepest  signilicance  to  cus- 
tomary and  religious  sanctions  applied  to  sexual 
relations.  There  has  been,  however,  an  unbroken 
continuity  of  historical  forms,  some  of  which 
have  fallen  short  of  marriage  in  any  true  sense, 
some  of  which  have  fallen  short  of  marriage  in  a 
legal  sense,  while  others,  emerging  as  civil  mar- 
riafje,  have  dropped  the  earlier  religious  sanc- 
tions. A  complete  understanding  of  marriage  as 
a  social  institution,  therefore,  can  be  arrived  at 
only  through  a  survey  of  its  historical  evolu- 
tion. 

Such  a  survey  shows  us  that  the  consortings  of 
males  with  females  among  animals  and  among 
men  have  not  been  restricted  to  the  simple  mat- 
ing of  one  individual  with  one  of  the  opposite 
sex  which  becomes  the  basis  of  monogamy.  There 
have  been  iniions  of  one  woman  with  two  or  more 
men  (polyandry)  and  of  one  man  with  two  or 
more  women  (polygyny),  and  such  arrangements 
have  been  socially  approved.  It  reveals  also 
interesting  restrictions,  which  have  had  a  dis- 
tinct evolution  of  their  own.  marking  off  groups 
or  classes  that  might  not  intermarry  from  those 
that  might.  Finally,  it  discloses  the  origin  and 
development  of  the  social  .sanctions  themselves, 
whereby  natural  mating  becomes  the  social  in- 
stitution, marriage. 

Distinguished  ethnologists  have  maintained 
that  relatively  permanent  sexual  unions  have 
slowly  developed  out  of  an  original  promiscuity. 
There  is.  however,  no  satisfactory  evidence  that 
a  state  of  true  promiscuity  ever  existed  among 
human  beings,  and  the  hypothesis  is  rendered  in- 
herently improbable  by  our  knowledge  that 
among  the  lower  animals  a  distinct  progress  to- 
ward true  pairing  is  observed  as  we  ascend  the 
scale  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  vertebrata. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  few  life-long 
unicms  of  one  male  with  one  female  in  any 
animal  sjiecies.  even  among  the  birds,  whose  ten- 
dencies toward  an  exclusive  mating  have  been 
the  subject  of  some  exaggeration.  As  a  rule  in 
the  animal  kingdom  within  the  reproductive 
period  of  life  the  female,  no  less  than  the  male, 
consorts  at  one  time  or  another  with  more  than 
one  individual  of  the  other  sex,  and  among  the 
relatively  numerous  gregario\is  animals  many 
females  commonly  associate  with  one  male. 

Chief  among  the  fac'ts  which  suggested  the 
hypothesis  of  a  primitivf  promiscuity  is  the 
widespread  custom  among  uncivilized  men  of 
tracing  names  and  descent  through  the  mother 
instead  of  the  father.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  civilized  races  also,  including  the  peoples 
of  Aryan  culture,  in  all  probability  passed 
through  this  matronymic  stage.  Furthermore. 
an  all-sufficient  explanation  of  descent  in  the 
female  line  is  found  in  the  general  instabilitv  of 


pairing  arrangements  among  primitive  men.  If 
a  mother  with  her  infant  remains  with  her  own 
kindred,  or  returns  to  them,  she  naturally  keeps, 
and  her  child  lakes,  her  clan  name ;  and  her 
brethren  or  other  near  clansmen  become  the 
child's  natural  protectors. 

it  seems  probable  that  from  the  first  sexual 
mating  among  human  beings  h,as  tended  toward 
monogamic  unions,  but  that  perm.inency  has  been 
of  slow  growth.  Among  the  low'cst  savages,  such 
as  the  Australians,  the  Bushmen,  the  Fuegians, 
the  forest  hordes  of  Brazil,  and  the  Innuit,  a 
mating  of  one  man  with  one  woman  for  an 
indefinite,  but  usually  not  long  period,  is  the 
common  arrangement.  Sometimes,  as  in  Aus- 
tralian tribes,  it  is  complicated  by  a  .system  of 
relationships  more  nominal  than  real,  svich  that 
each  man  in  a  given  class  or  group  is  theoretic- 
ally the  husband  of  each  woman  in  some  other 
class  or  group,  and  in  like  manner  each  woman 
in  the  latter  class  is  theoretically  the  wife  of 
each  man  in  the  former.  These  nominal  unions 
probably  do  not  point  to  a  primitive  promis- 
cuity, but  rather  to  an  early  limitation  of  the 
range  of  choice  in  the  selection  of  consorts ; 
that  is  to  say,  each  woman  of  a  certain  class 
is  a  possible  mate  for  any  man  of  some  other 
class. 

Nevertheless,  in  tribes  somewhat  more  ad- 
vanced but  usually  dwelling  in  extreme  poverty, 
various  forms  of  polyandry,  or  the  luiion  of 
one  woman  with  two  or  more  men,  or  of  a  group 
of  women  to  a  group  of  men,  is  fotmd  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  and  undoubtedly  prevailed 
widely  in  the  past.  In  Tibetan  polyandry,  so 
called,  the  husbands  are  brothers.  In  Nair  pol- 
yandry, or  the  form  which  prevails  among  the 
Nairs  of  India,  the  husbands  of  a  woman  may 
originally  have  been  strangers  to  one  another. 
Ca>sar  speaks  of  a  polyandry  like  the  Tibetan  as 
practiced  among  the  Britons.  In  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  before  they  were  invaded  by  whites,  a 
common  form  was  the  so-called  Punaluan  family, 
in  which  a  number  of  brothers  cohabited  with  a 
group  of  sisters,  each  man  consorting  with  each 
woman,  and  each  woman  with  each  man.  The 
men  were  not  own  brothers  of  their  wives,  but 
Lewis  H.  Morgan,  from  evidence  which  he 
brought  together  in  his  work  on  Si/stcmf!  of  Con- 
san(]iiinUij  and  A/Jiiiitii.  drew  the  conclusion  that 
Punaluan  polyandry  had  survived  from  what  he 
called  a  'Consanguine  Family'  formed  by  the  mat- 
ing of  near  kindred,  such  as  own  brothers  and 
sisters  and  cousins.  A  conservative  explanation 
of  the  known  facts  seems  to  be  that  primitive 
hordes,  except  perhaps  in  the  most  favorable  en- 
vironments, were  small,  as  are  the  hordes  of 
the  lowest  savages  to-day.  and  were  therefore 
composed  of  near  kindred  commonly  marrying  in 
and  in.  Under  such  circumstances  the  cohabit- 
ing group  may  often  have  been  a  consanguine 
family  in  Morgan's  sense  of  the  term,  a  Punaluan 
family,  or  a  family  like  that  created  by  the 
Tibetan  polyandry.  Yet  probably  from  the  first 
a  temporary  consorting  of  one  man  with  one 
woman  was  the  more  frequent  arrangement.  A 
horde  thus  manying  in  and  in  is  called  mdoij- 
amous.  Two  ways  in  which  a  group  becomes 
cxoqamous  (taking  consorts  from  other  groups) 
are  known.  Where  neighboring  horiles.  or 
groups  of  kindred,  live  on  friendly  terms  with 
one  another,  often  participating  in  common  fes- 
tivities or  religious  observances,  men  frequently 


MARRIAGE.  88 

leave  their  own  kindred  and  go  to  dwell  with 
women  in  anollier  group.  They  become  in  such 
cases  in  many  particulars  subject  to  the  male 
kindred  of  their  wives,  'fliis  arrangement  has 
been  called  Beenah  marriage,  the  name  given 
to  it  in  Ceylon  where  it  was  first  carefully  ob- 
^  served.  Where  neighboring  groups  live  on  bad 
terms  with  one  another,  frequently  engaging  in 
war,  captured  women  may  be  appropriated  by 
their  captors.  That  wife"  capture  lia.s  been  a 
custom  in  every  part  of  the  world  is  admitted  by 
all  ethnologists,  and  there  is  a  general  agree- 
ment that  the  not  less  widespread  custom  of  wife 
purchase  may  have  grown  out  of  wife  capture. 
It  is  not.  however,  by  any  means  certain  that 
these  methods,  creative  of  the  marriage  relation 
wliich  Kobertson-Smith,  in  his  work  on  Kinship 
and  Marringc  in  Early  Arabia,  has  called  Baal 
marriage,  to  distinguish  it  from  Beenah  mar- 
riage, have  been  a  more  important  cause  of  ex- 
ogamy than  the  voluntary  going  of  tlip  men  of 
one  group  to  the  women  of  another.  The 
theories  which  seek  to  explain  exogamy  primarily 
by  an  avoidance  of  close  interbieeding  do  not 
very  well  agree  with  the  facts  as  thus  far 
known.  The  practice  of  offering  women  to  actual 
or  potential  foes  as  an  act  of  propitiation  prob- 
ably played  a  large  part  in  tlie  origin  of  e.x- 
oganiie  custom.  The  strict  rule  of  e.xogamy  is 
found  only  where  the  clan  or  gens  (see  Ge.\s) 
is  well  developed,  and  it  there  is  a  lule  of  the 
elan  as  such,  rather  than  of  the  horde  or  tribe. 
Where  tribes  are  constituted  of  clans  tlie  clan 
is  exogamous,  and  the  tribe  as  a  rule  is  endoga- 
mous.  That  is  to  say,  men  may  not  marry  their 
elanswomen.  hut  iisually  marry  women  of  an- 
other clan  within  the  same  tribe. 

The  forms  of  sexual  relati(mship  thus  far 
mentioned,  let  us  now  recall,  are  not  necessarily 
marriages.  Any  one  of  them  may  exist  in  a  com- 
munity where  the  only  legal  union  of  man  and 
woman,  and  the  only  one  sanetioncd  by  religion 
and  public  upinion,  is  monogamy.  Any  one  of  them 
l)ecoines  marriage  through  social  sanction.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  religious  sanctions  consti- 
tuting marriage  are  older  than  the  legal.  Very 
suggestive  studies  of  the  origins  of  the  religious 
sanctions  have  been  made  by  Ernest  Crawley, 
The  Mystic  Rose:  A  Sliiily  of  J'rimitirc  Mar- 
riai/e.  To  the  savage  with  bis  belief  in  imitative 
and  sympathetic  magic  many  thing-;  apjx'ar  dan- 
gerous, and  he  avoids  them,  making  tbem  taboo. 
Crawley  finds  that  in  savage  connnunities  the 
sexes  are  usually  taboo  to  one  another  until  by 
some  ceremony  of  magic  the  taboo  is  broken.  The 
initiation  ceremonies,  whereby  b(iys  and  girls  at 
pidierty  are  admitted  to  certain  sexual  mysteries, 
are  of  this  nature.  They  partially  break  the 
sexual  taboo.  The  marriage  ceremony  is  the 
complete  and  final  breaking.  I'snally  whatever 
is  taboo  may  safely  be  tmiched — in  the  ease  of 
a  food  it  may  be  eaten — if  first  it  has  been 
approached  in  simie  exceedingly  careful  way.  <ir 
partaken  of  in  a  homnpopatliir'  |)ortion.  whereby 
an  immunity  is  established.  Conformably  to  this 
idea  the  sexual  taboo  is  broken  by  such  harmless 
approaches  as  the  joining  of  hands  or  the  partak- 
ing of  a  meal  together.  Some  of  the  most  fre- 
quent inciilenis  of  marriage  ceremony  are  thus 
seen  to  have  had  their  origin  in  tiiat  savage 
ningie  which  was  the  first  great  system  of  social 
sanctions,  long  antedating  those  which  were  de- 
veloped into  positive  law. 


MARRIAGE. 

LAW    OF    MAERIAGE. 


Historical  Developsiext.  The  law  of  mar- 
riage in  all  Christian  countries  is  derived  from 
the  canon  law,  i.e.  the  law  established  by  the 
Christian  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
canon  law  drew  many  of  its  rules  regarding 
marriage  from  the  Roman  civil  law,  and  it 
was  influenced,  to  some  extent,  by  Teutonic  ideas; 
but  in  many  respects  its  marriage  law  was 
novel.  In  nearly  all  Christian  countries  the 
canonical  rules  have  been  seriously  modified 
during  the  la.st  four  hundred  years.  The  changes 
which  began  with  tlie  Protestant  Reformation 
were  at  first  worked  out  by  the  Protestant 
churches  and  embodied  in  Protestant  ecclesias- 
tical law;  but  a  tendency  to  regulate  marriage 
by  civil  legislation  appeared  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  at  the  present  day,  even  in  those 
countries  which  have  adhered  most  closely  to 
the  rules  of  the  canon  law,  marriage  is  governed 
by  file  ordinary  civil  law. 

RoMA.v  Civil  Law.  JIarriage  could  be  estab- 
lished only  between  Roman  citizens,  or  between 
Romans  and  such  foreigners  as  had  by  treaty 
the  right  of  intermarrying  with  Romans  (ii/s 
connubii).  Originally,  no  intermarriage  was  pos- 
sible between  the  gentiles  or  patricians  and  the 
plebeians;  and  after  intermarriage  between  the 
orders  had  been  legalized  (B.C.  445),  gentiles 
continued  to  marry,  in  most  cases,  within  their 
own  onler.  and  often  within  their  own  yens. 
The  marriage  of  near  blood-relations,  however, 
was  forbidden;  originally,  those  related  in  the 
sixth  degree  (e.g.  children  of  first  cousins)  were 
not  alliiwcd  to  intermarry.  In  the  third  century 
n.c.  marriage  was  permitted  between  persons  re- 
lated in  the  fourth  degree  (e.g.  first  cousins). 
The  legislation  of  the  Empire  varied:  at  one 
time  (A.D.  49)  a  man  was  allowed  to  marry  his 
brother's  daughter,  but  in  the  fourth  century  this 
was  made  a  capital  ofTensc,  and  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tuiy  file  marriage  of  first  cousins  was  again  for  a 
time  ])r(ihibited.  The  relations  established  by  adop- 
tion ((|.v.)  were  treated  as  equivalent  to  rela- 
tions of  blood-kinship.  Affinity  was  a  bar  in 
the  direct  line  only,  until  the  end  of  the  third 
century,  when  marriage  with  a  sister-in-law  (the 
brother's  widow  or  his  divorced  wife,  and  the  de- 
ceased or  divorced  wife's  sister)  was  prohibited, 
.lustinian,  tnider  the  influence  of  (he  Christian 
Church,  forliade  marriage  between  godparents  and 
godchildren  on  the  ground  that  baptism  estab- 
lished a  spiritmil  kinship.  I'lider  the  same  in- 
fluence the  Theodosian  Code  had  already  pro- 
hibited marriage  between  Christians  and  .lews. 

In  (he  oldi'r  civil  law  there  were  three  modes 
of  establishing  marital  power  {manus).  For  the 
patricians  there  was  a  religious  ceremony,  con- 
farrriilio;  for  the  plebeians  there  was  fictitious 
purchase,  coi-mplio.  and  also  prescription,  iisiis. 
The  aei|uisition  of  marital  jiower  by  i>rescripf ion 
inijilieil  tliat  the  man  and  the  woman  were  living 
togetlu'r  without  any  preceding  ronfarniitio  or 
coi'mplin:  and  it  is  probable  that  such  a  union 
was  not  originally  regarded  as  a  marriage  until 
the  man  had  acquired  marital  power;  but  at 
an  early  period  this  informal  union  was  treated 
as  marriage,  even  (hough  the  prescription  was 
annmilly  interru|i(ed  and  never  became  complete. 
This  marriage  rovscnsu.  i.e.  by  agreement,  was 
usually  accompanied  by  religious  observances, 
such   as  the  taking  of  auspices,  by  a   banquet, 


MARRIAGE. 


89 


MARRIAGE. 


aiiJ  by  the  ceiemoni;il  takiiij;  of  tlic  wife  to  the 
hiisUand's  house,  but  none  of  these  things  was 
necessary:  coiiheiisus,  non  coiicuhitus,  facil 
iiiiptias.  The  consensual  marriage  .supplanted  all 
other  forms  e.xcept  the  confarrcatio,  which  was 
occasionally  used  in  some  of  the  old  families  until 
the  empire  became  Christian.  The  consensual 
marriage  was  a  'free  marriage'  in  two  senses:  it 
gave  the  husband  no  power  over  the  person  or 
property  of  his  wife,  and  it  was  dissoluble  at  tlie 
will  of  either  party.     See  Divorce. 

-Marriage  could  be  established  when  both  par- 
ties had  reached  the  age  of  puberty,  wliich  was 
fixed  at  the  completed  fourteenth  year  for 
males,  at  the  completed  twelfth  for  females. 
Jietrotlial  (q.v. ),  spuitsalia,  could  take  place  at 
any  time  after  the  completed  seventh  year.  When 
the  parties,  or  either  of  them,  were  under  pater- 
nal autliority.  no  hotrotlial  or  marriage  was  valid 
without  the  paternal  authorization. 

The  remarriage  of  widows  was  regarded  in  the 
older  Roman  ethics  as  improper,  but  it  was 
never  legally  prohibited.  In  the  later  Imperial , 
law  it  was  prohibited  for  ten  months,  unless 
within  that  period  a  child  had  been  born.  In 
the  later  Imperial  law,  certain  property  disadvan- 
tages were  attaelied  to  second  marriages,  both  as 
regarded  husbands  and  wives;  but  the  object  was 
not  to  penalize  second  marriages,  but  to  secure 
the  interests  of  tlie  children  of  the  previous 
marriages. 

Early  German  Law.  The  usual  form  of  mar- 
riage among  the  Scandinavians,  the  Germans 
proper,  and  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  wife-purchase. 
The  girl  was  bought  from  her  father  or  guardian, 
and  delivered  by  the  father  or  guardian  to  the 
buyer.  Abduction  of  a  girl  without  pavnient 
seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  mode  of  mar- 
riage, but  the  husband  did  not  obtain  marital 
authority  {iiiuiidiiiiii)  until  he  had  paid  the  cus- 
tomary compensation  to  the  father  or  guardian. 
In  the  earliest  written  laws  the  price  paid  is 
beginning  to  be  regarded  as  something  that  be- 
longs to  the  woman,  not  to  the  father  or  guard- 
ian ;  it  is  dos  or  dower  in  the  later  English  sense 
—i.e.  a  provision  for  widowhood — and  instead  of 
])aying  it  over  to  the  father  or  guardian,  the 
bridegroom  gives  security  for  its  payment  on  his 
death  to  his  widow.  In  the  earliest  written  laws 
also  the  purcluise  marriage  consists  of  two  sepa- 
rate transactions:  (1)  the  agreement  between 
the  bridegroom  and  the  bride's  father  or  guard- 
ian, in  which  each  formally  binds  himself  to 
perform  his  part  of  the  contract,  and  (2)  the 
delivery  of  the  bride,  together  with  the  payment 
of  the  price  or  the  giving  of  security  for  its 
pa.vmcnt  to  the  widow.  As  the  formal  contract  of 
the  old  German  law  consisted  in  the  giving  of 
symbolic  pledges,  wadia,  the  first  of  these  trans- 
actions was  a  wadiatio  (-\nglo-Saxon,  benx-d- 
dung),  while  the  second  was  a  'giving'  (Anglo- 
Saxon,  fiiftu).  The  icddiallo  was  more  than  a 
betrothal,  it  was  an  inchoate  marriage.  It  pro- 
duced some  of  the  legal  results  of  marriage,  while 
other  results  attached  to  the  giving,  and  others 
again  to  cohabitation.  In  the  later  develop- 
ment of  the  German  law-  the  nxidintio  was  de- 
serilied  as  ]'crh>hun(i  or  promising,  and  consisted 
in  the  exchange  of  promises  between  bridegroom 
and  bride,  and  the  giving  became  the  Trauung 
or  intrusting.  Verlobung.  however,  in  tlie  Ger- 
man view,  was  always  something  more  than  a 
Roman  betrothal,  and  the  German  view  was  not 


without  influence  upon  the  development  of  the 
canon  law. 

RoMA.\  Canon  Law.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  considers  nuirriage  as  a  sacrament  which 
conveys  divine  grace  to  the  recipients  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  them  to  perform  well  the 
duties  of  the  conjugal  state.  This  aspect  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  validity  of  the  marriage 
as  a  civil  contract;  nor  docs  the  Church  by  this 
teaching  deny  that  valid  marriages  are  contracted 
outside  its  communion.  But,  considered  as  a 
sacrament  of  the  Catholic  Church,  it  cannot  be 
received  by  an  unbaptized  person,  or  properly  by 
any  one  who  is  in  a  state  of  mortal  sin.  By  the 
general  view  of  theologians,  since  the  consent 
of  the  parties  is  considered  the  essential  part  of 
the  sacrament,  they  are  themselves  held  to  be 
the  'ministers'  of  it:  the  priest  simply  adds  the 
Church's  benediction.  Since  marriage  was  con- 
sidered a  sacrament,  it  was  early  asserted  that 
as  such  its  regulation  fell  within  the  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  the  Church.  The  claim  was  recog- 
nized; and  in  the  e.xercise  of  its  jurisdiction  the 
Church  developed  a  uniform  law  of  marriage  for 
all  Western  Christendom.  It  did  not  claim  to 
regulate  the  property  relations  of  husband  and 
wife,  but  it  regulated  the  establishment  and  de- 
termined the  validity  of  marriages.  The  prin- 
cipal inference  which  the  Church  drew  from  the 
sacramental  theory  was  that  marriage  was  indis- 
soluble. The  Church  courts  could  declare  that 
an  existing  luiion  was  not  a  valid  marriage,  i.e. 
they  could  declare  a  marriage  null,  on  account  of 
circumstances  antecedent  to  or  simultaneous  with 
its  establishment;  and  they  could  grant  a  .separa- 
tion from  bed  and  board  on  account  of  circum- 
stances that  had  arisen  since  the  marriage ;  but 
they  could  not  dissolve  a  marriage  validly  estab- 
lished by  reason  of  any  occurrences  subsequent  to 
its  establishment.     See  Divorce. 

There  were  numerous  grounds  on  which  a 
marriage  could  be  set  aside  or  annulled,  called 
dividing  or  destructive  impediments  (impedi- 
menta dirimentia) ,  such  as  a  previous  marriage, 
a  previous  vow  of  celibacy,  a  difTerence  of  re- 
ligion, impotence,  etc.  To  the  dividing  impedi- 
ments belonged  also  relationship  within  the  for- 
bidden degrees.  The  wide  range  of  this  impedi- 
ment was  perhaps  the  most  peculiar  feature  of 
the  canon  law.  The  Church  not  only  forbade 
marriage  by  reason  of  consangiiinit.y  and  the  legal 
affinit.v  established  b.v  marriage ;  it  attached  the 
same  result  to  the  si)iritual  relationship  estab- 
lished by  partici])ation  in  the  sacraments  of  bap- 
tism and  of  confirmation,  and  to  the  illegitimate 
affinity  established  by  unlawful  eoitcubitns :  and 
it  carried  prohibitions  based  on  affinity  to  the 
same  degree  as  those  based  <m  blood-Uinship. 
Before  1215  the  impediments  of  consanguinity 
and  affinity  exten  led  to  the  seventh  degree 
(which,  by  civil  computation,  might  be  the  four- 
teenth degree,  for  in  tracing  collateral  relation- 
ship the  canonists  reckoned  only  up  to  the  com- 
mon ancestor  and  not  down  again)  ;  and  mar- 
riage was  forbidden  not  only  with  nffiiies.  but 
with  their  nfl/iiirft  tnffiiutfix  Krniiidi.  trrtii  fira- 
dus)  :  hut  at  the  fourth  Latcrau  Council  In- 
nocent ITI.  abolished  the  latter  rule,  and  limited 
the  prohibition  based  on  consanguinity  and  affin- 
ity to  the  fourth  degi'ee  (e.g.  third  cousins). 
From  all  these  impediments  of  relationship, 
except  those  between  ascendants  and  descendants 
and   brother   and   sister,   dispensation   might   be 


MABBIAGE. 


90 


MABBIAGE. 


granted,  as  also  from  a  vow  of  celibacy,  a  dif- 
fereiU'C  of  religion,  and  lack  of  age.  Lack  of  ajrc 
moreover,  and  lack  of  consent,  were  curable 
defects.  In  most  cases,  tlierefore.  these  dividing 
impediments  did  not  render  the  marriages  void, 
but  only  voidable.  The  hardships  logically  re- 
sulting from  the  annulment  of  marriage  were 
lessened  by  the  doctrine  of  the  "jjutative  mar- 
riage.' Where  one  of  the  parties  to  the  invalid 
marriage  was  unaware  of  the  impediment,  that 
party,  and  also  any  children  born  of  the  union, 
were  entitled  to  all  the  rights  which  would  have 
been  theirs  if  the  marriage  had  been  valid.  In 
particiilar,  the  children  were  legitimate.  This 
doctrine,  however,  reached  over  into  a  field 
which,  even  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  regarded  as 
secular.  The  Church  could  say  what  was  and 
what  was  not  a  marriage,  hut  it  could  not  regu- 
late all  the  civil  results  of  marriage,  nor  all  the 
civil  results  of  its  annulment.    See  Divorce. 

Other  impediments  were  known  as  'impeding' 
or  "prohibitive.'  To  this  class  belonged,  for  ex- 
ample, a  pre-contract  de  fultiro  (i.e.  a  previous 
Ix'trothal  to  another  person):  also  the  non-oli- 
servancc  of  ecclesiastical  rules  regarding  bann-. 
Disregard  of  such  impediments  subjiKted  the 
offender  to  penalties,  but  did  not  invalidate  the 
marriage. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  Church's 
view  of  betrothal  changed  in  the  twelfth  century. 
In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  Church  was  strongly 
inlluenced  by  the  German  idea  that  betrothal 
was  an  inchoate  marriage.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury it  went  back  to  the  Roman  view  that  an 
agreement  <le  fiiluio  was  a  thing  wholly  distinct 
from  marriage.  Nevertheless  some  concessions 
were  still  made  to  German  ideas.  It  was  ad- 
mitted that  an  agreement  to  marry  in  future  and 
subsequent  concubitu.i  constituted  marriage. 
Moreover,  marriages  not  consummated  were 
treated  somewhat  dilferently  from  those  which 
had  been  consummated:  they  were  annulled  with 
more  freedom. 

On  the  whole,  the  canonical  marriage  was  the 
consensual  marriage  of  the  Roman  law.  made 
indissoluble.  The  ages  of  consent  were  the  same, 
fourteen  and  twelve.  It  was  customary  to  pub- 
lish banns,  to  exchange  troth-plight  at  the  church 
door,  and  to  have  the  marriage  consecrated  by 
the  priest  inside  of  the  church,  but  none  of  these 
things  was  necessary.  The  sacrament  of  mar- 
riage was  one  which  the  parties  could  administer 
to  each  other,  and  the  elandesline  unconsecrated 
marriage  was  completely  valid.  The  consent  of 
parents  to  the  marriages  of  their  children,  which 
was  required  by  the  Roman  law.  was  not  re- 
quiri'd  by  the  ('hurch.  not  even  in  the  ease  of 
minors.  The  law  was  changed,  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, by  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  decrees  of 
that  council  recpiired  that  marriage  should  be 
celebrated  by  the  priest  of  the  parish  in  the 
presence  of  two  witnesses.  These  decrees,  how- 
ever, were  not  |mt  in  force  in  all  Catholic  coun- 
tries (it  is  aflirmcil  that  they  were  not  intro- 
duced into  the  American  possessions  of  Spain), 
and  where  the  Trident ine  laws  are  not  in  force, 
the  Catholic  Church  continues  to  recognize  the 
secret  and  unconsecrated  marriage. 

Prote.stant  Ecn.EsiA.STTCAi,  T,AW.  The  Prot- 
estant churches  of  the  Continent  rejected  the 
sacramental  theory  of  marriage  They  regarded 
divorce  (q.v.)  as  admissible.  T.uther  revived  the 
theory    that    betrothal     (q.v.)     was    an    inchoate 


marriage,  and  this  view  was  dominant  until  the 
eighteenth  century.  Early  in  that  century,  how- 
ever, Bohmer,  a  distinguished  writer  on  Protest- 
ant ecclesiastical  law.  reintroduced  the  Roman 
distinctions.  In  order  to  suppress  secret  mar- 
riagi's  the  Protestant  churches  demanded  the 
consent  of  parents,  or  the  presence  of  witnesses, 
or  an  ecclesiastical  ceremony,  or  all  these  things. 
So  long,  however,  as  secret  betrothal  followed  by 
cuncubilu.i  was  regarded  as  a  legal  marriage,  re- 
quirements of  publicity  of  marriage  were  in- 
elleetive.  Riilimer  insisted  that  such  a  marriage 
was  only  a  'natural  marriage,'  and  that  the 
benediction  of  the  Church  was  necessary  to  its 
legal  validit.v.  The  ecclesiastical  marriage,  he 
held,  was  the  only  ])erfect  marriage.  Biilimer's 
ideas  were  generally  accepted;  b\it  in  cases 
where  concubilus  had  occurred  after  a  promise 
of  marriage,  it  wa.s  usual  not  only  to  compel  the 
man  to  go  through  the  religious  ceremony,  but 
to  'supply'  his  assent  when  he  refused  to  give  it. 
The  impediments  to  marriage  based  on  con- 
,  sang\iinity  and  afTinity  were  greatly  reduced. 
Consanguinity  v.as  treated  as  a  bar  only  within 
the  third  or  fourth  degree  (civil  computation), 
allinity  only  in  the  direct  line.  Spiritual  kin- 
ship was  not  recognized.  There  was  manifested 
also  a  tendency  to  treat  fraud  as  a  ground  for  ;ni- 
nulling  marriage,  provided  it  was  made  dear  that 
but  for  the  fraud  the  marriage  would  not  have 
been  contracted.  Some  of  these  changes  were 
made  by  civil  legislation,  but  until  the  nineteenth 
century  legislation  was  for  the  most  part  guided 
by  ecclesiastical  opinion. 

Moi)f:RX  CoNTiNF.NTAi,  I.EOI.SLATION.  Even  in 
Catholic  countries  marriage  is  governed  at  the 
present  time  by  civil  legislation.  The  most  im- 
portant innovation  of  the  nineteenth  century  is 
the  civil  marriage.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
publicity  of  marriage,  established  in  Catholic 
countries  by  the  Tridentine  decrees,  was  secured  in 
Protestiint  States  in  the  same  way.  i.e.  by  eompul- 
sorv  religious  marriage.  In  some  States  it  was 
demanded  that  the  rites  of  the  established  Church 
be  observed:  but  exceptions  were  generally  made 
in  favor  of  the  adherents  of  other  confessions  or 
of  no  confession,  first,  by  permitting  marriage 
to  be  celebrated  according  to  the  forms  of  any 
recognized  confession,  and  finally  by  establishing  J 
civil  nuirriage.  i.e.  nuirriage  before  a  civil  offi-  ^ 
cer.  The  civil  marriage  is  regularly  preceded 
by  notices,  posted  or  otherwise  i)ublished  in  the 
domicile  of  each  of  the  parlii's.  an<i  the  civil 
olliccr  does  not  proceed  to  tlie  marriage  until  he 
is  satisfied  that  all  the  nvpiiremcnts  of  the  law 
have  been  observed.  At  the  outset,  the  civil 
marriage  was  usually  'facultative.'  i.e.  the  parties 
could  choose  between  civil  and  religious  marriage, 
or  the  religious  nuirriage  was  made  compulsory 
(miy  upon  members  of  the  State  (^hurch.  Such 
a  facultative  civil  marriage  exists  to-day  in 
.\ustria.  Spain.  ;>nd  Portugal.  In  a  larger  nuni- 
lier  of  Continental  States,  however,  civil  mar- 
riage is  obligatory.  The  parties  may  add  a  re- 
ligious ceremony,  but  the  religious  marriage  has 
no  legal  cfTect.  This  system  obtains  in  France, 
Holland,  (Jermany,  Switzerland,  and   Italy. 

The  age  of  consent  has  generally  been  raised 
(to  eighteen  and  fifteen  in  Eranee,  to  twenty-one 
and  sixteen  in  tiermany).  but  not  in  Spain.  The 
consent  of  parents  or  guardians  is  reqiiired  for 
the  marriage  of  niinors.  and  in  many  legislations 
the    consent    of    parents    is    required    even    aff«r 


MARRIAGE. 


91 


MARRIAGE. 


majority.  In  .some  of  llicso  li'f^islations,  tlie  only 
rcsnlt  altaclied  to  ])ar('iital  ojiposition  after  ma- 
jority is  to  delay  the  marriage.  In  Germany,  if 
the  oi)position  of  the  parent-s  appears  unreason- 
able, tile  necessary  consent  can  be  {^iven  by  the 
court.  The  Roman  rule  forbiddin-ir  remarriajie 
of  a  woman  within  th<!  ten  montlis  followinf,'  1lie 
dissolution  of  the  previous  niarriaf;e  is  generally 
retaiiK'd  in  modern  legislations.  The  hindrances 
based  on  consanguinity  and  allinity  vary  con- 
sideraldy  in  dill'crent  States.  In  Germany  con- 
sanguinity is  a  bar  only  in  the  direct  line 
and  between  brothers  and  sisters;  aliinity  is  a  bar 
only  in  the  direct  line.  In  France  uncle  and 
niece,  aunt  ami  nephew,  and  brother-in-law  and 
sister-in-law  are  forbidden  to  intermarry,  but 
dispensation  may  be  granted  by  the  head  of  the 
State.  Even  in  the  more  conservative  Catholic 
countries  there  is  a  tendency  to  limit  the  impedi- 
ments of  consanguinity  and  aifinity.  In  Spain 
marriages  within  the  fourth  degree  are  pro- 
hibited, but  for  non-Catholics  the  fourth  degree 
is  computed  civilly,  so  that  the  restriction 
reaches  no  further  than  to  first  cousins.  As 
regards  lack  of  consent,  the  doctrines  of  the 
canon  law  are  generally  followed  in  the  modern 
civil  legislations.  Fraud  per  se  does  not  gener- 
ally invalidate  a  marriage,  but  in  the  German 
Code  fraud  by  which  consent  has  been  induced 
has  this  efi'ect. 

ExGLi.su  Common  Law,  and  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment. That  the  general  ecclesiastical  law  of 
Western  Christendom  ])revailed  in  the  British 
Islands  until  the  Reformation,  and  that  it  contin- 
ued to  |)revail  after  the  Reformation  until  changed 
by  Parliamentary  enactments,  was  not  .seriou'dy 
questioned  by  the  courts  until  184.3.  In  that  year 
the  House  of  Lords  decided,  in  Queen  vs.  ^Nlillis 
(10  Clark  and  Finelly.  .534).  that,  even  before 
the  Reformation,  there  was  a  special  ecclesiastical 
law  of  England  and  Ireland,  which  was  not  in 
all  points  identical  with  the  Roman  canon  law; 
that,  in  particular,  the  Roman  doctrine  that 
parties  could  contract  a  valid  marriage  by 
consent  alone  had  never  been  a  rule  of  English 
ecclesiastical  law;  that,  on  the  contrary,  the 
assistance  and  benediction  of  a  priest  had  always 
been  essential  to  a  perfect  marriage  in  England 
and  Ireland.  This  decision  denied,  accordingly. 
that  the  form  of  marriage  which  is  still  known  in 
the  United  States  as  the  'common-law  marriage' 
had  ever  been  a  perfect  marriage  at  English 
common  law.  The  correctness  of  this  decision 
(which  was  rendered  by  a  divided  court)  has 
been  widely  questioned,  and  further  historical  in- 
vestigation has  strengthened  the  opposite  opinion 
(see  Pollock  and  ilaitland.  Uistoni  of  Eniilish 
Law.  II.,  372,  and  Maitland,  Canon  Lair  in 
England).  The  opposite  theory  has  always  been 
held  by  the  courts  of  the  I'nited  States,  and  the 
decision  in  Queen  vs.  Jlillis  has  not  been  accepted 
by  the  courts  of  Canada. 

The  marriage  of  which  the  validity  was  denied 
in  Queen  vs.  Jlillis  was  an  Iri.sh  marriage.  As 
far  as  England  was  concerned,  the  question  had 
been  settled  by  the  acts  26  Geo.  II..  c.  33  (Lord 
Hardwieke's  Act)  and  4  Geo.  IV..  76.  which  re- 
quired a  church  marriage  i)rcceded  by  the  publi- 
cation of  banns,  except  when  .a  special  license 
was  secured,  and  which  declared  any  other  form 
of  marriage  invalid.  Churcli  marriage  meant 
marriage  according  to  the  forms  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  from  1753  to  1836  no  exceptions 

Vol.  XIIL— 7. 


were  made  except  in  the  cases  of  Quakers  and 
Jews.  Lord  Russell's  Act,  0  and  7  \Villiam  I\'., 
c.  85,  supplemented  by  Acts  1  Vict.,  c.  22,  and 
19  and  20  Vict.,  c.  119.  furnished  a  choice  be- 
tween marriage  accordi)ig  to  the  forms  of  the 
Established  Cimreh,  marriage  according  to  the 
forms  of  other  registered  confessions,  and  civil 
marriage  before  a  registrar.  Lord  Hardwieke's 
act  further  demanded  the  assent  of  parents  or 
guardians  to  tlie  marriage  of  minors,  and  the 
fact  that  it  did  not  operate  outside  England  led 
to  the  numerous  "(Jretn.a  Green'  marriages.  At 
present,  under  later  acts  of  Parliament,  the  same 
election  between  various  forms  of  nuirriage  is 
given  in  Scotland  and  in  Ireland  as  in  England — 
an  election  between  religious  marriage  accord- 
ing to  the  rites  of  any  recognized  confession  and 
civil  marriage.  In  Ireland  the  marriage  by 
consent  without  ecclesiastical  or  civil  ceremony 
has  been  abidishcd  by  the  decision  in  (,)ueen  r.s. 
ilillis;  in  Scotland  this  formless  marriage  still 
exists,  as  it  .still  exists  in  the  great  majority 
of  the  commonwealths  of  the  United  States.  All 
that  is  necessary  to  establish  the  marriage  is  the 
consent  or  agreement  in  prcsenti,  i.e.  an  agree- 
ment of  marriage  as  distinct  from  an  agreement 
to  marry  at  some  future  time. 

With  the  requirement  of  public  marriage  in 
England  and  Ireland,  the  canonical  ruhf  tliat  an 
agreement  to  marry  followed  bv  coiuuhil'is  is 
marriage  has  been  abrogated.  In  Scotland  the 
rule  is  maintained.  In  the  United  States  there 
is  a  conllict  of  authorities.  Even  at  the  canon 
law  tlie  rule  was  based  on  a  jiresumption  that 
consent  in  prcsenti  had  intervened,  but  this  ])re- 
sumption  was  not  rebuttable.  Some  of  the  Ameri- 
can courts  treat  the  presumiJtion  as  rebuttable;  a 
few  decline  to  recognize  the  rule.  Of  course 
neither  in  Scotland  nor  in  the  United  States  will 
a  relation  whicli  was  originally  meretricious  be 
transformed  into  marriage  liy  a  promise  to  marry ; 
nor  was  any  such  result  recognized  by  the  Cath- 
olic Cliurch.  In  accordance  with  the  connnon  rules, 
the  common-law  ages  of  consent  are  fourteen  and 
twelve.  If  either  party,  by  reason  of  idiocy,  im- 
becility, or  insanity,  does  not  comprehend  tlie  na- 
ture and  effect  of  the  marriage  contract,  there  is 
no  marriage;  but  if  the  lack  of  comprehension  is 
due  to  into.xication.  the  marriage  is  not  void,  but 
only  voidable,  ilistake,  as  at  canon  law.  must  be 
of  such  a  character  that  there  was  really  no  con- 
sent. As  regards  fraud,  the  English  courts  follow 
the  Roman  ecclesiastical  rule,  that  fraud  per  se  is 
not  a  ground  for  annulling  a  marriage.  As  Sir  F. 
H.  Jeune  said  (in  Moss  vs.  Moss,  1897,  P.  D. 
268).  where  marriage  is  said  to  be  annulled  for 
fraud,  it  is  really  annulled  because  of  the  absence 
of  consent.  The  American  courts,  however,  are 
inclined  to  admit  that  a  marriage  may  be  an- 
nulled by  fraud,  and  they  arc  especially  inclined 
to  admit  such  an  annulment  if  the  marriage 
has  not  been  consummated. 

In  England,  as  elsewhere,  the  Reformation 
brought  about  a  considerable  reduction  in  the 
prohibitions  of  marriage  based  on  relationship. 
Statutes  of  Henry  VTII.,  repealed  in  part  by  a 
statute  of  Edward  VI.  and  wholly  repealed  by  a 
statute  of  Philip  and  Mary,  were  partially  re- 
vived in  the  first  year  of  Elizabeth's  reign;  and 
the  provision  that  survived  simply  stated  that 
"no  prohiliition,  God's  law  except,  shall  trouble 
or  impeach  any  marriage  outside  the  Levitical 
degrees."    This  was  interpreted  by  the  ecclesias- 


MARRIAGE. 


tical  courts  to  mean  that  consanguinity  and 
alllriity  were  impediments  to  marriage  as  far  as 
the  third  degree  ol"  civil  computation.  L'nder 
this  rule  a  man  might  not  marry  liis  aunt  or  his 
niece  or  the  daughter  of  his  deceased  wife's 
sister,  but  might  marry  his  first  cousin.  Kela- 
tionship  by  the  lialf  bluod  was  put  on  the  same 
footing  asthat  by  tlie  full  blood,  and  illegitimate 
consatiguinity  was  treated  as  equivalent  to  legiti- 
mate blood-relationship.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
illegitimate  or  natural  alUnity  of  the  canon  law, 
which  was  allirmed  in  28  Henry  Vlll.,  c.7;  is  held 
to  have  disappeared  from  English  law  with  the 
repeal  of  that  statute.  The  courts  regarded  mar- 
riages within  the  forbidden  degree  as  voidable 
rather  than  void,  but  such  marriages  were  de- 
clared void  by  Act  of  5  and  G  William  IV. 
(1835).  Itcpeated  efforts  to  legalize  marriage 
with  the  deceased  wife's  sister  liave  thus  far 
failed  in  Kngland,  although  in  all  the  ]5ritish 
colonies  the  prohibitions  based  on  collateral  alTin- 
ity  have  been  lenioved. 

As  to  proof  of  marriage,  the  common  law  ad- 
mits any  evidence  of  matrimonial  consent.  Where 
a  formal  marriage,  religious  or  civil,  has  taken 
place,  it  is  presumed,  until  the  contrary  is  shown, 
that  the  parties  were  able  to  marry,  that  their 
consent  was  complete  and  free,  and  that  all 
necessary  forms  were  observed.  If  no  formal 
marriage  has  taken  place,  or  none  is  proved,  the 
fact  that  the  parties  have  lived  together  as  hus- 
liand  and  wife,  have  acknowleilged  themselves,  or 
have  been  generally  reputed,  to  be  husband  and 
wife,  raises  a  presumption  of  marriage.  This 
presumption,  however,  is  invalidated  if  it  can 
i)e  shown  that  the  relation  was  illicit  in  its 
origin. 

It  is  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  English  common 
law  that  it  gives  an  action  for  damages  for  breach 
of  contract  to  marry.     See  Urkacu. 

roRKliiN  iI.\l!RHC.E.s.  The  question  whether  and 
under  what  conditions  a  court  of  law  will  recog- 
nize as  marriage  a  union  established  in  another 
jurisdiction  is  a  question  of  conflict  of  laws 
(q.v.).  The  general  rule,  all  over  the  civilized 
world,  is  that  if  the  forms  required  where  tlie 
nuirriage  was  established  liave  been  observed,  the 
marriage  will  be  recognized  as  formally  |)erfect 
everywhere.  The  capacity  of  parties  to  marry 
is  determined,  according  to  thi>  prevailing  Euro- 
pean theory,  by  the  law  of  their  domicile,  and 
the  English  courts  now  follow  this  rule.  In  some 
of  the  European  States,  however,  capacity  to 
marry  is  determined  by  the  law  of  the  country  of 
which  the  person  is  a  citizen  or  subject,  whether 
he  or  she  he  domiciled  there  or  elsewhere.  In 
the  I'nited  States  the  courts  follow  the  older 
English  <lecisions.  according  to  which  the  capacity 
of  the  parties  to  marry,  as  well  as  the  sullicienev 
of  the  forms  oliscrved.  is  determined  by  the  law 
of  the  State  in  which  the  marriage  takes  place: 
so  that  eifizens  of  any  State  can  escape  the  re- 
strii-tions  imposed  by  their  own  State  by  simply 
crossing  the  State  line, 

Statitorv  Ki  le.s  i.\-  tiik  I'MTEn  States, 
T.ord  Ilardwicke's  act  did  not  ajiply  to  the  colo- 
nies, and  never  became  a  part  of  the  common  law 
of  the  t'nited  States,  In  nearly  all  of  the  I'nited 
States,  however,  statutes  have  been  emu'ted  pro- 
viding for  a  ceremonial  marriage,  and  in  most 
eases  retpiiring  also  a  license  to  marry  granted 
by  the  properly  constituted  ofTieer.  usually  the 
clerk    of   the    municipality    where   the   marriage 


92  MARRIAGE. 

is  solemnized   or   the   oflicer   having  supervision 
over  vital  statistics. 

The  nuirriage  ceremony  is  usually  required  to 
be  performed  in  the  presence  of  two  or  more 
witnesses,  by  a  priest  or  clergyman  of  some 
church,  or  by  certain  enumerated  civil  officers, 
such  as  judges  of  courts  of  record,  justices  of  the 
peace,  police  justices,  mayors,  aldermen  of 
cities,  and  county  clerks,  ^'arious  penalties  are 
imposed  for  failure  to  comply  with  the  provisions 
of  the  stivtute.  and  in  some  States  intentional  vio- 
lation of  the  law  is  made  a  criminal  oll'ense.  In 
most  States,  in  the  absence  of  a  positive  provision 
of  the  statute  that  marriages  not  comi)lying  with 
the  requirements  of  the  statute  shall  be  Void, 
the  statute  is  deemed  to  he  directory  only,  and 
not  in  any  manner  to  atl'ect  the  validity  of  the  so- 
called  common  law  marriage.  This  is  sul)stan- 
tially  the  law  in  all  of  the  States,  except  Cali- 
fornia. Kentucky,  Jlissouri,  Jlaryland,  Jlassa- 
chusetts,  Xorth  Carolina,  Vermont,  Washington, 
and  West  Virginia,  in  all  of  which  it  is  held  that 
the  comnum-law  marriage  has  been  abolished  by 
statute.  But  in  some  of  these  States,  notably 
Massachusetts,  Washington,  and  West  Virginia, 
there  are  validating  statutes  providing  that  mere 
irregularities  when  an  attem])t  is  made  in  good 
faith  to  comidy  with  the  statute  shall  nut  all'e.t 
the  validity  of  the  marriage. 

A  statute  of  Xew  York,  passed  in  llKIl,  where 
common-law  as  well  as  statutory  ceremonial  mar- 
riage had  each  been  held  to  be  valid,  requires  a 
non-ceremonial  marriage  to  be  evidenced  by  a 
written  agreement  to  be  entered  into  by  the 
parties  to  the  marriage  in  the  presence  of  two 
witnesses  and  acknowledged  in  the  same  manner 
as  conveyances  of  real  estate.  It  is  probable 
that  this  statute  does  away  with  common-law 
marriage   in  Xew  York, 

In  most  of  the  United  States  the  age  at  which 
an  infant  may  consent  to  enter  into  tlie  marriage 
relation  has  been  raised  by  statute  to  sixteen  and 
in  some  of  the  States  to  eighteen  years.  These 
statutes  do  not.  however,  change  the  common-law 
rule  that  such  marriages  are  not  void,  hut 
riiitlahlc  cmly  at  the  option  of  the  infant  or  of  his 
parent  or  guardian.  See  Infant;  P.\rent  and 
("iiii.i);  MoRn.vNATic  Marriage.  v 

BiiiLioGRAi'iiY.  On  the  history  of  marriage  as  I 
an  institution,  consult:  Westermarck.  The  His-  • 
lori)  of  Human  Mrnriarir  (3d  ed,,  London,  Ifl02), 
a  comprehensive  historical  study,  with  an  ex- 
tensive bibliography;  Letourneau,  L'i'iolulion  da 
mnriagc  ct  dc  la  famille  (Paris,  1.S88;  trans., 
The  Ernlutinn  of  Marriage  and  of  the  Famihi, 
Xew  York.  1891 ) .  These  are  general  works. 
The  original  stmlies  which  have  developed  the 
scicntilic  theory  of  the  subject  are:  jlorgan, 
Thr  I.riiqitr  of  the  Iroquois  (Rochester,  1S40; 
reprinte(i,  Xew  York,  inOI),  the  first  work  to 
direct  scientific  attention  to  the  true  character 
of  marital  and  kinship  systems  among  uncivil- 
ized men;  Kiifilrms  of  Consanfjuiiiilii  ami  A/Jinihi 
of  the  Human  Famihi  (Washington,  1871): 
Aneient  Sori'r/i/  (London  and  X'ew  York.  1877)  ; 
Unchofen,  Dast  Mullerrrehl  (Stu(lg;irl,  1801); 
Maine,  Aneient  La\r  (London,  ISfil)  ;  F.arhi  Law 
and  Cuilom  (London,  1883;  Xew  York.  I'SSfi)  ; 
Mcl.eninin,  I'rimitire  Marrimje  ( I.ondnn.  18(1,")), 
ri'printcd  in  Studies  in  Aneient  liistnni  (London, 
lS7<i)  ;  The  Patriarehal  Theory  (London,  188.5)  ; 
ff Indies  in  Aneient  Uistorti:  Seeond  Series  (Lon- 
don, 1896)  ;  Gallon,  Eercditary  Genius   (London, 


MARBIAGE. 


93 


MARRIOTT. 


18C9),  containing  a  study  of  the  effects  of  close 
interbreeding;  Darwin,  The  Descent  of  Man 
(London  and  New  York,  1871)  ;  Dargun,  Mtitter- 
reclit  unci  Kaubchc  und  Hire  lleste  im  yerinu- 
nisehen  Keeht  uiul  /.('(kvi  ( Ureslau,  1883)  ;  .Sniitli, 
Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia  (London, 
1885)  ;  Spencer  and  Gilleii,  The  Native  Tribes 
of  Central  Australia  (London,  1809)  ;  Crawley, 
The  Mystie  Rose:  A  tftudy  of  Primitive  Marriaye 
(London,  1902).  For  the  Roman  law,  Rossbach, 
lidmischc  Ehe  (.Stuttgart.  18.53)  ;  Karlowa,  A'o- 
mischc  Khc  utid  Muiius  (Bonn.  18U8).  For  the 
old  Uermau  law,  Sohni,  Die  Ehesehlicssuny 
(Weimar,  1875)  ;  Trauung  und  Verlobiing  (Wei- 
mar, 1S76).  Znr  Trauungsfrage  (Heilbronn, 
1879);  Friedberg,  Verlotjuny  und  Trauung 
(Leipzig,  1870)  ;  the  works  on  German  legal 
history  by  Brunner  (Leipzig,  1892)  ;  Schro- 
der (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1889)  ;  and  Heusler,  Insfi- 
iutionen  des  deutschen  I'rivatrechls  (Leipzig, 
1886).  For  the  ecclesiastical  law,  Catliolic  and 
Protestant,  Freisen,  Geschichte  des  h-ationisclien 
Eherechls  (2d  ed.,  Paderborn,  1892)  ;  Binder, 
Kalholischcs  Eherecht  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg-ini- 
Breisgau,  1891);  Esmein,  Le  mariage  en  droit 
canonique  ( Paris,  1891 )  ;  Sclinitzer.  Katholisches 
Eherecht  ( Freiburg-im-Breisgau.  1898);  and 
works  on  Kirchcnrecht  by  Friedberg  (4th  ed., 
Leipzig.  1895)  :  Schulte  (Giessen,  1886)  ;  and 
Richter  ( 8tli  ed.,  Leipzig,  1886).  For  English 
ecclesiastical  law.  Burn.  Ecclesiastical  Law  (9th 
ed.. London.  1842  |  ;  Phillimore. i?("c/esias/iV«7  Laio 
of  the  Church  of  England  (2d  ed.,  London,  1895). 
For  modern  civil  marriage,  Gneist.  Die  biirger- 
liehe  Eheschliessung  (Berlin,  1869);  Glasson, 
Mariage  civil  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1880).  Compara- 
tive legislation,  Lehr,  Le  mariage  dans  les  prin- 
cipaux    pays    (Paris,    1899). 

For  the  modern  law  of  marriage  of  Great 
Britain  and  America  consult  the  authorities  re- 
ferred to  under  Domestic  Relatio.x.s  :  Hu.sband 
AND  Wife;  Parent  and  Child;  Dower;  Curt- 
esy;  etc. 

MARRIAGE  A  LA  MODE,  ii  la  mod.  A 
series  of  si.x;  paintings  by  Hogarth  (1744)  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  intended  as  designs 
for  a  series  of  engravings,  as  which  they  are 
niost  widely  known.  They  show  the  results  of 
a  fashionable  marriage  between  the  son  of  an 
cirl  and  the  daughter  of  a  rich  London  alder- 
man, in  subjects  as  follow:  1.  The  Marriage 
Contract;  II.  After  tlie  Marriage  (see  illustra- 
tion under  Hogabtii)  ;  III.  Visit  to  the  Quack 
Doctor:  IV.  The  Countess's  Dressing  Room;  V. 
The  Duel  and  Death  of  the  Earl;  VI.  Death  of 
the   Countess. 

MARRIED  WOMAN.  A  woman  who  con- 
tracts a  marriage  thereby  changes  her  legal 
status  as  to  her  personal  rights,  her  contractual 
rights,  her  property  rights,  her  rights  before  the 
criminal  law.  and  in  some  cases  her  political 
rights.  So  complete  is  this  change  at  the  com- 
mon law  that  she  has  been  spoken  of  as  becom- 
ing a  legal  nonentity.  Generally  speaking,  she  is 
after  marriage,  at  the  common  law,  in  a  less 
favorable  position  in  all  these  respects  than  be- 
fore, except  possibly  at  the  criminal  law.  where 
the  presumption  of  her  husband's  coercion  in  case 
of  criminal  acts  done  in  his  presence  makes  her 
irrespnnsilile  for  such  acts,  except  in  case  of  the 
more  serious  crimes.  Her  personal  property  in 
possession  and  her  chattels  real,  generally  speak- 


ing, become  her  hu.-.bands  or  can  be  disposed  of 
by  him ;  in  her  real  property  he  has  an  estate 
for  their  joint  lives,  and  may  have  an  estate 
during  his  own  life.  (See  Curtesy.)  Her  rights 
in  his  property  during  their  joint  lives  arc  prac- 
tically limited  to  her  right  to  the  necessaries  of 
life,  and  the  control  over  his  real  property  that 
arises  from  her  dower  rights  which  enable  her  as 
a  matter  of  law  to  refuse  to  release  her  dower 
right.  (See  Dower.)  In  fact  this  right  is  of 
little  avail,  as  the  husband's  position  generally 
enables  him  jiractically  to  coerce  her  into  com- 
pliance with  his  wishes  in  this  respect. 

By  the  fact  of  her  marriage  she  loses  her  ca- 
pacity to  enter  into  an}'  contract  except  the  re- 
lease of  dower  (which  can  only  be  done  jointly 
with  the  husband)  and  for  the  necessaries  of  life, 
whether  living  with  her  husband  or  apart  from 
him,  except  as  concerns  her  separate  estate.  Her 
capacity  cannot  be  increased  by  any  act  or  repre- 
sentation of  her  own,  nor  can  any  implied  prom- 
ise be  raised  against  her,  nor  any  liability  be 
imposed  by  estoppel.  Even  for  torts  against  her 
person  she  is  forced  to  seek  damages  through  her 
husband.  The  hardship  of  the.se  disabilities  of 
the  common  law,  and  of  the  merger  of  the  wife's 
property  in  the  husband's  estate,  caused  the 
courts  of  equity  to  give  certain  equitable  reme- 
dies against  tlie  husi)and  in  order  to  protect  her 
and  her  children  in  the  enjoyment  of  at  least  a 
portion  of  her  property,  and  to  neglect  some  of 
the  legal  formalities  in  giving  eiTect  to  agree- 
ments to  create  a  separate  estate  for  the  wife, 
and  to  protect  her  by  establishing  the  doctrine 
that  the  use  of  the  separate  estate  must  be  for 
its  use  or  her  benefit,  and  that  its  income  could 
not  be  anticipated. 

Modern  legislation  has,  however,  largely  re- 
moved tliese  disabilities.  There  is  a  mass  of 
heterogeneous  legislation,  so  local  and  various  in 
its  provisions  as  not  to  admit  of  any  except  the 
most  general  classification.  The  first  tendency 
of  this  legislation  was  to  free  the  wife  and  lier 
property  from  the  husband's  control ;  but  there 
has  been  in  the  United  States  a  subsequent  tend- 
ency to  impose  upon  them  a  joint  liability  for 
such  obligations  as  naturally  arise  from  the 
marriage  relation.  In  most  of  the  States  the 
wife  is  practically  free  from  common  law  disa- 
bilities. In  England,  the  legislation  on  this  sub- 
ject has,  of  course,  had  more  unity  than  that  of 
the  various  States  of  this  country,  but  it  is  not 
based  upon  any  general  and  definite  plan.  The 
disabilities  of  the  wife  have  not  been  removed  to 
such  an  extent  as  generally  in  the  United  States. 
The  subject  is  practically  governed  in  England 
by  the  JIarried  Women's  Property  Act  of  1882 
(45  and  46  Vict.,  e.  75).  as  supplemented  bv  the 
law  of  1886  (49  and  .50  Vict.,  c.  52).  See  Ca- 
pacity; Curtesy:  Husband  .\nd  Wife;  Dower; 
Skp.vrate  Est.\te;  etc.  Consult  the  local  stat- 
utes for  special  matters,  and  also  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  Husband  and  Wife. 

MAR'RIOTT,  John  (1780-1S25).  An  Eng- 
lish poet.  He  was  the  son  of  Robert  Marriott, 
rector  of  Cotesbach  Church  in  Leicestershire,  and 
was  educated  at  Rugbv  and  at  Christ  Church. 
Oxford  (B.A.  1802:  M.A.  1806).  He  left  Oxford 
in  1804  to  become  tutor  to  George  llonrv.  Lord 
Seott  (d.  1808).  elder  brother  of  the  fifth  Duke 
of  Buccleuch.  Wliilo  livint'  at  Dalkeith  (1804- 
08)  he  made  the  intimate  acquaintance  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.     Ordained  priest  in   1805,  he  re- 


MARRIOTT. 


94 


MARRYAT. 


ceived  from  the  Buccleuch  family  the  rectory  of 
Church  Lawford  in  Warwicksliire.  Though  lie 
retaiiicil  this  benefice  till  his  death,  he  resided 
inoslly  in  Devonshire,  serving  in  various  curacies. 
To  the  third  edition  of  tjcott's  Miiistrtlsii  he  con- 
trihutcd  three  poems.  Marriott's  best  known 
poem  is  "Marriage  is  Like  a  Devonshire  Lane" 
(in  Joanna  Baillie's  Collection  of  Poems,  1S23). 
lie  also  wrote  several  popular  hymns,  as  "Thou 
whose  Almighty  Word." 

MARROW  (.\S.  mearg.  mearh,  OIIG.  marag, 
iiiiiig,  tier.  Mark;  connected  with  Welsh  titer, 
t'orn.  miiru,  OC'hiirch  Slav.  mo;iju,  Av.  ma^ga, 
Skt.  mujjan,  marrow,  from  majj,  Lat.  mergere, 
to  di])).  A  substance  filling  the  cells  and  cavi- 
ties of  the  bones  of  manmials.  Tliere  are  two  varie- 
ties, which  are  known  as  red  marroic  and  yellow 
marroie.  In  some  of  the  short  bones,  as  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebrse  and  the  sternum,  the  mar- 
row has  a  reddish  color,  and  is  found  on  analysis 
to  contain  75  per  cent,  of  water,  the  remainder 
consisting  of  albuminous  and  fibrinous  matter 
with  salts  and  a  trace  of  oil.  In  the  long  bones 
of  a  healthy  adult  mammal,  the  marrow  occurs  as 
a  yellow,  oily  tluid,  contained  in  vesicles  like 
those  of  common  fat,  which  are  imbedded  in  the 
inters])aces  of  the  medullary  membrane,  which  is 
a  highly  vascular  membrane  lining  the  interior 
of  the  bones.  This  marrow  consists  of  96  per 
cent,  of  oil  and  4  of  water  connective  tissue,  and 
vessels.  The  oily  matter  of  the  marrow  is  com- 
posed of  the  same  materials  as  common  fat,  with 
the  oleinc  (or  fluid  portion)  in  greater  abund- 
ance. Being  of  U)w  specific  gravity,  it  is  well 
suited  to  fill  the  cavities  of  the  bones  and  forms 
an  advantageous  substitute  for  the  bony  matter 
which  preceded  it  in  the  young  animal.  Preparn- 
tions  of  red  bone-marrow  are  in  the  market,  for 
internal  administration.  They  are  useful  in 
aiiu'tiiia,  with  other  ri-cnnstructives. 

MARROW  CONTROVERSY.  One  of  the 
inemrirnl)le  struggles  in  the  religious  history  of 
Scotland.  It  took  its  name  from  a  book  entitled 
the  Marrow  of  Modern  DiiimVi/.  published  at  Ox- 
ford in  1(14.').  The  authorship  of  the  book  has  been 
attributed,  though  probably  incorrectly,  to  Edward 
P'isher.  The  high  'evangelical'  character  of  this 
work,  and  especially  its  doctrine  of  the  free  grace 
of  God  in  the  redemption  of  sinners,  had  made  it 
a  great  favorite  with  certain  of  the  ministers  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  in  1718  an  edition 
was  published  in  Edinburgh  by  the  Kev.  .lames 
Hog  of  Carnock,  followed  in  1710  by  an  e.\]ilana- 
tory  pamphlet.  A  eonunittec  app.iintcd  by  the 
tieneral  .Assembly  of  the  s.Tme  year,  after  an  ex- 
amination, drew  up  a  report  which  was  presented 
to  the  .\ssembly  of  1720.  and  the  result  was  the 
formal  conilemnation  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Mnfrnir,  a  jjrohibition  to  teach  or  preach  them 
for  the  future,  and  an  exhortation  to  the  jieople 
of  Scotland  not  to  read  them.  This  act  of  the 
Assembly  was  immediately  brought  by  Thomas 
ISoston  before  the  Presbytery  of  Selkirk,  who 
laid  it  before  the  Synod  of  Merse  and  Teviotdale. 
The  'evancelieal'  ministers  in  the  Church,  few  in 
nundier.  but  supported  by  a  very  consirb'rnble 
amount  of  popular  sympathy,  resolved  to  pre- 
sent a  representation  to  the  next  Oeneral  .\ssem- 
bly  (  1721  ).  complaining  of  the  late  act.  and  vin- 
dietating  the  'truths'  which  it  eondeumed.  A 
commission  of  the  .Assembly  of  1721  was  ap- 
pointed to  deal  with  the  ministers,  and  n  series 
of  questions  was  put  to  them,  to  which  answers 


were  drawn  up  by  tbenezer  Lrskine  and  Ijabriel 
\\  ilson.  These  replies  did  not  prove  satisfactory, 
and  the  'Marrow-men'  were  called  before  the  bar 
of  the  Assembly  (1722)  and  solemnly  rebuked. 
The  matter  was  then  quietly  dropped,  but  it 
really  occasioned  the  secession  of  1734.  See  Bos- 
ton, Thomas,  and  Kbskixe,  Kbexezee. 

MAR'RUCI'NI.  An  ancient  peoi)le  in  Cen- 
tral Italy,  on  a  narrow  tract  of  land  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  -Vternus.  now  the  IVscara. 
Their  territory  extended  from  the  Apennines  to 
the  Adriatic;  between  the  Vcstini  on  the  north- 
west and  the  Frentaui  on  the  southeast,  and  be- 
tween the  Pieligni  on  the  southwest  and  the  Adri- 
atic on  the  northeast.  They  were  an  indejiendeDt 
nation,  said  to  be  descended  from  the  Sabines, 
and  generally  were  in  alliance  with  their  neigh- 
bors, the  Marsi  and  Padigni.  They  entered  into 
alliance  with  the  Romans  in  B.C.  .'504,  but  rebelled 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Social  War.  Their  only 
place  of  importance  was  Teate,  now  Chieti,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Aternus. 

MARRYAT,  mrir'ri-at.  Flohencf.  { ls;57-'jy) . 
An  Lnglish  authoress,  daughter  of  Captain  Jlar- 
ryat.  She  was  born  at  Brighton.  July  !).  1837,  edu- 
cated at  home,  and  began  writing  at  twelve.  She 
was  twice  married,  first  to  Col.  Koss  Church,  of 
the  Madras  Staff  Corps,  and  second  to  Col.  Francis 
Lean,  of  the  Royal  Light  Infantry.  She  died  in 
London.  October  27,  1899.  As  a  writer  she  first 
gained  public  attention  by  Lovc'»  Conflict  ( 18G5) . 
Miss  Marryat  was  also  known  as  a  lecturer,  an 
operatic  singer,  and  a  comedienne.  In  collabora- 
tion with  Sir  C.  L.  Young  she  wrote  Miss  Chester, 
a  three-act  drama,  and  in  1881  she  acted  the 
]irincipal  comedy  role  in  her  own  play,  Uer 
Wiirlil.  Among  her  works,  which  number  over 
seventy,  are:  .!/»/  Own  Child:  M;/  leister  the 
Actress:  "Gup,"  Hhetche»  of  Anglo-Indian  Life 
and  Character :  Petronel;  The  (Hrls  of  Fever- 
sham  ;  Xelh/Brooke ;  Xo Intentions : Siibil's  Friend 
and  How  f<he  Found  lliin:  Mad  Dnmaresr/ :  Open 
Srnamc:  Her  ll'ord  Against  a  Lie:  Facing  the 
Footlights :  The  IJfe  and  Letters  of  Captain 
Marn/al.  In  her  later  years  she  had  an  interest 
in  spiritualism,  and  among  her  writings  dealing 
with  this  subject  are  The  Hisen  Dead  and  There 
Is  Xo  Death. 

MARRYAT,  Fhederioiv  (1702-1S4S).  .An 
F.nglish  sailor  and  novelist,  born  in  London.  .luly 
10.  17'.)2.  (Jn  leaving  school  he  entered  the  navy 
as  midshipman.  In  1812  he  attained  his  lieu- 
tenancy. In  1814  he  was  fighting  on  the  Ameri- 
can coast.  His  health  gave  way  and  he  went 
home.  He  was  made  commander  in  1815.  In 
1820  he  was  in  the  sloop  Bearer  on  the  Saint 
Helena  station.  After  an  able  service  he  re- 
signed in  1830.  During  his  naval  career  Marryat 
suved  at  great  iicrsonal  risk  more  than  a  dozen 
lives.  He  was  rewarded  on  this  score  and  elected 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1819.  mainly 
because  he  had  adapted  Popham's  signal  system 
to  the  mercantile  marine.  He  was  also  decorated 
by  the  King  of  France  for  "services  rendered  to 
science  ami  navigation."  Marcyat  wrote  easily 
and  made  money  quickly,  but  he  was  somewhat 
lavish,  and  toward  1844  was  in  straitened  eir-  j 
euinslances.  Ipon  the  .Admiralty's  refusal  to  let  J 
him  reenter  the  service  he  burst  a  blooil  vessel,  ' 
and  six  months  later,  when  almost  well,  he  was 
nmrtally  shocked  hy  hearing  that  his  son  Freder- 
ick had  been  lost  in  the  Avenger.     He  died  Au- 


MARRYAT. 


95 


UARS. 


giist  0,  1848,  at  Laii^^liain.  Aiiioiij;  liis  niinierou.s 
tales  are  the  avowedly  aut()l)iogra[iliic'al  I'ruiilc 
Uildmuy  (1820);  theu  I'etvr  Himpk  (1834); 
Mr.  ilidship)iHiii  Easy  (1830);  The  Phantom 
Ship  (1839)  ;  I'tjor  Jack  ( 1840)  ;  and  The  I'rimi- 
teer's  Man  (184(i).  In  fun  and  humor  ilarryat 
is  the  Dickens  of  the  sea.  Consult:  Life  and 
Letters,  by  his  daughter,  Florence  Alarryat  (Lon- 
don, 1872)  ;  and  Life,  by  Hannay  (ib.,  1889). 

MARS  (I.at.,  also  Marors,  or  Marspiter,  like 
Jupiter,  Gk  "A/jtjs,  Arcs,  of  unknown  derivation). 
\\'ith  tiic  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  the  god 
of  war  and  tumult  of  battle.  The  Greek  and 
Koman    conceptions    differ    radically. 

GiiiOEK.  Ares,  though  prominent  in  the  poets, 
plays  no  large  part  in  Greek  cult  or  myth.  It  is  true 
that  a  somewhat  long  list  can  be  compiled  of  tem- 
ples of  the  god,  but  he  did  not  fill  a  large  place  in 
religious  thought,  and  at  but  few  localities  was 
his  worship  important.  At  Thebes  .and  Athens 
he  seems  to  have  been  more  prominent  than  in 
most  communities.  At  Thebes  he  was  said  to 
ha\e  been  father  of  the  dragon  who  guarded  his 
sacred  spring  and  was  slain  by  Cadmus,  wlio  in 
the  final  reconciliation  wedded  Harmonia,  daugh- 
ter of  Ares  and  Aj^hrodite,  who  here,  as  often  in 
Greek  legend,  appears  as  his  recognized  consort. 
The  connection  of  Aphrodite  with  Hephsestus,  and 
her  adultery  with  Ares,  though  told  in  the 
Odyssci/,  was  not  everywhere  canonical,  and 
seems  to  have  received  its  chief  prominence  at  a 
late*  ))eriod.  At  Athens  there  was  a  celebrated 
temple  with  a  statue  by  Alcamenes,  and  a  legend 
which  connected  him  with  thefoundingof  the  court 
of  the  Areopagus  (or  ilars'  Hill).  He  was  said  to 
have  killed  a  son  of  Poseidon  for  an  outrage  on 
his  daughter,  and  to  have  been  tried  by  the 
twelve  gods  and  acquitted  on  the  hill,  which 
henceforth  bore  his  name.  Cults  in  Thessaly 
and  at  Argos,  Tegea,  and  Sparta  are  also  men- 
tioned. In  legend  Ares  is  commonly  the  son  of 
Zeus  and  Hera,  whose  quarrelsome  disposition 
he  inherits.  His  sister  in  Homer  is  Eris.  his 
sons  Deimos  (Terror)  and  Phobos  ( Fright ),  who 
go  with  him  into  battle.  He  is  always  greedy 
for  war,  battle,  and  bloodshed.  The  tumult  of 
battle  is  his  delight,  and  in  later  poets,  as 
!>ophoclcs,  he  appears  as  the  sender  of  pesti- 
lence and  destruction.  He  was  certainly  associ- 
ated in  the  minds  of  the  Greeks  with  Thrace,  and 
there  is  mucli  probability  in  the  view-  that  his 
worship  was  derived  from  Thracian  tribes  or 
their  kindred.  In  the  earlier  art,  especially  on 
vases.  Ares  is  often  bearded  and  regularly  in  the 
full  armor  of  a  Greek  soldier.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury and  later  this  equipment  disappears,  and 
the  god  is  often  represented  clad  in  the  chlamys 
or  nude,  though  usiuilly  with  his  attributes  of 
shield  and  spear.  Among  the  most  celebrated 
statues  are  the  standing  "Ares  Borghese"  (some- 
times called  Achilles)  in  the  Louvre,  which  goes 
back  to  a  fifth-century  work,  and  the  seated 
"Ares  Ludovisi"  in  Rome,  which  seems  to  be 
copieil  from  a  statue  of  Scopaa,  though  the  Frotes 
'are  probably  the  addition  of  the  Hellenistic 
copyist. 

Roman.  Mars  was  an  ancient  Italian  deity  and 
seems  everj-wliere  to  have  been  the  god  of  war. 
At  Rome  his  worship  is  among  the  most  ancient 
and  important.  His  temple  and  oldest  altar 
stood  in  the  Campus  Jlartius.  and  another  fa- 
mous temple  just  outside  the  Porta  Capena  on  the 
south  of  the  city.     At  each  lustrum  at  the  close 


of  the  census,  when  the  eoinitia  ccnturiata,  or 
Roman  citizens  as  an  army,  gathered  in  the 
Campus  Jlartius,  the  gathering  was  purified  by 
leadmg  aro\ind  it  the  souictaurilia  (l)oar.  ram, 
and  bull),  an  offering  sacred  to  Mars,  which  was 
afterwards  sacrificed,  and  similar  ceremonies  are 
found  in  connection  with  other  purifications  as 
of  the  city,  villages,  and  even  single  farms.  The 
sacred  emblems  of  Mars  were  the  spear  and 
shield,  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  which 
were  prescned  in  the  Regia,  and  carried  by  the 
Salii,  priests  of  the  god,  in  their  festivals.  The 
chief  festivals  of  Mars  were  in  the  mouths  of 
March  (Jlartius,  from  the  god)  and  October, 
which  are  clearly  connected  with  the  opening 
and  close  of  the  campaigning  season. 

MARS.  The  first  of  the  superior  planets.  Its 
mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  141.5  million  miles 
or  nearly  |  times  that  of  the  earth  ;  its  periodic 
time,  G80.9  days;  its  diameter,  4230  miles;  vol- 
ume ^^  that  of  the  earth;  density,  0.71,  earth's 
being  unity.  When  it  is  nearest  to  the  earth 
(i.e.  in  favorable  opposition)  its  apparent  angu- 
lar diameter  is  2.5",  but  when  farthest  away  (i.e. 
in  conjunction)  its  diameter  is  not  more  than 
4".  The  axis  of  rotation  is  inclined  24°  50'  to 
the  plane  of  the  orbit  and  therefore  the  planet 
presents  phenomena  of  seasons  similar  to  the 
earth's.  The  diurnal  rotation  period  of  Mars 
is  known  very  accurately  from  observations  of 
surface  markings  to  be  24  hours  37  minutes  22.07 
seconds.  The  planet  shines  with  a  red  light  and 
is  a  brilliant  object  in  the  heavens  at  midnight 
when  near  opposition.  Mars  has  two  satellites, 
discovered  by  Hall  in  1877.  They  are  very  small, 
and  visible  with  powerful  telescopes  only.  The 
inner  satellite.  Phobos,  revolves  around  the  planet 
in  7  hours  39  minutes,  which  is  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  Martian  day.  Consequently,  Phobos 
will  rise  in  the  west  and  set  in  the  east,  its  real 
motion  more  than  counterbal.ancing  the  apparent 
diurnal  motion  of  JIars  on  its  axis.  The  outer 
satellite  is  called  Deimos. 

Beginning  with  the  telescopic  researches  by 
Sir  William  Hei-schel,  Mars  has  possessed  special 
interest  owing  to  the  indication  of  the  existence 
upon  its  surface  of  physical  conditions  not  unlike 
those  of  the  earth.  The  Martian  seasons  have 
already  been  mentioned.  The  'canal  system'  of 
Mars,  suggested  by  Schiaparelli  in  1877.  has 
given  rise  to  a  careful  study  of  the  planet,  ren- 
dered possible  by  the  construction  of  our  great 
modern  telescopes.  Many  things  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  Mars  is  enveloped  in  an  atmosphere 
with  physical  properties  similar  to  those  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere.  According  to  observations 
by  Lowell,  at  Flagstaff,  Ariz.,  carried  on  for 
six  months,  this  atmosphere  would  appear  to 
be  of  remarkable  clearness.  Two  white  patches, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  poles,  are  very  con- 
spicuous and  so  brilliant  that  they,  in  the  proper 
light  of  the  sun,  have  lieen  seen  sparkling  like 
stars.  They  are  generally  explained  as  accumu- 
lations of  snow  and  ice,  and  this  view-  is  sup- 
ported by  the  fact  that  they  change  with  the 
Martian  seasons,  i.e.  increase  in  size  during  win- 
ter, decrease  as  spring  approaches,  and  almost 
disappear  during  the  summer. 

A  mixture  of  orange  patches  and  gray-green 
markings  are  seen  extending  over  more  than  half 
the  surface  of  the  planet  in  a  central  zone,  al- 
most parallel  to  the  equator.  The  orange  patches 
are   assumed   to   be   land.      This   assumption    is 


MARS.  !*0 

based  upon  the  similar  appearance  that  tlie  great 
deserts  of  the  earth  would  present  under  the 
same  conditions..  Also  permanent  markings  on 
these  patches  have  been  observed.  The  gray- 
green  markings  were  at  lirst  explained  to  be  seas 
and  Sir  William  lluggins  discovered  water  in  the 
atmosphere  of  Mars,  but  the  recent  observations 
of  Dougla.ss  in  Arizona  (1894)  and  liarnard  at 
the  hick  Observatory  (189U)  seem  to  disprove 
the  aqueous  character  of  the  'seas.'  In  1894 
l.owell  and  Pickering  discovered,  a  month  after 
the  Martian  vernal  equinox,  a  dark  belt  con- 
nected with  the  south  polar  cap,  which  was  ex- 
jilained  by  them  as  a  gathering  of  water  resulting 
from  the  melting  of  the  cap  by  the  summer  heat. 
A  similar  appearance  has  been  observed  around 
the  north  polar  cap. 

Of  all  the  markings  that  have  been  observed  on 
the  surface  of  MarSj  the  'canals'  have  created  the 
most  interest.  Since  their  first  observation  at 
the  very  favorable  opposition  of  the  planet  in 
1877,  they  have  been  studied  carefully  at  later 
favorable  oppositions.  They  have  been  described 
by  observers  as  faint  lines,  becoming  finer  and 
straighter  at  closer  observation,  following  the 
course  of  great  circles,  and  distributed  like 
a  network  over  the  surface  of  the  planet.  Several 
appear  to  pass  through  the  same  point,  at  which 
riiiMid  spots,  called  'lakes,'  are  .seen.  Various 
theories  have  been  advanced  for  the  explanation 
of  this  'canal  system.'  As  the  name  indicates, 
they  were  first  taken  to  be  waterways,  and  the 
change  in  their  appearance  was  explained  as  due 
to  the  Martian  seasons.  Pickering  considered 
tliem  to  he  tracts  of  land  rather  than  waterways. 
Lowell  advanced  the  view  that  these  'canals'  and 
'lakes'  constituted  a  system  of  irrigation,  carried 
«ut  by  the  inhabitants  of  .Mars  for  the  purpose 
of  leading  the  water  obtained  from  the  melting 
snow  of  the  polar  regions  over  the  entire  surface 
of  the  jdanet.  These  views  arc,  however,  to  be 
taken  with  extreme  caution,  since  the  appearance 
of  the  canal  system  may  be  nothing  hut  an 
o|itical   illusion.     See  Pi,.\nkt.S;   Solar  System. 

MARS,  PoRiM  or.     .V  name  for  tlw  Forum  of 

Augustus    ((|.V. ). 

MARS,  miirs,  .Vnjje  Fran(;'oise  IIyitolyte 
BoiTET,  Mademoi.selle  (1779-1847).  A  famous 
French  actress.  She  was  born  in  Paris.  Her 
father  was  the  actor  .Taeques  Monvel;  her  mother 
was  an  actress.  Mile.  Mars-Boutet.  At  an  early 
age  she  appeared  at  the  C"()nu'<lie  Franeai.se  in 
personations  of  ingenuous  childhood,  but  it  was 
not  till  she  had  reached  her  twenty-fourth  year 
that  her  first  great  success  was  dbtaincd  in  l.'rihbc 
<lr  lYpcr.  in  the  part  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  girl. 
I'rom  that  time  forward,  through  a  period  of 
nearly  forty  years,  .she  aeteil  through  the  whole 
range  of  dramatic  art  with  a  fullness  of  talent 
that  never  failed  to  present  with  delicacy,  power, 
and  good  taste  each  new  character  in  which  she 
appeared.  Her  last  apjiearance  was  in  1S4I  as 
('elim^ne  in  hr  mixniilhropr  and  as  .\raminlhe 
in  /..,•,■  finniirs  .inrnntrx.  She  ilieil  in  Paris, 
on  March  20,  1847.  Consult,  though  Ihey  are  of 
doubtful  value,  the  Mi'iiwirrn  dr  Matlimoixrllr 
^f|lr.1  (Paris.  1849).  and  the  Cfmliilrnrrs  dr 
Miidrmnisrllr  Mam  ( ih.,  IS;").!),  publish, mI  by 
Roger  de  Henuvoir. 

MARSALA,  miir-sii'li'i.  A  city  in  the  Prov- 
ince lit  Trapani.  Sicily,  famous  for  Marsala  wine 
that   is   maimfnetured   hi're   by   building   up   and 


MARSDEN. 


strengthening  the  wines  of  Sicily  (Map:  Italy, 
li  10).  Marsala  is  the  westernmost  city  of  the 
island  and  is  102  miles  by  rail  southwest  of 
Palermo.  It  is  modern  in  appearance  and  the 
cathedral  is  the  only  building  of  special  interest. 
Marsala  has  a  gjinna-sium,  a  technical  school, 
an  agricultural  school,  a  city  library,  and  a 
theatre.  The  exports  are  wine,  salt,  grain,  and 
oil.  Population  (commune),  in  1881,  40,342;  in 
1901,  r)7.ri(i7.  It  is  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Liiyli:i'um. 

MARSBANKER,  MARSHBANKER,  etc. 
(Dutch  iiKirnbankrr,  scad,  apparently  from  nuns, 
peddler's  pack,  or  mas,  crowd  +  btiiik,  bank;  so 
called  because  the  fish  appears  in  shoals).  Old 
or  local  names  of  the  menhaden  (q.v.).  Compare 
^lossiu  .\Ki:i!. 

MARSCHALL  VON  BIEBERSTEIN, 

mar'shil  f6n  be'ber-stin,  Adolf,  Freiherr  von 
(1842 — ).  A  German  statesman  and  diplomat, 
born  in  Karlsruhe,  anil  educated  at  Heidelberg 
and  Freiburg.  He  entered  the  judicial  service 
of  Baden,  and  from  187.5  to  18S.'J  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Ujiper  House  of  its  Parliament. 
In  the  Imperial  Diet,  from  1878  to  1881,  he 
allied  himself  with  the  German  Conserva- 
tives. In  Baden  he  made  a  strong  effort  to 
unify  Protestant  opposition  to  the  Ultranionta- 
nists;  and  his  activitj'  in  the  Empire  was  largely 
in  paving  the  way  for  social  reforms.  After 
four  years  as  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign,Af- 
fairs,  an  olfice  in  which  he  devoted  himself  espe- 
cially to  conunercial  treaties,  he  was  named 
Prussian  Minister  of  State  in  1894.  Upon  his 
retirement  in  1897  he  was  sent  as  Ambassador 
to  Constantinople. 

MARSCHNER,  marsh'ner,  Heinricii  ( 1795- 
1801).  A  (icrman  composer,  born  at  Zittau.  in 
Saxony.  In  ISl.'i  he  entered  the  I'niversify  ol 
I-eipzig  to  study  law.  but  soon  abainloncd  it  in 
favor  of  music.  He  met  Beethoven  in  1817,  through 
the  medium  of  his  patron,  the  Count  von  -Vmadfe, 
and  in  182.3  shared  with  Weber  the  directorship 
of  the  German  and  Italian  operas  at  Dresden. 
He  succeeded  Weber  as  kapellmeister  of  the  Leip- 
zig Theater,  and  produced  on  its  stage  his  popu- 
lar opera  Drr  Trmphr  mid  die  Jiidiii  (1829), 
which  made  him  famous  througho\it  Germany. 
llcinr'wh  IV.  und  it'Aubiiinc  had  ap])eared  in  1819 
(produced  by  Weber  in  1820).  and  I)<v  Vampyr 
(regarded  as  his  best  work)  in  1828.  Hiscompo.si- 
tions  also  include  a  great  number  of  songs, 
pianoforte  pieces,  part  songs,  and  choruses,  and 
considerable  chamber  music.  Other  operas,  not 
mentioned  above,  are:  Ilnns  llciliiifi  (1833),  a 
remarkable  work:  Hrr  Biibu  (1837)  :  Adolph  ron 
\ assail  (1843):  11  jariir  dcr  Siinacrl.oniff  (1863), 
rejjrodueed  i.i  1883  as  Kiiuig  lljninc  und  das 
Turfbipsclnrcrt.  He  was  kapellmeister  to  the 
King  of  Hanover  (1831-.')0).  His  nnisie  belongs 
to  the  romantic  school  of  Weber,  whom  he  great- 
ly resembled  in  style,  although  in  a  way  his 
ideals  leaned  toward  the  style  of  \\'agner.  His 
operas  had  a  great  vogue  in  Germany,  and  still- 
remain  in  the  repertoire  of  most  of  the  pro- 
vincial theatres.     He  died  in  Hanover. 

MARSDEN,  miirz'drn.  Samit.l  ( 17041S3S). 
.\n  l",ngli-h  missionary.  He  was  born  at  Hors- 
fortb,  near  Leeds,  .Inly  28.  17fi4:  educated  a1  the 
free  grannnar  school  al  Hull,  and  began  life  as  a 
tradesman  at  Leeds.  He  joined  the  .Methodists, 
but,   desiring  to   obtain   a    collegiate   education,       | 


MARSDEN. 


97 


MABSEILLES. 


entered  tlie  English  Cliurcli;  studied  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  ordained  in 
17!t.'!,  and  in  1704  sailed  as  chaplain  to  the  penal 
colony  at  Paramatta,  near  Sydney,  Australia. 
Keeeiving  a  grant  of  land  and  13  convicts  to  till 
it  as  part  payment  for  his  services,  he  made  it 
the  model  farm  in  New  South  Wales,  and  devoted 
the  profits  from  it  to  tlie  support  of  schools  and 
missions.  A  mutinous  spirit  showing  itself 
among  the  convicts,  Marsden  sailed  for  England 
(1807),  mainly  for  the  i)ur])ose  of  obtaining  ])pr- 
mission  for  the  friends  of  the  convicts  to  accom- 
pany them  to  the  penal  colony.  This  was  re- 
fuseil.  hut  his  proposal  that  the  convicts  should 
be  taught  trades  was  well  received.  Having  had 
some  intercourse  with  the  JIaoris  of  New  Zea- 
land, and  found  them  to  be  .superior  to  the  Aus- 
tralian natives,  he  endeavored,  while  in  England, 
to  obtain  funds  for  the  formation  of  a  mis- 
sion among  them,  and  missionaries  to  accompany 
him.  Two  laymen,  William  Hall  and  John  King, 
consented  to  go  as  pioneers,  and  accompanied 
Mar.sden  to  Australia,  August.  1809.  They  were 
soon  followed  by  Thomas  Kendall.  He  employed 
these  teachers  in  laying  the  foundations  of  a 
('hristian  civilization,  frequently  visited  them, 
and  in  his  fourth  visit  took  with  him  the  Rev. 
Henry  Williams,  who  afterwards  became  bishop 
of  a  Maori  district.  He  procured  reenforcements 
for  the  mission  from  the  English  and  Wesleyan 
churches,  induced  the  natives  to  adopt  a  fixed 
form  of  government,  provided  for  the  preparation 
of  a  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Maori  lan- 
guage, and  lived  to  .see  the  people  Christianized. 
He  died  at  Windsor,  May  12,  1838.  Consult  his 
Life  by  .1.  li.  Marsden  (London.  1839). 

MARSDEN,  William  (175418.36).  An  Eng- 
lish Orientalist,  born  in  Dublin.  In  1770  he  was 
ajipointed  to  the  civil  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  at  Bencoolen,  Sumatra,  became  secre- 
tary to  the  Government,  and  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  Malay  language.  Returning 
to  England  in  1779  with  a  pension,  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature,  and  published  a  Hisiorii  of 
Xiinintrn  (1783),  In  1807  he  retired  to  private 
life  and  study,  in  1812  published  his  Grnmmar 
and  Diclinnnry  of  the  Malai/  Lanrjunqe.  and  in 
1817  a  translation  of  Marco  Polo.  In  1834  he 
presented  to  the  British  Museum  his  collection  of 
3447  Oriental  coins,  and  in  1835  his  library  of 
Oriental  books  and  manuscripts  to  King's  Col- 
lege. He  published  also  A  (rrammnr  of  the 
Matai/an  LaiiriiKiqe  (1812)  and  Numismata 
Orirntalia    (1823)! 

MARSEILI/AISE,  milr'sa'yaz'.  The  hymn 
iif  111,-  I'iciirh  I'.evolution  and  anthem  of  freedom 
in  nil  European  movements  of  liberation  since. 
In  .\|iril,  1792.  when  a  column  of  vohuitcers  was 
altout  to  leave  Strassburg,  the  Mayor  of  the  city, 
Dieilrich,  gave  a  banquet  on  the  occasion  and 
asked  an  officer  of  artillery  mimed  Rouget  de 
l.isle  to  compose  a  song  in  their  honor.  Rouget 
wrote  the  words  during  the  night,  adapting  the 
nnisic  probably  from  the  Oratorio  Esther,  by 
.lean  Baptiste  Lucicn  Orison,  and  calling  it  the 
Cliiint  (Ir  niirrrr  de  I'rirmee  dii  ffhiit.  On  the 
following  day  it  was  sung  with  rapturous  en- 
thusiasm, and  instead  of  flOO  volunteers,  1000 
marched  out  of  Strassburg.  The  whole  .\rmy  of 
the  North  soon  took  up  the  song.  In  Paris  the 
song  was  unknown  till  the  Marseilles  battalion 
brought  it  to  the  city  and  sang  it  at  the  storming 
of   the   Tuileries.      It   was   received   with   trans- 


ports by  the  Parisians,  who — ignorant  of  its 
r^l  authorship — named  it  Hymtie  des  Uarseil- 
lais,  which  name  it  has  ever  since  borne.  The 
last  and  most  pathetic  strophe,  the  stance  des 
enfants,  was  not  written  by  Rouget  de  Lisle,  but 
was  added   later. 

The  following  is  the  first  verse,  with  refrain, 
approved  in  1887  by  a  conniiission  appointed  by 
the  French  Minister  of  \Var  to  determine  the 
e.xact  form  of  the  song: 

AlloDS  enfants  de  la  i)atrie, 

Le  jour  de  jrloin;  est  arrivC  ! 
Contre  nous  de  la  t.vraniiie 

L'etendard  saii^liint  est  1<'V<5  (bis) 
Entendez-voiis  dans  ces  oanipagnes 

Mugircert  f4l-oces  Holdats? 
Ils^vieiiiient  jusque  dans  nos  braB 

Egorger  iios  Ills,  nos  compagnes. 

See  Rouget  de  Lisle. 

MARSEILLE,   mar'sa'y',  Folquet  de.       See 

FoLyiET  DE  Marseille. 

MARSEILLES,  miir-salz'  (Fr.  MAR- 
SEILLE, mar'sa'y').  The  principal  seaport  of 
France,  the  second  city  of  the  Republic  in  point 
of  population ;  capital  of  the  Department  of 
Bouches-du-Rhone,  and  an  important  military 
and  naval  station.  It  is  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
an  inlet  of  the  Oulf  of  Lyons.  25  miles  east  of  the 
principal  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  and  510  miles  by 
rail  soutlieast  of  Paris;  latitude  43°  17'  N..  longi- 
tude 5  :•  23'  E.  ( -Map :  France,  .M  8 ) .  Its  location  is 
picturesque,  the  ground  rising  on  all  sides  in  an 
amphitheatre  of  \vood-cro^^^led  hills  1200  to  1800 
feet  high,  which  terminate  in  a  steep  promontory 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  city.  The  immediate 
surroundings  were  formerly  arid,  but  since  the 
completion  of  the  canal  bringing  the  waters  of 
the  Durance  to  the  city  the  adjoining  district  has 
been  irrigated  and  is  now  covered  with  gardens. 

Few  European  cities  have  shown  such  rapid 
modern  development.  A  century  ago  the  town 
was  a  cluster  of  narrow,  crooked  streets  grouped 
around  the  cove  which  formed  the  old  harbor. 
Several  large  avenues  now  traverse  this  old  por- 
tion, while  practically  the  whole  city  is  laid  out 
with  broad  and  straight  streets,  and  generally 
presents  a  modern  aspect.  Tlie  city  Is  dominated 
by  the  hill  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Garde,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  480  feet  on  the  southwest,  be- 
tween the  town  and  the  shore.  This  hill  is  en- 
circled on  the  water  side  by  a  ])icturesque  road, 
the  Chemin  de  la  Corniche,  which  leads  south- 
ward along  the  shore  of  the  gulf.  There  is 
a  citadel  on  a  promontory  guarding  the  nar- 
row entrance  to  the  old  harbor,  which  as  a 
land  locked  cove  reaches  into  the  heart  of  the 
city.  The  harbor  is  also  defended  by  the  forti- 
fied islands  of  Ratinnieau  and  Pomegue.  and  the 
Chiiteau  d'lf,  the  latter  a  former  State  prison 
immortalized  by  Dumas  in  his  Monle  Cristo. 
Two  principal  avenues  crossing  at  right  angles 
divide  the  city  into  four  quarters.  One  is  the 
Rue  Camiebicre,  the  principal  business  street, 
which  begins  at  the  head  of  the  old  harbor,  and 
is  continued  eastward  as  the  Boulevard  Mnde- 
leinc.  The  other,  running  north  and  south,  is  the 
Rue  de  Rome,  which  terminates  at  the  obelisk  in 
(he  Place  Castcll'iur.  whence  it  is  prolonged  as 
the  Prado,  the  principal  hotilevard  of  Marseilles. 
This  is  a  magnificent  avenue  with  two  double 
rows  of  trees,  which  runs  two  miles  south  and 
sonthwestward,  terminating  on  the  seashore  at 
Borely  Park. 


UABSEILLES. 


98 


MARSH. 


Marseilles  has  few  aicliitcctural  iiionuiuents, 
and  uo  interesting  remains  of  ancient  times.  U; 
is  an  episcopal  see  and  its  most  prominent  buira- 
ing  is  the  new  cathedral,  which  faces  tlie  soulli- 
ern  basin  of  the  new  harbor.  It  is  built  of  Flor- 
ence green  stone  in  the  Byzantine  style  mixed 
with  Romanesque  and  classic  elements,  and  is 
surmounted  by  live  domes.  Another  church 
wortli}-  of  notice  is  tliat  of  \otre  Dame  de  la 
Garde,  built  (lS5."i-G4)  on  the  hill  of  that  name 
south  of  the  old  harbor.  Its  belfry,  surmounted 
by  a  colossal  statue  of  the  V'irgin,  towers  nearly 
GOO  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  alfords  a 
splendid  view  of  the  city  and  the  surrounding 
country.  Among  secular  buildings  should  be 
mentioned  the  Palais  de  Longchamp.  a  magnili- 
eent  Kenaissance  building  containing  vario\i3 
museums,  (lie  Palais  do  .Justice,  and  the  Kx- 
dumge.  The  educational  institutions  of  the  city 
include  a  school  of  medicine  and  a  faculty  of 
sciences,  two  lycocs  {higli  schools),  one  for  boys 
and  one  for  girls,  two  seminaries,  a  commercial 
high  school,  a  school  of  fine  arts,  a  conservatory 
of  music,  an  astronomical  observatory,  botanical 
and  zoological  gardens,  a  biological  laboratory, 
museums  of  art,  archa-ld()g^•,  and  natural  history, 
and  a  municipal  library  of  100.000  volumes.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  a  luimbcr  of  scientific  and 
literary  societies.  The  public  works  of  the  city 
are  in  excellent  condition.  The  water  supply  is 
derived  from  the  River  Durance  through  the 
Canal  de  Marseille,  which  delivers  water  at  the 
rate  of  9000  liters  per  second,  .sufficient  both  for 
the  use  of  the  city  and  for  the  irrigation  of  the 
surrounding  country.  An  extensive  system  of 
drainage  works  was  coni|)lctcd  in  1898,  by  which 
the  sewage  is  carried  miles  to  sea,  leaving  the 
waters  of  the  harbor  \incontaminated.  The  prin- 
cipal industry  of  Marsoiljes  is  the  manufacture 
of  soap,  which  gives  employment  to  over  5000 
persons  in  SO  factories,  whose  products  amount 
to  100,000,000  kg.  annually,  or  half  the  quan- 
tity pro<luced  by  t!ie  whole  of  France.  Next  in 
impcutance  arc  sugar  refineries,  producing  100,- 
000  tons  annually,  oil  factories,  flnur-mills.  tan- 
neries, lead,  tin.  and  copper  plants,  petroleum 
refineries,  and  the  manufacture  of  candles,  maca- 
roni, and  tiles  and  brick.  It  also  has  iron  ship- 
building and  naval  erpiipmcnt  yards.  The  great 
development  of  Marsoilh's,  however,  is  due  chiclly 
to  its  commerce,  which  was  greatly  enhanced 
by  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  The  new 
harbor,  hegtin  in  1S44,  consists  of  a  series  of 
basins  stretching  northward  from  the  entrance  of 
the  old  harbor.  .\n  auxiliary  harbor  has  been 
constructed  in  the  ehainiel  between  the  two 
islets  of  Pomf'gue  and  Ratonneau  lying  off  tlie 
promontory  smith  of  the  city.  Here  arc  estab- 
lished the  quarantine  and  the  marine  liospital. 
There  are  altogether  12  miles  of  quays,  accom- 
modating 2.')00  vessels  at  one  time.  In  1902  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  voted  91.100.000  francs 
for  building  a  ship  canal  between  the  harbor  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Jllionc.  and  a  canal  is  also 
projected  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Loire,  thus 
bringing  Marseilles  into  connection  with  Xorth- 
ern  France.  In  1901  the  number  of  ships  which 
entered  nn<l  cleared  was  lt'i,4"S  with  a  tonnage  of 
13,040,S14.  of  which  only  ime-half  were  French. 
The  quantity  of  merchandise  loaded  and  dis- 
rharsed  amounted  in  1902  to  .5.703. .5.'i,'?  tons,  the 
principal  exports  being  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
ribbons,    silks,    sugar,    grain,    oil,    soap,    fruits, 


wine,  candles,  and  bricks ;  the  chief  imports 
were  cattle,  coli'cc,  raw  cotton  and  silk,  liides,  and 
grain.  The  trade  is  chietly  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries.  The  United  States  is  repre- 
sented by  a  consul. 

The  population  of  ilarseilles  in  1901  was  491,- 
IGl.  An  idea  of  the  growth  of  the  city  may  be 
gained  from  the  following  figures:  1789."  100,000; 
1851,  195.18.5;  18GG.  300.000 ;  1891,403,749.  The 
increase  has  been  due,  at  least  in  late  years, 
wholly  to  immigration,  as  the  vital  statistics 
show  the  death-rate  to  be  higher  tlian  the  birth- 
rate. There  were  in  1900  98,835  foreigners,  of 
whom  91,536  were  Italians.  The  districts  around 
the  wharves  are  frecjuentcd  by  people  of  all 
nationalities,  and  the  busy,  cosmojiolitan  air  of 
the  city  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  rest  of 
Provence. 

Marseilles  is  popularly  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  Greeks  from  Phoca'a,  in  Asia  Minor, 
but  archa'ological  discoveries  have  established 
the  fact  that  a  Phoenician  eolimy  preceded  the 
Greek  settlement  of  about  B.C.  600.  The  (ireek 
colony,  called  Massilia,  soon  supplanted  the  Phce- 
nician,  and  became  a  llourisliiiig  commercial  cen- 
tre, a  free  city,  and  the  mother  city  of  a  number 
of  other  Greek  colonies.  It  allied  itself  with 
Rome  during  the  Punic  wars,  at  which  time  it 
was  at  the  zenith  of  its  power.  Its  schools  were 
preferred  to  those  of  Athens  for  the  education  of 
Roman  youths.  During  the  civil  wars  it  took 
the  side  of  Marius  and  later  of  Ponipey.  C.Tsar 
attacked  it  in  B.C.  49  and  dejirived  it  of  its  pow- 
ers and  privileges,  and  from  that  time  its  de- 
cadence began,  though  it  still  remained  for  a 
long  time  an  intellectual  centre.  In  the  iliddle 
.\grs  it  retained  to  a  large  degree  its  inde- 
pendence. It  was  finally  subject  to  the  counts  of 
Provence,  and  with  I'rovence  it  was  united  with 
the  French  Crown  in  1481.  In  16G0  Louis  XIV. 
deprived  the  city  of  its  privileges.  Consult: 
Boudin,  Histoire  de  Marseille  (Paris,  1852)  ; 
Kocirle  de  statistif/ue  de  ^[arseiUe  (Marseilles, 
1837  et  seq.)  ;  'Teissier,  Ilistoire  dii  commerce  de 
Marseille,  ISHa-l.',   (Marseilles,  1887). 

MARSH.  Anxe  C.\i.D\VEix  (c.l79S-lS74).  An 
English  author,  born  at  Lindley  Wood.  Stall'ord- 
shiie.  She  wrote  many  novels,  of  which  Tuo  Old 
Mrn'.i  Tales  ( 1S4G) .  "fimiVm  ]yii,,dh<im  (184G), 
and  Xontiatt's  ISridiie  (1S47)  are  thought  to  be 
the  best.  Most  of  her  works  were  written  anony- 
mously, and  it  is  not  certain  how  many  are 
rightly  attributed  to  her.  Her  best  work  is  of 
delicate  conception,  but  lacks  power.  Several 
of  the  stories  have  been  republished  in  the  United 
States. 

MARSH,  Georcie  Perkins  (1801-82).  An 
.Xmi'iican  diplomatist  and  philologist.  He  was 
born  at  Woodstock,  \'t.;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1820:  studied  law.  and  in  1835  was 
elei'ted  to  the  Supreme  Executive  Council  of  the 
State.  From  1843  to  1849  he  was  a  member  of 
Congress,  and  in  the  latter  year  resigned  to 
become  Minister  Resident  at  Constantinople.  In 
1S52  he  was  charged  with  a  special  mission  to 
Greece,  and  having  traveled  extensively  in  Europe 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1S.")4.  Between 
1857  and  1859  he  <crved  as  railroad  commissioner 
for  Vermont,  and  from  1861  until  his  death  was 
first  United  States  Minister  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy.  His  publications  include:  The  Camel.  [lis 
Orrinni:ntinn.  Unhils.  and  Uses.  Considered  jrith 
Reference   to   Uis  Introduction  into   the   United 


HABSH. 

atates  (185G);  Lectures  on  the  English  Lan- 
guage (lyCl);  The  Origin  and  Uistory  of  the 
tinylish  Language  (18ti2)  ;  and  Man  and  Mature 
(18U4;  enlarged  in  1874  as  The  Earth  as  Modi- 
fied by  Human  Action). 

MARSH,  HEKitEKT  (1757-1839).  Bishop  of 
I'ctLTbiininyli.  He  was  born  in  Faversham, 
Kent ;  was  graduated  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1770,  an<l  studied  theology  at  Leipzig 
and  Gcittingen.  He  was  apiiointed  Lady  Mar- 
garet professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1807, 
Bishop  of  Llandafl"  in  ISKi,  and  Bishop  of 
Peterboro\igli  in  1810.  Opposing  the  allegorical 
.systems  of  iiiterpretaticm  of  the  Fathers  and  the 
Middle  Ages,  he  insisted  that  Scripture  has  but 
one  sense,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce 
German  melliods  of  research  into  English  bibli- 
cal scholarship.  His  publications  include:  a 
translation  of  ilichaelis's  Introduction  to  the  Neiv 
Testament  (1702-1801  )  ;  Authenticity  of  the  Five 
Hooks  of  Moses  (1702);  The  National  Religion 
the  Founthilion  of  Satio)ial  Education  (1813); 
Lectures  on  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of 
the  Hible  (1828)  ;  Lectures  on  the  Authenticity 
and  CrediUlity  of  th-e  New  Testament  (1822-23)  ; 
and  0)1  tlie  Authority  of  the  Old  Testament 
(1823). 

MAESH,  James  (1704-1842).  A  theologian 
and  critic,  born  in  Hartford.  Vt.  Marsh  was 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  (1817)  and  at  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  (1822).  He  was 
ordained  to  the  Congregational  ministry  (1824) 
and  for  the  next  two  years  taught  languages  at 
Hampton-Sidney  College,  Va.,  beginning  there  his 
translation  of  Herder's  Spirit  of  Hehreii-  Poetry, 
completed  in  1833,  a  work  of  value  in  the  de- 
velopment of  American  criticism.  In  1826  he 
was  ma<le  president  of  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont, a  post  which  he  resigned  (1833)  for  the 
professorship  of  philosophy.  His  edition  of  Cole- 
ridge's Aids  to  Refteetion,  with  its  preliminary 
essay,  gave  him  considerable  repute. 

MAKSH,  Othxiel  Charles  (1831-90).  An 
American  zoologist  and  paleontologist.  He  was 
born  in  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege, and  studied  in  Germany.  L^pon  his  return 
to  the  I'nited  States  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  paleontology  and  curator  of  the  geological  mu- 
seum at  Yale,  and  held  these  positions  until  his 
death.  Professor  Jlarsh  accomplished  a  great 
amount  of  valuable  scientific  work  in  the  discov- 
I  rv  and  descrijition  of  new  fossil  vertebrates  from 
(lie  geological  formations  of  the  Western  States 
and  Territories.  In  carrying  out  his  investiga- 
tions he  organized  many  exploring  expeditions  at 
his  own  expense,  and  directed  others  which  were 
equipjied  by  the  United  States  Occdogical  Sur- 
vey. More  than  400  new  fossil  species  of  verte- 
brates were  described  by  Professor  Marsh,  among 
tliem  such  interesting  types  as  the  Pinocerata 
(huge  tapir-like  animals),  Pterodactyls  (flying 
lizards) ,  and  Odontornithes  (toothed  birds) .  His 
discoveries  of  the  fossil  ancestors  of  the  horse 
marked  an  epoch  in  evolutionary  science  and 
have  been  frequently  employed  as  an  illustration 
of  the  principle  of  evolution.  The  more  extended 
and  general  articles  by  Professor  ilarsh  were 
incorporated  in  the  Reports  and  Monor/rapjis  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  He  served 
as  president  of  the  American  .\ssociation  for  the 
.\dvancement  of  Science  in  1878,  and  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Sciences  from   1883  to   1895. 


99  MARSHAL. 

The  Geological  Society  ol  London,  of  which  he 
w^s  a  fellow,  bestowed  upon  him  the  first  Bigsby 
medal  in  1877.  He  also  received  the  Cuvier  prize 
of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  valu- 
able collection  of  fossil  vertebrates  was  left  to 
Vale  University. 

MARSH,  Syltoster  (1803-84).  An  Ameri- 
can merchant  and  promoter,  born  at  Campton, 
X.  II.  In  1833  he  removed  to  Chicago,  and  set 
up  as  a  butcher.  He  was  the  originator  of  the 
meat-packing  industry  and  invented  many  of 
the  appliances  now  used  in  that  business.  Later 
he  entered  the  grain  liusiness  and  invented  the 
dried  meal  process.  During  a  visit  to  his  old 
home  in  1852  he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  railroad 
to  the  top  of  -Mount  Washington,  and  insisted 
upon  the  feasibility  of  the  plan,  and  persisted 
until  in  1858  he  obtained  a  charter  for  the  con- 
.struction  of  the  road,  but  because  of  the  Civil 
War  was  unable  to  begin  work  until  1806. 

MARSHAL  (OF.  mareschal,  marescal,  Fr. 
mareclial,  from  ML.  marcsehalcus,  carescalcus, 
from  OllG.  marahsealh,  groom,  master  of  the 
horse,  nuirshal,  from  marah,  AS.  mearh,  Ir., 
Gael,  marc,  Cik.  iiipKa^,  markas,  horse  +  scalh, 
Ger.  iichalk,  Goth,  skalks,  AS.  sceale.  ol)solcte 
Eng.  shalk,  servant).  A  term  in  English  history, 
originally  meaning  a  groom  or  manager  of  the 
horse,  though  eventually  the  King's  marshal 
became  one  of  the  great  officers  of  the  household 
of  the  Xorman  and  Plantagenet  kings,  being 
conjointly  with  the  constable  (q.v. )  a  judge  in 
the  curice  martiales,  or  courts  of  chivalry,  and 
enjoying  equal  rank  with  the  Clianeellor.  The 
constable's  functions  were  virtually  abolished  in 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  the  marshal  be- 
came thenceforth  the  sole  judge  in  questions  of 
honor  and  arms.  The  earl  marshal  is  president 
of  the  English  College  of  Heralds,  and  appoints 
the  kings-at-arms,  heralds,  and  pursuivants.  The 
dignity  of  marshal  existed  formerly  in  Scotland, 
where  a  different  orthography  was  adopted,  and 
the  office  of  marischal  became  hereditary  in  the 
fourteenth  century  in  the  family  of  Keith.  In 
France  the,  highest  military  officer  is  called  a 
marshal,  a  dignity  which  originated  early  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  There  was  at  first  only  one 
marechal  de  France,  and  there  were  but  two  till 
the  time  of  Francis  I.  Their  number  afterwards 
became  unlimited.  Originally  the  marshal  was 
the  esquire  of  the  King,  and  commanded  the  van- 
guard in  war;  in  later  times  the  command  be- 
came supreme,  and  the  rank  of  the  highest  mili- 
tary importance.  From  the  title  of  this  class  of 
general  officers  the  Germans  have  borrowed  their 
Feldmarschall,  and  the  English  the  title  of  field- 
marshal,  a  dignity  bestowed  on  commanders  dis- 
tinguished cither  by  elevated  rank  or  siiperior 
talents.  The  title  marshal  in  the  United  States 
is  used:  (I)  to  denote  the  ministerial  officer  of 
the  United  States  courts,  there  being,  with  sev- 
eral exceptions,  one  appointed  for  each  judicial 
district.  The  exceptions  are  the  few  instances 
Avhere  one  marshal  is  required  to  perform  the 
duties  of  two  districts.  The  duties  of  this  officer 
resemble  those  of  a  sheriff  in  the  State  courts; 
he  opens  and  closes  the  sessions  of  the  district 
and  circuit  courts,  serves  warrants,  and  executes 
throughout  the  district  all  lawful  precepts  di- 
rected to  him.  Marshals  are  also  appointed  for 
Porto  Rico,  Alaska,  and  Hawaii.  (2)  In  many 
States  of  tiie  South  and  \^'est  the  marshal  is  the 


MARSHAL. 


100 


MABSHALL. 


town  or  village  police  officer,  and  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  officers  of  the  county  called 
sheritts,  and  from  the  officers  of  the  justices' 
courts  called  constables.  Besides  their  functions 
in  connection  with  the  courts,  the  V'nite<l  States 
marshals  discharge  duties  in  connection  with  the 
administration  of  the  internal  reven\ie  service, 
jjublie  lands,  the  mail  service,  etc.  They  are  ap- 
pointed by  tiie  President  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent nf  the  Senate  for  a  term  of  four  years. 

MABSHALING  (of  assets,  securities,  liens). 
The  act  of  directing  the  application  or  dis- 
tribution of  assets,  securities,  liens,  etc.,  so 
that  the  rights  of  creditors,  lienors,  and  others 
having  rights  in  the  same  fund  or  funds  or  other 
property  are  protected  according  to  the  equities 
of  the  dill'crent  parties  in  interest.  The  princi- 
ple upon  which  this  is  done  is  the  equitable  rule 
that  a  party  who  is  entitled  to  satisfaction  or 
security  out  of  one  or  more  of  several  funds  or 
properties  which  must  be  looked  to  by  others 
for  their  satisfaction  or  security  shall  not  be 
allowed  to  elect  to  satisfy  or  secure  himself  so 
as  to  exclude  another  who  is  entitled  to  resort  to 
only  one  of  the  funds,  when  the  first  party  can 
otherwise  sufficiently  protect  himself.  This  rule 
is  applied  where  A  has  a  mortgage  on  two  pieces 
of  property,  one  of  which  is  also  subject  to  a 
subordinate  mortgage  to  another  party.  In  that 
case  A.  in  the  event  of  foreclosure,  will  be  com- 
pelled to  lirst  exhaust  that  i]ani-l  (if  land  which 
IS  otherwise  unincumbered  in  order  that  the  se- 
curity of  the  other  party  may  not  be  entirelj- 
destroyed  ;  or  A  may  be  allowed  to  foreclose  the 
doubly  incumbered  piece  upon  condition  that  he 
subrogate  the  other  party  to  his  rights  in  the 
other  piece.  The  more  common  applications  of 
the  rule  are  to  foreclosures,  the  settlement  of 
decedents'  estates,  and  the  distribution  of  assets 
of  insolvents  or  bankrupts.  Consult  the  authori- 
ties referrerl  to  under  Kqi'Itv. 

MABSHALING  OF  ABMS.  In  heraldry, 
the  science  of  arranging  several  coats  of  arms 
on  the  same  escutcheon.     See  Heraldky. 

MAB'SHALL.  .\  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Clark  Ciiunty.  111..  11!  miles  west  by  south  of 
Terre  Haute.  Ind.:  on  the  Clcvelanil.  Cincinnati. 
Chicago  and  Saint  l.onis  and  the  Vandalia  Line 
railroads  (Map:  Illinois,  E  4).  It  has  some 
trade  and  manufactures  of  fhnir.  lumber,  woolen 
goods,  condensed  milk.  etc..  and  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural and  stock-raising  district.  Population,  in 
18!I0,   inOO:   in   1000,  2077. 

MABSHALL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Calhiiiui  Cnunly.  Mich..'  108  miles  west  of  De- 
troit; on  the  Kalamazoo  Kiver,  and  on  the  Cin- 
cinnati, .Taekson  and  Mackinaw  and  the  Michi- 
gan Central  railroads  (Map:  Michigan,  .T  (i). 
It  has  the  grounds  nf  the  Cnunly  .\grieultural 
Society,  and  a  line  high  sehonl  building,  county 
courthouse,  and  jail.  The  city  is  the  centre  of 
a  rich  farming  section,  and  manufactures  bi- 
cycles, hot-air  furnaces,  school  and  church  furni- 
ture, carriages  and  wagons,  balhl\ibs,  caskets, 
windmills,  electrical  appliances,  farming  imple- 
ments, medicines.  flo<ir.  breakf:ist  food,  etc. 
There  are  also  marble  and  gr;niite  works,  and 
roundhouses  of  the  Cincinn:ili.  .Taekson  and 
Mackinaw  Railroad.  Marshall  own"  and  operates 
the  waterworks  and  electric-light  plants,  bcitli  of 
which  are  run  bv  water  power,  on  a  profitable 
basis.     Population,  in  1800,  .3008;  in  1000,  4370. 


MARSHALL.  A  city  and  the  county-.scat  of 
Lyon  County,  Minn.,  105  miles  west  by  south  of 
Saint  Paul ;  on  the  Redwood  Kiver,  and  on  the 
Crcat  Xorthern  and  the  Chicago  and  Northwest- 
ern railroads  (Map:  Minnesota,  C  6).  It  has  a 
public  library;  and  among  the  prominent  build- 
ings are  the  public  schools,  county  courthouse, 
and  county  jail.  An  important  trade  is  carried 
on,  and  there  are  several  grain  elevators,  a  Hour 
mill,  and  a  creamery.  Population,  in  1800,  1203; 
in  10(10,  2088. 

MABSHALL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  nf 
Saline  Count}-,  Mo.,  84  miles  east  of  Kansas 
City;  on  the  Chicago  and  Alton  and  the  Missouri 
Pacific  railroads  (Map:  Missouri,  0  2).  It  is 
the  seat  of  Missouri  Valley  College  (Cumberland 
Presbyterian),  founded  in  1880,  and  has  a  Roman 
Catholic  academy,  and  a  handsome  courtliouse 
( .'i;7o,000)  and  opera  house.  There  is  a  tine  pub- 
lic square  noteworthy  for  its  large  trees.  !Mar- 
shall  is  near  deposits  of  coal,  salt,  and  building 
stone,  and  carries  on  an  im[)ortant  trade  and 
manufactures  flour,  creamery  products,  lundicr, 
brick  and  tile,  carriages  and  wagons,  and  canned 
goods.     Population,  in  1800,  4207;  in  1000,  5080. 

MARSHALL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Harrison  County,  Texas",  40  miles  northwest  of 
Shreveport,  La. ;  on  the  Texas  and  Pacific  and  the 
Texas  Southern  railroads  (Map:  Texas,  G  3). 
It  is  the  seat  of  Wiley  University  (Methotlist 
Episcopal)  and  Bishop  College  (Baptist)  for 
negroes,  and  has  a  fine  courthouse  and  o])era 
house.  The  city  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural  region 
adapted  particularly  for  fruit  aiul  vcgetalile  cul- 
tivation, and  the  vicinity  possesses  valuable  o;ik 
and  pine  forests.  Among  the  industrial  enter- 
prises are  a  foundry  and  machine  shops,  cotton 
compress,  saw  and  planing  mills,  carriage  works, 
railroad  shops  of  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  car-whecd 
works,  etc.  The  water-works  are  owned  and 
operated  bv  the  municipality.  Population,  in 
1800.  7207:  in  1000,  7S.55. 

MARSHALL,  Alfred  (1842—).  An  English 
econnmi^t.  born  in  London.  From  the  Merchant 
Taylors'  School  he  passed  to  Saint  .Tnhn's  Col- 
lege. Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  with  distinc- 
tion and  was  appointed  fellow  of  his  college 
(1805).  and  lecturer  in  moral  science  (18081. 
In  1877  he  became  principal  of  University  Col- 
lege, Bristol,  and  in  1883-84  lecturer  and  fellow 
of  Balliol  College.  Oxford.  In  1884  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  political  economy  at  Cambridge 
University.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Commission  of  Labor.  In 
collaboration  with  his  wife  he  published  (1870) 
Hroiioinirs  of  Industri/.  His  I'riiiciiilrfi  nf  Ecimo- 
tiiics  (1800)  won  for  him  the  position  of  one  of 
the  foremost  of  English  economists.  In  this  work 
he  .seeks  to  present  and  reconcile  the  essential 
iloctrines  of  both  classical  and  modern  economics. 
He  j)ul)lished  also:  Present  Position  of  Economics 
(1880)  :  Elements  of  Economics  (1801)  ;  and  a 
long  list  of  articles  in  scientific  and  popular 
periodicals. 

MARSHALL,  Arttii'R  Mii.xes  (1852-03). 
An  I'.ngli^h  naturalist,  born  at  Birmingham.  He 
received  his  B..\.  degree  from  the  London  Uni- 
versity at  the  age  fif  eighteen  and  then  went  to 
Cambridge,  where  he  grailualed  in  1874.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  sent  by  that  university  to 
its  zoi'dogical  station  at  Naples.  Upon  his  re- 
turn,  he   began   the   study  of   medicine,   and   in 


MARSHALL. 


101 


MARSHALL. 


1879  became  professor  of  zoulogj'  at  Owens  Col- 
lege, Manchester.  He  was  made  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  188.5,  a  councilor  of  the  same  in 
1891-92,  and  picsidod  over  a  section  of  the  Brit- 
ish Association  in  1892,  hut  he  was  particularly 
distinguished  as  a  teacher  and  organizer.  He 
started  the  biological  classes  at  Victoria  Univer- 
sity, and  contributed  much  to  scientific  knnwl- 
ed;,'e  of  cnibrx'olo^X'  in  his  tcclinical  publicalions, 
wliich  include  papers  for  the  Quartcrhj  Juurnal 
of  Microscopical  Hcience,  and  separate  memoirs 
ujion  The  Segmental  Value  of  the  Cranial  Nerves 
(1882);  The  Fnxj  (1882;  7th  ed.  1900);  and 
Vertebrate  Emhri/oloi/i/  (189.3).  He  lost  his  life 
in  the  Alps.  His  Biological  Essays  and  Ad- 
dresses were  collected  and  pul)lished  posthumous- 
ly in  1894j  as  well  as  his  memoir  upon  The  Dar- 
irininn  Theory. 

MARSHALL,  Emma  (1832-99).  An  English 
novelist,  born  near  Cromer,  in  Norfolk,  England, 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Simon  Martin,  a  Nor- 
wich banker.  She  was  educated  in  .a  private 
school  at  Norwich.  In  1854  she  married  Hugh 
Graham  Marshall,  and  thereafter  lived  an  un- 
eventful life  at  Wells,  Exeter,  Gloucester,  and 
Bristol.  She  died  at  Clifton,  May  4,  1899.  Be- 
ginning with  Edith  Prescott  (18G3),  she  produced 
during  her  long  career  more  than  a  hundred  vol- 
mncs  of  tales,  mostly  for  the  young.  Especially 
popular  were  those  in  which  appeared  well-known 
liistorical  characters,  a.s  Sir  Philip  Sidney  and  Sir 
Thomas  Browne.  Among  her  latest  novels  were: 
In  Colston's  Days,  a  Storti  of  Old  Bristol  (1883)  ;, 
The  Toner  on  the  Cliff  ( i88(i)  ;  Penshurst  Castle, 
in  the  Time  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  (1893)  ;  In  the 
Choir  of  Westminister  Ahhey  in  the  Time  of 
Henry  PnrceU  (1897)  ;  and  Under  the  Dome  of 
Saint  Paul's  in  the  Time  of  Christopher  Wren 
(1S9S).     She  also  wrote  verse. 

MARSHALL,  Francis  Alrekt  (1840-89). 
An  English  playwright,  born  in  London,  Novem- 
ber, 1840.  lie  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  stud- 
ied at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  but  left  without  a 
degree.  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  audit  office 
of  Somerset  House,  and  began  writing  for  news- 
papers and  periodicals.  In  1868  he  resigned  his 
post  and  subsequently  joined  the  staff  of  the  Lon- 
don Figaro  as  dramatic  critic.  He  was  already 
known  for  his  comedies  and  farces:  Mad  as  a 
Halter  (1863)  ;  Corrupt  Practices  (1870),  which 
were  followed  bv  Q.  E.  D..  or  All  u  Mistake 
(1871)  ;  False  Shame  (1872)  ;  Brighton  (1874)  ; 
J.ula  (ISSli.  a  comic  opera;  and  several  others. 
For  Henry  Irving  he  made  a  version  of  Werner 
(1887).  He  was  general  editor  of  the  Henry 
Irving  Edition  of  Shakespeare  (1888-90).  and 
had  earlier  published  A  Study  of  Hamlet  (1875) 
and  Henry  Irving,  Actor  and  Manager  (1883). 

MARSHALL,  HuMrnREV  (17.56-1841).  An 
American  politician,  cousin  of  Chief  .Justice  .John 
Marshall,  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.  He 
received  very  little  schooling,  entered  the  Conti- 
nental Army  during  the  Revolution,  and  attained 
tlie  rank  of  captain.  Before  the  close  of  the  war 
he  removed  to  Kentucky,  and  he  settled  in  1780 
near  Lexington,  where  he  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1787  he  was  a  delegate 
to  the  convention  held  at  Danville  to  consider  the 
question  of  separating  Kentucky  from  Virginia, 
and  strongly  opposed  that  project.  He  soon  be- 
came kno%vn  as  one  of  the  strongest  Federalist 
leaders  in  the  Kentucky  region.     In  1788  he  was 


a  delegate  to  the  Virginia  convention  that  ratified 
the  Constitution.  He  had  an  inborn  dislike  for 
Wilkinson,  whom  he  seems  to  have  suspected 
from  the  first,  and  for  a  decade  or  more  occupied 
the  position  of  a  sort  of  'watch-dog*  of  Federal 
interests  in  Kentucky  and  was  active  in  oppos- 
ing and  exposing  the  numerous  S])anish  intrigues, 
and  plans  for  attacking  the  Spanish  or  French  at 
New  Orleans.  He  opposed  tlie  plan  of  George 
Rogers  Clark  for  an  expedition  against  the  Span- 
iards in  1793,  declaring  it  was  a  part  of  the 
scheme  of  Genet  (q.v. ),  and  would  only  have 
the  effect  of  embroiling  the  country  with  a 
friendly  Power.  From  1795  to  1801  he  was  a 
United  States  Senator  from  Kentucky.  His  let- 
ters to  the  Western  World  signed  'Observer,'  in 
which  he  clearly  pointed  out  the  existence  of  the 
Burr  conspiracy  (q.v.) ,  led  to  Federal  action  and 
the  thwarting  of  Burr's  plans  of  empire.  While 
a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  in  1809  he 
fought  a  duel  with  Henry  Clay  in  which  both 
were  woimded.  He  published  a  History  of  Ken- 
tucky (1812;  enlarged.  1824),  which  is  in  re- 
ality a  curious  and  partisan  piece  of  autobiog- 
raphy, but  contains  much  of  value  in  regard  to 
early   politics   in   the  West. 

MARSHALL,  Humphrey  (1812-72).  An 
American  soldier  and  politician,  born  at  Frank- 
fort, Ky.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832, 
but  resigned  from  the  army  the  next  .year.  He 
studied  law  and  practiced  in  Louisville,  where  he 
took  much  interest  in  the  State  militia.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Mexican  War  he  entered  as  col- 
onel of  a  Kentucky  cavalry  regiment  and  led  the 
charge  at  Buena  Vista.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Hou.se  of  Representatives  in  1849 
and  was  reelected  in  1851,  but  resigned  in  1852 
and  accepted  the  post  of  Commissioner  to  China. 
He  retired  in  1854.  and  the  next  year  again  en- 
tered the  House  of  Representatives,  on  the 
American  ticket,  and  served  until  185S.  At  tlie 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  entered  the  Con- 
federate Army  as  brig.adier-general  and  com- 
manded in  eastern  Kentucky.  He  resigned  from 
the  army  to  practice  law  in  Richmond,  but  was 
elected  one  of  Kentucky's  representatives  in  the 
Confederate  Congress,  and  was  afterwai'ds  re- 
elected. After  the  war  he  resumed  the  practice 
of  law  in  Louisville. 

MARSHALL,  Humphrey  (1722-1801).  An 
Amcrieau  Ijutanist,  born  in  West  Bradford  (Mar- 
shallton).  Pa.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  stone- 
mason, but  about  1748  turned  to  farming,  and 
began  to  cultivate  his  scientific  tastes,  which  he 
had  ample  means  of  gratifying  through  the  ac- 
quisition of  property  in  1767,  and  six  years  after- 
wards he  was  instrumental  in  the  formation  of 
the  botanic  gardens  at  Marshallton.  He  held 
several  local  offices,  was  made  a  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society  (1780).  and 
published  Arhoretum  Americanum  {l~S5) ,  a  cata- 
logue of  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  America,  which 
was  translated  into  French. 

MARSHALL,  John  (1755-1835).  The  most 
famous  of  American  jurists,  for  thirty-four  years 
Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court.  He  was  born  September  24,  1755,  in 
Fauquier  County,  Va. :  studied  imder  a  private 
tiitor;  then  attended  an  academy  in  Westmore- 
land County,  and  studied  law  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution,  when  he  entered  the  army  as 
a  volunteer.  He  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  first  lieu- 


HAKSHALL. 


102 


MARSHALL. 


tenant,  and  by  1777  was  a  captain.  Hi*  lirst 
fight  was  near  Norfolk;  he  afterwards  served 
ill  the  New  Jersey  campaign,  was  at  N'alley 
Forge  during  tlie  memorable  winter  of  1777-78, 
and  participated  in  the  battles  of  Brandywiue, 
Germaiitown,  and  ilonmouth,  and  in  the  cai)ture 
of  Stony  I'oint.  During  most  of  1780,  while  with- 
out a  command,  he  attended  the  law  lectures 
delivered  bv  the  famous  Chancellor  George 
Wythe  at  \Villiam  and  .Mary  College.  The  fol- 
lowing year  lie  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Fau- 
quier County,  where  he  practiced  for  two  years. 
In  1782  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  Virginia 
Legislature  and  soon  became  a  member  of  the 
Executive  Council.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
removed  to  Kichmond.  In  1784  he  was  again 
elected  to  represent  Fauquier  County  in  the 
Legislature.  In  1787  he  was  clioscn  to  represent 
Henrico,  the  county  in  which  he  had  lately  taken 
up  his  residence,  and  in  the  f<illi)wing  year  was 
a  delegate  to  the  State  convention  which  was 
called  to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution.  The 
distinction  of  securing  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
stitution by  Virginia  belongs  to  Marshall  and 
JIadison  perhaps  more  than  to  any  others. 
Jlarshall's  refutations  of  Patrick  Henry's  argu- 
ments against  adoption  were  particularly  ellect- 
ive.  In  the  meantime  his  law  practice  was  rap- 
idly increasing,  and  lie  declined  a  reelection  to 
the  Legislature  in  1702  in  order  to  devote  his 
whole  time  to  his  growing  practice,  but  in  1705 
lie  was  again  persuaded  to  stand  for  reelection 
and  was  successful.  It  was  about  this  time  that 
Marshall  appeared  before  the  Supreme  Court 
in  the  famous  case  of  \^'are  vs.  Hilton,  in  which 
the  validity  of  the  Virginia  Scqiicslratiou  Act 
was  involved,  and  his  able  argument  aihlcd  great- 
ly to  his  growing  reputation,  lie  declined  to 
accept  tile  post  of  .Vttorney-Ocneral  or  tlie  French 
mission  tendered  him  liy  Piesiih^nt  Wasliingtiin, 
but  finally  consented  to  go  to  Paris  in  1707  with 
Gen.  C.  Pinckney  and  Elliridge  Gerry  to  induce 
the  Directory  to  remove  the  restrictions  which  it 
had  hiid  on  .\mericaii  commerce.  .Mthough  the 
negotiations  proved  fruitless.  Marshall's  conduct 
seems  to  liave  been  more  satisfactory  to  the  Gov- 
ernment than  tliat  of  either  of  his  colleagues.  In 
179S  lie  de<'llned  to  accept  a  seat  on  the  bench  of 
tlie  I'nited  States  Supreme  Court  as  the  successor 
of  .James  Wilsim.  but  in  the  same  year  at  the 
solicitation  of  Wasliington  became  a  candidate  for 
Congress  and  was  elected,  although  his  constitu- 
ency was  decidedly  Anti-Federalist  in  politics. 
Tn  (^ongress  he  supported  the  .\dministration  in 
particular  anil  Fodcrnlist  measures  generally,  al- 
though he  voted  for  the  repeal  of  the  notorious 
.Mien  and  Sedition  .\cts.  His  most  not  aide  cfTort 
in  Congress  was  a  s])ccch  in  support  of  the  eon- 
duct  of  the  President  in  surrendering  .Jonathan 
bobbins,  the  murderer  of  a  man  on  a  Priti^h 
frigate,  who  had  escaped  to  the  T'nited  States 
and  had  been  delivered  up  to  the  Pritish  Gov- 
ernment by  the  President.  ^larsliall  showed 
conclusively  that  the  surrender  of  Pobbins  wa^ 
clearly  within  the  Prr-siilent's  constitutional 
power.  In  May.  ISOO.  he  was  asked  by  President 
Adam.s  to  take  the  office  of  Secretary  of  War, 
but  declined.  However,  he  was  induced  to  ae- 
eept  the  position  of  Secretary  of  State,  which 
he  held  for  a  short  time.  On  .lanuarv  .■?!.  ISOl, 
he  was  commissioned  Chief  .Tustice  of  tlie  T'nited 
States  Supreme  Court.  Tlie  accession  of  Mar- 
shall   to   the   bench    of   the   United    States   Su- 


preme Court  as  Cliief  Justice  marks  a  turn- 
ing point  in  liis  life  and  an  epoch  in  the 
legal  and  constitutional  history  of  the  Ignited 
States.  For  thirty-four  years  he  dominated 
the  court  by  his  great  learning  and  master- 
ful power  of  analysis  and  clearness  of  state- 
ment. Perhaps  no  judge  ever  excelled  him  in 
the  capacity  to  hold  a  legal  proposition  before 
the  eyes  of  others  in  such  various  forms  and 
colors.  He  resolved  every  argument  by  the  most 
subtle  analysis  into  its  ultimate  principles,  and 
then  applied  them  to  the  decision  of  the  case  in 
question.  His  service  on  the  bench,  which  con- 
tinued until  his  death,  was  eU'ective  and  consjiicu- 
ous  not  only  in  securing  for  the  court  tlic  recog- 
nition and  profound  respect  for  which  hitherto 
there  had  been  no  especial  occasion,  liut  also  in 
so  cxpouniling  the  Constitution  as  to  make  clear 
for  the  first  time  the  nature  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment and  to  forecast  the  lines  along  which,  in 
actual  development  as  well  as  in  judicial  inter- 
pretation, the  nation  was  to  proceed.  In  the 
period  of  ilarshall's  predominance  the  court  up- 
held the  Federalist  theorie.s,  as  in  the  national 
bank  case  of  ilct'ulloch  vs.  Maryland,  and  gave 
a  clear  definition  of  the  relations  of  the  State 
and  National  governments.  On  the  subject  of 
the  constitutional  prohibition  against  the  impair- 
ment of  contracts,  noteworthy  opinions  were  |ire- 
sented,  culminating  in  the  famous  Dartmouth 
College  Case,  the  exact  accuracy  of  which  has 
more  recently  been  questioned.  Particularly  in 
the  field  of  constitutional  law  the  work  of  jlar- 
shall  forms  the  greatest  contribution  to  Ameri- 
can jurisprudence  made  by  any  judge,  and  his 
interpretations  of  the  Constitution  have  long 
been  recognized  as  an  important  and  permanent 
feature  of  American  public  law.  He  died  on 
July  U.  1835.  in  his  eightieth  year,  at  Philadel- 
phia, whither  he  had  gone  for  medical  treatment. 
-Vside  from  his  judicial  labors  Marshall,  at  the 
request  of  Bushrod  Washington,  a  nephew  of 
George  Washington,  wrote  a  Life  of  Oeorije 
Wfishinpfon  (5  vols.,  1804-07;  2d  ed.,  2  vol's., 
1832).  "Consult:  MafiTuder.  John  Marshall  (Bos- 
ton. 1885).  in  the  ".\merican  Statesman  Series;" 
Thayer,  ./ohii  Marshall  (Boston,  1001).  one  of 
the  "Beacon  Biographies:"  and  a  chapter,  "Con- 
stitutional Development  in  the  United  States, 
as  influenced  by  Chief  .Justice  Marshall,"  in 
Coolev,  Constitiiiionat  tJiston/  of  the  United 
State's    (New  York.    1880). 

MARSHALL.  Ors.\mis  Holmes  (181.'?S4). 
.\n  .\iiiiiicnn  historical  writer.  He  was  born  at 
Frnnkliii.  Conn.,  graduated  at  Union  College  in 
I8;!l.  studied  law.  spending  some  time  at  Yale, 
and  entered  into  active  practice.  His  interest  in 
literary  and  historical  subjects  was  early  mani- 
fested. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  flic  Buf- 
falo Female  .\cademy  and  of  the  BulTalo  Histori- 
cal Society,  ;ind  for  many  years  was  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Buffalo.  His  historical  writ- 
inss  concern  chieHv  the  relations  of  the  lro<|iiois 
with  French  and  Knglish  and  are  of  considerable 
value.  .\  volume  was  collected  after  his  death 
entitled  Uistoriral  Wrilinijs  of  Or.fnmiis  H.  Mar- 
shall Rrlatinf]  to  the  Early  Hisiorxi  of  the  "West 
(18871. 

MARSHALL.  Stephen  (c.  1594- 10.55).  A 
Presbyterian  leader.  He  was  horn  at  Godman- 
chester. Huntingdonshire. England. graduated  B..A. 
at  Cambridge  (IfilS),  entered  the  ministry  and 
joined  the  ranks  of  the  non-conformists.    He  Tvas 


MARSHALL. 


103 


MARSH   HAWK. 


an  eloquent  man,  considered  in  some  quarters 
the  greatest  preaclier  of  the  day,  but  nut  learned 
or  original.  Beginning  with  the  advocacy  of  a 
reform  of  the  Church  of  England,  while  retaining 
episcopacy  and  liturgy,  he  ended  with  the  dc 
jure  divino  Presbyterian  theory.  He  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  (1G43 
sqq. ).  Marshall  published  many  sermons.  One 
treatise,  A  Defen.sc  of  Infant  liaplisiii  (164(i), 
may  be  mentioned.  He  was  also  one  of  the  joint 
authcirs  of  a  pamphlet  published  -at  London 
(lU  1 1 ) ,  called  An  Ansn-cr  to  a  liooke  [by  J.  Hall, 
Bishop  of  Norwich]  enlituled  An  Uumhlc  h'emoii- 
strancc.  In  which  the  originall  of  Liturgy  [and] 
Episcopacy  is  Discussed.  And  Quwres  Propound- 
ed Concerning  Both.     Written  by  Smectynuiuus. 

MARSHALL,  William  Calder  (1813-04).  A 
Scotch  sculi)tor.  He  was  born  at  Edinburgh, 
March  18,  1813.  He  .studied  sculpture  at  the 
Trustj>es'  Academy.  Edinburgh,  and  at  London, 
imder  Chantry  and  Bailey.  In  the  schools  of  the 
Koyal  -Vcadeniy  he  won  a  gold  medal  and  traveling 
seholarshij).  and  from  1836  to  1838  continued  his 
studies  in  Rome.  From  the  time  of  his  return 
t»  London  (1839)  he  contributed  to  almost  every 
animal  art  exhibition.  His  work  was  chiefly 
idealistic  statuary,  and  among  his  productions 
of  tills  class  are:  "The  Creation  of  Adam" 
(184'2);  "Christ  Blessing  Little  Children" 
(1844)  ;  "Paul  and  Virginia"  (184.5)  ;  "Sabrina" 
(1840),  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  his  fig- 
ures; "The  First  Whisper  of  Love;"  and  "The 
Dancing  (Jirl  Keposing."  In  historical  figures 
he  modeled  the  bronze  statue  of  Sir  Eoliert  Peel 
at  ilanchoster;  one  of  Dr.  .Tenner;  and  in  the 
Westminster  Palace,  busts  of  Chaucer,  Lord 
Clarendon,  and  Lord  Somers.  In  decoration,  he 
was  extensively  engaged  in  the  ornamentation  of 
the  new  Houses  of  Parliament  and  the  Welling- 
ton Chapel  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  He  was 
also  tlie  designer  of  the  Wellington  monument. 
The  style  of  all  his  productions  is  marked  by  sim- 
plicity and  refinement,  and  the  conception  of  his 
statuettes  is  delicate  and  poetical.  He  died  at 
London,  .Tune  10,  1804. 

MARSHALL  ISLANDS. '  An  archipelago  in 
Micronesia,  situated  east  of  the  Caroline  Islands 
and  belonging  to  Germany  (ilap:  Australasia,  J 
2).  It  consists  of  two  parallel  chains  of  atolls, 
the  Ratak  chain  in  the  east  and  the  Ralik  in  the 
west,  with  an  aggregate  area  of  158  square  miles. 
The  islands  are  low  and  the  soil  very  poor,  .sup- 
porting a  scanty  fiora,  in  which  the  cocoanut  and 
the  breadfruit  tree  predominate.  Copra  is  the 
only  export,  and  amounts  to  over  2000  tons  an- 
niinlly.  The  population  of  the  whole  archipelago 
in  1S!17  numbered  l.'i.OOO,  of  whom  less  than  a 
hundred  were  Europeans.  The  islands  are  ad- 
niinisterpd  by  an  Imperial  Commissioner  resid- 
ing on   the   island   of   .Taluit. 

MAR'SHALLTOWN.  A  city  and  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Marshall  County.  Iowa.  fiO  miles  north- 
east of  Dps  Moines;  on  the  Iowa  Central,  the  Chi- 
cago, and  Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago  Great 
Western  railroads  (^lap:  Iowa,  E  2).  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Iowa  State  Soldiers'  Home,  with  800 
inmates,  and  has  a  public  library.  Among  its 
industrial  establishments  are  extensive  meat- 
packing plants,  glucose  factories,  flour-mills, 
grain  elevator^,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
canning  and  bottling  works,  and  carriage  and 
furniture  factories.     Settled  in   1860,  Marshall- 


town  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1803  and  re- 
ceived a  charter  as  a  city  of  the  second  class  in 
1808.  The  government  is  administered  under  a 
general  State  law  of  1898  which  provides  for  a 
mayor,  elected  biennally,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil that  elects  the  waterworks  committee.  The 
school  board  is  chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  city 
owns  and  operates  the  water-works  and  electric- 
light  plant.  Population,  in  1890,  8914;  in  1900, 
11,544. 

MAR'SHALSEA.  A  former  prison  in  South- 
wark,  London,  connected  with  a  court  of  the 
same  name.     It  was  abolished  in  1849. 

MARSH-CALD'WELL,  Mrs.  Anne  (1791- 
1874).  An  English  novelist,  daughter  of  .Tames 
Caldwell,  of  Linley  Wood,  Statl'ordshire.  In  I8I7 
she  married  .Arthur  Cutldiert  Marsh,  of  East- 
bury  Lodge,  Hertfordshire.  Encourageil  by  Har- 
riet Martineau,  she  published  Tivo  Old  Men's 
Tales  (1834).  In  the  course  of  a  few  years 
she  took  rank  among  the  popular  novelists  of 
her  time.  She  published  anonj'mously,  and  a 
complete  list  of  her  novels  has  never  been  made. 
Fifteen  volumes  appeared  in  the  Parlour . J Abrnry 
(1857).  They  depict  mostly  tlie  manners  of  the 
upper  middle  class  and  the  lower  aristocracy. 
Emilia  Wyndham  (1846)  seems  to  be  one  of  the 
best. 

MARSH  CROCODILE.     See  Muggek. 

MARSH'FIELD.  A  city  in  Wood  County, 
Wis.,  185  miles  mu'thwest  of  Milwaukee;  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Wisconsin  Cen- 
tral, the  Chicago,  Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis  and 
Omaha,  and  other  railroads  (Map:  Wisconsin. 
C  4).  It  has  a  public  library,  a  hospital,  and  a 
water-cure  sanatorium.  Marshfield  derives  its 
chief  importance  from  a  trade  in  grain  and  live 
stock,  and  from  extensive  manufactures  of  lum- 
ber, including  staves,  headings,  barrels,  furniture, 
veneer,  etc.  There  are  also  manufactures  of  bed 
springs  and  mattresses.  Population,  in  1890, 
3450;  in  1900,  5240. 

MARSH  GAS.     See  Methane. 

MARSH  HARE,  or  RABBIT.     A  hare  (Le- 

pus  palustris)  of  the  lowlands  along  the  South- 
ern Atlantic  seaboard,  which  is  slightly  larger 
than  the  cottontail,  measuring  18  inches,  and 
differs  in  its  nearly  bare  feet  and  more  scanty 
pelage.  It  frequents  boggy  lands,  and  readily 
takes  to  the  water. 

MARSH  HAWK,  or  Harrier.  A  bird  of 
prey  (Circus  eynncus  of  Europe,  or  Cirrus  IJnd- 
snnius  of  North  America)  which  haunts  marshy 
l)lace's.  The  adult  male  is  light  bluish  gray, 
the  tail  is  barred  with  6  to  8  bands,  and  the  tips 
of  the  wings  are  blackish.  The  female  is  dusky 
or  rusty  brown,  streaked  about  the  head.  Both 
sexes  may  be  easily  recognize<l  by  the  broad  white 
patch  on  the  rump.  Though  long-winged  and 
ca]iable  of  strong  flight,  it  is  habitually  slow  in 
its  movements,  sweeping  back  and  forth  over  low 
meadows,  river  margins,  and  wet  ground  gen- 
erally, in  search  of  the  small  game  to  be  fotind 
in  such  places,  keeping  near  the  ground,  and 
dropping  siuldenly  upon  its  prey — more  often  a 
frog  or  a  mouse  than  anything  else.  Only  rarely 
docs  it  seize  a  bird  or  disturb  poultry;  and  its 
services  are  of  great  value  to  the  agriculturists, 
and  should  be  encournfred.  It  was  classed  as 
'ignoble'  in  falconry.  These  hawks  nest  upon  the 
ground  in  some  marsh,  and  lay  four  or  five  nearly 


MARSH  HAWK. 


104 


MARSH-WREN. 


globular,  dirty-white  eggs.  Consult:  Fisher, 
HaiiLs  and  Owls  of  the  i'niled  Slates  (Wash- 
ington. 1S!)3)  ;  Coues,  Birds  of  the  yorlhwcst 
(Washington,  1874),  and  standard  authorities. 
See  Plate  of  E.\oles  and  Hawks. 

MARSH  HEN,  or  Mud  Hen.  A  gunner's 
name    fur    various    rails,    coots,    and    gallinules 

(.I4.V.1. 

MARSH-MALLOW.  A  name  applied  to  .W- 
lliaa  o/ficiitalis.  native  of  (ireat  Britain  and  nat- 
uralized in  the  I'nited  States,  in  both  of  which 
countries  it  grows  in  meadows  and  marshes,  par- 
ticularly  near   the   seacoast.     The  whole   plant. 


MAR8n-.MALLOW  {Altbica  oOlciaaUs). 


which  is  a  woody  herb,  abounds  in  mucilage,  espe- 
cially in  the  root,  confections  made  from  it  be- 
ing known  as  putcs  dc  guimauic.  The  leaves 
and  tender  twigs  are  used  for  food  in  some  re- 
gions <luring  seasons  of  scarcity.  The  hollyhock 
{Althwa  rnsca)  is  an  allied  species.  See  rioLLY- 
HOCK;   Alth.ea. 

MARSH'MAN,  .Josiuta  ( 1708-18.37 ) .  An  Eng- 
lish missionary,  lie  was  born  at  W'estbury  Leigh, 
Wiltshire,  and  was  sent  in  17!I!1  by  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  to  India  to  join  William  Carey 
(q.v. )  and  his  colleagues.  They  established  their 
mission  at  Scrampore,  a  Danish  colony,  l(i  miles 
above  Calcutta,  and  to  supplement  the  scanty 
funds  sent  out  by  the  society,  schools  were  opened 
for  both  European  and  native  children.  This 
course  did  not  meet  the  ap|>roval  of  the  society, 
and  in  1820  Marshman  returned  to  England  to  try 
to  etTect  a  settlement  of  the  dilTerences.  He  failed 
in  his  object,  and  the  matter  ended  in  a  separa- 
tion of  the  Serampore  mission  from  (he  society. 
He  returned  to  Serampore  in  18'2!)  and  died  there. 
December  .").  18;i7.  In  a<lditi(in  to  his  special  mis- 
sionary duties.  Dr.  Marshman  gave  himself  with 
great  zeal  lo  the  study  of  the  Bengalee.  .San- 
skrit, and  Chinese  languages,  which  he  mastered. 
He  published:  .1  lUxsfrlntion  on  the  I'htirar- 
teYs  and  fiounds  of  the  Chinese  Language 
(1800);  The  Works  of  Confucius.  Containing 
the  Original  Text  with  a  Translation  (1809); 
Clavis  Sinica  (1814);  EIrmenIs  of  Chinese 
Orammar.  trilh  a  Preliminary  TM.isertation  on 
the  Chnraetrrs  and  Colloquial  Medium  of  the 
Chinese  (1814).  He  also  prepared  the  first  com- 
plete Chinese  version  of  tlie  Bible.  He  assisted 
Dr.  Carey  in  preparing  a  Sanskrit  grammar  and 
a  Bengalee  and  English  dictionary,  and  the  Bible 


in  Telugu.  Consult :  J.  C.  ^hirshman,  Life  and 
Times  of  the  Scrampur  Missionaries  (London, 
18")!))  :  Carey.  Mdrshiiian  ami  Ward,  an  abridg- 
ment of  tlie  above   (ib.,  1804). 

MARSH-MARIGOLD,  I'altha.  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Ranuneulacea'. 
Vulllia  /Miliislris  is  a  very  common  American 
plant,  with  kidney-shaped,  shining  leaves,  and 
large  yellow  llowers,  a  principal  ornament  of 
wet  meadows  and  the  sides  of  streams  in  spring. 


MARSH-MAiiiaoi.D  {Citltlia  palustris). 

It  partakes  of  the  acridity  common  to  the  order; 
but  the  flower-buds,  jjreserved  in  vinegar  and 
salt,  are  said  to  be  a  good  substitute  for  capers. 
The  plant  is  used  before  flowering  as  a  pot  lierli 
in  man}'  places. 

MARSH  PLANTS.     See  Swamp. 

MARSH-ROSEMARY.  A  name  given  to 
several  si)ecics  of  SUitice,  members  of  the  natural 
order  Plumbaginaccie.  Statice  lAmonium.  a  \tvv- 
ennial  plant,  grows  in  salt  marshes  along  the  sea- 
shore of  Southern  and  Western  ICurope.  and  Slat- 
iee  Caroliniana  is  an  .\nu'rican  jilant,  growing  in 
-imilar  localities  on  the  Ameriran  coast.  Miusli- 
rosemary  has  ;i  tuft  of  sp;itiilate  oblong,  bristly 
jiointed,  one-ribbed  leaves,  developing  in  August 
a  nuich-branched,  panicled  scajie.  from  one  to  two 
feet  high,  bearing  numerous  small  lavender-col- 
ored flowers. 

MARSH'S  TEST.     See  Ausenic. 

MARSH  TREFOIL.  A  plant  widely  dis- 
trilnilcd  in  iiortlicrn  latitudes.    See  Bi'CK  Bean. 

MARSH-WREN.  .\  wren  that  inhabits 
reedy  marshes.  In  the  I'nited  States  and  Canada 
two  s[wcies  are  more  or  less  numerous  wherever 
such  marshes  occur.  The  most  familiar  one 
along  the  .-Vtlantie  Coast  is  the  long-billed  marsh- 
wren  iCistothorus  palustris) ,  while  the  short- 
billed  (Cislnthorus  stellaris)  is  more  numerous 
in  the  interior  of  the  coimtry.  Both  arc  brown- 
ish above  and  light-colored  below,  willi  little  to 
distinguish  them  besides  the  marked  difTcrencc 
in  the  length  of  the  bill;  bu(  the  long-billed  is 
the  larger.  Both  species  are  migratory,  and  are 
notorious  for  their  excited  activity,  mice-like  man- 


MARSH-WREN. 


105 


MARS-LA-TOUR. 


ners,  and  rippling  prattliiij,'  sutig.  They  con- 
struct large  gluljular  nests,  suspended  aiiiung  the 
reeds,  woven  of  grass-l)lades  and  entered  by  a 
little  hole  in  the  side.  As  often  happens  among 
other  wrens  (q.v.),  many  more  nests  will  be 
built  each  season  than  there  are  pairs  in  the  lo- 
cality, some  of  which  may  be  utilized  as  sleeping- 
places  by  the  cock  birds.  The  nests  of  the  two 
species  are  much  alike,  but  the  eggs  are  very 
distinet,  those  of  the  long-billed  being  dark 
eliocolate  in  color,  while  those  of  the  short- 
billed  are  pure  white, 

MAR'SI.  An  ancient  tribe  of  Central  Italy, 
inhabiting  the  district  around  Lake  Fueinus 
(  Lago  di  Celano,  now  drained).  Their  origin, 
like  that  of  other  Italian  tribes,  is  involved  in 
obscurity  and  iiction.  They  were  probably  of 
Sabine  origin,  but  spoke  a  dialect  akin  to  the 
Latin.  They  are  worthy  of  notice  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  their  warlike  spirit.  The  Marsians  were 
at  one  time  allies  of  tlie  Romans,  but  in  B.C.  308 
they  revolted  and  joined  the  Samnites.  After 
being  subdued  they  again  ( n.c.  301)  shook  off  the 
alliance  of  Rome,  but  were  beaten  in  the  field, 
and  lost  several  of  their  fortresses.  From  this 
time  tlicy  continued  the  firm  allies  of  Rome,  con- 
tributing by  their  valor  to  her  triumphs  until  the 
Italians  were  aroused  in  B.C.  91  to  demand  a  re- 
dress of  their  wrongs  and  a  share  in  the  ])rivi- 
leges  of  Roman  citizens.  A  war  ensued,  generally 
known  as  the  Social  War,  but  frequently  called 
the  Marsic  War,  because  the  Marsi  were  promi- 
nent among  the  malcontents.  Their  leader  was 
Pompaedius  Silo.  Though  they  were  often  de- 
feated, the  perseverance  of  the  allies  gained 
the  object  for  which  they  had  taken  up  arms 
in  B.C.  87.  The  Marsians,  inhabiting  a  moun- 
tainous district,  were  simple  and  temperate 
in  their  habits,  but  hardy,  brave,  and  un- 
yielding. So  marked  was  their  valor  that 
there  was  a  proverbial  saying  recorded  by  Ap- 
pian,  "that  Rone  had  achieved  no  triumph  orcr 
the  Marsi,  or  u-it)iout  the  Marsi."  The  ancient 
Marsi  were  represented  as  enchanters,  able  to 
tame  serpents  and  to  heal  their  bites ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  the  jugglers  who  now  amuse 
the  people  by  handling  serpents  are  natives  of 
the  region  in  the  vicinity  of  Lago  di  Celano. 
Their  only  important  town  was  Marruvium  (San  . 
Benedetto),  the  ruins  of  which  are  visible  on 
the  east  shore  of  the  lake. 

MARSICK,  mar'sik',  M.\rtin'  Pierre  JosEPir 
(  IS4S— ).  A  Belgian  violinist  and  teacher,  born 
at  Jupille,  near  Li&ge.  His  earliest  professional 
instniction  was  at  the  Desire-Heynberg  Conser- 
vatory at  Li6ge.  His  musical  precocity  was  such 
that  at  twelve  years  of  age  he  was  organist  of 
the  Lifege  Cathedral.  At  seventeen  years  of  age 
he  became  a  pupil  of  Leonard  at  the  Brussels 
Conservatory,  and  a  year  later  entered  the  Paris 
Conservatory,  where  he  studied  under  Massenet, 
and  won  the  first  prize  for  violin-playing.  He 
completed  his  student  course  under  .Joachim  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1873  made  a  very  successful  debut 
at  the  'Concerts  populaires.'  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  faculty  of  the  Paris  Conservatory  in 
1892.  succeeding  JIassart  as  professor  of  violin. 
His  compositions  are  almost  entirely  for  the 
violin,  and  are  very  popular  nn  the  French  con- 
cert platform.  Tn  180.5-00  he  toured  the  T'nitcd 
States,  and  confirmed  the  reputation  that  had 
preceded  him. 


MARSIGLI,  marsO'ly.-.  Ll  i(,i  (c.13.30-94) . 
An  Italian  humanist.  He  was  bom  at  Florence 
and  there  entered  an  Augustinian  convent,  San 
Spirito.  He  studied  theology  at  Paris,  on  the 
advice  of  Petrarch,  who  wisheil  him  to  become 
a  Christian  champion  against  the  Averrhoists. 
San  Spirito  under  Marsigli  became  a  society  for 
classical  study  and  discussion  ;  among  its  mem- 
bers was  Coluccio  Salutatio.  Marsigli  was  em- 
ployed in  several  diplomatic  errands  by  the  city 
of  Florence.  His  manuscript  comments  on  Pe- 
trarch's poems  were  preserved  at  the  Laurentian 
Library. 

•  MARSIGLI,    niar-se'l3-e,    Luigi    Feruinaxdo, 

Count  (  l(ir)8-1730).  An  Italian  soldier  and  schol- 
ar, born  at  Bologna.  He  served  as  a  common  sol- 
dier in  the  Austrian  army,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  general.  But  after  the  fall  of  Altbreisach 
( 1703) ,  where  he  was  second  in  command,  he  was 
degraded  by  court-martial,  and  was  never  en- 
tirely reinstated,  though  generally  considered  in- 
nocent. After  this  event,  Marsigli  devoted  him- 
self to  .scientific  explorations,  and  founded  the 
Institute  of  Science  and  Arts  at  Bologna  ( 1714). 
In  connection  with  it  he  established  a  press  for 
printing  its  reports.  His  works  include:  Osser- 
vazione  intorno  al  Bosforo  tracio  (1G81)  ;  Storia 
del  mare  (1711);  Danubius  Pannonico-Mysicus 
(1726);  and  Stato  militare  deW  iniperio  otto- 
mnno    (1732). 

MARSIGLIO,  milr-se'Iyo.     See  IMarsilius. 

MARSIL'IUS,   or  MARSIGLIO,   of   P.\nrA 

(c.l280c.l343) .  A  Christian  polemic.  He  was 
born  in  Padua,  and  studied  medicine  there.  Later 
he  taught  philosophy  at  Paris  and  became  rector 
of  the  university  in  1312.  There  between  1324 
and  1326  he  produced,  in  conjunction  with  John 
of  Jandun,  the  treatise  on  jurisprudence  which 
gives  him  his  lasting  fame,  the  Defensor  Pacts, 
an  arraignment  of  the  'usurpations,'  as  he  terms 
them,  of  the  Roman  pontiff.  The  way  to  peace, 
he  maintains,  is  for  the  spiritual  power  to  give  up 
its  claim  to  rule  the  temporal  power.  He  argues 
for  a  virtual  separation  of  Church  and  State, 
and  pleads  in  singularly  modern  language  for 
religious  liberty.  He  denies  the  right  of  the 
Church  to  punish  heresy.  His  book  was  printed 
and  published  at  Basel  (1522).  The  anonymous 
editor  was  probably  the  printer  Valentinus  Cu- 
rius,  though  some  think  he  was  Huldreich 
Zwingli.  It  was  translated  by  William  Marshall 
(London,  1553). 

MARSIPOBRANCHII,  mar'sIp-6-hran'ki  i. 
A  class  of  fish-like  animals,  the  lampreys,  with  a 
cartilaginous  skeleton  and  the  skull  im])erfectly 
developed.     See  Ctclostomi. 

MARSIVAN,  niiir'se-van'.  A  town  of  As\a. 
Jlinor  in  tlie  Vilayet  of  Sivas,  situated  among 
gardens  and  vinevards  56  miles  south  of  the 
Black  Sea  (Map:  turkey  in  Asia  F  2).  It  is  the 
seat  of  .\natolia  College,  also  of  a  Protestant 
theological  seminary,  as  well  as  .Tesuit  and  .Ar- 
menian schools.  In  the  neighborhood  are  a  sil- 
ver mine  and  hot  mineral  springs.  It  is  a  pros- 
perous town  with  a  population  of  about  15.000. 

MARS-LA-TOUR.  miirs'hVtoor'.  A  village 
of  Fiance.  12  miles  from  Metz.  on  the  route  be- 
tween that  city  and  Venlun  (Alap:  France.  M  2). 
It  is  noted  for  the  bloody  battle  which  took  place 
there  between  the  French   and   Cermans,  .\ugust 


MAES-LA-TOUB. 


106 


MARSUPIAL  FROG. 


IC,  1870,  better  known  as  tlie  battle  of  Vionville 
(q.v.). 

MAR'STON,  John  {1575MC34).  An  En-j- 
lisb  dramatist,  belonging  to  tbe  Jlarstons  of 
Shropshire,  lie  was  born  probably  at  Coventry, 
about  1575.  In  15'J4  he  graduated  B.A.  from 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  very  soon,  it 
would  seem,  studied  law.  Turning  to  literature, 
he  published  in  1598  The  Mctamarphosis  of  Pyg- 
malion's Image;  and  Certain  Satires,  and  I'he 
Scourge  of  Mllnnie:  three  liooKs  of  Satires.  Tlie 
first,  I'ygnuilioii's  Image,  is  an  amatory  poem, 
written,  the  author  asserted,  to  l)ring  into  dis- 
repute the  wliole  species.  Tlie  satires,  some  of 
which  are  devoted  to  a  quarrel  between  Marston 
and  Joseph  Hall,  are  coarse  and  brutal.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  are  vigorous  and  perspicu- 
ous. Most  famous  are  the  lines  in  which  Marston 
dedicates  himself  to  everhisting  oblivion.  The 
earliest  trace  of  Marston  as  a  playwright  is  in 
llenslowe's  Diary  (Sei)tember  28,  15!)!)).  His 
extant  tragedies  comprise:  .Ih^oiiio  and  Mellida 
and  Antonio'x  Heirnge  (1()02);  The  Maleotitmt 
(1604):  Sophonislia  '  (li'Mi)  ;  and  The  Insatiate 
Countess  (1013).  His  comedies  comprise:  The 
Dutch  Courtezan  (1C05);  The  Fanyn  (1606); 
and  What  Yoii  Will  (1607).  As  he  often  col- 
laborated, his  hand  is  also  discernible  in  several 
other  plays.  In  conjunction  with  Chapman  and 
Jonson,  he  wrote  Hast  ward  II o  (1605);  on  ac- 
count of  certain  olVensive  passages  he  and  Chap- 
man were  sent  to  prison,  where  Jonson  volun- 
tarily joined  them.  Before  this.  Jlarston  and 
Jon.son  b.nd  quarreled,  but  they  were  now  recon- 
ciled. The  comedies  are  lively  and  entertaining. 
The  tragedies  contain  many  blooil-curdling  pas- 
sages, but  they  are  ill-constructed.  The  t)est  is 
The  Insatiate  Countess,  in  the  making  of  which 
William  Barksted  may  have  had  a  band.  In  mid- 
dle life.  Marston  left  the  stage  and  entered  the 
Church.  I'rom  1616  to  16:51.  he  held  the  living 
of  Christrhurch,  in  Hamiishire.  He  died  in 
London.  .Tune  25.  16.'}4.  Consult  H'orAs,  ed.  by 
Bullen   (3  v(ds.,  London,  1887). 

MARSTON,  .Ton N- Westlan-d  (1810-90).  An 
English  dram:i(ic  poet,  born  in  Lincolnshire.  He 
studied  law,  but  left  that  ]irofession  for  litera- 
ture. He  published  (lerald  and  Other  Poems 
(1842).  bcsiiles  some  novels  and  short  stories, 
and  was  long  a  contributor  to  the  Atheno'um. 
His  principal  literary  activity,  however,  was  in 
the  field  of  dramatic  literature.  Among  his 
numerous  )ilays  are:  The  Patrician's  Daughter 
(1841),  a  tragedv:  Strathmore  ( IStfl)  :  "  ,lnii 
ninke  ClSHi)  :  A  Hard  Struggle  (18.58):  The 
Farorite  of  Fortune  (18(i6)  ;  A  Hero  of  liomance 
(1867)  :  and  Life  for  Life  (1800). 

MARSTON,  Piuup  Bocrke  (18.50-87).  An 
English  l""l.  born  in  London.  Kroni  early  child- 
hood he  sull'ered  a  j>artial  loss  of  sight  which 
ultimately  became  <'iimplele  blindness.  Besides 
vision  he  lost  friends,  relatives,  and  pecuniary 
means:  the  whole  .serving  to  develop  in  his  verse 
a  vein  of  unvaried  sadness.  His  sonnets  and 
lyrics  are  hi-ihly  esteemed  for  technical  excel- 
lence. It  is  generally  bclievcii  that  he  was  the 
subjiTt  nf  Mrs.  Craik's  /'/iiVi/).  Ui/  King.  He 
puhli«hed  three  volumes  of  poetn':  Song  Tide 
and  Other  Porwn  (1871  r  :  All  in  .ill  (187.51  :  and 
M'ind  Voices  (ISS.'t).  There  were  posthumously 
published  a  collection  of  stories,  edited  by  W. 
Sharp  and  called  For  a  Bang's  Sake  and  Other 


Stories  (1887);  and.  in  verse,  Garden  Secrets 
(1887)  and  A  Last  Ilariesl  (1801),  both  edited 
by  Mrs.  Louise  C.  Moulton. 

MARSTON   MOOR.      A   plain   in   Yorkshire, 

Kngland.  where,  .July  2,  1644,  the  Royalist  army, 
under  Prince  Kupert,  was  beaten  by  the  Parlia- 
mentary forces,  English  and  Scotch,  under  Fair- 
fax, the  Earl  of  Manchester,  and  tbe  Earl  of 
Leven.  The  approach  of  Rupert  forced  Fair- 
fax to  abandon  the  siege  of  York,  and  he 
took  up  his  position  on  Marston  Moor,  with 
about  25,000  men.  Kupert,  with  about  the 
same  number,  came  up  with  him  on  the  after- 
noon of  .July  2d;  and  in  the  evening,  at  the 
head  of  the  Royalist  riglit.  lie  made  a  tierce 
charge  upon  the  Parliamentary  left,  which  broke 
and  tied  in  disorder.  The  Parliamentani'  centre 
had  likewise  been  broken  by  the  infantry  of  the 
Royalist  centre  and  had  suffered  heavily  ;  but  while 
the  Royalists  were  dispersed  in  search  of  plunder 
or  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  Cromwell's  famous 
"Ironsides'  brigade,  with  the  Scotch  regiments, 
commanded  by  David  Leslie,  and  some  others, 
rallied,  charged  the  Royalists  vigorously,  and 
remained  masters  of  the  field,  capturing  1500 
])risoners  and  all  the  Royalist  artillery.  The 
killed  and  wounded  on  each  side  numbered  about 
2000.  This  victory  resulted  in  the  occupation  of 
York  and  the  control  of  the  whole  North  of  Eng- 
land by  the  Parliamentary  forces. 

MARSTRAND,  ir.iir'stran,  Viluelm  Nikol.\i 
(lSlO-73).  A  Danish  genre  painter,  born  in 
Copenhagen.  Here  he  studied  at  the  Academy, 
and  luider  Eckersbcrg.  but  at  an  early  i^tage 
worked  independently,  and  won  success  with  such 
subjects  as  a  "81eigb  Drive  bv  Torchliuht" 
( 1820) .  and  a  "Musical  Party"  ( 1834) .  of  special 
interest  as  containing  numerous  portraits  from 
the  musical  world.  In  1830  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  joined  the  circle  that  centred  about 
Thorwaldsen  and  where,  with  others,  he  painted 
an  "Episode  in  the  October  Festival  at  Rome" 
( 1840.  Thorwaldsen  ^luseum.  Copenhagen) .  After 
visiting  Florence,  he  passed  a  year  in  Munich 
and  returned  home  in  1841.  Prominent  among 
his  luoductions  during  the  next  decade  were  a 
"Scene  from  Danish  Peasant  Life"  (after  Hol- 
berg),  and  "Childbed  Room"  (1846),  both  in 
the  Copenhagen  Gallerj';  and  "Pothouse  Politi- 
cians" (18.52,  Hamburg  Gallery),  besides  other 
episodes  and  characters  from  the  plays  of  Hol- 
berg.  On  a  trip  through  Sweden  he  sketched 
hundreds  of  studies,  embodied  afterwards  in  "A 
Sunday  in  Dalecarlia"  (1853.  Copenhagen  Gal- 
lery). Later  on  he  treated  also  historical  sub- 
jects successfully:  witness  his  mural  paintings  in 
the  mortuary  chapel  of  Christian  IV.  at  lloes- 
kilde.  and  "Foundation  of  Copenhagen  Univer- 
sity," in  the  Aula  of  that  building.  His  mas- 
terly illustrations  to  Don  Quixote  constitute  part 
of  his  most  meritorious  work.  He  was  appointed 
jirofessor  at  the  Copenhagen  Academy  in  1848 
and  was  its  director  from  1853  to  1857  and 
again  from  1863  to  the  time  of  his  death. 

MARSUPIAL  FROG  (from  Lat.  marsu- 
I'iuiii.  from  Gk.  ixapfflinov,  marsipion,  diminu- 
tive of  fiipaivot,  marsipos,  ndfxmnros,  niarstppos, 
pApffvirot,  niarsgpos,  pouch).  A  tree-frog  of  the 
South  American  cremis  Xototrema.  which  is  pecu- 
liar anions  the  Hylada".  in  that  the  female  has 
a  pouch  on  her  back  for  the  reception  of  the 
eggs.    This  pouch  forms  two  blind  sacs  made  by 


MARSUPIAL  FROG. 


107 


MARSUPIALIA. 


infolding  of  the  skin,  which  extend  forward  over 
the  back;  but  in  one  species  the  opeAiig  is 
longitudinal.  The  eggs  are  few  in  number  and 
of  large  size,  with  much  food-j'olk,  for  in  most 
species  the  embryos  remain  in  the  pouch  until 
they  are  fully  matured.  How  the  eggs  get  into 
the  poui'li  is  ncjt  known,  hut  (iadow  thinks  it 
most  likely  that  tlic.y  are  placed  there  bj'  the 
help  of  the  male  immediately  after  fertilization. 
Five  or  six  species  of  these  small,  briglitly  colored 
frogs  have  been  described  from  the  tropical  for- 
ests of  Venezuela  and  the  Upper  Amazon.  Con- 
sult Gadow,  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  (London, 
1901). 

MARSUPIA'LIA.  The  marsupials  form  one 
of  the  great  subdivisions  of  the  class  Mammalia, 
and  are  of  special  interest  because  of  their  an- 
cestral history  and  relationships,  and  their  re- 
markable geographical  distribution.  Although 
ranked  as  an  order,  Marsupialia  is  coexten- 
sive with  the  subclass  Jletatheria  (q.v.).  Its 
principal  characters  are  as  follows:  the  brain 
is  small,  with  the  surface-folding  absent  or  very 
simple,  the  corpus  callosum  rudimentary,  and 
the  cerebellum  completely  exposed.  Epipubic 
bones  are  present  in  both  sexes,  and  there  are 
other  important  skeletal  characters,  prominently 
a  tendency  to  the  separation  of  bones  ankylosed 
in  the  higher  Eiitlieria.  The  mammary  glands  are 
provided  with  long  teats,  and  are  usually  in- 
closed in  a  marsupiuni  or  pouch,  which  serves  to 
protect  the  helpless  young.  This  pouch,  how- 
ever, may  be  very  imperfect  or  even  wholly  want- 
ing, the  young  being  protected  only  by  the  hair 
of  the  mother's  abdomen.  The  young  when  born 
ai'e  very  minute  and  undeveloped.  That  of  a 
big  kangaroo  is  no  larger  than  a  man's  little 
linger.  They  are  not  merely  imperfect  fcetuses, 
but  'actual  larvie.'  inasmuch  as  they  are  pro- 
vided with  a  special  sucking  mouth,  in  adapta- 
tion to  their  needs,  which  is  later  replaced  by  a 
true  mouth.  The  young  when  born  are  transferred 
by  the  lips  of  the  mother  to  the  pouch,  where 
they  are  placed  upon  a  teat  to  which  the  tempo- 
rary sucking  mouth  clings;  and,  as  they  are  un- 
able to  suck,  the  milk  is  injected  into  them 
by  the  action  of  special  muscles  of  the  mammary 
gland.  (See  Gland.)  The  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion are  peculiar  to  the  group,  which  is  often 
called  'Didelphia'  in  reference  to  their  character. 
The  oviducts  never  unite  to  form  a  uterus  and 
the  vagina  is  always  double,  at  least  in  part; 
the  testes  hang  suspended  in  front  of  the  penis 
and  the  glans  of  the  latter  is  often  bifurcate.  _The 
anus  and  urino-genital  opening  are  surrounded 
by  a  common  sphincter  muscle.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  that  no  allantoic  placenta  was  present 
in  tlie  group,  but  it  is  now  known  to  exist  in 
some  bandicoots  (Perameles).  The  egg  is  minute, 
as  in  other  Eutheria,  but  incompletely  divides 
at  first. 

In  dentition  and  habits  as  great  a  variety 
exists  among  the  marsupials  as  in  all  the,  rest 
of  the  mammals  together,  for  carnivorous,  herbiv- 
orous, insectivorous,  and  omnivorous  forms  are 
all  well  known.  In  distribution,  one  family,  the 
Didelphyidae  (opossums),  is  peculiar  to  the 
American  continent,  where  it  is  spread  I'rom  New 
York  State  to  Patagonia:  only  one  of  the  24 
species,  however,  occurs  north  of  Mexico.  All  the 
other  marsupials  (except  one)  are  cnntincd  to  the 
Australasian  region,  where  they  conipletel.v  domi- 
nate all  other  mammals,  and  form  the  most  char- 

VoL,   XIII,— 8. 


acteristic  feature  of  the  fauna.  Their  survival 
and  prosperity  iu  Australia  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  entire  absence  there  of  destructive  carnivores, 
except  the  dingo,  of  doubtful  antiquity;  and  they 
have  become  diversilied  within  their  limited  cir- 
cumstances in  the  same  way  as  have  the  larger 
company  of  mammals  all  over  the  world,  to  en- 
able them  to  utilize  all  possible  advantages.  The 
fact  of  marsupials  existing  in  America,  and 
especially  in  tlie  Neotropical  region,  has  excited 
much  speculation  as  to  liow  they  came  there,  so 
remote  from  Australia.  Geological  researches 
show  that  during  the  Mczozoic  Age  marsupials 
inhabited  Europe  and  North  America,  but  none 
of  that  period  have  been  found  in  Australian 
rocks.  Tliese  oldest  ancestors  of  the  race  appear 
to  have  been  mainly  of  the  polyprotodont  type, 
little  differentiated  from  the  diprotodonts,  how- 
ever; and  either  this  differentiation  occurred  very 
long  ago  (in  Jurassic  or  Cretaceous  times)  or 
the  latter  is  a  condition  which  has  arisen,  as 
Beddard  suggests,  independently  in  both  Soutli 
America  and  Australia.  At  any  rate,  before  the 
Tertiary  Age  was  finished  pouched  marsu])ials 
disappeared  from  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and 
survived  only  in  Australasia  and  South  America. 
The  hypothesis  of  a  former  land  connection  be- 
tween Australia  and  Patagonia  is  no  longer  re- 
garded as  tenable ; '  but  it  is  interesting  to  know 
that  a  diprotodont  (see  Opossum-Rat)  exists  in 
Patagonia. 

The  relationships  of  marsupials  have  become 
much  better  understood  than  formerly.  The 
name  Metatheria  was  originally  given  with  the 
idea  that  this  group  was  intermediate  between 
the  Prototheria  (monotremes)  and  higher  Eu- 
theria, and  in  a  sense  this  is  true,  but  the  former 
belief  that  it  re])resents  a  stage  of  development 
from  the  Prototheria  to  the  monodelpliic  mam- 
mals is  not  now  accepted.  The  di-stinetions  be- 
tween the  marsupials  and  the  Monotremata  are 
fundamental,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  the 
derivation  of  the  two  branches  from  any  common 
source.  On  the  contrary,  as  Beddard  concludes 
in  a  learned  review  of  the  subject,  the  gi'eat  spe- 
cialization of  the  structure  of  the  marsupials 
(including  evidence  of  degeneration),  and  tlieir 
age,  point  to  the  fact  that  they  are  the  descend- 
ants of  an  early  form  of  eutherian  mammal,  since 
the  time  when  the  stock  had  acquired  diphydonty 
and  the  allantoic  placenta.  See  the  article  Mam- 
malia. 

Cla.ssification'.  Rather  less  than  150  species 
are  known,  but  they  exhibit  a  most  extraordinary 
variety  of  size,  form,  and  color.  The  classification 
of  the  marsupials  is  based  primaril.y  upon  the 
dentition,  altliough  the  characters  of  the  feet 
have  been  given  mucli  weight  recently.  There 
are  two  principal  groups,  the  Poh/pro/odontia, 
which  have  numerous  small,  subequal  incisor 
teeth,  and  the  Uiprodnntin.  which  have  not  more 
than  six  incisors  in  each  jaw  and  usually  liave 
only  two  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  former  includes 
the  opossums,  Tasmanian  wolf  and  'devil,'  the 
dasyures,  bandicoots,  and  the  like,  while  in  the 
latter  are  the  wombats,  phalangers,  koala,  and 
kangaroos.  Descriptive  articles  will  be  found 
under  each  of  these  terms  and  tlie  related  words. 

BiRLiooRAPHY.  In  addition  to  standard  works 
and  books  descriptive  of  Australia,  consult  the 
great  folio  volumes,  with  magnificent  colored 
plates,  of  .J.  Gould,  entitled  Monograph  of  the 
M acropodidce   (London,  1841),  and  ilummals  of 


MARSUPIALIA. 


108 


MARTEN. 


Australia  (London,  1SIJ3)  ;  Kiel't,  ilammuls  of 
Australia,  folio,  large  plates  (Sydney,  1871); 
VVaterliouse,  Mammalia,  vol.  i.  (London,  1848)  ; 
Thomas,  C'ataloyue  of  Slursupialia  and  Muiiotre- 
mata  in  the  British  Museum  (London,  1888)  ; 
Parker  and  Haswell,  Tixt-liook  of  Zoulotjy  (Lon- 
don and  Xew  York,  1897)  ;  Heddard,  Mammalia 
(London  and  New  York,  11)02). 

MARSUPIAL  MOLE.  A  small  burrowing 
marsupial  of  Southern  Australia,  which  is  not 
a  mole  at  all,  but  simulates  one  in  external  ap- 
pearance, and  in  many  curious  adaptations  of 
structure.  Consult  Bcddard,  Mammalia  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1902),  and  the  special  au- 
thorities tlierc  referred  to. 

MAR'STJS,  DoMiTlus  (c.54  B.C.-C.4  B.C.).  A 
Roman  poet  of  the  Augustan  Age.  He  seems  to 
have  been  a  friend  of  Miecenas  (Martial  viii. 
56,  21),  but  is  not  mentioned  by  Horace.  His 
works  include:  Cicuta,  a  collection  of  epigrams; 
De  Urbanitate,  a  treatise  on  the  use  of  wit  in 
oratory,  which  is  quoted  by  (Juintilian;  Ama- 
zonis,  an  epic;  and  erotic  elegies  and  fables.  He 
is  frequently  mentioned  by  .Martial  (iv.  29,  7; 
vii.  29,  7) ,  who  praises  the  wit  and  severity  of  his 
satire.  The  few  fragments  of  his  works  that 
remain  may  be  found  in  Uiihrens,  Fragmenta 
Poetarum  Komanorum  (1880).  Consult  also: 
Woicliert,  Dc  Domitio  Marso  I'orta  (1828)  ;  and 
his  I'drtarum  I.iilinorum  Reliquia;  (1830). 

MAR'SYAS  (Lat..  from  (;k.  Mapiruas).  One 
of  the  Sileni  of  Asia  .Minor,  and  therefore  at  once 
a  spirit  of  the  water  and  of  music,  especially  of 
tlie  flute,  which  was  associated  with  the  worship 
of  the  great  goddess  Cybele.  as  whose  devoted 
servant  Marsyas  appears  in  the  Phrygian  legend. 
Thus  he  is  called  tlie  son  of  llyagnis.  to  whom 
was  attributed  sometimes  the  invention  of  the 
flute,  and  a  teacher  of  Olympus,  to  whom  the 
development  of  the  art  was  assigned.  Under 
Greek  and  especially  Attic  influence  other  fea- 
tures were  added  to  tlie  legend.  Athena,  so  ran  the 
story,  had  invented  the  Mutes,  but.  observing  the 
reflection  of  her  distorted  face,  threw  them  from 
her.  They  were  found  by  the  Silenus,  or  satyr, 
Mnrsyas,  who  became  so  skillful  that  he  ven- 
tured to  challenge  the  god  of  the  cithara,  Apollo, 
to  a  music;il  contest.  Here  two  versions  follow. 
According  to  one.  King  Midas  as  judge  gave 
the  decision  to  Marsyas.  whereupon  Apollo  be- 
stowed on  the  umpire  asses'  ears  for  his  poor 
judgment.  In  the  other  version  the  muses  were 
the  arbiters,  and  gave  the  decision  to  .Vpollo,  as 
his  instrument  allowed  him  to  add  song.  In  both 
versions  the  god  hung  his  presumptuous  rival  to 
n  tree  and  Hayed  him  alive,  or  caused  him  to  be 
tlaye<l  by  a  Scythian  slave.  .\t  Cehena'  in  Phrygia 
Marsyas  was  worshiped  at  the  cavern  whence 
flows  the  tributary  of  the  Mirander  that  bears  his 
name,  and  here  also  was  shown  his  skin,  which 
had  been  bung  up  in  warning  by  the  victorious 
pod.  Mar.syas  was  a  favorite  figure  in  art.  The 
Athenian  sculptor  Myron  made  a  famous  group 
of  Albena  and  .Marsyas,  of  which  the  latter  figiire 
seems  reproduced  in  a  marble  statue  in  the 
Lateran.  .^notller  celebrated  group  is  represented 
by  the  statues  nf  Mnrsyas  hung  from  the  tree,  and 
the  celebrated  Florentine  ligiirp  of  the  Scythian 
whetting  his  knife:  of  the  other  fitrures  of  this 
group  no  certain  copies  have  been  identified.  The 
competition  was  also  represented  on  the  base  of 
the  statues  of  Leto,  Apollo,  and  Artemis  at  Man- 


tihea,  by  Praxiteles,  and  of  this  composition 
three  of  the  four  slabs  are  now  in  the  Museum  at 
Athens. 

MARTEL,  Charles.     See  Charles  ^Iabtel. 

MARTEL,  mar'tel',  LoLHS  Joseph  (1813-92). 
A  French  politician,  born  at  Saint-Omer.  He 
studied  law,  entered  politics,  and  was  elected  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  1849.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Corps  Legislatif  in  18G3  and  1809;  in 
1871  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly,  and 
was  vice-president  of  the  Chamber.  In  1875  he 
was  elected  life  member  of  the  Senate;  in  1S7G-77 
he  became  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  In- 
struction, and  in  1879-80  he  was  president  of  the 
Senate. 

MARTEL  DE  JANVILLE,  dc  zha.Nvel', 
Cai:kiklle.  Countess  de  (c.lSoO— ).  A  French 
author,  born  at  the  Chateau  of  Koetsal  (Morbi- 
han),  and  better  known  by  her  pen  name,  Gyp. 
She  was  the  gieat-grandniece  of  Jlirabeau.  and 
married  the  Comte  Jlartel  de  .lanville  in  1809. 
She  created  the  essentially  Parisian  characters 
Petit  Bob.  Loulou,  and  Paulette,  types  of  a  more 
or  less  risqu6  society,  which  she  describes  in 
witty  dialogue,  and  with  piquant  satire.  Her 
novels  include:  Petit  Bob  (1882);  La  veriu  de 
la  baroniw  (1882)  ;  Autour  du  mariarie  (1883)  : 
Kile  ct  lui  (1885)  ;  Le  p?i(s  hrureux  de  tous 
1 1885)  ;  Autour  du  divorce  ( 1880)  :  iS'ac  d  papier 
(1880);  Pour  ne  pa»  I'etre?  (1887);  Pauvres 
petit'  femmes  (1888);  Mademoiselle  Loulou 
(1888)  ;  Bob  au  salon  (1888)  ;  Ohe!  Irs  psijeho- 
logues  (1889);  Mademoiselle  Eve  (1889).  suc- 
cessfully dramatized. 

MARTELE,  mar'tr-h'i'  (Fr..  hammered).  In 
music,  a  direction  for  bow  instruments,  indicat- 
ing that  notes  so  marked  are  to  be  played  with  a 
clean,  decided  stroke.  When  the  term  is  used  in 
piano  music  it  means  tliat  the  keys  are  to  be 
striick  heavily  and  firmly. 

MARTEL'LO  TOWER.  A  round  masonry 
tower  designed  to  form  part  of  a  system  of  coast 
defense.  The  original  Martello  tower  was  situ- 
ated in  the  Gulf  of  San  Fiorenzo.  Corsica,  and 
was  named  after  its  inventor.  In  1794  two 
British  war  ships  unsuccessfully  attacked  it, 
with  loss  to  themselves:  this  single  experience,  it 
is  said,  leading  afterwards  to  the  adoption  of 
Martidlo  towers  by  the  English.  They  were 
erected  along  the  more  exposed  parts  of  the 
south  coast  and  the  south  and  southeastern 
coasts  of  Ireland.  They  were  determined  on 
and  built  hurriedly  during  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
owing  to  fear  of  a  French  invasion.  They  are 
about  40  feet  high,  solidly  built,  and  situated  on 
or  near  the  beach.  The  walls  are  five  and  one- 
half  feet  thick  and  were  supposed  to  be  bomb- 
proof; the  base  formed  the  magazine,  the  gar- 
rison occupied  the  two  upper  rooms,  and  the 
swivel  heavy  gun  and  its  accompanying  how- 
itzers were  placed  on  the  roof.  They  were  a 
great  expense  to  the  nation,  and  have  always  been 
regarded  as  worthless.  They  are  now  dismantled 
and,  except  in  the  few  instances  where  they 
are  utilizeil  by  the  Coast  Guard,  abandoned. 

MARTEN  (Fr.  mnrtrc.  marie,  from  MT.. 
iiiiirlufi.  iiiarluris.  mardarus,  mard^ilus.  mar- 
da  ri  us.  from  OHG.  mnrdar.  Ger.  Mardcr.  from 
OIIG.  mart.  .\S.  mear\>.  marten;  probably  con- 
nected with  Lith.  mnrtis.  bride).  Either  of  two 
species  of  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  genua  Mtis- 


I 


MARTEN. 


109 


MARTENSEN. 


tela,  whieli  also  cuntains  tlie  sables.  The  body 
is  elongattd  and  supple,  as  in  weasels,  the  legs 
short,  and  the  toes  separate,  with  sharp,  long 
claws.  The  nose  is  grooved  and  the  ears  are 
shorter  and  broader  than  in  weasels,  and  the 
tail  is  busily.  The  martens  exhibit  great  agility 
and  gracefulness  in  tlieir  movements  and  are  very 
expert  in  elimbing  trees,  among  which  they  gen- 
erally live.  Itirnisliing  a  lolly  hollow  in  a  decay- 
ing trunk  with  a  bed  of  leaves.  Here  the  young 
are  brought  forth  in  litters  of  si.x  to  eight  early 
each  spring;  but  in  a  mountainous  country  all 
will  make  dens,  sometimes  in  crevices  of  rocks. 

The  term  marten  is  somewhat  indefinite,  but  is 
most  applied  in  America  to  the  animal  which 
is  the  nearest  analogiie  to  the  Old  World 
sable  (q.v. ),  and  hence  is  frequently  called  the 
American  sable  or  pine  marten:  technically  it  is 
Musttia  Aiiicricaiui.  This  species,  which  for  250 
years  has  supplied  the  most  valuable  of  the 
American  furs  gathered  f[om  its  tribe,  originally 
had  a  range  wherever  forests  grew  from  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  to  Labrador  and  Hudson 
Bay,  and  from  Colorado  and  central  California  to 
the  barren  grounds  of  the  Arctic  coast;  and  it 
was  .so  plentiful  that  perioilirally  it  overflowed 
certain  districts  and  s])reacl  in  hordes,  scat- 
tering far  and  wide  in  search  of  food.  On  the 
other  hand,  periods  of  astonishing  scarcity  of 
martens  occur  every  eight  or  ten  years,  no  cause 
for  which  is  known.  The  incessant  trapping 
which  goes  on  in  the  wilderness  seems  to  have 
little  effect  upon  them,  but  this  species  every- 
where rapidly  fades  away  before  the  approach  of 
civilization.  They  keep  mostly  to  the  trees,  and 
hence  like  the  den.ser  parts  of  the  forest,  but 
they  constantly  descend  to  the  ground  for  food, 
especially  in  winter,  when  they  regularly  hunt 
for  hares  and  grouse  of  all  kinds,  trailing  them 
with  nose  to  the  track  like  hounds.  Their  broad 
feet  enable  them  to  move  rapidly,  even  over  soft 
snow.  They  also  hunt  persistently  for  squirrels, 
chase  them  in  the  trees  and  on  the  ground,  and 
enter  their  nests.  To  this  diet  is  added  whatever 
mice  and  birds  and  small  fare  comes  their  way. 

Martens  have  little  to  fear  from  native  foes ; 
the  much  larger  fisher  is  said  to  kill  them  occa- 
sionally, and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  great 
horned  owl  now  and  then  manages  to  pounce  on 
one,  but  very  few  of  the  carnivores  care  to  taste 
their  flesh  unless  driven  to  it  by  extreme  hunger. 
They  are  trapped  from  November  until  toward 
March,  when  their  coat  begins  to  become  ragged 
and  dull  in  hue,  and  with  the  approach  of  the 
rutting  season  they  are  no  longer  attracted  by  the 
baits  offered  by  trappers.  This  species  averages 
about  18  inches  in  length  of  head  and  body,  plus 
seven  to  eight  inches  of  tail.  Its  highly  variable 
tints  may  be  described  as  rich  brown,  somewhat 
lighter  below.  Tlie  winter  fur  is  full  and  soft, 
an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  and  has  sparsely  scat- 
tered through  it  coarse  black  hairs  which  the 
furrier  pulls  out.  The  tail  has  longer  hairs,  but 
is  less  bushy  than  that  of  the  fisher.  The  dis- 
tinction between  this  animal  and  either  the  Euro- 
pean pine  marten  or  the  Asiatic  sable  is  not 
visible  to  an  inexperienced  eye,  and  it  is  only 
recently  that  naturalists  have  agreed  to  regard 
them  as  specifically  distinct. 

A  much  larger  American  species,  unlike  any- 
thing in  the  Old  World,  is  Pennant's  marten 
(Mustela  Penmniti).  the  'pekan'  of  French-Cana- 
dian trappers   and  commonly  known  to  Ameri- 


cans as  the  'black  cat'  or  'fisher,'  the  latter  an 
erroneous  name,  since  the  animal  never  catches 
Hsli,  It  is  the  largest  of  its  race,  and  is  descrilied 
under  Fisher.  For  illustration  of  the  pine  marten 
see  Plate  of  Fik-I?e.\ri.\g  Animals.  Two  other 
species  are  natives  of  Xorthern  Furope,  namely. 
the  now  rare  and  restricted  pine  or  sweet  marten 
(Mustcla  martcs)  and  the  more  common  beech 
or  stone  marten  (Mii.<itrla  foina),  which  is  not 
now  regarded  as  an  inhabitant  of  Great  Britain. 
The  habits  of  both  are  substantially  the  same  as 
have  been  described  above,  and  they  difler  mainly 
in  the  pine  marten  having  (like  the  .\merican 
form)  a  yellowish  throat  and  chest,  while  that 
of  the  beech  marten  is  white.  Consult  Coues, 
Fur-Bearing  Animals   (Washington,  1877). 

MABTENE,  mar'tan',  Edmo.vd  (1654-1739). 
A  Roman  Catholic  scholar.  He  was  born  at 
Saint-.Jean-de-Lone,  near  Dijon ;  became  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  at  eighteen,  and  joined  the  famous 
Congregation  of  Saint  ilaur.  He  spent  his  life  in 
the  service  of  learning,  searching  the  libraries 
of  Germany,  France,  and  the  Netherlands,  the 
fruits  of  the  search  appearing  in  many  works, 
notably  in  the  new  edition  of  the  Gallia  Christ- 
iana (14  vols.,  1715-5G)  ;  Commentarius  in  Regu- 
lam  Sancti  Patris  Benedicti  (1600);  Thesaurus 
Novus  Anecdotorum  (1717);  Veterutn  .S'erip- 
torum,  et  Monumentorum  Historicorum  Dogmati- 
corum  et  Moralium  Amplissima  Colleclio  (1724- 
33). 

MARTENS,  miir'tens,  Friedkich  From.mhold 
vox  (1845—).  A  Russian  writer  on  interna- 
tional law,  born  at  Pernau,  in  Livonia,  He 
studied  law  at  the  universities  of  Saint  Peters- 
burg, Vienna,  Heidelberg,  and  Leipzig,  In  1868 
he  became  an  official  of  the  Ministry  for  Foreign 
Affairs  and  thereafter  continued  to  be  an  active 
and  influential  figure  in  matters  of  foreign  diplo- 
macy. He  took  part  in  the  Brussels  conference 
for  the  codification  of  martial  law.  In  1S84  and 
1887  he  was  a  member  of  the  Red  Cross  confer- 
ences. Two  years  afterwards  he  represented  his 
GoA'ernment  at  the  Brussels  conference  for  com- 
merce and  maritime  law.  He  was  intrusted  with 
the  office  of  arbitrator  between  England  and 
France  in  the  New  Zealand  question  in  1891, 
and  two  years  afterwards  he  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Hague  conference  on  arbitration.  Martens 
published:  Recueil  de  traites  et  conventions  con- 
cliis  par  la  Russie  avec  les  puissances  efrangdres 
(1874-95),  and  La  Russie  et  VAngleterre  dan-t 
I'Asie  Centrale  (1879),  He  is  famous  for  his 
work  International  Law  ( 1882) ,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  Ciorman  and  French. 

MARTENS,  Georg  Fijiedrich  vox  (1756- 
1821),  A  German  publicist  and  diplom:it.  born 
at  Hamburg,  He  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Gottingen,  Ratisbon.  and  Vienna,  From  1783 
to  1789  he  was  professor  of  law  at  Gi'ittingen, 
In  1808  he  entered  into  the  Westphalian  civil 
service  as  Counselor  of  State,  After  the  restora- 
tion, he  was  made  Privy  Councilor  by  the  King 
of  Hanover.  Martens's  chief  literarv  work  is 
Recueil  des  traites  (1817-35),  but  he  acquired 
special  fame  bv  his  Precis  du  droit  des  gens  mo- 
(Jernrs  de  I'Europe  (1821-64). 

MAB'TENSEN,  Hans  Lassen  (1808-84).  A 
Danish  theologian  and  bishop.  He  was  born  at 
Flenshurg.  Schleswig,  August  19,  ISOS:  studied 
theology  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen;  and 
in  1840  became  professor  at  the  university,  first 


MAKTENSEN. 


110 


MARTIAL. 


in  philosophy,  and  afterwards  in  theology.  In 
1845  he  was  appointed  preacher  to  the  Dani-sh 
Court,  and  in  1854  elevated  to  the  bishopric  of 
Seeland,  the  highest  dignity  of  the  Danish 
Church.  In  this  position,  by  his  eminent  scholar- 
ship, his  catholic  spirit,  and  his  tireless  activity, 
he  exerted  a  powerful  and  beneficent  inlluence. 
He  died  in  Copenhagen,  Februarv  3,  1884.  ilis 
works  include:  Mestcr  Eckuit  (1840),  an  essay 
on  the  mysticism  of  the  Jliddle  Ages;  an  OulUne 
of  a  System  of  Ethics  (1841);  Christian  Dog- 
matics (1849;  Eng.  trans.  1860);  a  System  of 
Vhristifin  Ethics  (1872;  Eng.  trans.  1873-82); 
Jakob  liohme  (1882);  an  autobiography  (Ger. 
trans.,  Axis  meiiiem.  Lchcn.  1883-84).  Consult 
also  his  correspondence  with  Dorner,  Brief- 
■tvechsel  mit  L.  .1.  Darner  (1887). 

MAR'THA,  (ler.  pron.  niiir'tii.  An  opera  in 
four  acts  by  Tlotow,  with  words  by  Friedrich 
Riese.  produced  at  Vienna  in  1847.  The  music 
is  light  and  the  opera  has  won  wide  popularity. 
AnicMi;.'  the  arias  i^  Tlic  Last  AVsc  of  Summer. 

MAR'THA  AND  MATRY,  of  Bethany. 
Two  sisters  named  in  the  Gospels  of  Luke  and 
John  as  special  friends  of  Jesus.  At  their  home 
in  Bethany,  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  near  Jerusa- 
lem, Jesus  found  a  welcome  on  His  visits  to 
Jerusalem.  Martha  appears  to  have  hien  the 
elder,  though  Mary  was  tlie  more  appreciative  of 
Jesus'  teaching  (cf.  Luke  x.  38-42).  The  re- 
gard in  which  .Jesus  held  the  sisters  was  extended 
to  their  brother  Lazarus  (q.v. ),  at  whose  death 
Jesus  came  to  Bethany  to  comfort  the  sisters, 
not  only  by  the  raising  of  the  dead  one,  hut  by 
teaching  concerning  immortal  life,  which  JIartha, 
however,  found  hard  to  grasji  (John  xi.).  A  few 
days  before  the  crucifixion  .Tesus  was  a  guest  at 
a  meal  in  the  home  of  Simon  of  Bethany,  a  leper, 
at  which  Martha  assisted,  and  which  Jlary  made 
the  occasion  of  anointing  .Jesus  with  the  contents 
of  a  box  of  most  precious  ointment — a  symbol  of 
her  regard  graciouslv  accepted  bv  .Tesus  (Matt. 
x.wi.  0-13;  Mark  xiv.  3-0:  John'xii.  1-8).  The 
attempts  to  identify  this  anointing  with  that 
referred  to  in  Luke  vii.  3fl-50  cannot  be  pro- 
nounced successful.  Xotbing  more  is  known  of 
the  sisters.  Mediaeval  legend  confounded  ^lary 
with  Mary  Magdalene,  ami  asserted  that  she  la- 
bored and  (lii'd  in  Siiutlicin  France. 

MARTHA'S  VINEYARD.  An  island  off 
the  sduthern  coast  of  Massachusetts,  of  which 
State  it  furnis,  with  one  or  two  minor  islets,  the 
county  of  Dukes  (Alan:  ^lassachusetts.  F  5). 
It  is  20  miles  long  and  10  miles  in  greatest  width, 
and  is  .sepaiatcd  from  the  mainlan<I  by  Vineyard 
Sound,  4  to  fi  miles  wide.  The  island  is  rather 
level,  and  to  a  large  extent  covered  with  low  for- 
ests presenting  a  remarkable  variety  of  llora. 
The  southern  coast  has  shallow  lagoons  and  sand 
bars,  while  on  the  north  side  the  coast  consists  of 
bluffs  atwiiit  30  feet  high,  and  to  the  west  termi- 
nates in  the  bolil  headland  Gay  Head.  200  feet 
high,  ami  surmounted  by  a  lighthouse.  The 
island  is  a  much  frcipiented  summer  resort,  and 
is  noted  for  its  large  annual  camp  meetings.  The 
principal  town  and  the  county  seat  is  Edgartown. 
The  population  in  ISOO  was"  43fin.  and  in  1000 
45(11.  Tile  inland  was  di^eoveied  and  named  by 
Bartholomew  flnsnohl  in  tliOJ.  Its  Indian  in- 
habitants were  all  eonvertcil  to  Christianlt v.  and 
were  loyal  to  the  whites  during  King  Philip's 
War.  During  the  Bevolution  the  island  was 
plundered  by  the  British. 


MARTI,  mar'te,  Josk  Jlxiax  (1853-95).  A 
Cuban  patriot,  born  in  Havana.  As  a  youth  he 
woiked  iu  the  quarries,  but  he  was  afterwards 
able  to  go  to  Spain,  wliere  he  studied  law.  The 
independence  of  Cuba  had  been  his  dream  for 
many  years,  and  he  was  twice  imprisoned  for  his 
radical  views  on  the  subject.  He  was  professor 
of  literature  and  philosophy  in  tlie  University  of 
Guatemala  for  a  time,  and  represented  the  Argen- 
tine Kepublic,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay  as  consul 
in  New  York  City.  There  he  published  La  I'alria, 
a  journal  devoted  to  Cuban  interests.  His  writ- 
ings include  a  translation  of  Helen  Jack- 
son's Ifamona  (1888).  At  the  end  of  the  year 
1804.  ^larti,  with  some  friends  from  the  United 
States,  armed  and  manned  three  vessels  and 
sailed  for  Cuba,  but  they  were  cajitured  at  ]'"cr- 
nandina.  Fla.  On  another  expedition  in  1S1I5.  he 
succeeded  in  landing  at  Cabonico,  and  marched 
inland  with  Gomez.  Marti  himself  had  in- 
tended to  return  abroad,  but  the  army  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Spaniards  at  Dos  Rios,  and  he  was 
shot. 

MARTIAL,  miir'shal  (JLvRCUS  VAT.nmrs 
ilAiiiiALis ) .  The  first  of  Rom.an  epigram- 
matists. He  was  born  at  Bilbilis.  in  Spain,  ilarch 
1,  A,D.  38-42;  the  exact  year  is  in  doubt.  In  01 
he  came  to  Piome.  where  lie  resided  till  OS.  when 
he  returned  to  his  native  town.  Here  he  fnuri.l 
many  good  friends  and  patrons,  and  a  higlily 
cultivated  lady  named  Maicella  made  him  :\ 
present  of  a  small  estate,  where  he  passed  in  re 
pose  the  following  years  until  his  death,  which 
occurred  not  later  than  a.d.  104.  While  at  Rome 
ilartial  became  famous  as  a  wit  and  i)oet,  and  re- 
ceived the  patronace  of  the  emperors  Titus  and 
Domitian.  He  lived  in  a  sort  of  precarious  af- 
lluence  in  a  mansion  in  the  city,  and  in  Momen- 
tum, a  suburban  villa,  to  both  of  which  he  makes 
frequent  reference.  From  Kome  his  reputation 
rapidly  extended  to  tlic  provinces;  and  eveii  in 
Britain  his  Epigram mata.  which,  divided  into 
fourteen  books,  now  form  his  extant  works,  were 
familiarly  read.  These  books,  which  were  ar- 
ranged by  himself  fnr  publication,  were  written 
in  the  follow'in?  order:  The  first  eleven,  including 
the  Eitier  de  Spectaciilis.  were  composed  at  Rome, 
with  the  exception  of  the  third,  which  was  writ- 
ten during  a  tour  in  Gallia  Togata:  the  twelfth 
was  written  at  Bilbilis.  and  tlie  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  at  Rome,  under  Domitian.  The  last 
two.  entitled  Xcnia  and  A]><>phorcln.  describe  in 
distichs  the  various  kinds  of  souvenirs  presented 
by  the  Romans  to  each  other  on  holidays.  To  the 
other  books  we  are  also  indebted  for  much  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  manners  and  customs  wliich  ])re- 
vailed  under  the  Empire  from  Xero  to  Trajan. 
His  works  have  also  a  great  literary  value, 
as  embodying  the  first  specimens  of  what  we  now 
understand  by  epigi-am — not  a  mere  inscrip- 
tion, but  a  poem  of  two  or  more  lines,  con- 
taining the  terms  of  an  antithesis,  which  ends 
with  a  witty  or  ingenious  turn  of  thought.  The 
wonderful  inventiveness  and  facility  displayed  by 
Martial  in  this  species  of  composition  liave  al- 
ways received  the  hiuhest  admiration,  only  quali- 
fied by  his  disgusting  grossness.  The  best  edition 
of  Martial  is  that  of  Friedliinder  (2  vols.,  Leip- 
zig, 18S0)  :  a  handy  text  eililion  is  that  nf  Gil- 
bert (Leipzig.  ISSfil.  He  has  never  found  an 
adequate  translator,  but  a  collection  of  transla- 
tions in  prose  and  verse  will  be  found  in  Bohn's 
"Classical  Librarv." 


MABTIAL    LAW. 


Ill 


MARTIN. 


MARTIAL  LAW  (  I.at.  iiKiilialin,  pei-taining 
to  war  or  ^Mavs,  fnnu  Mars,  tlio  god  <it'  war).  The 
exercise  of  fxceptional  goveriiiii<i;  ])ower  by  mili- 
tary authorities  in  cases  where  the  ordinary  hxw 
is  superseded  by  the  control  of  niilitary  forces. 
It  is  not  a  written  law,  but  arises  out  of  a  neces- 
sity, either  (a)  in  case  of  the  invasion  of  a 
foreign  country  by  belliirerents.  or  (b)  where  by 
the  force  of  internal  dissension  or  conlliet  the 
regular  civil  authority- of  a  country  is  parfly  or 
wholly  overcome,  and  the  ])roclaniation  of  martial 
law  is  necessitated  by  the  exigency  of  the  occa- 
sion. 

Slartial  law  includes  under  its  sway  all  persons 
— whether  civil  or  military.  In  its  administra- 
tion the  forms  of  military  law  are  adhered  to  as 
far  as  practicable.  In  the  Civil  War  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  declared  martial  law 
to  be  the  immediate  and  direct  effect  and  con- 
sequence of  occupation  or  conquest,  and  that  it 
was  simply  military  aiithority  exercised  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  laws  and  usages  of  war.  When 
a  place,  district,  or  country  is  occupied  by  an 
enemy,  civil  and  criminal  law  continues  to  take 
its  usual  course  unless  stopped  by  order  of  the 
occupying  military  power:  but  the  functions  of 
the  hostile  government,  legislative,  executive,  or 
administrative,  cease,  or  continue  only  with  the 
sanction  or  participation  of  the  occupier.  Under 
martial  law  cases  whicli  come  within  the  'rules 
and  articles  of  war,'  or  the  jurisdiction  conferred 
by  statute  on  courts-martial,  are  tried  by  the 
latter,  otherwise  by  military  commission.  It  was 
the  judgment  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  ex  p.  Millifian  (4  AVall  2,  127),  that 
when  the  civil  courts  are  open  and  in  'the 
unobstructed  exercise  of  their  jurisdiction,' 
a  military  tribunal  is  without  the  necessary 
jurisdiction  to  try  civilians.  Martial  law  is 
not  retrospective.  j\n  olTen<ler  cannot  be 
Iricd  for  an  oft'ense  committed  before  martial 
law  is  ])roclaimed.  Martial  law  may  continue 
in  a  conquered  country  until  a  eivil  govern- 
ment can  be  established  or  restored.  .\ets  done 
under  martial  laAV  have  no  immediate  consti- 
tutional or  legislative  authorization,  but  ema- 
nate directly  from  the  military  power.  But  where 
the  civil  authority  exists  the  Constitution  is  im- 
perative (-\rt.  vi,  sec,  2)  that  it  shall  lie  pant- 
mount.  Under  the  constitutional  system  of  the 
United  States,  it  is  held  by  t'ne  Supreme  Court 
that  a  State  Legislature  may  proclaim  the  exist- 
ence of  martial  law  when  demanded  by  the  public 
safety.  The  power  of  the  Federal  Government  to 
make  such  proclamation  is  a  restricted  one,  im- 
plied from  the  clause  in  the  Constitution  (."Vrt.  i. 
sec,  0.  sub.  2),  providing  that  only  in  cases  of 
rebellion  or  invasion,  where  necessary  for  the 
general  welfare,  shall  the  writ  of  hiihcafi  rarptis 
he  superseded.  For  further  information  as  to  the 
suspension  of  the  privilege  of  hahmn  coijnif:  in 
time  of  martial  law,  .see  H.\UE.\s  COBPV.S.  Com- 
pare !Mn.TT.\RT  Law,  from  which  martial  law 
must  be  distinguished, 

MAR'TIA'NUS  CAPEI/LA.  See  C.^^pella, 
MAR'ri.\xvs  ]\IiMEus  Felix, 

MARTIGNAC,  m.ar'tp'nyftk'.  .Jean  Bapttste 
.\t.c:av,  Vicnmte  de  (1770-18,32).  A  French  poli- 
tician and  administrator,  born  at  Bordeaux,  Hi.s 
devotion  to  the  Bourbons  and  his  services  to  the 
Duchess  d'.Angouleme  during  the  Hundred  Dayg 
won  him  the  post  of  Procurator-General  of  Li- 


moges in  ISin.  Two  years  after,  he  was  elected  a 
De|iuty ;  made  him.self  prominent  by  his  elo- 
quence and  his  gradual  abandonment  of  his 
extreme  Bourbcm  .sentiments;  and,  iu  1828,  be- 
came Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  actual  head  of 
the  Ministry.  Here  his  policy  was  checked  by  a 
combination  of  the  Right  and  the  Left.  He  re- 
tired in  August,  1820,  and  signed  the  address  of 
the  Two  Hundred  and  Twenty-One;  but  after  the 
revolution  of  duly  boldly  defended  Charles  X,  He 
wrote  an  Essai  histurique  sair  la  revolution  d'Ea- 
pagiie  cl  sur  rinlervcntiun  de  1S23  { 1S32) .  Con- 
sult Daudet,  Le  minisidre  de  il.  de  Martignac 
(Paris,  1875). 

MARTIGNY,  mar'te'ny^',  or  MARTINACH 

(Lat.  OcloduniiH  ) .  Three  united  villages  in  llie 
Canton  of  Valais,  Switzerland,  situated  on  the 
left  slope  of  the  Rhone  Valley,  about  twent3'-four 
miles  south  from  the  east  end  of  Lake  Geneva 
(Map:  Switzerland,  B  2),  The  tw'o  noted  routes, 
one  to  the  Vale  of  Chamonix  by  the  TOte  Noire 
or  the  Col  de  Balme,  and  anotlier  to  the  Great 
Saint  Bernard,  branch  olT  here,  JIartigny  is  on 
the  Simplon  road  into  Italv,  and  is  a  great  resort 
for  tourists.   Population,  in  1900,  4292. 

MARTIN  (from  Martin,  Fr.  Martin,  from 
j\IL,  Martiniis,  ilartin,  from  Lat,  Mars,  the  god 
of  war),  A  swallow:  in  the  United  States,  one 
of  the  large  purple  swallows  of  the  genus  Progne. 
Several  of  the  South  American  species  are  famil- 
iar birds  in  Argentina,  one  species  {Pror/iie  ta- 
pcra)  breeding  only  in  the  clay  structures  of  an 
oven-bird.  The  connnon  purple  martin  (Progne 
suhis)  is  widely  distributed  in  North  America, 
ranging  in  summer  as  far  north  as  Newfoundland 
and  the  Saskatchewan,  and  wintering  in  Central 
and  South  America.  The  martin  is  eight  inches 
long  and  sixteen  across  the  wings.  The  male  is 
shining  blue-black,  while  the  female  is  bluish- 
black  above  and  brownish-gray  beneath.  The 
nest  was  primitively  made  in  hollows  of  old  trees, 
but  in  all  settled  parts  of  the  country  the  birds 
now  occupy  bird-liouses  set  upon  poles  for 
their  accommodation,  and  they  have  distributed 
themselves  accordingly,  not  frequenting  farms  or 
villages  where  bird-houses  are  not  erected  for 
them.  In  occupying  these  houses  they  must  with- 
stand the  competition  of  bluebirds,  wrens.  Eng- 
lish sparrows,  and,  worst  of  all,  of  white-bellied 
swallows.  The  growing  scarcity  of  the  bird  in 
New  England  is  attributed  mainly  to  the  usurpa- 
tions of  the  last-named  species,  which  arrives  in 
the  spring  somewhat  earlier  than  the  martin, 
and,  having  got  possession  of  the  quarters,  can- 
not easily  be  dislodged.  These  various  influences 
make  the  distribution  of  the  species  more  and 
more  local,  and  are  lessening  its  numbers  in 
the  Northeastern  States,  In  the  Soutli  they  are 
more  numerous  and  familiar,  and  they  are  every- 
where regarded  witli  all'ection.  The  eggs  are 
pure  white,  Tlie  food  and  habits  of  the  martin 
are  like  those  of  other  swallows  (q,v,). 

In  Europe  the  black  swift  is  sometimes  called 
'black  martin,'  and  in  France  the  name  'martin' 
is  applied  to  the  kingfisher;  but  the  French  colo- 
nists in  the  Orient  call  the  grakles  of  the  genus 
.\cridotherps  'martins.'  In  the  United  States 
the  bank-swallow  (q,v,)  is  sometimes  called 
'sand-martin,'  and  the  kingbird  is  occasionally 
called  'bee-martin,'  Such  uses  of  the  word,  how- 
ever, are  confusing,  and  it  is  desirable  that  the 
name  martin  should  be  confined  at  least  to  the 


MARTIN. 


112 


MARTIN. 


swallows,  and  in  America  to  those  of  the  genus 
Progne.    See  Plate  of  Swallows. 

MARTIN.  The  name  of  five  popes,  the  second 
and  tliiid  of  whom  are  more  properly  known  as 
Marinus  I.  and  11.,  though  since  the  thirteenth 
century  the  two  names  have  commonly  been  eon- 
founded  in  tlie  lists.  JUktin  I.,  Saint,  Pope 
649-655.  He  was  a  martyr  to  his  firm  stand 
against  monothclitism,  which  he  caused  to  be 
condemned  in  the  first  Lateran  Council.  (See 
Latekan    Councils.)      In    consequence   he   was 


inncn  critique  des  munuscrits  du  roman  de 
Renard  (1872),  followed  by  two  editions  of  Rey- 
nacrl  (1872),  and  Roman  de  Renait  (1882-87), 
and  by  yeue  Fraginente  dcr  Gedichte  von  den  Voi 
Reinaerde  (188'J);  l^lsiissische  Litleraturdcnk- 
nuiler  des  l.'iten  his  llien  Jahrhundcrts  (1878- 
87)  ;     ^V6rterhuch     drr     elsassischcn     Mundart 

(18'J7)  ;  and  an  edition  of  Parcival  und  Titurel 

(1900). 

IflA.RTIN,    miir'tfiN',    FlSux     (1804-80).      A 
French-Canadian  .Jesuit,  born  at  Auray  iu  Brit- 


seized  by  the  Greek  Emperor  Constans  II.,  who  tany.  In  1842  he  was  sent  to  Canada  to  assist 
attempted  to  depose  liim  and  carried  him  oil  jn  reestablishing  Jesuit  missions  there.  He  found- 
to  the  Crimea,  where  he  died  a  prisoner. — Mar-  ed  Saint  Mary's  College  in  ilontreal :  collected  ma- 
TlN  II.,  Pope  882-884.  Before  his  election  to  lerial  for  the  liistory  of  Canada,  and  published 
fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  violent  death  of  and  edited  many  works  throwing  light  on  the 
John  VIII.,  he  liad  been  Bishop  of  C«re,  and  old  Canadian  Jesuit  missions,  among  which  are 
chosen  by  three  poi)es  to  represent  them  as  legate  the  following:  Manuel  du  ptlerin  de  Notre  Dame 
in   the   delicate   negotiations   with   the   East,   in  rfe  Bon  Hecours   (Montreal,  1848)  ;  Relation  des 


which  eapacitv  he  was  present  at  the  fourth  coun- 
cil of  Constantinople  in  809.  As  Pope  he  had 
close  relations  with  the  English  King  Alfred,  to 
whom  he  sent  a  relic  of  the  cross. — Mabtin  HI., 
Pope  942-940.  A  Konian  by  birth  and  a  man  of 
high  repute  for  learning  and  piety,  though  his 
pontificate  fell  in  the  unhappy  period  of  the 
domination  of  the  Italian  noble  factions. — M.vk- 
TIN  IV.,  Pope  1281-85,  Simon  de  Prion.  A 
rrenchman  by  birth,  he  became  canon  of  Tours, 
was  made  cardinal  by  Urban  IV.  in  1201,  and 
was  several  times  legate  in  France.  He  was 
elected  Pope  bv  the  influence  of  the  French  party 
in  the  Sacred  "College,  aided  by  the  presence  at 
Viterbo  (where  the  conclave  was  held)  of  Charles 
of  Anjou.  whom  he  afterwards  constantly  sup- 
ported, especially  in  his  efforts  to  retain  pos- 
session of  Sicily.— Martin  V.,  Pope  1417-31, 
Ottone  Colonna. "  He  was  born  in  Rome  in  1308. 
He  was  named  cardinal  in  1405  by  Innocent  VII., 
and  in  1410  appointed  to  adjudicatp  the  appeal  of 
Huss,  against  whom  he  decided.  By  his  election 
to  the  Papacv  at  Constance  the  great  schism 
(see  Schism.  Wk.stkhn)  was  finally  extinguished. 
He  presided  in  all  tlie  subsequent  sessions  of  the 
council :  and  when  the  Fathers  separated  without 
discussing  urgent  ipiestions  of  reform,  he  was 
finally  persuaded  to  call  another  council,  origi- 
nally" at  Pa  via,  then,  from  fear  of  the  plague,  at 
Siena,  and  when  it  was  about  to  meet  at  Basel, 
he  designated  the  zealous  reformer  Cardinal  Ce- 
sarini  as  its  president.  Martin  himself,  how- 
ever, died  just  before  the  assembling  of  the 
council. 

MARTIN,  miir't.'n,  Eduard  (1809-75).  A 
CJcnnan  i.I.slctrician.  He  was  born  at  Heidel- 
berg; studied  medicine  there,  at  .lena,  OJlttin- 
genT  and  Berlin:  and.  in  1837.  became  professor 
of  gynircologv  at  .lena,  and  in  1858  at  Berlin. 
Martin  was  one  of  the  first  to  operate  on  diseased 
ovaries.  He  wrote:  Lehrhuch  dcr  (Ichurtshilfe 
fiir  Hchammen  (1854  and  often)  :  Handallas  dcr 
Ovtuikoloflie  (1862:  2d  ed.  1878):  and  Die  Yei- 
ffunijen  und  Beugungen  der  Gebarmutter  (1806; 
2d  ed.   1870). 

MARTIN,  Ernst  (1841  —  ).  A  flerman 
sebobir  in  Komanec  and  Oermanic  philology.  He 
was  horn  at  Jena,  a  son  of  Eduard  Martin: 
studied  at  ^.Tena.  Berlin,  and  Bonn,  and  was 
made  profes'sor  at  Strassbnrg  in  1877.  after  hav- 
ing taught  in  the  universities  of  FreiburL'  and 
Prague.  He  wrote  a  verv  valuable  Mitlclhorh- 
dcutsrhe  Grammatik  (1865;  12th  ed.  1896)  ;  Em- 


Jcsuites  (1850),  an  enlarged  edition  of  O'Cal- 
laghan's  work;  Mission  du  Canada,  relations  int- 
dites  (1861);  De  Montcalm  en  Canada  (1807); 
and  Le  R.  1'.  Isaac  Jogues  (1873).  He  assisted 
Carayon  in  a  series  of  volumes  on  the  Jesuit  mia- 
sions. 

MARTIN,  Francois  Xavier  (c.I702-1846). 
An  American  jurist  and  historian.  He  was  born 
in  Marseilles,  France,  and  when  about  eighteen 
yeai-s  of  age  engaged  in  business  at  Martinique. 
"lie  failed  and  went  to  New  Berne,  N.  C,  about 
1783.  He  learned  the  printer's  trade,  and  soon 
had  an  office  of  his  own.  Under  the  patronage 
of  ex-Governor  Abner  Xash  he  began  the  study  of 
law.  In  1792  he  compiled  by  request  of  the 
General  Assembly  the  British  statutes  wliich 
were  in  force  in  'Xorth  Carolina  at  the  time  of 
the  Revolution.  In  1794  lie  compiled  the  private 
acts  of  the  Assembly,  and  in  1803  extended 
.Judge  Iredell's  revision  from  1789.  Jleanwhile 
he  had  translated  and  published  Pothicr  on 
Obligations,  setting  the  type  himself.  In  1800-07 
he  represented  the  borough  of  New  Berne  in  the 
.\ssembly.  In  1809  President  Madison  appoint- 
ed him  judge  of  the  Territory  of  Mississipi)i, 
and  the  next  year  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Territory  of  Orleans.  Wlien  the  State  of  Louisi- 
ana was  admitted  to  the  Union,  he  became  the 
first  Attorney-General,  in  1813.  In  1815  he  was 
appointed  to  the  Supreme  Court  and  served 
thirty-one  years.  During  the  latter  part  of  this 
time" he  was  senior  or  presiding  judge.  At  the 
time  of  his  appointment  the  law  in  force  in  tlic 
State  was  a  mixture  of  Spanish  and  French 
statutes  and  decisions,  into  wliieh  the  writ  of 
habeas  eor/ws  and  the  system  of  procedure  in 
criminal  eases  according  to  the  eonuuon  law 
had  been  introdiieed.  Judge  IMartin's  services 
in  welding  into  a  homogeneous  whole  this  mass 
of  contradictory  statutes  and  jirinciplcs  gave  him 
the  title,  'Father  of  the  jurisprudence  of  Louisi- 
ana.' During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  lie 
was  practically  Iilind.  but  continued  to  do  full 
work  on  the  bench  until  superseded  by  the  judges 
appointed  under  the  new  Constitution  in  18l.">. 
In  addition  to  his  judicial  labors,  he  publishcil 
two  volumes  of  Rr/iorls  of  the  Sujicrior  Courts 
of  Orleans,  from  1809  to  1812  (1811  and  1813)  ; 
eighteen  volumes  of  Reports  of  the  flupreme 
Court  of  Louisiana  (lS13-."?0)  :  a  Uistorji  of  Lou- 
isinna  (1827)  :  and  a  nistorii  of  Xorth  Carolina 
( 1829).  though  this  was  completed  before  he  left 
that  State  in  1809. 


MARTIN. 


113 


MABTIN. 


MAR'TIN,  Gregouy  (?-1582).  A  translator 
of  the  Bible,  born  at  .Maxfield  in  Sussex,  England. 
He  was  educated  at  Saint  Jolm's  College,  Oxford 
(H.A.  loGl,  M.A.  15()5),  where  he  was  distin- 
guished as  a  Hebraist  and  Grecian.  After  leav- 
ing the  university,  he  became  tutor  to  Philip 
Howard,  afterward  Earl  Arundel.  A  .stanch 
Catholic,  he  eucouraf;ed  the  Howards  to  remain 
true  to  their  faith.  Unable  to  conform  to  the 
Established  Church,  he  tied  to  Douai  in  Flanders 
(1570).  where  he  taught  Hebrew  in  the  English 
College,  then  just  established.  In  1577  he  was 
sent  to  help  organize  the  English  College  at 
Kome.  In  1578  the  college  at  Douai  was  moved 
to  Rheinis.  There  Jlartin  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life  in  the  translation  of  the  Bilde.  lie  died 
October  28,  1582.  The  famous  Douai  Bible, 
though  since  revised,  is  still  the  standard  among 
English  Catholics.  It  was  made  from  the  Latin, 
collated  with  the  Greek  and  tlie  Hebrew  versions. 
The  New  Testament  appeared  at  Rheims  in  1582. 
The  Old  Testament  was  not  published  till  1609- 
10.  The  whole  was  revised  by  Bishop  Challoner 
in  1749-50.  Though  Jlartin's  version  was  severely 
criticised  by  English  Protestants,  it  was  freely 
used  for  the  authorized  Protestant  version  made 
under  King  James. 

MARTIN,  mar'tfiN'.  Henri  (1810-8.3).  An 
eminent  French  historian,  born  at  Saint  Quen- 
tin,  February  20,  1810.  Educated  for  the  prac- 
tice of  law,  he  soon  abandoned  law  for  litera- 
ture. At  first  he  wrote  historical  romances 
and  poetry,  but  later,  with  Paul  Lacroix,  he 
began  the  task  of  compiling  a  history  of  France, 
to  be  made  up  of  extracts  from  dift'erent  authors. 
One  volume  only  was  published,  when  La- 
'  roix  abandoned  it,  but  Jlartin  resolved  to 
uo  on.  The  first  volume  appeared  in  1833, 
and  the  undertaking  was  completed  in  183G. 
-Meanwhile  he  set  to  work  on  a  history  of  his 
own,  the  first  edition  of  which  appeared  in  the 
years  1833-30.  in  fifteen  volumes.  The  third  and 
enlarged  edition  appeared  between  1837  and 
1854.  in  nineteen  volumes.  In  1844  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  gave  Jlartin  a  prize  of  9000 
francs:  in  1851  he  received  the  Gobert  Prize,  and 
in  1SG9  was  awarded  the  great  prize  of  20,000 
francs  by  the  Institute.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Second  Empire  he  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly,  and  in  1876  he  was  elected  Senator. 
In  1878  he  became  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy. As  an  historian  Martin  belongs  to  the 
school  of  Thierry.  His  Histoire  de  France, 
which  conies  down  to  the  year  1789,  was  later 
continued  into  the  nineteenth  century  by  the 
Flistoire  de  France  mod-erne  (2d  ed.,  Paris, 
1878-85).  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  other 
literary  and  historical  works,  but  his  gi'eat  fame 
rests  on  the  Hh-toire  de  France.  Consult:  Hano- 
taux.  Henri  Martin  (Paris,  1885)  ;  Jules  Simon, 
Miffnet,  Michelet,  Henri  Martin  (ib.,  1889)  ; 
Mulct,  Souvenirs  intimes    (ib.,   1885). 

MAR'TIN,  Henry  Austin  (1824-S4).  An 
American  surgeon,  born  in  London  and  educated 
at  the  Harvard  iledical  School.  He  served  as 
surgeon  in  the  Union  Army  and  was  promoted  to 
lioiitennntcolonel  and  medical  director.  In  his 
practice  in  Boston,  after  the  war,  he  made 
himself  well  known  by  introducing  the  Beau- 
gency  virus  (1870).  the  use  of  the  rubber  band- 
age ( 18771 .  and  tracheotomy  without  tubes 
(1878). 


MARTIN,  IlE.NKY  Newell  (1848-90).  An 
American  biologist,  born  in  Newry,  Ireland.  He 
was  educated  at  Universitj'  College,  London,  and 
at  Christ  College,  Cambridse.  wliere  he  became 
fellow;  and  in  187G  was  chosen  professor  of  bi- 
ology at  Johns  Hopkins  and  director  of  the 
biological  laboratcn-y.  Jlartin  there  carried  out 
some  valuable  experiments  on  respiration  in  gen- 
eral and  especially  on  tlie  beating  of  the  heart 
of  a  mammal  after  death.  He  edited  studies 
from  the  Biolor/ical  Laboratory  of  Johns  Hop- 
kins, and  the  Journal  of  Physiology ;  assisted 
Huxley  in  his  Practical  Biology  (1876),  and 
Jloale  in  a  Handbook  of  Ycrtebrate  Dissection 
(1881-84);  and  wrote,  apart  from  the  papers 
above  mentioned  on  respiration,  Observations  in 
Jlcgard  to  the  Supposed  Suction-Pump  Action  of 
the  Mammalian  Heart  (1887). 

MARTIN,  HoniER  D.  (183G-97).  An  Ameri- 
can landscape  painter.  He  was  born  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  October  28,  183G,  and  became  a  pupil  of 
William  Hart,  at  Albany,  a  landscape  painter  of 
the  Hudson  River  School.  In  1875  he  was  elect- 
ed a  member  of  the  National  Academy,  and  in 
1878  he  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society 
of  American  Artists.  He  spent  several  years  in 
France,  at  Villerville  and  Honfleur.  He  died  in 
Saint  Paul,  Minn.,  February  12,  1897.  His  in- 
terpretation of  nature  is  always  poetical :  his 
work  was  at  first  careful  in  detail,  but  later 
it  became  impressionistic  in  style.  His  composi- 
tion shows  a  keen  comprehension  of  form,  owing 
to  the  careful  studies  that  he  made  from  nature. 
His  color  is  subdued,  often  expressed  in  tones  of 
mellow  browns,  with  suljtie  qualities  of  reflected 
light  and  shade.  His  brush  work  is  firm  and 
broad,  and  his  paintings  express  large  spaces, 
both  in  sky  and  land.  Among  his  best-known 
works  are:  "Lake  George;"  "Westchester  Hills;" 
"A  Mountain  Brook;"  "Trouville  at  Night;" 
"Normandj-  Trees;".  "A  Normandy  Farm;"  "Au- 
tumn on  the  Susquehanna;"  "An  Old  Church 
in  Normandy;"  "View  on  the  Seine;"  "Sand 
Dunes,  Lake  Ontario,"  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York;  "Mounts  iladison  and  Jeflferson;" 
"Headquarters  of  the  Hudson;"  "Landscape." 
The  Centurv  Club  of  New  York  possesses  his 
"Adirondaclis"  (187G),  "High  Tide  at  Viller- 
ville," and  "Lighthouse  at  Honfleur."  Consult 
Caftin,  American  Masters  of  Painting  (New  York, 
1902). 

MARTIN,  John  (1789-1854).  An  English 
historical  and  landscape  painter.  He  was  born 
at  Haydon,  near  Hexham,  July  19,  1789.  The 
only  art  instruction  that  he  received  was  from 
a  china  painter  at  Newcastle.  In  1806  he  moved 
to  London,  at  first  practising  china  painting.  He 
exhibited  his  first  picture.  ".Sadak  in  Search  of 
the  Waters  of  Oblivion,"  at  the  Roval  Academy, 
in  1812:  "Adam's  First  Sight  of  Eve"  (1813"), 
and  "Clytie"  (1814).  In  181G  "Joshua  Com- 
manding the  Sun  to  Stand  Still"  gained  for  him 
a  premium  of  £100  at  the  British  Institute.  His 
best  known  worlj.  "Belshazzar's  Feast,"  appeared 
in  1821 :  then  followed  the  "Destruction  of  Hercu- 
laneum"  (1822)  ;  "Seventh  Plague"  (1823)  :  the 
"Creation"  (1824):  "Fall  of  Nineveh"  (1828); 
"Eve  of  the  Deluge"-  (1840);  and  many  other 
biblical  subjects,  besides  a  number  of  water-color 
views  of  the  valley  of  the  Thames  and  other 
rivers.  He  died  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  February 
17.  1854.  Martin  was  much  criticised  for  his 
deficiencies  in  drawing  and  color,  but  he  had  a 


MARTIN. 


114 


MARTIN. 


fertile  invention  anil  pronounced  originality.   His 
best  work  is  liis  illuslration.s  to  Milton. 

MARTIN,  Josi.\ii  (1737-80).  An  Knglish 
Colcinial  Governor,  born  probably  in  the  West 
Indies.  Ue  entered  tlie  British  army  in  17.50, 
was  promoted  to  be  major  in  17()1,  and  later  be- 
came lieutenant-colonel,  lie  sold  his  conunission 
in  lYO!),  and  in  1771  was  appointed  Governor  of 
North  Carolina  to  succeed  William  Tryon,  who 
was  transferred  to  New  York.  At  first  his  frank- 
ness and  honesty  favorably  impressed  the  people, 
but  his  stubbornness  and  his  high  opinion  of  the 
royal  prerogative  and  of  his  own  importance 
soon  caused  opposition.  He  atlemi)tod  to  pre- 
vent the  colony  from  sending  delegates  to  the 
Continental  Congress  of  1774.  but  a  Provincial 
Congress  met  and  elected  delegates  in  defiance  of 
his  protest.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
legislative  body  in  America  to  meet  without 
royal  authority.  After  the  battle  of  Lexington 
he  was  practically  a  j)risoner  in  the  palace  at 
Newbern.  Martin  fled  to  Wilmington  ami  then  to 
Fort  .Johnston,  on  the  Cape  Fear  River.  On  .luly 
18,  1775.  he  took  refuge  in  the  British  sloop- 
of-war  Cruiser  and  attempted  to  administer  the 
government  from  there  until  the  ne.xt  year.  He 
accompanied  the  British  fleet  to  Cliarlcston  in 
1771).  and  was  with  Cornwallis  in  1780-81.  After- 
wards he  went  to  New  York  and  from  there  to 
Londnn. 

MARTIN,  miir'ten,  K.\rl  (1851—).  A  Ger- 
man geologist,  born  in  Oldenljurg.  He  studied  at 
Giittingen,  where,  in  1874.  he  became  assistant  in 
the  geological  museum:  and  after  a  year's  teach- 
ing at  Wismar  in  iMecklcnburg  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  geology  at  Leyden.  In  1878  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  geological  museum  of 
I>eyden;  and  in  1882  became  a  member  of  the 
Philadelphia  .Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  He 
wrote,  besides  eontriliutions  to  periodicals  on  the 
geology  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  the  East  In- 
dies: Xiederliindische  iind  nordircxtdriilsche  .SVdi- 
mentiirgeHchiehc  (1878);  Tertuirschidtlen  uuf 
Java  (1879-80);  lieiseii  in  den  Molithhcn,  in 
Ambon,  den  Vliassern,  Soan  und  lUini  (1804), 
and.  with  Becker,  Geology  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands (l!t01). 

MARTIN,  KoN-BAD  (1812-70).  A  German 
Catliidic  theologian.  Bishop  of  Paderborn.  He 
was  born  at  Geismar;  studied  at  Halle.  Munich, 
and  \Viirzburg;  took  orders  in  IS.'iO:  and  taught 
in  Cologne  and  Bonn.  He  was  a|)pointcd  to  the 
see  of  Paderborn  in  1850.  and  showed  great  dili- 
gence in  advancing  Catholic  edncation;il  and 
charitable  institutions.  .Martin  was  a  memlier  of 
the  ^■:ltican  Council  of  1S70:  urged  the  dogma 
of  infallibility:  and  pulilicly  defended  it.  His 
opposilion  to  the  (lovcrnment  at  the  l>egin- 
ning  of  the  KuUurkampf  (q.v.)  was  so 
violent  that  he  was  iniprisoneil  for  a  year, 
and  in  1 875  fled  to  Belgium,  where  he  died.  He 
wrote  various  Catholic  maiuials:  Dm  flriri.inrns- 
frnijrn  iiber  die  Maigrxclre  (1874):  Prri  Jnhre 
nii.s  mvinem  l.rhrn  "(1877:  .Id  ed.  1878):  and 
ItlirUr  ins  Jcnsrits  (1878).  Con»\ilt  the  biog- 
raphy by  Stanun    (Paderborn,  1802). 

MAR'TIN,  L.vnv.    See  Faicit.  Helen. 

MARTIN,  niiir'ti-iN',  T.ori.s  AiMfi  (178(51847). 
A  French  writer,  born  in  Paris.  In  1815  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  neputies, 
and  not  long  afterwards  became  professor  of  lit- 
erature and  ethics  in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.  In 


18.31  he  became  keejjcr  of  the  library  of  Sainte 
Genevifeve.  He  published  Lettres  A  Sophie  sur 
le  physique,  la  chimie,  et  I'histoire  nnlunlle 
(1810),  in  prose  and  verse.  His  most  valual)le 
work  was  Education  des  families  (1834).  con- 
tending that  to  improve  mankind  women  must  be 
educated  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  rear  men  of 
virtue.  He  was  the  disciple  and  friend  of  Ber- 
nardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  whose  widow  he  married. 
MARTIN,  mlir'ten,  Ll'l.s  ( 1846—) .  A  Spani.sh 
.Tesuif. twenty-fourth  general  of  the  Order.  Hewas 
born  in  Jlelgar,  near  Burgos,  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  wlien  eighteen,  studied  at  Poyanne  in 
France,  where  he  entered  the  priesthood,  and  in 
1877  became  rector  of  the  Iniversity  of  Sala- 
manca, where  he  made  a  national  reputation  as 
a  theologian.  In  1801,  he  became  assistant  of  the 
Order  in  Spain,  and  in  18!)2,  after  the  death  of 
Anderledy,  and  on  his  reconnnendation,  Martin 
was  chosen  general,  removing  to  the  ollicial  hea<l- 
quarters  at    Piesole. 

MAR'TIN,  Luther  (1744-1820).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  political  leader,  born  in  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1702;  taught  school  in  (,>ucenslown,  Md. ;  studiecl 
law;  was  admitted  to  tlie  bar  in  1771;  and  |irac- 
ticed  in  both  ^laryland  and  Virginia.  In  1774 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Annapolis  convention 
that  |>rotested  against  the  arbitrary  acts  of  the 
Crown,  and  throughotit  the  Revolution  ho  con- 
tinued active  on  the  Patriot  side.  In  1778  he 
was  appointed  Attorney-General  of  Maryland.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  of 
1787  at  Philadelphia;  steadfastly  contended  there 
against  tlie  establishment  of  a  strong  national  gi>v- 
ermnent :  finally  left  the  convention  altogether: 
and  sid>sequently  strongly  opposed  the  ratification 
of  the  Con.stitution  by  .Maryland.  By  his  ojipo^i- 
tion  to  the  Constitution  he  earned  the  sobriiput 
of  'The  Federal  BullDog.'  In  1S04  he  defoniled 
Judge  Chase  (q.v.)  in  the  impeachment  proceed- 
ings before  the  United  States  Senate,  and  in  1807 
was  counsel  for  .\aron  Burr  (q.v.).  From  ISl 4 
to  1810  he  was  Chief  .lustice  of  the  Court  of  Ov<  r 
and  Terminer  in  Baltimore,  and  in  1818  was 
again  made  Attorney-General.  He  was  stricken 
with  paralysis  in  1820,  and.  largely  owing  to 
poverty,  lived  thereafter  at  the  home  of  Aanm 
Burr  in  New  Y'ork.  He  published  .1  Defence  of 
Captain  Cresap;  Genuine  Information  Delircnd 
to  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Maryland  Ri  In- 
live  to  the  Proceedings  of  the  General  Conven- 
tion Latch/  Held  at  Philadelphia  (1788);  and 
Modern  Gratitude  (1801-02).  Consult  Goddard, 
Luther  Martin,  the  Federal  Hull-Dog  (Baltimore, 
1887). 

MARTIN,  RonERT  Montoomery  (c.l803-0S). 
An  Knglish  statistician,  horn  in  Ireland.  In  1820- 
.30  he  traveled  in  Ceylon,  .\frica.  and  India,  ami 
in  1834  published  his  valmible  History  of  thr 
British  Colonics.  He  prepared  for  the  press  tin- 
papers  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  in  ISlo 
founded  the  Colonial  Magazine,  which  for  two 
years  he  edited.  His  further  works  include: 
Political.  Commercial,  and  Financial  Condilinn 
of  the  .\nglo-ICastern  Empire  (1832)  ;  History  of 
the  Antiquities  of  Faslern  India  ( 1838)  ;  and  Tlir 
.Statistics  of  the  British  Colonies  (1830). 

MARTIN,  Sir  Tiieodore  (1816—).  An  Eng- 
lish author.  He  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  and  was 
educated  nt  the  high  school  and  university  of 
that  city.     In  1848  he  became  a  Parliamentary 


MARTIN. 


115 


MARTINEAU. 


solicitor  in  London.  Aniung  his  earliest  literary 
ventures  was  tlic  volume  of  LSok  Oaiitlicr'x  liolluds 
(1855;  1;H1i  cd.  1S77),  written  in  coUalioratiun 
with  Prof.  W.  E.  Aytoun.  In  1858  he  began 
his  series  of  admirable  translations  with  Poems 
and  lialhids  of  Goethe  (again  assisted  by  Pro- 
fessor Aytoun) .  A/H.?*  appeared  in  IStio.  Mar- 
tin's other  versions  are  Danish  dramas  from 
Hertz  and  Oehlcnschliiger  (1854-57),  the  Odes 
of  Horace  (ISGO),  CaiiiUus  (18()1),  the  Vila 
yiiova  (1802),  Faust  (1805-8G),  Heine's  Poems 
atid  lialluds  (1878),  and  SU-  Ilouks  of  Vergil's 
JEiteid  (1890).  The  Horace  renderings,  in  1SS2 
extended  to  include  the  entire  works,  are  gen- 
erally conceded  to  lie  the  best  yet  made  of  that 
poet.  Tliey  are  supplemented  by  a  booklet  in 
the  Ancient  Classics  for  English  Readers.  His 
further  works  intdude  The  Life  of  W.  E.  Ai/toun 
(1807)  ;  The  Life  of  the  Prince  Consort  (1874- 
80)  ;  The  Life  of  Lord  Lgndhursi  (2d  ed.,  1884)  ; 
nelena  Eaucit,  Lady  Martin  {  HIOl  )  ;  and  Ma- 
donna Pia  and  other  plays.  In  1881  Martin  was 
elected  rector  of  Saint  Andrews  University.  He 
was  knighted  in  1880.  For  Lady  Martin,  see 
the  article  Fai-cit,  Helen. 

MAKTIN,  Thomas  Mower  (18.38—).  An 
Knglish  painter,  born  in  London  and  a  student 
there  at  the  South  Kensington  Art  School.  He 
went  to  Canada  in  1802,  and  settled  at  Toronto. 
He  was  influential  in  founding  the  Royal  Cana- 
dian Academy  and  the  Ontario  School  of  Art.  of 
whicli  he  became  director  in  1877.  His  pictures 
incUidc  "The  Untamed  Wilderness,"  which  was 
especially  executed  for  Queen  Victoria  and  hangs 
in  Windsor  Palace. 

MARTIN,  William  Alexander  Parsons 
(IS27— ).  An  American  missionary  and  educa- 
tor, born  at  Livonia.  Ind.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Indiana  State  University  and  entered  the 
Presbyterian  Seminary  at  Xew  Albany,  Ind. 
(now  McCorniick,  Chicago).  He  was  professor 
of  classics  at  the  Anderson  Collegiate  Institute 
for  a  year  (1840-50),  and  then  went  to  Xingpo, 
China,  as  missionary  (1850-00).  lie  founded  the 
Presbyterian  mission  at  Peking  (18C.3),  and  re- 
mained in  cliarge  until  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  international  law  at  the  Tung-wen  Col- 
lege of  Peking  (1808)  and  its  president  in  180!>. 
In  this  capacity  he  translated  a  number  of  works 
on  international  law  for  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment, such  as  the  Ouide  diplomatique  (1874); 
and  two  text-books  on  physic*,  which  were  espe- 
cially reprinted  for  the  Smperor.  He  was  sent 
abroad  in  1880  by  the  Chinese  Government  to  in- 
vestigate the  educational  systems  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. In  1885  he  received  the  honorable  title  of 
mandarin  of  the  third  rank,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  made  the  first  president  of  the  Oriental 
Society  of  Peking.  From  the  presidency  of  tlie 
Peking  College  he  resigned  in  1808.  In  1900  he 
was  ajipointcd  head  of  the  new  viceregal  univer- 
sity in  Wuchong.  His  writings  include:  The 
Chinese:  Their  Education,  Philosophy,  and-  Let- 
ters (1881)  ;  Evidences  of  Chrislianiiy  (1855,  in 
Chinese):  The  Three  Principles  (1850):  h'eli- 
ginus  Mleiiorirs  (1857)  :  .1  Cycle  of  Cathay;  or 
China  fiouth  and  \orth  (2d  ed.,  1897)  :  The 
Lore  of  Cathay;  or  the  Intellect  of  China  (10011  : 
and   The  fticrie  in   Peking    (1900). 

MARTINACH,    miir'te-niifi.      The    name    of 
three  united  villages  in  Switzerland.     See  Mab- 

TIGNT. 


MARTINA  FRANCA,  miirte'n:!  friin'ka.  A 
city  in  the  Province  of  Lecee,  Italy,  situated  on 
a  hill  17  miles  north-northeast  of  Taranto  (Map: 
Italy,  M  7).  It  is  a  comparatively  modern  town. 
Population  of  commune,  in  1901,  25,007. 

MARTIN  CHUZ'ZLEWIT.  A  novel  by 
Charles  Dickens,  which  ai)peared  in  20  monthly 
parts  in  1843  and  1844.  The  story  shows  the  vice 
of  sellishncss  in  various  forms  and  the  resulting 
evils  in  the  Chuzzlewit  family.  Martin's  ad- 
ventures in  the  United  Slates  gave  great  oll'ense 
to  Americans.  Some  of  Dickens's  most  inimitable 
creations  Arc  found  in  it,  among  them  Mr.  Pcck- 
snilf  and  ilrs.  Gamp. 

MARTIN  DE  MOUSSY,  mar'taN'  dc  miTo'se', 
Jeax  Antoine  "V'lCTuK  (1810-00).  A  French 
physician  and  traveler,  born  at  iloussy  le  Vieux. 
He  studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and  practiced  in 
the  military  hospitals.  In  1841  he  wont  to 
^Montevideo,"  South  America,  and  in  the  nine 
years'  siege  of  that  place  ( 184.3-52)  was  director 
of  the  medical  service  to  the  French  and  Italian 
forces.  After  the  downfall  of  Rosas,  the  dictator 
of  Argentina,  in  1852,  he  was  employed  by  the 
Government  of  President  Urquiza  to  prepare  a 
geographical  description  of  that  republic.  In 
the  execution  of  this  task  he  spent  four  years  in 
constant  travel.  The  results  of  his  labors  are 
embodied  in  hfe  w'ork  in  three  volumes,  entitled 
Description  gcographique  et  statistiqne  de  la 
confMS-ation  Argentine  (1800-04),  which,  with 
the  atlas  accompanying  it,  is  of  the  highest  au- 
thority. He  preseiited  to  the  city  of  ilonte- 
video  a  well-equipped  meteorological  observatory. 

MARTINEAXIy    mjir'ti-no,    Harriet     (1802- 
70).     An  English  writer,  sister  of  James  Mar- 
tineau,  born  at  Norwich,  England,  June  12.  1802 ; 
educated  mostly  at  lunne.     She  early  became  a 
convert  to  Unitarianism.    Miss  ilartineau  began 
writing  when  a  girl,  contributing  her  first  article 
in  1S21  to  the  Monthly  Repository,  the  Unitarian 
organ.     In   1829   the  house   in  which   had   been 
placed  the  small  fortunes  of  the  family  failed, 
and  Miss  Martineau  turned  to  literature  for  sup- 
port.    Her  health  had  been  precarious  from  girl- 
hood, and  she  now  frequently  broke  down.     For 
rest  she  visited   America    (1834-35)    and    Venice 
(1830).   By  1845  she  had  ])assed  from  Unitarian- 
ism to  agnosticism.    In   1845-40  .she  settled  near 
Ambleside  bv  the  English  Lakes,  where  she  lived 
till  her  death,  June  27,   1870.    Miss  JIartineau 
piiblished   thirty-six   distinct   works,   comprising 
tales,  novels,  aiid  essays  on  history,  polities,  eco- 
nomics, and  philosophy,  and  contributed  exten- 
sively to  periodicals.     In  the  Daily  Keics  alone 
appeared  more  than   1000  articles.     She  gained 
her   first   success   with    Illustrations  of  Political 
Economy/  (1832-34)  and  Illustrations  of  Taxation 
(1834),  in  which   she  sought  to  jjopularize  cur- 
rent theories  through   fiction.    Among  her  other 
works  are:  Society  in  America  (1837)  ;  Western 
Travel     (1838):    Deerbrook,    a    readable    novel 
(1839);   The  Playfellow,  good  children's  stories 
(1S4I)  ;  Life  in  the  Sick  Room,  atitobiographical 
(1843)  ;  Letters  on  Mesmerism   (1845)  ;  Eastern 
Life.  Past  and  Present,  in  wdiich  she  avowed  her 
religious   opinions    (1848):    Histon/   of  England 
Durina  the  Thirty  Yeart'  Peace,  a  weighty  piece 
of  writing  (1849)  ;  Letters  on  the  Laics  of  Man's 
'Katvre  and  Development,  written  in  conjunction 
with  H.  G.  Atkinson   (1851)  :  The  Philosophy  of 
Comte,  a  condensation  of  the  Philosophic  pod- 


MAKTINEAU. 


116 


MARTINEZ. 


iive  (1853);  and  Biuyrajikical  Sketches  (18G9). 
Though  little  of  Miss  Jlartineau's  work  has 
survived  as  a  permanent  literary  possession, 
it  was  of  great  value  to  her  f;eneration.  She 
was  a  popularizer  of  the  aJvanced  thinking  of 
her  day.  Consult  her  Autobiography  iiilh  Memo- 
rials, ed.  by  Chapman  (London,  1S77),  and 
Jlillcr.   tian-ict   Martineau    (London,   1884). 

MARTINEAtr,  James  (1805-1900).  An  Eng- 
lish Unitarian  divine,  hrollii^r  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  born  at  Xorwioh.  April  21.  1S0.5.  lie  was 
educated  lor  the  ministry  at  ilanchester  College 
( Lnitarian) ,  which  was  then  located  at  York, 
and  was  graduated  in  182".  lie  spent  one  year 
leaching  in  Bristol  and  then,  October  20,  1828, 
he  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in 
Dublin.  He  resigned  his  pastorate  in  Dublin  be- 
cause he  objected  to  receiving  State  aid  in  the 
Kegium  Donitm.  though  it  would  have  increased 
his  salarj'  by  £100.  From  Dublin  he  went  to 
Liverpool,  where  he  was  settled  over  Paradise 
Street  Chapel,  and  eked  out  his  income  by  taking 
pupils.  Here  he  attracted  considerable  attention 
by  engaging,  along  with  .J.  H.  Thoni  and  Henry 
Giles,  in  a  controversy  against  some  clergymen 
of  the  Church  of  England  on  the  subject  of  Uni- 
tarianism.  Soon  afterwards  Martineau  was  elect- 
ed professor  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  at 
Manchester  Xew  College,  and  continued  to  lec- 
ture in  the  college  when  it  was  removed  to  Lon- 
don in  18.53,  though  he  also  retained  his  pulpit 
in  Liverpool  for  four  years.  In  1857  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  London.  The  next  year  he 
added  to  his  work  the  task  of  sharing  the  pulpit 
of  Little  Portland  Street  Chapel  with  J.  .J.  Tay- 
lor, then  jnincipal  of  the  colU'ge.  Upon  the  death 
of  Mr.  Taylor  in  1SI!8.  hi;  became  principal  of  the 
college  and  tilled  the  cba])(d  puliiit  alone  for  four 
years,  when  the  strain  eompclled  him  to  give 
it  up.  He  is  the  autlior  of  The  Rntionah'  of  Re- 
ligious IiKjuiri/  (1S3(!);  also  i'nitariaiiixm  De- 
fended (in  collaboration  with  Thorn  and  Giles, 
1830),  the  lectiircs  delivered  in  the  controversy 
referred  to  above:  Kndeavors  After  the  Chris- 
tian Life  (2  vols.,  1843-47)  :  M isccllatiies 
(18.52)  ;  Studies  of  Christianili/  (18.58)  ;  Essays, 
Philosophical  and  Theological  ( 18tiG-(i7)  :  Re- 
ligion as  Affected  hy  Modern  Materialism 
(1874);  Hours  of'Thnuiiht  on  Sacred  Thinqs 
(1870-70)  ;  Study  of  Spinoza  (1882)  ;  Types  of 
Ethical  Theory'  (1885);  Study  of  I{cligio)i 
(1888)  ;  and  The  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion 
( 18!10).  He  received  hf)norarv  degrees  from  Har- 
vard, Leyden,  Edinburgh.  Oxford,  and  Dublin.  He 
died  January  II,  1000.  In  philosophy  he  was 
an  intuitionist.  maintaining  that  men  have  a 
power  of  con.scienee,  which,  without  aid  from 
experience,  can  ascertain  the  higher  of  two  con- 
flicting motives.  In  theology  he  was,  as  already 
seen,  a  prominent  Unitarian;  but  his  greatest  im- 
portance will  probably  remain  in  his  ethical 
work.  Consult:  Drununond.  Life  and  Letters  of 
James  Martineau  (London,  1002)  ;  Sidgwick, 
Lectures  on  the  Ethics  of  Green.  Spencer,  and 
Martineau  (ib.,  1002)  ;  A.  W.  .Taekson.  James 
Martineau :  A  Biography  and  Study  (Boston, 
1 000 ) . 

MARTINELLA.  mar't.^-nel'lft  (Tt..  erane). 
A  famous  lull  which  in  the  old  days  of  Florence 
used  to  announce  the  declaration  of  war.  It  is 
always  spoken  of  in  connection  with  the  earroccin, 
n  famous  car  of  great  size,  drawn  by  two  beauti- 
ful oxen,  which  accompanied  the  citizens  to  the 


field  of  battle.  For  a  month  after  war  was  de- 
clared, the  martinella  rang  incessantly,  and  when 
at  last  the  army  moved  out,  the  bell  was  placed 
on  the  carroocio  inside  a  wooden  tower,  and 
guided  the  troops  by  its  sound. 

MARTINELLI,  mar'tc-nel'lc.  Sebasti.\no 
(1848—).  An  Italian  P>oman  Catholic  prelate. 
He  was  born  near  Lucca,  in  the  seminary  of 
which  town  he  received  his  theological  educa- 
tion. He  entered  the  Augustinian  Order  in  1863, 
was  ordained  priest  in  1871,  and  was  elected 
prior  general  of  the  Order  in  1880  and  again  in 
1895.  On  the  recall  to  Rome  of  Cardinal  Salolli, 
the  first  Apostolic  Delegate  to  the  United  States, 
he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him,  and  at  the  same 
time  was  raised  to  the  episcopate  as  titular 
Archbishop  of  Ephesus.  His  wise  and  stiites- 
manlike  conduct  of  many  dillicult  questions 
brought  before  him  during  his  terra  as  delegate 
was  generally  recognized.  In  1002,  having  al- 
ready been  made  a  cardinal,  he  was  recalled. 

MARTINET,  miir'te'na'.  A  French  military 
ollicer  and  disciplinarian,  of  whom  little  is  known 
save  from  a  few  lines  in  Voltaire's  Steele  de  Louis 
XIV.  and  his  general  reputation  as  a  rigorous 
disciplinarian.  He  was  an  early  advocate  of  the 
bay(met  (1(569)  and  proposed  the  change  from 
colunm  to  line  in  battle  formation.  He 
greatly  assisted  in  the  passage  of  the  Rhine  by 
Louis  XIV.,  in  1072,  and  also  contributed  much 
to  the  success  of  the  campaign  in  the  Netlier- 
lands  by  the  use  of  a  portable  pontoon.  The 
derivation  of  the  English  noun  'martinet'  from 
his  name  is  not  proved. 

MARTINET,  Aciiille  Loms  (1806-77).  A 
French  engraver.  He  was  born  in  Paris,  and  was 
a  pupil  of  the  painter  Heim  and  of  Forster.  the 
engraver.  Most  of  his  important  plates  were 
after  the  old  masters,  as  Raphael's  various  ila- 
donnas  and  Murillo's  "Nativity;"  but  he  also 
engraved  the  works  of  more  recent  painters. 
Among  them  were  "The  Last  Moments  of  Count 
Egnicmt."  after  Gallait;  "Charles  I.  Mocked  by 
Cromwell's  Soldiers."  and  "Mary  in  the  Desert." 
after  Delaroche:  and  "Tintoretto  by  the  Couch 
of  His  Daughter,"  after  Cogniet.  He  died  in 
Paris. 

MARTINEZ,  mar-te'nez.  A  town  and  the 
county-seat  of  Contra  Costa  Coimty,  Cal..  30 
miles  northeast  of  San  Francisco;  on  the  Strait 
of  Karqnines,  connecting  J^uisun  and  San  Pablo 
bays,  and  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad 
(Map:  California.  B  3).  It  has  considerable 
grain  trade,  and  is  in  a  region  that  possesses 
nuich  mineral  wealth.  There  is  a  lilirary  of  5000 
volumes,  maintained  by  the  Brothers  of  the  Chris- 
tian Schools.  Population,  in  1890.  1600;  in  1000, 
1380. 

MARTINEZ,  miir-te'nftth.  Enrico  (c.I570- 
1632).  .\  Mexican  engineer,  born,  lu'cording  to 
dilTerent  biographers,  eitlu-r  in  Holland.  (Jcrmany. 
or  Spain.  He  probably  received  his  engineering 
educatiim  in  Spain,  was  appointed  royal  cosmog- 
rapher.  and  went  to  Mexico  as  an  interpreter  of 
the  Inquisition.  In  1607  he  took  charge  of 
the  construction  of  the  canal  which  was  to  drain 
the  valley  of  Mexico,  a  work  which  he  completed 
in  less  than  a  year.  This  canal  soon  proved  in- 
adequate, however,  and  Martinez  was  eventuMllv 
conunissioned  to  deepen  the  cut.  but  died  wliile 
the  work  was  still  under  way.  He  wrote:  Reper- 
torio  de  los  tiempos  e  historia  natural  de  Nueva 


MABTINEZ. 


117 


MARTINI. 


Espai'ia  (ilcxico,  lOOfi)  ;  Dinciirfio  sobrr  la  magna 
conjunciSn  de  los  pUniclas  Jupiter  y  tiaturno 
acaccidfi  en  .2'i  Dicicmbrc  1603  en  Hagitario 
(Jlcxiiii.  Iil04i  :  and  ;i  Tralado  de  trigonomelria. 

MARTINEZ  CAMPOS,  mar-tC-'nath  kUiii'pSs, 
Absexio  (1S34-1900).  A  Spanish  general  and 
statesman,  born  at  Segovia.  December  14.  18.'54. 
He  served  on  General  O'Donnell's  staff  in  the 
campaign  of  Slorocco,  185!),  was  with  Prim  dur- 
ing Spain's  brief  ])artieipation  in  Mexican  alTairs 
in  18(il,  and  joined  the  army  in  Cuba  in  1869, 
remaining  until  1872.  On  the  abdication  of  King 
Amadeus  (q.v.),  in  187.3,  he  refused  adherence 
to  the  new  order,  and  his  unconcealed  enmity  to 
the  Republic  led  to  his  arrest  and  imprisonment 
as  a  conspirator.  On  December  29,  1874.  at 
Murivcdro,  in  conjunction  w-ith  General  .Jovellar, 
he'  proclaimed  the  son  of  the  deposed  Queen 
Isabella,  Alfonso  XII.,  King  of  Spain.  The  army 
followed  his  lead,  a  ministerial  regency  under 
Canovas  del  Castillo  was  formed,  and  in  .January, 
1875,  the  youthful  Alfonso  was  established  in 
ikladrid  an<l  the  monarchy  was  restored.  jMar- 
tinez  Campos  brought  the  civil  war  to  a  success- 
ful issue  by  the  defeat  of  the  Carlists  at  Peua  de 
Plata,  ( 187(i) ,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  gift  of  the 
highest  rank  in  the  army.  In  the  same  j'ear  he 
was  sent  to  Cuba  to  conduct  the  military  opera- 
tions against  the  insurgents.  The  central  insur- 
gent committee  submitted  in  1878.  and,  the  insur- 
rection being  at  an  end,  Martinez  Campos  retvirned 
to  Spain  and  became  the  advocate  of  a  just  and 
liberal  policy  toward  the  colony.  Canovas  del 
Castillo  resigned  March  7,  1879,  and  Martinez 
Campos  headed  a  new  Ministry,  but  was  unable 
to  hold  power  for  many  months.  Upon  his  re- 
turn to  office,  however,  Canovas  carried  out  the 
main  features  of  the  General's  Cuban  programme. 
In  1S81  Martinez  Campos  made  a  coalition  with 
the  Liberal  leader  Sagasta  (q.v.).  which  lasted 
until  1884,  and  was  Minister  of  War  vmder  him. 
In  1880.  in  1891,  and  in  1899  he  wa-s  president 
of  the  Senate.  In  1893,  as  Governor  of  Cata- 
lonia, he  found  it  necessary  to  suppress  anarchist 
riots  in  Barcelona,  occasioned  by  the  new 
taxes  of  the  Government,  and  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts were  made  to  assassinate  him  and  his 
family.  He  was  sent  to  Cuba  as  Captain-General 
upon  the  outbreak  of  a  now  insurrection  in  1895, 
in  the  hope  that  he  would  repeat  his  former  suc- 
cess as  a  pacificator ;  but  he  was  recalled  in 
January.  1896.  and  thereafter  took  part  as  a 
Moderate  Liberal  in  the  endeavor  to  bring  about 
a  reorganization  of  Spanish  affairs  and  a  restora- 
tion of  prosperity.    He  died  September  23,  1900. 

MARTINEZ  DE  LA  ROSA,  dfi  la  ro'sa, 
Fraxcisco  (1789-1862).  A  Spanish  statesman 
and  man  of  letters.  He  was  born  in  Granada, 
March  10,  1789;  studied  law  at  the  University  of 
Granada,  and  was  appointed  lecturer  on  ethics 
there  when  less  than  twenty  years  old.  The 
French  had  just  invaded  Spain,  and  he  en- 
tered enthusiastically  into  the  national  move- 
ment. He  was  employed  by  the  .Jimta  of 
Granada  to  procure  arms  and  supplies  at 
Gibraltar,  and  he  afterwards  went  to  England 
on  the  same  errand.  Tliere,  in  1811.  his  first 
poem.  Znrngo;:a,  was  published.  On  his  return 
to  Spain,  he  produced,  at  Cadiz,  a  tragedy  called 
La  riuda  de  Padilla.  which  was  .successful,  and 
was  followed  by  a  comedy,  Lo  qtie  puedc  tin  em- 
pleo,   satirizing  political   life.      In    1813   he  was 


returned  to  the  Cortes  from  Granada,  and  at  once 
took  a  high  position  as  an  orator.  He  was  a 
supporter  of  the  Constitution  of  1812,  on  the 
abolition  of  which,  in  1814,  Martinez  was  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  ten  years.  Released 
by  the  insurrection  of  1820,  he  was  for  a  short 
time  head  of  the  Ministry,  but  resigned  and  took 
up  his  residence  in  Paris.  Between  1827  and 
1837  he  published  a  collection  of  his  OI}ras  liter- 
arias  in  five  volumes.  In  1830  he  was  permitted 
to  return  to  Sjjain,  and  began  to  write  an  his- 
torical novel.  Bona  Isabel  de  Solis.  In  March, 
1834,  he  became  the  head  of  a  Liberal  Ministry, 
and  was  the  author  of  the  royal  statute  of  18.34 
which  created  a  constitutional  government  and 
took  away  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  provinces. 
Martinez  de  la  Rosa  became  more  and  nKU'e  un- 
popular, and  in  1835  he  resigned.  On  the  fall  of 
Queen  Maria  Christina  in  1840  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  resumed  the  composition  of  Espirilu  del 
sirjlo,  a  work  dealing  with  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, which  had  been  begun  in  1835.  Upon 
the  fall  of  Espartero  he  entered  in  May,  1844. 
the  Narvaez  Cabinet,  and  was  from  1847 
to  1851  Ambassador  to  Paris.  He  died  at  Madrid, 
Februarv  7,  1862.  Consult  Godard,  Martinez  de 
la  iJosa."(  Paris,  1862). 

MARTINEZ  DE  ROZAS,  da  ro'sas,  .Juan 
(1759-1813).  A  Chilean  patriot,  born  at  Men- 
doza,  Argentine  Republic.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Cordoba,  and  for  many  years 
was  intendant  of  the  city  of  Concepcion.  He  was 
a  man  of  advanced  ideas,  and  his  Republican  sen- 
timents were  a  dominant  influence  throughout 
South  Chile.  When  Carraseo  was  Captain-Gen- 
eral, Rozas  was  his  secretary  (1808).  and  in  this 
capacity  put  into  practice  many  reforms.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Junta  (1810),  where  his  popularity 
was  unbounded ;  but  later  the  Revolutionists 
quarreled  among  themselves  and  Rozas  was  de- 
feated and  banished. 

MARTINI,  niiir-te'ne.  Giambattista  (Padre 
Martini)  (1706-84).  An  Italian  composer  and 
writer  on  music.  He  was  born  at  Bologna  and 
studied  the  elements  of  music  under  his  father 
and  Padre  Predieri,  and  counterpoint  under  An- 
tonio Riecieri.  In  1729  he  entered  a  Franciscan 
monastery,  after  having  served  as  choir-master 
at  the  Church  of  San  Francesco,  Bologna,  since 
1725.  He  wrote  Uyo  of  the  most  learned  treati.ses 
on  music  of  the  eighteenth  century — Storia  delta 
musiea  and  Saggio  di  contrappunto.  Jlany  of 
his  compositions  are  in  manuscript  at  Vienna 
and  Bologna.  His  fame  as  a  teacher  of  composi- 
tion was  very  great.  He  was  a  firm  adherent  of 
the  Roman  school  of  composition,  and  wrote  a 
considerable  number  of  works  in  that  style.  He 
died   in  Bologna. 

MARTINI,  SiMONE,  wrongly  called  Simone 
Memmi  (1284-1344).  The  chief  painter  of  the 
early  .Sienese  school.  Of  his  life  we  know  that 
he  was  born  in  Siena,  and  that  he  painted 
frescoes  in  the  churches  and  public  buildings 
of  Siena.  Assisi,  Naples,  and  Orvieto.  In 
1339  he  was  called  by  Benedict  XII.  to  the 
Papal  Court  at  Avignon,  where  he  worked  witli 
his  brother  Donato  in  the  decoration  of  the 
Papal  palace.  He  died  at  --Avignon  in  1344. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  portraits,  his  sub- 
jects were  di'awn  from  Bible  stories  and  legends 
of    the    saints    and    of    the    early    Church.      His 


MAKTINI. 


118 


MARTINIQUE. 


work  is  arranfjpd  witli  a  view  to  decorative  effect 
and  is  charming  in  finish  and  coloring,  but  the 
faces  have  tlie  old  conventional  expression  of 
mouth  and  eyes  and  lark  the  character  of  Giotto. 

In  Siena  his  important  work  is  a  large  wall 
painting  in  the  Palazzo  Pubblico,  the  Madonna, 
surrounded  by  saints  and  angels  (1315).  On  the 
wall  opposite  this  painting  is  an  equestrian  por- 
trait of  a  Sienese  captain  at  arms.  Guidoriccio 
Fogliano.  An  altarpiece  which  was  formerly  in  the 
Siena  Cathedral,  "The  Annunciation"  (133.3), 
was  painted  by  Sinione  in  collaboration  with 
Leppo  Memmi,  and  is  now  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery 
at  Florence.  In  the  Chapel  of  Saint  Martin  at 
Assisi  are  ten  jjictures  of  the  legends  of  the 
saints.  In  Naples  at  the  Church  of  San  Lorenzo 
is  a  fresco,  "Saint  Louis  of  Toulouse  Crowning 
His  Brother  Robert"  (1324),  painted  when  the 
church  was  completed  by  King  Robert  I.  At 
Avignon  there  are  fragments  of  his  work  in  the 
Papal  palace,  and  in  (he  Chapel  of  Saint  .Inhn 
there  are  frescoes  illustrative  of  the  life  of  that 
saint.  His  other  works  include:  "The  Wav  to 
Golgotha"  (1333),  in  the  Louvre;  "Christ  B'Icss- 
ing,"  in  the  Vatican :  and  "Christ  Returning  to 
His  Parents,"  in  the  Royal  Institution,  Liverpool. 
Consult:  Crowe  and  Cavaleaselle.  Hixtory  of 
Painting  in  Italy  (London,  1864)  ;  Berenson, 
Central  Italian  Painters  of  the  Renaissance  (New 
York,  1897). 

MARTINIQUE,  mar't^'ni^k'.  An  island  and 
French  colony  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  situated 
between  latitudes  14°  23'  and  14°  52'  X..  and  on 
the  meridian  of  61°  t\'.,  between  Dominica  on  the 
north  and  Saint  Lueia  on  the  south  (Maji:  An- 
tilles, R  7).  Area.  381  square  miles.  Population, 
in  1894.  187,602,  reduced  in  1902  by  30,000-35,000 
as  the  result  of  the  destructive  eruptions  of  Mont 
(Montagnc)  PelOe  on  Jlay  8th  and  August  .30th. 
The  island  is  in  greater  part  of  volcanic  origin, 
the  loftier  elevations  ( Mont  Pelce,  in  the  north- 
west, now  about  4900  feet  in  elevation :  the  Pitiins 
du  Carbet,  3960  feet;  the  Vauclin,  in  the  south), 
being  all  of  lava  or  agglomerate  masses,  whose 
age  dates  back  to  some  portion  of  the  Tertiary 
period.  Isolated  patches  of  limestone,  of  Miocene 
and  Pliocene  age,  occur  in  the  east  and  in  (he 
south  (near  TrlnilC  the  Marin,  etc.) ,  and  there  is 
also  a  detached  bordering  of  recent  coral  struc- 
tures. Much  of  the  interior  surface  is  a  compara- 
tively recent  alluvium,  formed  from  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  prehistoric  lavas.  The  relief  of  the 
land  is  essentially  moiintaiiinus,  the  mnrncs  and 
pilons  rising  with  marked  abruptness,  and  form- 
ing the  landscape  that  is  so  distinctive  of  most 
of  the  inner  (volcanic)  islands  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles.  Between  these  are  valleys  of  beauti- 
fully (lowing  contour  and  deeply  incised  canon- 
like  troughs.  The  culminating  point  of  the 
island  is  Mont  Pek-e,  whose  height  has  increased 
by  nearly  or  fully  700  feet  since  >Iay.  1902. 

A  large  part  of  the  island,  somewhat  over  a 
lliird,  is  under  cultivation.  The  principal  crop 
is  the  sugar  cane,  but  a  siiperior  grade  of  cacao 
has  been  raised  with  success  and  profit:  coffee 
and  tobacco  are  grown  in  some  parts.  Where  not 
under  cultivation  (he  island  is  still  largely  cov- 
ered with  woodland,  and  a  forest  of  strictly 
tropical  luxuriance  is  found  in  scattered  spots. 
The  higher  animal  life  is  not  very  abundant,  and 
its  characterislics  are  largely  Soudi  .\merican, 
marked  with  the  deficiencies  (hat  belong  to  in- 
sularity.    Of  the  seemingly  native  animals,  the 


opossum,  which  has  been  known  in  the  island 
for  upward  of  two  hundred  years,  is  the  most 
notable.  Of  the  birds,  the  most  abundant  or 
common  species  is  probably  the  Martinique  black- 
bird. Of  the  dreaded  fer-de-lance  serpent,  which 
was  at  one  time  very  abundant,  but  few  individ- 
uals remain  to-day,  the  animal  having  been  all 
but  exterminated  by  the  introduced  nuingoos. 

The  interior  of  the  island  is  crossed  by  well 
constructed  highroads,  but  there  are  as  yet  no 
railroads,  excepting  a  few  that  arc  used  in  pri- 
vate transport  on  the  cane  plantations.  The 
climate  is  on  the  whole  salul)rious,  and  the  heat 
is  measurably  tempered,  esp<>cially  on  the  east- 
ern side,  by  the  steadily  blowing  trade-winds,  the 
temperature  only  exceptionally  rising  above  92° 
to  94°  F.  The  humidity  is,  however,  high.  July 
and  August  are  ordinarily  the  rainy  months,  and 
February,  March,  and  April  the  months  of  least 
rainfall.  The  annual  prccii)itation  is  from  85  to 
95  inches.  Earthquakes  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. That  of  1839,  which  destroyed  a  large 
part  of  Fort-de-France,  was  particularly  de- 
structive. The  only  hi-storically  recorded  vol- 
canic eruptions  before  the  year  1902  were  those 
of  1702  and  August,  1851, "both  of  Mont  Pelee. 
See  Pel£e,  Mont. 

Of  the  population,  much  the  greater  part  con- 
sists of  the  colored  races,  especially  the  negroes 
and  mulattoes;  hardly  a  vestige,  excc|)t  in  mi.x- 
ture,  remains  of  the  ancient  Carib  Indians.  The 
capital  of  the  island  is  Fort-del" ranee,  with  a 
Iioi)ulation  (in  1896)  of  nearly  18,000.  Other 
important  to«Tis  are  Lamentin,  Sainte-Marie, 
Trinity,  Francois,  Robert,  Gros  ^lorne,  Saint- 
.Joseph,  and  Carbet.  with  populations  ranging 
from  6000  to  nearly  11,000.  Saint -Pierre,  of 
which  nothing  but  ruins  now  remain,  was,  up 
to  the  time  of  its  destruction,  the  largest  and 
most  important  settlement  on  the  island. 

The  colony  is  under  a  Governor  (appointed  by 
the  Home  Government  of  France)  and  a  General 
Council,  and  tiiere  are  elective  municipal  coun- 
cils. It  is  represented  in  the  Government  of 
France  by  one  Senator  and  two  members  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  1900  the  imports 
amounted  to  24,929.348  francs  (about  one-half 
of  which  was  from  France  and  French  colonies), 
and  the  exports  to  27,160,890  francs,  nine-tenths 
going  to  France  and  its  colonies,  ilartinique  was 
discovered  l)y  Columbus,  who  subsequently  landed 
near  Carbet,  on  .June  15,  1502.  In  1035  a  fort 
was  erected  by  the  Frenchman  D'Esnambue  on 
the  site  of  the  later  Saint-Pierre.  The  French 
possession  was  contested  at  various  times  by  tlie 
English,  who  took  the  island  repeatedly,  holding 
it  for  the  last  time  during  the  Napolennie  wars. 
Slavery  was  abolished  on  the  island  liy  decree  of 
April  27,  1848.  The  Empress  Josephine  was  born 
at  Trois-Ilets. 

Bini,lOGR.\rnT.  Daney,  TJistnirr  dc  la  Marti- 
niqiir  dipiiin  la  cnlnnisntinn  jusqii'rn  ISIo  (Fort 
Royal.  1846)  :  Rey,  Etude  mir  la  cnlmiie  dr  la 
Martinique  (Paris,  1881)  ;  Aul)e,  La  Martinique, 
son  present  et  son  arrnir  (Paris,  1882)  ;  Jlonef. 
La  Martinique  (Paris,  1882)  ;  Heilprin.  Mnnt 
Pelfe  and  the  Traqedi/  of  Martinique  (Philadel- 
phia, 1903)  :  Dunioret,  Au  pays  du  snore  (Paris, 
1901)  ;  Landes.  Xotice  sur  la  Martinique  (Paris, 
1900)  ;  Russell,  "Volcanic  Eruptions  on  Marti- 
ni<|uc  and  Saint  Vinwnt."  in  \alional  (leographir 
Mtiiia:inr.  vol.  xiii.,  contains  bibliography  (W'asli- 
ing(on,  1902). 


MARTIN  MARPRELATE. 


119 


MARTIUS. 


MAR'TIN  MAR'PREL'ATE  CONTRO- 
VERSY. A  bettor  religious  dispute  of  tlic  Eliza- 
bethan period.  It  Wiis  occasioned  by  the  anony- 
mous publication.  1588-89,  of  a  number  of  bit- 
terly pers(]nal  tracts  directed  against  what  the 
■writer  conceived  to  be  abuses  iu  Church  and 
State,  and  against  certain  bishops  in  particular. 
The  ])ublisher  and  chief  instigator  was  John 
Pcnry  (q.v. ),  or  Ap-llenry,  a  Puritan  preacher, 
abetted  bj'  Sir  Kichard  Knightley  of  Northamp- 
tonshire, .lob  Throckmorton  of  Warwickshire,  and 
others.  The  tracts  were  i)rinted  on  a  rude  and 
peripatetic  press,  at  Kingston-on-Thames.  Cov- 
entry, JIanchester,  etc.,  and  pro\-okcd  in  reply 
a  greater  number  of  abusive  books  and  pam- 
phlets. JIartin"s  broad  satires  were  disapproved 
by  devout  Puritans,  luit  undoubtedly  they  were 
powerful  factors  in  furthering  the  Puritan  cause. 
Great  efforts  were  made  to  discover  and  appre- 
hend the  authors.  Penry  was  executed  in  1593. 
Henry  Barrow,  one  of  his  assistants,  to  whom  the 
chief  responsibility  for  the  tracts  has  sometimes 
been  attrilnifed.  also  sutTered  death  in  the  same 
year.  Tlie  tracts  have  been  reprinted  by  Arber 
in  the  E>i</li»h  Scholar's  Library  (London,  1878 
sqq. ).  Consult:  Maskell,  A  Uislory  of  the  Mar- 
tin Marprclate  Controversy  (London,  1845)  ; 
Arber,  Introductory  Sketch  to  the  Martin  Mar- 
prclate Controversy  (London,  1870)  ;  De.xter, 
Congregationalism  of  the  Last  300  Years  as  Seen 
in  i'ls  Literature  (New  York,  1880). 

MAR'TINMAS.  A  festival  celebrated  on 
Saint  JIartin's  Day,  November  11th.  Luther  was 
born  on  the  eve  of  the  festival,  and  therefore  re- 
ceived the  saint's  name. 

MAR'TIN  OF  TOURS,  tiTCr  (c.31G-e.400) . 
Bishop  of  Tours  and  patron  saint  of  France.  He 
was  born  at  Sabaria,  Pannonia,  of  heathen 
parents,  about  310.  He  was  educated  at  Pavia, 
and  at  tlie  desire  of  his  father,  who  was  a  mili- 
tary tribune,  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age 
under  Constantine  the  Great.  The  virtues  of  his 
life  as  a  soldier  are  the  theme  of  more  tlian  one 
interesting  legend.  On  obtaining  his  discharge 
from  military  service  (33(i),  JIartin  became  a 
disciple  of  Hilary  (q.v.).  Bishop  of  Poitiers.  He 
returned  to  his  native  Pannonia,  and  converted 
his  mother  to  Christianity,  but  he  himself  en- 
dured much  persecution  from  the  Arian  party, 
who  were  at  that  time  dominant;  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  firmness  of  his  profession  of  ortho- 
do.\'y,  he  is  the  first  who.  without  suffering  death 
for  the  truth,  ha?  been  honored  in  the  Latin 
Church  as  a  confessor  of  tlu^  faith.  On  his  return 
to  Gaul,  about  300.  he  founded  a  convent  of  monks 
near  Poitiers,  where  he  himself  led  a  life  of 
great  austerity  and  seclusion;  but  in  371  he  was 
drawn  by  force  from  his  retreat,  and  ordained 
Bishop  of  Tours.  The  fame  of  his  sanctity  and 
his  repute  as  a  Avorker  of  miracles,  attracted 
crowds  of  visitants  from  all  parts  of  Gaul ;  and 
in  iirder  to  avoid  the  distraction  of  their  impor- 
tunity, he  established  a  monastery  near  Tours, 
in  which  he  resided.  He  died  at  Candi^  (Can- 
deum)  about  400.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  the  festival  of  his  birth  is  celebrated  on 
November  11th.  Consiilt  his  Life,  by  Cazenove 
(London,  1883)  :  Chamard,  Saint  Martin  ct  son 
monastcre   (Poitiers,   1873). 

MAR'TINSBURG.  A  town  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Berkeley  County,  W.  Va..  75  miles  west  of 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 


and  the  Cumberland  Valley  railroads  (Map: 
West  Virginia,  V  2).  Its  most  prominent  struc- 
ture is  the  United  States  court-house  and  post- 
olfice,  which  cost  about  $100,000.  The  industrial 
interests  are  re|ircscnted  by  railroad  repair 
shops,  woolen  and  hosierj'  mills,  clothing  fac- 
tories, distilleries,  lime  works,  slate  and  lime- 
stone quarries,  wagon  shops,  a  manufactory  of 
brass  and  supplies,  a  canning  factory  and  planing 
mills.  The  municipality  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  unicanu?ral  coun- 
cil. It  owns  and  operates  the  water-works. 
Martinsburg  was  founded  and  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  177S.  Population,  in  1890,  722();  in 
1900,  75l)4. 

MARTIN'S  FERRY.  A  city  in  Belmont 
Counly,  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  River,  nearly  opposite 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  and  on  the  Cleveland,  Lorain 
and  Wheeling,  the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie,  the 
Wheeling  Bridge  and  Terminal,  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  J  5).  It  is  in 
a  bituminous  coal,  iron,  and  limestone  region,  and 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  tin, 
glass,  machinery,  heaters,  shovels,  stoves,  boxes, 
and  barrels.  Walnut  Grove  Cemetery  is  interest- 
ing as  the  burial  place  of  persons  prominent  in 
the  history  of  the  settlement  of  the  Ohio  Valley. 
Settled  about  1709,  Martin's  Kerry  was  incor- 
porated as  a  village  in  1865.  It  is  governed 
under  a  charter  of  1885,  which  provides  for  a 
mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil. The  waterworks  and  electric-light  plant 
are  owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality. 
Population,  in  1890,  0250;  in  1900,  7760. 

MAR'TINSVILLE.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Morgan  County,  Ind.,  30  miles  south  by 
west  of  Indianapolis;  on  the  White  River,  and 
on  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint 
Louis  and  the  Pennsylvania  railroads  (Map: 
Indiana,  C  3).  It  is  widely  noted  for  its  artesian 
mineral  well.s,  which  have  been  found  valuable  in 
the  treatment  of  rheumatism  and  kidney  disor- 
ders, and  it  has  several  large  sanatoriums.  The 
industries  are  represented  by  foundries  and  ma- 
chine shops,  and  flour  and  lumber  mills.  There 
are  municipal  water-works  and  an  electric-light 
plant.     Population,  in  1800,  2680;  in  1900,  4038. 

MARTINUS  SCRIBLERUS,  mar-tl'nus 
skrib-le'rfls  (Neo-Lat..  Martin  Scribbler).  An 
extensive  satire  on  the  abuses  of  learning,  ar- 
ranged from  miscellaneous  contributions  by  Pope, 
Swift,  and  Arbuthnot.  Of  these  Miscellanies, 
Avbuthnot,  who  was  one  of  the  finest  wits  of  the 
day.  furnished  the  principal  part.  The  work  was 
never  completed.    See  Arbuthnot,  John. 

MARTIUS,  mlir'tsi-us,  Karl  Friedrich  Vui- 
LlPP  VON  (1794-1868).  A  distinguished  C,er- 
man  traveler  and  naturalist,  born  and  educated 
at  Eriangen.  He  went  to  Brazil  as  a  member  of 
a  scientific  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Austrian 
and  Bavarian  governments,  and  by  his  researches 
in  that  country  acquired  a  reputation  second  only 
to  that  of  Huinboldt.  He  was  specially  intrusted 
with  the  botanical  department,  but  his  researches 
extended  to  ethnography,  statistics,  geography, 
and  natural  science  in  general;  and  his  works, 
published  after  his  return,  exhibited  a  poet's 
love  of  nature  and  great  powers  of  description. 
He  was  professor  of  botany  and  director  of  the 
Botanic  Garden  at  Munich.  His  works  are: 
Reise  mieh  Brasilien  (1824-31);  Nora  Genera 
et    Species    Plantarum     (1824-32);    and    Icones 


MABTIUS. 


120 


MARTYB. 


Plaiitarum  Cryployuniicdnim  (1828-34).  He  also 
published  a  most  valuable  monograph  on  palms, 
Ilistoria  yaturali.'i  Palmarum  (1823-53);  Die 
Pflanzcn  und  Thiere  des  tropixchcn  Amcrika 
(1831)  ;  and  Das  Xaturcll,  die  Krankheitcn,  das 
Arztlum  und  die  Heilmittel  der  Urbetcohner  Bra- 
siliens  (1843). 

MARTLET  (probably  for  'marlet,  *merlet, 
from  OF.  mrrlctte,  merlolte.  diminutive  of  merle, 
blackbird,  from  Lat.  mcrula,  blackbird).  In 
heraldry  (q.v.),  a  martin  without  legs  or  beak. 
'  MARTOS.  A  to«Ti  of  Southern  Spain,  in  the 
in-ovinoc  iif  .lai'n,  situated  anions  the  mountains 
1.5  miles  southwest  of  .Jaen.  It  is  buill  on  the 
slope  of  a  steep  hill,  surmounted  by  a  ruined 
castle,  has  mineral  batlis  and  exports  excellent 
olive  oil.  produced  in  the  surrounding  district. 
Population,  in  1!>00,  10,082. 

MARTYN,  miir'tln.  Henry  (1781-1812).  An 
English  missionary.  He  was  born  at  Trurn,  Corn- 
wall, England,  February  18,  1781,  of  humble 
origin.  In  1797  he  entered  Saint  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  in  1802  was  chosen  fellow 
of  his  college.  After  receiving  ordination  in 
1803  he  served  as  curate  to  the  Rev.  Charles 
Simeon  (q.v.).  In  1805  he  sailed  for  India  as 
chaplain  in  the  East  India  ('ompany's  service, 
and  reached  Calcutta  in  May,  1800;  in  Sep- 
tember he  rtx'eived  his  appointment  to  Dinapore, 
and  soon  conducted  worship  among  the  na- 
tives in  their  own  language  and  established 
schools  for  their  instruction.  In  1809  he  was 
stationed  at  Cawnpore.  While  here  he  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament  into  Hindustani  and 
Persian,  the  Psalms  into  Persian,  and  the  Prayer- 
Book  into  Hindustani.  His  unremitting  labor 
and  tlic  severity  of  the  climate  alTccted  !iis 
health,  and  having  perfected  himself  in  the  Per- 
sian language,  he  deciiled  to  extend  his  labors 
to  that  country,  and  took  up  his  residence  at 
Shiraz,  where  he  revised,  with  the  aid  of  learned 
natives,  his  Persian  and  Arabic  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  and  held  discussions  with  the 
native  scholars,  many  of  whom  were  greatly 
impressed.  In  view  of  the  effect  of  his  frequent 
discussions,  and  of  liis  being  engaged  in  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  into  Persian,  the 
preceptor  oi  all  the  mollahs  wrote  an  .\rahic  de- 
fense of  Mohammedanism.  To  this  Martyn  re- 
plied in  Persian.  HI  healtli  again  compelling  him 
to  change  his  plans,  lie  decided  to  return  to  Eng- 
land, and  in  September,  1812.  set  out  overland 
for  Constantinople.  At  Tokat  in  Asia  Jlinor 
his  litter  prostration  comiielled  him  to  stop,  and 
he  died  there.  October  10,  1812.  A  monument 
was  erected  at  Tokat  in  1S.'>('«.  Besides  the  trans- 
lations mentioned  he  was  the  author  of  Contro- 
versial Tracln  on  f'hrintinnily  and  Mohammedan- 
ism (1824)  ;  Journals  and  Lrtlcrs  (1837).  Con- 
sult his  Life,  by  G.  Smith    (London,  1892). 

MARTYN.  Wiu.i.VM  Caki.os  (1,843—).  An 
American  autlior  an<l  clergyman,  born  in  New 
York  City,  and  educated  at  the  I'nion  Theological 
Seminary  (1809).  His  first  charge  was  in  Saint 
Louis,  and  afterwards  he  held  pastorates  at  Ports- 
mouth. N.  H..  New  York  City  ( 1870-90) .  Newark, 
and  Chicago  (1892-94).  He  became  director  of 
the  Aliliey  Press  in  1897.  I  lis  writings  include: 
Life  of  '.lohn  Millon  (ISO.')  I:  /.i/i  of  Martin 
I.ullier  (1.S05);  History  of  I'.niilinli  I'uritans 
(1800);  llislor;/  of  the  lluijurnols  (lS07i; 
The  Duteh    Hrfnrmation    (1807):    IHstorij  of  the 


PiUjvim  fathers  (1807);  Wendell  Phillips,  the 
Agitator  (1891),  for  the  "American  Reformers 
Series,"  of  whicli  he  was  editor:  for  tlie  same 
series,  William  E.  Dodge,  the  Merehant  (1892), 
and  John  li.  llough  (1894)  ;  and  Christian  Citi- 
zenship  (1S90). 

MARTYNIA  (Neo-Lat.,  named  in  honor  of 
John  Marlijn,  an  English  l)otanist  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century ) .  A  genus  of  eight  or  ten  species 
of  unpleasant  smelling,  low,  branching  annual  or 
thick-slemmeil  perennial  plants  with  tulierous 
roots,  belonging  to  the  order  liignoniacea",  mostly 
natives  of  warm  countries.  By  some  botanists 
this  genus  is  referred  to  tlie  order  Pedaliaeea', 
while  others  make  it  the  type  of  the  order  Jlar- 
tyniacea-.  The  leaves  are  simple,  rounded ;  flow- 
ers large,  bell-shaped,  and  somewhat  two-lipped; 
very  similar  to  eatalpa  flowers,  borne  in  racemes; 
the  fruit  is  a  pod  with  a  long  incurved  beak; 
when  ripe  it  splits  into  two-hooked  horns,  open- 


fefj^:A 


MAIITVNIA   (rXICORN    PLANT). 

ing  at  the  apex.  The  seeds  are  numerous,  black, 
with  a  tliick,  wrinkled  coat.  Martynia  prohosci- 
den,  unicorn  |)lant,  which  grows  on  the  banks  of 
the  ilississippi,  in  southern  Illinois,  and  south- 
westward,  is  cultivated  in  gardens  for  its  fruit, 
which,  wlien  the  pods  are  yoimg,  is  used  for  mak- 
ing pickles.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  heart- 
shaped,  oblique,  entire,  the  upper  alternative; 
corolla  dull  white  or  purple,  or  spotted  with  yel- 
low and  purple:  endocarp  of  the  fruit  crested  on 
one  side,  long-beaked.  Martynia  fra grans,  from 
New  Jlexico,  has  violet -purple  tlowers,  with  a 
rather  pleasant  odor,  somewhat  like  that  of 
vanilla. 

MARTYR  (AS..  Lat.  martyr,  from  Gk.  luip- 
Tus.  martys,  fxaprvp,  martyr,  witness:  connected 
with  Lat.  mcmor,  mindful,  Skt.  smar.  to  remeui 
her).  The  nanu^  given  in  ecelesiastieal  history 
to  tho.se  who,  by  submitting  to  death  rather  than 
abandon  their  faith,  bore  the  witness  of  their 
blood  to  its  superhuman  origin,  though  the  title 
was  not  strictly  confined  to  these,  but  usually 
extended  to  those  who  were  condemned  to  torture, 
to  hard  labor  in  the  mines,  or  to  banishment.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  was  not  attributed  to  those 
who  sought  death  by  self-denunciation  or  by 
p\iblic  breaking  of  the  statues  of  the  gods.  Tlie 
eimimon  teaching  of  the  Fathers  was  that  martyr- 
dom, hence  called  the  'baptism  of  blood.'  sup- 
plied the  place  of  the  ordinary  baptism  where 
there  was   no  opportunity  to  receive  the  sacra- 


MARTYR. 


121 


MARX. 


mcnt.  Tlie  martyrs  were  specially  venerated  by 
tlieir  fetluw-Clnistiaiis.  As  it  was  held  that 
tlieir  superabundant  merit  might,  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Church,  compensate  for  the  weakness  of  less 
perfect  brethren,  a  practice  arose  by  wliich  niar- 
tyrs  awaiting  deatli  gave  to  tliose  sinners  who 
were  undergoing  pulilic  penance  letters  of  com- 
mendation to  their  l)ishop  in  order  that  their 
course  of  penance  might  be  sliortened.  (See  In- 
dulgence.) The  death  of  a  martyr  was  reported 
to  the  bishop  of  the  place,  who  decided  whether 
lie  was  entitled  to  the  name;  this  early  form  of 
canonization  made  him  a  martyr  viiidicatu~s.  By 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  decision 
was  becoming  more  generally,  and  since  Urban 
VIII.  (  Ki.'SG)  lias  been  absolutely,  reserved  to  the 
Pope.  The  martyrs,  who  were  the  earliest  .saints 
to  be  honored  by  a  special  anniversary  commem- 
oration, have  in  later  times  received  a  spe- 
cial precedence  in  liturgical  rank — their  names  in 
the  litany  of  the  saints,  for  example,  coming  im- 
mediately after  those  of  the  Apostles.  In  the 
old  Roman  calendar  there  was  a  common  feast 
of  all  the  martyrs,  of  which  Gregory  III.,  when 
in  731  he  transferred  it  to  November  1st,  wid- 
ened the  reference  to  include  all  saints.  The 
number  of  the  martyrs  of  the  early  ages  was 
undoubtedly  great,  although  Gibbon  and  others 
have  attempted  to  minimize  it.  Ruinart  among 
older  scholars  and  Cardinal  Wiseman  in  modern 
times  have  given  strong  evidence  in  confirmation 
of  the  large  numbers.  The  Roman  martyrology 
alone  contains  14.000  names. 

MARTYR^  Peter.  A  writer  on  early  Ameri- 
can history.     Sec  Peter  Martyr. 

MAR'TYROL'OGY  (ML.  mnriyrologium, 
MGk.  fi.apTvpo\6yiov,  from  Gk.  fidprvp.  martyr, 
martyr  +  -'/.oyia,  -logia,  account,  from  Tih/eiv, 
legein,  to  say).  A  calendar  of  martyrs  (q.v.), 
and  sometimes  of  other  saints,  arranged  in  the 
order  of  months  and  days.  It  early  became  usual 
to  write  on  diptychs  or  folding  tablets  the  names 
of  Christians,  living  or  dead,  who  were  to  be 
especially  commemorated  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Eucharist.  Thus  were  inscribed  particularly 
the  names  of  martyrs  whose  anniversaries  were 
honored.  These,  which  were  at  first  only  lists  of 
names,  were  gradually  expanded,  and  by  com- 
bining the  records  of  various  churches  complete 
martyrologies  were  made.  The  oldest  extant 
martyrology  is  probably  a  Syrian  one  of  the 
year  412  (sec  below),  though  the  so-called  Mar- 
lyrologium  Hirronymianum  may  be  almost  con- 
temporary with  it,  at  least  in  part.  This  has 
been  ascribed  to  Saint  Jerome,  possibly  because 
he  translated  .and  commented  upon  the  work  of 
Eusebius,  De  Marti/rihnx  Palwstinec.  .'\n  old  Ro- 
man martyrology  was  known  to  Bede  and  to  a 
contemporary  French  monk,  Usnard.  whose  work 
forms  the  basis  of  the  later  Western  martyrolo- 
gies, as  ofllcially  published  in  Rome  by  Bnronius 
in  15S4,  and  in  revised  editions  by  direction  of 
various  popes  (by  Pius  IX.  in  187.3).  Consult: 
Wright.  .4??  Ancient  ffyrinn  Martyrology  (Lon- 
don. 18fi.5)  ;  Lammer.  Dn  Mnrfyrologin  Ifomano, 
Piirirgnii  Hixtorico-criticum   (Regensburg.  1878). 

MARTYRS,  milr'ter',  Les.  A  prose  work  by 
Chateaubriand  (1800).  It  is  the  .story  of  two 
Christian  lovers  at  the  end  of  the  third  century, 
during  Diocletian's  persecutions.  After  long 
separation  and  many  adventures  they  meet  in  the 
Roman  arena,  where  they  are  devoured  by  wild 


beasts.  The  work  is  artificial  in  style,  but  con- 
tains vivid  reconstructions  of  the  ancient  world 
and  passages  of  great  beauty. 

MARULIC,  ma-roo'lich,  Marko  (1450-1524). 
A  Croatian  poet  and  scholar,  born  at  Spalato.  lie 
studied  at  Padua  and  entered  a  monastery  in 
Spalato.  His  works  in  Latin  deal  with  politics, 
theology,  and  history;  the  liest  known  was  De 
Instilutione  Bene  Vivendi  (1511),  which  passed 
through  many  editions.  Much  more  ini])ortant 
are  his  poems  in  the  vernacular,  which,  although 
didactic,  mark  him  as  the  first  Croatian  author, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  names  of  the  literature 
if  Ragusa.  They  were  republished  at  Agram 
(ISOO),   with  a  biographical   sketch  of   Marulid. 

MARUTS,  ma-roots'  (Skt.,  probably  the  shin- 
ing ones).  In  Hindu  mythology,  the  gods  of  the 
storm  and  the  wind.  They  play  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Rig- Veda,  especially  as  allies  or  associates 
of  Indra  ( q.v. ) .  The  hymns  addressed  to  them, 
as  they  crash  through  the  forests,  make  the 
mountains  quake,  or  sweep  the  plain,  accom- 
panied by  lightning,  dust,  and  rain,  are  among 
the  most  spirited  in  the  Veda.  They  have  been 
translated  by  Max  Miiller,  Sacred  Boohs  of  the 
East,  vol.  xxxii.  (Oxford,  1891).  In  post-Vedic 
times  Marut  is  used  in  the  singular,  meaning 
wind  or  the  god  of  the  wind.  Consult:  Mac- 
donell.  Vedic  Mythology  ( Strassburg,  1897); 
Wilkins,  Hindu  Mythology   (London,  1900). 

MARVEL,  Ik.  The  psendonvm  of  Donald  G. 
Mitchell. 

MAR'VELL,  Andrew  (1621-78).  An  English 
poet  and  politician,  born  March  31.  1G21.  at 
Winestead,  Yorkshire;  attended  the  grammar 
school  at  Hull,  of  which  his  father  became  mas- 
ter; graduated  B.A.  at  Trinitv  College,  Cam- 
bridge (1638)  ;  traveled  on  the  Continent  (1642- 
46)  ;  returned  to  England  about  1650;  W'as  em- 
ployed by  Oliver  Cromwell  as  tutor  to  his  ward, 
William  Dutton ;  became  assistant  secretary  to 
Milton  (1657);  and  was  elected  to  Parliament 
from  Hull  (1660).  Without  fortune  or  influence, 
possessing  no  commanding  talent  as  a  speaker, 
he  maintained  a  character  for  integrity  so  gen- 
uine and  high  that  his  constituency  felt  itself 
honored  by  his  conduct,  and  allowed  him  to  the 
end  of  his  life  'a  handsome  pension.'  Charles  II. 
made  many  but  fruitless  efforts  to  win  him  over 
to  the  Court  party.-  Marvell  died  August  18, 
1678.  His  satires  in  verse  and  in  prose  relate 
mostly  to  matters  of  temporary'  interest  in 
Church  and  State.  Of  another  class,  however, 
are  several  choice  pieces  of  verse,  as.  The  Garden, 
Horatian  in  tone;  .1  Drop  of  Den\  in  which  is 
anticipated  the  Neo-Platonisni  of  Wordsworth; 
the  Bermudas;  a  group  of  short  lyrics,  as  The 
Mower  to  the  Glow-Worms,  and  the  Moicer's 
Song;  and  the  splendid  patriotic  ode  on  Crom- 
ipcll's  Return  from  Ireland.  C!onsult  Complete 
Works,  ed.  by  Grossart  (London,  1872-75)  ;  and 
Poems,  and  Satires,  ed.  by  Aitken  (London, 
1892). 

MARVEIi  OF  PERTT,  pe-roo'.  A  garden 
plant.     See  .Tai.ap. 

MARVELOUS  BOY,  The.  A  title  given  to 
Thomas  Chatterton. 

MARWAR,  miir'wer.  A  native  State  of 
India.     See  .JoniiPCR. 

MARX,  marks,  Anor-r  Beknhard  (1795-1866). 
A   German   writer   on   musical   subjects,   born  at 


IfABX. 


122 


Ualle.  He  studied  law  and  practiced  it  for  a 
short  time,  but  soon  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  iiuisie  and  became  editor  of  the  Berlin  Allge- 
meine  iJusikalische  Zcitung.  In  1830  he  was 
made  professor  of  music  at  the  Berlin  Uni- 
versitj',  and  in  1832  obtained  the  post  of  musi- 
cal director  at  the  university.  His  works  in- 
clude: Die  Lehrc  von  dcr  musikalisclun  A'om- 
positioii  (1837-45);  Allgcmeine  MusiklcUre 
(1839;  10th  ed.  1884);  Liiduig  vun  Ucctlwvcn: 
Lebcn  iind  Schuffcn  (185!);  4th  ed.  1884)  ;  Gluck 
und  die  Oper  (18G2)  ;  and  Dus  Ideal  uiid  die  Ge- 
gcnwuit    (1SU7). 

MARX,  Karl  (1818-83).    A  famous  socialist, 
usually   regardtil  as  the   founder  of  the  modern 
school"  of   socialism,   born   of   Jewish    parents  at 
Treves,    Germany,    May    5;    1818,   and    educated 
at    the    univer.-iities    of    Bonn    and    Berlin.      In 
1842  he  became  editor  of  the  Rheinische  Zeiluiuj 
fiir    Polilik,    Handel    mid    (lewerhe,    a    Liberal 
organ.      Shortlv    before    the   suppression   of   the 
paper,  in  1843.  -Marx  withdrew^  from  the  editorial 
force  and  removed  to  I'aris,  where  he  assisted  in 
editing;     the     Uciilsch-I'nni;:iisischc    Jtihrbiichcr. 
MarxVeut   to    Brussels   in    1845,  where  he   was 
associated  with  Kneels  and  organized  the  German 
Workinfjnien's  Association,  which  later  was  con- 
nected with  the  Communistenbund,  for  which  ho 
wrote,    with    Engels,    the    famous    communistic 
manifesto,  which  has  been  regarded  as  the  classic 
exposition   of   the   communistic   movement.     The 
manifesto  charges  bourgeois  society  with  having 
destroyed   the   feudal    ties   which   UniM  ni.an   to 
his   natural   superiors   and   with   having   left   no 
other   nexus   between   man   and   nuin   than   'cash 
payment.'     It  has  brought  about  a  condition  in 
wliich  the  productive  forces  do  not  further  the 
dcvelo|)ment  of  bourgeois  property,  but  tlirough 
commercial    crises    actually    en<laiiger    its    very 
existence.     X'nder  these  conditions  the  wages  of 
workmen  tend  to  the  bare  minimum  necessary  for 
existence  and  propagation.     As  the  disagreeable- 
ness  of  the  work  increases  the  pay  decreases.   The 
aim  of  the   communists   is  the   formation  of  the 
proletariat  into  a  class;  the  conquest  of  political 
power  and   the  overthrow  of  the  ]>resent  bour- 
geois supremacy.     Communism   forbids  no  man 
to  appropriate  "the  products  of  his  labor,  but  it 
does   deprive   him   of   the   power   to   control   the 
labor  of  others  by  virt\ie  of  such  api)ropriation. 
To  secure  these  ends  the  following  measures  are 
advocated    as    generally    api>licablc    in    civilized 
lands:     (1)    Abolition    of    property   in    land    and 
the  application  of  all  rents  to  public  purposes; 
(2)    a  progressive  income  tax;    (3)    abolition  of 
all  rights  of  inlieritance:    (4)   confiscation  of  all 
propertv  of  emigrants  and  rebels:   (5)  centraliza- 
tion of  credit  in  the  bands  of  the  Stifte  by  means 
of  a   national   bank   with   State  eai>ilal   and  an 
exclusive     monopoly;      ((>)      nationalization     of 
means  of  cr>n\niunieatinn  and  transportation:   (7) 
extension  of  produrtive  interprises  by  the  State, 
(he   reclamation   of   waste   land   and   general   im- 
provement of  the  soil:   (8)  compulsory  labor  with 
cslalilisbmi'nt  of  industrial  armies  especially  for 
ngriciilture:    (0)  combination  of  agriculture  with 
nuinufacturing.  the  elimination  of  distinction  be- 
tween  town  and  country  by  more  even  dislrilm- 
tion   of  the   population":    (10)    free  education   in 
p\iblic    schools    ;iTid    abolition    of    chilil    labor    in 
factories.    In   1847  Marx  wrote  a  reply  to  Proud- 
hon's    Philnnophir  dr   In    misirc  under   the   title 
Mis^rc  de  la  philosophic. 


MABX. 

In  1848  Marx  returned  to  Cologne  and  started 
the  .Yei/e  Jlheinischc  Zcilung,  but  because  of  his 
revolutionary  activity  he  was  ordered  to  leave 
Germany  in  May,  1849.  He  went  to  Paris,  but 
later  in  the  year  was  forced  to  leave  that  city 
and  moved  to  London,  which  was  henceforth  his 
liomc.  He  became  a  newspaper  correspondent, 
writing  for  the  Sew  York  Tribune,  rutminrs 
Monthly,  and  other  papers,  a  number  of  his 
articles  subsequently  being  published  in  pam- 
phlet form.  Among  these  are  "Der  18te  Bru- 
maire  des  Louis  Bonaparte"  (1852);  "The  Life 
of  Palmerston"  (1850);  '-Pahnerston  and  Po- 
land" (1853).  The  results  of  his  studies  of 
Knglish  conditions  and  economic  works  are  first 
seen  in  his  Kiitik  dcr  jwlitischen  Oehoiiomie, 
which  appeared  in  1809  and  contained  the  es- 
sence of  the  principles  elaborated  in  his  subse- 
quent work.  Das  KapiUtl. 

In  18(i4  JIarx  at  last  found  the  opportunity  of 
realizing  a  plan  he  had  long  contemplated:   that 
of  organizing  the  laborers  of  the  civilizeil  world 
into  a  great  association.    On  September  28  there 
was  a  great  meeting  in  Saint  ilartin's  Hall,  to 
which  Marx  outlined  his  scheme  of  an  'Interna- 
tional Workingmen's  Association.'     During  tlie.se 
years   Jlarx   was   also  greatly   interested    in    the 
developments    in    Germany,    and    assisted    Lieb- 
knecht   and    his    associates    in    establishing    the 
Social  Democratic  Labor  Party  in  1809.     In  1807 
appeared  the  first  volume  of  Dtis  Knpital   (Eng- 
lish translation,  4th  edition,  from  the  3d  (lerman 
edition,  London.  1891).     The  second  volume  was 
completed  bv  Engels  and  published  in  1SS5.  The 
stvle   is   rather   heavy,   and   the   analysis    is   at 
times  so  detailed  that  it  is  hard  to  follow.     The 
fundamental    ideas    are,    however,    simple    when 
once  the  terminolog}'  is  mastered.     Marx  seeks 
to  discover  tKe  economic   law   that  governs  so- 
ciety.    JModern  social  development  is  nuide  i)os- 
sible  only  l)y  capital;  it  has  reached  its  highest 
point  aiid  must  necessarily  be   followed   by  an- 
other  system.      jModern   capitalism   exploits   the 
laborer"  by    getting    possession    of    the    'surplus 
value'   of  "bis  services,   i.e.  tlic  amount   produci.l 
by  him  over  and  above  the  amount  of  his  wages, 
which  are  regulated  by  the  'iron  law'  and  tend 
therefore  to  a  minimum.     The  basis  of  the  ex- 
change value  of  a  community  is  the  amount  of 
Labor  expended  on  it.    In  the  hmg  run  this  means 
the  average  amount  of  labor  ex))ended  under  aver- 
age conditions.    Bvit  modern  labor  re(iuires  ca])ital. 
^7arx  traces  the  historic  dcvclojiment  of  capital 
and  shows  the   tendency   for  the   inslruments  of 
labor  to  concentrate   in   fewer  ami  fewer  hands. 
Thus  arises  the  capitalistic  class.     Meantime  de- 
velops  also  a  class  who   have   only   their   labor 
to  sell,  the  proletariat.    The  first  is  the  consum- 
ing, the  second  the  producing  class.    The  growth 
of  capitalism  reduces  the  number  of  capitalists 
and  increases  the  poverty  and  misery  of  the  work- 
ing classes,  but  also  .sen-es  to  bring  them  to  self- 
consciousness.     The   proletariat   will    finally   or- 
ganize and  the  means  of  pro<l\iction  will  be  seizt'd 
and   managed   for  the  good   of  all.     Marx   out- 
lined   no    ideal    future    condition.      He    tried   to 
show   what   he  believed   to  he  the  course   of  his- 
torical  development    and   sought   to   bring   about 
the  next  step,  the  organization  of  all  laborers  for 
their    common    good.        Marx    died    in    London, 
March  14,  ISS.t.     For  a  convenient  digest  of  Das 
Knpil'tl.   consult   Aveling.   The   fHudrnt'.i    Mara 
(London.  1892).      Sec  Communism;  Socialism; 


MARX. 


123 


MARY  I. 


I.NTKUNATIOXALE     or     1ntER>^VTI0?JAL     WOKKING- 

ME.N's   Association. 

MA'RY  (Gk.  Mapid/j.,  Murium,  ^lapla,  Maria, 
from  Hi'b.  Miri/i'iiii,  uf  uncertain  ctyniolugy) ,  TiiE 
JIoTiiKK  01''  Jesis.  Apart  from  wliat  is  contained 
in  till'  narratives  of  Jesus'  birth  and  ehildliood 
(JIatt.  i.-ii. ;  Luke  i.-ii.),  very  little  is  told  of 
Jlary  in  the  New  Testament.  It  the  genealogy 
in  Luke  iii.  23-38  is  intended  to  be  that  of  Mary 
(whicli  is  doubtful),  she  was  descended  from 
David.  She  was  also  related  to  the  priestly 
family  to  which  Elisabeth,  mother  of  John  the 
Baptist,  belonged  (see  Luke  i.  5,  30).  After 
her  lietrothal  to  Joseph,  a  carpenter  of  Nazareth 
in  Galilee,  but  before  her  marriage,  she  was  in- 
formed in  an  angelic  vision  that  she  would 
through  miraculous  conception  give  birth  to  a  son 
wlio  shniild  reign  on  the  Davidic  throne  and  be 
called  the  Son  of  the  Highest  (Luke  i.  26-38). 
The  marriage  to  Joseph  took  place.  Jesus,  her 
iirstljorn  son,  was  born  at  Bethlehem,  whither  she 
had  gone  with  Joseph  in  consequence  of  a  census 
decreed  by  Augustus  (Luke  ii.  1-6).  Compelled 
to  flee  into  Kgy])t  with  the  infant  Jesvis,  .Joseph 
and  JIary  returned  to  Nazareth  after  the  death  of 
Herod  the  Great  (Matt.  ii.  13-23).  Here  some 
have  believed  that  other  children,  Jesus'  brothers 
and  sisters  (cf.  Mark  vi.  3;  Matt.  xiii.  55),  were 
born ;  though  the  belief  in  her  perpetual  virginity 
has  been  a  part  of  traditional  theology  from  the 
earliest  times.  Soon  after  Jesus  began  His  pub- 
lic ministry  the  family — Joseph  was  apparently 
dead — moved  to  Capernaum  (Jolin  ii.  12;  cf. 
Matt,  iv.  13,  ix.  1).  To  what  extent  Mary  ac- 
companied Jesus  on  His  journeys  we  do  not 
know.  That  she  did  not  fully  comprehend  the 
mission  of  her  son  is  evident  from  John  ii.  4.  if 
not  from  Mark  iii.  31-35  (ef.  Luke  ii.  48-49).  She 
witnessed  the  crucifixion  and  was  then  intrusted 
by  Jesus  to  the  care  of  John,  the  beloved  disciple, 
who  gave  her  a  place  in  his  home  (John  xix.  25- 
27 ) .  The  last  notice  of  JIary  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  in  Acts  i.  14,  where  she  is  mentioned 
as  one  of  the  company  of  disciples  who  were 
accustomed  to  meet  in  the  upper  room  in  Jeru- 
salem soon  after  the  Resurrection. 

No  more  than  this  is  told  of  her  in  the  New 
Testament;  but  the  tradition  of  the  Christian 
Church  added  considerably  to  it.  There  grew  up 
a  literature,  partly  apocryphal  (sec  Apocrypha), 
dealing  with  her  infancy  and  childhood,  with  her 
espousal  to  Jo.sepli,  and  with  the  birth  and  in- 
fancy of  Jesus,  and  with  her  death  and  assump- 
tion into  heaven.  Tlie  more  her  position  in  the 
scheme  of  redemption  was  meditated  upon,  the 
more  im[)ortant  did  she  appear.  The  frequent 
controversies  as  to  the  nature  of  her  Son  bore 
upon  her  own  personality  and  history;  thus  the 

uncil  of  Kphesu.s    (431)    really  summed  up  its 

I  trine  against  Nestorius  in  calling  Mary  the 
'inotlier  of  (5od'  (BeordKoi).  Festivals  celebrated 
in  lier  honor  increased  in  number;  among  the 
older  ones,  some  of  which  date  back  to  the  fifth 
century,  are  the  Purification,  Februarv  2;  An- 
nunciation, March  25;  Assumption.  August  15; 
Nativity,  September  8;  and  Conception,  Decem- 
ber 8.  The  devotion  to  her  not  simply  as  an 
historical  memory,  but  as  a  living  power,  owing 
to  tlie  prevailing  force  of  her  intercession  with 
her  Son,  became  so  marked  in  course  of  time  that 
it  was  one  of  the  things  against  which  the  re- 
formers of  the  sixteenth  century  strongly  pro- 
tested. It  continued  to  develop,  however,  in  the 
Vol.  XIII.— 9. 


Boman  Catholic  Cliurch,  and  found  expression, 
among  many  other  ways,  in  the  definition  in 
1S54  of  her  conception  as  immaculate,  or 
free  from  the  taint  of  original  sin;  and  the 
prayer  in  which  her  intercession  is  invoked  (see 
Ave  Maria)  became  second  only  to  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  frequency  of  use.  Many  of  the  shrines 
erected  in  her  honor,  at  places  supposed  to  have 
been  consecrated  by  apparitions  of  her  presence, 
have  become  among  the  most  celebrated  pilgrim- 
age ))Iaces.  On  tliis  aspect  of  the  devotion  see 
(lie  articles  Louhdes;  Kixsiedelx;  and  consult 
Northcote,  Celebrated  Sanctuaries  of  the  Ma- 
donna (London,  18GS)  ;  Budniki,  Die  beriilimtes- 
ten  Wullfalirtsorte  der  Erde  (Paderborn,  1891). 
For  the  subject  in  general,  consult  the  immense 
collection  of  documents  in  Bourasse,  Sumna 
Aiirea  de  Laudihus  Beatw  Marice  Virginis  (13 
vols.,  Paris,  18GG  et  seq. )  ;  SchafT,  Creeds  of 
Christendom  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Kurz,  Muri- 
ologie  (Regensburg,  1881)  ;  Lehner,  Die  Muricn- 
verehrung  in  den  ersten  Jalirhimderten  (2d  ed.. 
Stuttgart,  1886)  ;  Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Ma- 
donna (London,  1852)  :  Northcote,  Mary  in  the 
(lospels  (ib.,  1885)  ;  Newman,  Development  of 
Christian  Doctrine  (ib.,  1845). 

On  tlie  narratives  of  the  infancy  of  Jesus  in 
the  Gospels,  consult  Resch,  "Das  Kindheitsevan- 
gelium,"  in  Gebhardt  and  Harnack,  Texte  und 
Vniersuchungen  (Leipzig,  1897);  Ramsay,  ITas 
JesKS  Born  in  Bethlehem  f  (London,  1898).  See 
also  Assumption  of  the  Virgin;  Immaculate 
Conception;  Kosaky;  Madonna. 

MARY,  of  Bethany.  See  Martha  and  Mary, 
OF  Bethany. 

MARY  I.  (1516-58).  Queen  of  England  from 
1553  to  1558.  Mary  was  born  at  Greenwich, 
February  18,  1516,  and  ultimately  was  the  only 
surviving  child  of  Henry  VIII.  by  Catharine  of 
Aragon.  Her  education  was  carefully  and  se- 
verely planned,  and  she  learned  to  converse 
readily  in  Latin,  French,  and  Spanish,  and  knew 
Italian.  When  two  years  of  age  she  was  betrothed 
to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  afterwards  to  her 
cousin,  Charles  V.,  and  finally  a  treaty  was 
signed  providing  for  her  marriage  to  either  Fran- 
cis I.  or  his  second  son,  Henry.  Numerous  other 
proposals  were  made,  but  they  were  rendered 
futile  by  the  rapid  changes  in  England's  for- 
eign relations,  or  by  Jlary's  refusal  of  a  Protest- 
ant, until  in  the  end  her  accession  as  Queen  left 
her  at  liberty  to  choose  her  own  consort.  She 
was  twice  in  danger,  owing  to  her  religious  con- 
victions, during  tlie  period  of  the  divorce  of  her 
mother  and  during  the  reign  of  her  brother,  Ed- 
ward VI.  (q.v.).  She  was  a  loving  child  and  re- 
fused to  abandon  her  mother's  cause  when  Henry 
VIII.  divorced  Catharine.  In  the  end  she  Was  per- 
suaded by  her  friends  with  the  greatest  difficulty 
to  submit  to  Henry's  demands  and  sign  a  renun- 
ciation of  the  Pope's  authority  and  her  own 
legitimacy.  As  a  result  of  her  compliance  she 
was  received  into  half  favor  and  given  a  place  in 
the  succession  to  the  crown.  During  Edward's 
reign  she  held  uncompromisingly  to  the  old 
faith,  at  the  cost  of  much  annoyance  and  the 
danger  of  actual  persecution.  In  1553  she  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown,  lier  popularity  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  attempt  of  the  detested  North- 
umberland to  displace  her  with  Lady  Jane  Grey 
(q.v.). 

Mary  began  her  reign  firmly  resolved  to  sweep 


MART  I. 


124 


MARYLAND. 


away  the  religious  innovations  of  her  father  and 
brother.  8ho  proceeded  throughout  in  a  legal 
manner  and  never  failed  to  secure  the  consent 
of  Parliament  to  her  acts,  though  during  the 
Tudor  period  Parliament  very  imperfectly  repre- 
sented the  sentiments  of  the  English  people.  The 
mass  was  restored  without  opposition  in  l.iSS, 
and  the  authority  of  the  Pope  reestablished 
somewhat  tardily  and  reluctantly  in  1554.  Mary 
could  not  persuade  the  Parliament  to  restore  the 
Church  lands,  but  she  gave  back  such  property 
as  was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  Crown.  Tliis 
was  a  greater  proof  of  her  sincerity  than  of  her 
statesmanship,  for  it  impoverished  her  resources 
and  h'd  to  subsequent  disasters  which  touched 
English  pride.  Even  more  disastrous  was  her 
marriage  in  1554  with  Philip,  son  of  Charles  V., 
which  was  so  unpopular  that  on  its  proposal  a 
formidable  rebellion  broke  out  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Wyatt  to  depose  Mary  and  put  Elizabeth 
on  the  throne.  Philip,  who  was  eleven  years 
younger  than  Mary,  was  an  uncompromising 
Catholic.  He  was  extremely  unpopular,  and  re- 
paid Marj-'s  boundless  devotion  with  coldness  and 
neglect.  To  please  him.  the  Queen  joined  in  a 
War  against  France,  with  the  result  that  Calais, 
the  last  remnant  of  the  English  conquests  during 
the  Hundred  Years'  War,  was  lost  in  1558.  It 
was  no  disaster  of  any  consequence  to  England, 
but  to  Mary  and  her  subjects  it  seemed  irrepara- 
ble. In  addition  to  her  husband's  neglect,  the 
loss  of  Calais,  and  her  own  ill  health,  Mary's  last 
days  were  darkened  by  the  religious  persecutions 
which  filled  the  latter  part  of  her  reign,  in  which 
nearly  three  hundred  persons  were  burnt  for  their 
faith  and  for  which  she  received  the  name  of 
'Bloody  Marj'.'  It  should  not  1»  forgotten  that 
she  adopted  these  measures  with  reluctance,  as 
a  last  resort,  and  that  her  predecessors  and  suc- 
cessors were  guilty  of  like  practices.  She  died 
without  issue,  November  17,  1558.  Consult: 
Lingard,  Hixtory  of  England  (6th  ed.,  London, 
1854-55)  :  Frnude,  fjistorji  of  England  (new  ed., 
London,  1893)  ;  Strickland,  Lives  of  the  Queens 
of  EtuiUinil   (Boston,  1860). 

MARY  IL  (166-2-94).  Queen  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. She  was  born  at  Saint  James's  Palace, 
April  30,  1002,  the  eldest  daughter  of  James  II. 
and  Anne  Hyde,  who  was  a  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Clarendon.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  she  was  mar- 
ried to  William.  Prince  of  Orange.  She  joined  her 
husband  in  KiiL'land  early  in  16811  after  the  llight 
of  her  father.  In  the  same  year  Parliament  de- 
clared the  crown  of  England  vacant  by  tlii'  abdi- 
cation of  James,  and  conferred  it  upon  William 
(III)  and  Mary.  She  died  of  smallpox  Decem- 
ber 28,  1094.  Consult:  Burnet,  Essni/  Upon  the 
Life  of  Queen  ilury  (London,  1605);  Doebner 
(ed.).  Memoirs  and  Letters  of  Mary  11..  Queen 
of  England  (Leipzig,  1886).    See  William  III. 

MARY,  Apocalypse  of  the  Virgin.  See 
Ai'oc  itvriiA.  section  on  .Veir  Testament. 

MARY,  Xativity  of  the  Virgin.  Sec  Apoc- 
rypha, -iccticiii  nil    \'iir  Trxinmtnt. 

MARYBOROUGH,  ma'ri  biir'A.  A  seaport 
municipality  of  March  County,  Queensland.  Aus- 
tralia, at  the  mouth  of  the  Mary  River  on  Hervey 
Bay,  160  miles  north  of  Brisbane,  with  which 
it  has  railroad  and  steam  communication  (Map: 
Australia,  .14).  It  is  the  port  of  a  rich  coal, 
gold,  and  copper  mining  and  agricultural  region ; 


has  sugar  mills  and  refineries,  iron  foundries, 
breweries,  tanyards,  shipbuilding  industries,  ac- 
tive fisheries,  and  a  considerable  export  trade  in 
timber,  sugar,  and  minerals.  The  river  is  crossed 
at  Maryborough  by  a  wooden  bridge;  the  commo- 
dious wharves  are  available  to  vessels  of  17% 
feet  draught.  Population,  in  1891,  9700;  in  1901, 
10,159. 

MARYBOROUGH.  A  municipality  of  Tal- 
bot County,  Victoria,  Australia,  10  miles  north 
of  Ballarat  by  rail.  It  has  agricultural  and 
important  quartz  and  alluvial  gold  mining  in- 
dustries. Population,  in  1891,  5329;  in  1901, 
5023. 

MARYLAND,  mer^land.  One  of  the  thir- 
teen original  States  of  the  American  Union.  It 
occupies  a  middle  position  on  the  Atlantic  Coast 
between  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  being  in- 
cluded between"  the  parallels  of  37°  53'  and  39" 
43'  26"  north  latitude  and  75°  4'  and  79°  33' 
west  longitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Pennsylvania,  the  boundary  being  Mason  and 
Dixon's  line,  and  by  Delaware;  on  the  east  by 
Delaware  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean :  on  the  south 
and  west  by  Virginia.  It  is  separated  frimi  the 
last-named  States  by  the  Potomac  River,  which 
is  the  boundary  from  its  source  in  a  small  moun- 
tain stream,  to  its  mouth  in  a  broad  estuary 
entering  the  Chesapeake  Ba.v.  The  outline  of  the 
State  is  extremely  irregular,  as  the  southern 
boundary  is  mainl.y  a  winding  river  and  the 
western  part  of  the  State  is  a  long  fragment 
lying  between  this  river  and  Mason  and  Di.\on's 
line,  while,  in  addition  to  this,  Chesapeake  Bay 
divides  the  region  into  two  parts.  The  extreme 
length  of  the  northern  boundary  is  215  miles, 
with  a  further  extension  of  35  miles  where  the 
State  stretches  eastward  soutli  of  the  Delaware 
to  the  ocean.  The  extreme  breadth  from  north 
to  south,  near  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Chesa- 
peake, is  128  miles.  The  total  area  is  12.210 
.square  miles. of  which 2350 square  milcsare  water. 

TopoGKAPiiY.  The  surface  of  Maryland  shows 
great  diversity.  It  is  usually  divided,  for  purposes 
of  classification,  into  three  regions:  the  coastal 
plain,  the  Piedmont  plateau,  and  the  Appalachian 
region.  All  are  drained  by  the  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Chesapeake,  excepting  the  northwest 
corner,  whieli  drains  toward  the  Ohio,  a  narrow 
strip  draining  directly  into  the  Atlantic,  and  a 
fragment  at  the  extreme  northeast,  draining  into 
Christian  Creek  and  the  Delaware. 

The  coastal  plain  embraces  that  part  of  Mary- 
land lying  to  the  east  of  a  line  passing  from 
Washington  to  Baltimore,  Havre  de  (5race,  and 
Wilmington.  It  includes  more  than  half  the  land 
area  of  the  State,  and  is  divided  by  (Miesapeake 
Bay  info  what  is  commonly  called  the  'eastern 
shore'  and  the  'western  shore'  or  Southern 
Maryland.  The  'eastern  shore'  is  low  and  level ; 
only  in  the  north  does  it  reach  100  feet,  and  most 
of  it  is  less  than  25  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
'western  shore'  is  higher,  and  rises  to  300  feet 
near  the  District  of  Columbia  and  again  near 
Baltimore.  Chesapeake  Bay  has  many  island*. 
and  the  entire  .Xtjantie  Coast  is  made  up  of  a 
long,  reef-like,  sandy  island,  inclosing  the  Chin- 
eoteague  and  .Assateague  bays.  The  eastern  shore 
is  drained  by  the  Pocomoke.  Nanticoke,  Chop- 
tank,  and  Chester  rivers,  and  by  some  insi^mifi- 
ennt  streams.     The  western  shore  is  drained  in 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  MARYLAND  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 


Allegany 

Anne  Aruiulel. 

Baltimore 

BaUiuioru  City 
Calvert 

Caroline 

Carroll 

Cecil 

Charles 

Dorchester .... 

Frederick 

Garrett 

Harfonl 

Howard 

Kent 

Montgomery  . . 
Prince  (ieorge. 
Queen  AnnL\.. 

St.  Mary 

Somerset 

T;ilbot 

\\',ishiiii:ton. . . 

W'ictiinic'o 

Worcester 


Map 
Index. 


B  2 
L  4 
L  3 
L  4 

L  6 

O  5 
J  2 

N3 
J  7 
N6 

113 
A3 
M3 
J  3 
O  4 

H4 
K5 
O  4 

K  7 
O  8 

N  5 
F  3 
P  7 

q  8 


County  Seat. 


Cumberland 

Annapolis 

TowBon 

Baltimore  Cit>; 

Prince  Frodericktown 

Denton 

Westminster 

Elkton 

Laplala 

Cambridge 

Frederick 

Oakland 

Belair 

Ellicott  City 

Chestertown 

Rockville 

Upper  Marlboro 

Centervillc 

Leonard  town 

Princess  Anno 

Easton 

Haeerstuwn  

Salisbury . . 

Snowhili 


Area  in 
square 
miles. 


442 
425 

65(i 

m 

320 
437 
300 
451 
608 

602 
600 
388 
240 
281 

490 
482 
3TU 


286 
458 
365 

48" 


Population. 


41,571 

:M.004 

72,!»!l 

434,43!) 

9,860 

13,!)03 
.32,370 
25,851 
1.5,1!>1 
24,8*5 

40,512 
14,213 
2«,9!B 
16,209 
17,471 

27.185 
2(i,08n 
18,461 
15.819 
24,155 

10.736 
39,782 
19,030 
19,747 


53,694 
40,018 
90,755 
508,9.57 
10,223 

10,248 
33.800 
24.062 
18,316 
27,962 

51.920 
17,701 
28.269 
10.715 
18,786 

30,451 
20,898 
18,364 
18,136 
25,923 

20,:M2 
4.5.133 
22,854 
20,865 


^ 


FOLDOUT  BLANK 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  DELAWARE  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 

Map 
Index. 

County  Seat. 

.\rca  in 
gqnare 
niilee. 

Population. 

1890. 

1900. 

Kent 

P  4 

r  3 

Dover 

4M 
615 
911 

32,664 
97,183 
38,047 

33  763 

Newcastle 

Sussex 

Wilmington 

109,697 
43,376 

MARYLAND. 


125 


MARYLAND. 


the  most  part  by  tlie  Potomac,  the  Patuxent,  the 
Patapsco,  and  the  Gunpowder. 

The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  Atlantic 
Plain  of  Maryhind  is  Chesapeake  Bay,  which 
has  about  two-thirds  of  its  200  miles  of  length 
within  the  .State.  It  is  from  10  to  40  miles  wide 
and  its  numerous  estuaries  cut  the  plain  in  every 
direction  and  reach  to  the  eastern  edge  of  the 
Piedmont  Plateau.  The  bay  is  navigable  for  the 
largest  ships,  and  its  numerous  arms  furnish  a 
large  number  of  fine  harbors.  Tlie  large  area  of 
sheltered,  shallow,  inland  water  gives  an  excel- 
lent fishing  ground  and  an  opportunity  for  oyster 
gathering  and  oyster  culture  scarcely  equaled 
elsewhere  in  the  world. 

Tlie  Piedmont  Plateau  extends  from  the  edge 
of  tlie  Atlantic  Plain  to  the  Catoctin  Jlountain, 
the  first  range  of  the  Appalachian  system.  This 
region  is  about  65  miles  wide  at  the  north  and 
40  miles  wide  at  the  south.  Most  of  the  surface 
is  broken  and  hilly,  ascending  with  complicated 
drainage  systems  to  Parr's  Ridge  in  Carroll 
County.  Between  Parr's  Ridge  and  the  Catoctin 
Mountain  is  the  comparatively  level  Frederick 
Valley,  drained  by  the  Monocacy  River,  flowing 
southward  into  the  Potomac.  Near  the  mouth  of 
the  Monocacy,  the  Sugar  Loaf  Mountain  (1250 
feet)  rises  abrujitly  from  the  plain.  From  the 
Catoctin  Mountain  to  the  western  boundary  of 
the  State,  the  Appalachian  region  spreads  a  suc- 
cession of  valleys,  separated  by  nearly  parallel 
northeast  and  southwest  mountain  ranges,  and 
all  draining  into  the  Potomac.  The  Blue  Ridge, 
2400  feet  high  at  Quirauk,  near  the  Pennsylvania 
line,  crosses  the  State  to  Weverton  on  the  Poto- 
mac, and  is  the  eastern  limit  of  the  Great  or 
Hagerstown  Valley.  Tliis  valley  is  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  North  Mountain,  between  which 
and  Cumberland  is  the  Alleghany  Ridge,  a  com- 
plex chain  of  long,  narrow,  very  level  mountain 
ridges,  separated  by  narrow  valleys,  beginning 
at  an  elevation  of  about  500  feet  at  the  Potomac. 
Just  west  of  Cumberland  rises  Dan's  Mountain 
(2882  feet).  To  the  west  of  it  is  the  Alleghany 
Plateau,  giving  the  elevation  of  2000  feet  or 
more  to  all  of  Maryland  to  the  west,  except  the 
immediate  valleys  of  the  Potomac,  Savage,  and 
Youghioghen.v  rivers.  Much  of  the  plateau  is 
above  2500  feet,  and  the  highest  mountains,  the 
Savage  and  its  extension,  the  Backbone  ^Mountain, 
exceed  3000  feet   in  elevation. 

For  Flora  and  Fauna,  see  those  topics  under 
United  States. 

Climate  and  Soil.  The  climate  of  Maryland 
is  one  of  transition  in  which  the  northern  frozen 
winter  gives  way  to  the  open  southern  win- 
ter. The  extreme  temperatures  of  more  northern 
locations  are  occasionally  met  with,  but  the 
periods  of  cold  are  of  less  duration  and  the  num- 
ber of  freezing  da.vs  and  the  amount  of  snowfall 
are  less.  An  extreme  winter  temperature  of  26° 
below  zero  has  been  recorded  at  Sunnyside  in  the 
Alleghany  Plateau  and  a  summer  temperature  of 
109°  F.  near  Cumberland.  Clianges  of  tempera- 
ture are  frequent,  and  there  is  a  great  daily 
range.  In  north  central  Maryland  the  average 
teniperature  for  January  is  30°  :  that  for  .Tuly 
75°,  The  average  annual  temperature  for  the 
State  is  between  53°  and  54°.  The  average  dates 
for  first  and  last  killing  frosts  in  the  plateau  are 
October    Ist    and    April    15th;    on    the    Marine 


Islands  the  growing   season   is  a   month  longer, 
extending  from  April  1st  to  October  15th. 

The  average  rainfall  for  the  State  is  43 
inches,  of  which  11.5  to  12  fall  in  spring  and  in 
summer  and  9,5  to  10  in  the  fall  and  in  winter. 
The  efl'ects  of  elevation  and  slope  are  clearly 
shown  in  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall.  The 
western  slope  of  the  Alleghany  Plateau  receives 
53  inches ;  the  eastern  slope  of  Parr's  Ridge 
over  45;  the  inclosed  valleys  between  Cumberland 
and  Hagerstown  and  small  sections  at  the  ex- 
treme east  and  .southwest  of  the  State  receive 
between  30  and  35.  The  Atlantic  Plain  in 
the  main  receives  from  42  to  48  inches.  The 
snowfall  averages  25.4  inches  for  the  State, 
16.6  for  the  southern  and  43,4  for  the  west- 
ern districts.  The  number  of  days  of  precipi- 
tation on  the  coast  is  130,  in  the  mountains  140. 
The  relative  humidity  varies  from  80  in  the  sea 
islands  to  65  at  the  extreme  west.  The  climate 
is  everywhere  suitable  to  tree  growth ;  hard 
woods,  especially  oak  and  hickory,  predominate. 
The  warm  moist  climate  and  light  soil  of 
the  eastern  shore  cause  that  district  to  be  the 
home  of  many  southern  plants  not  found  else- 
where in  the  same  latitude. 

Maryland  has  a  variety  of  soils  corresponding 
with  the  geological  formations.  The  more  re- 
cent fonnations  of  the  Atlantic  Plain  have  light, 
sandy  and  loamy  soils,  unsuited  to  grass,  but 
especially  adapted  to  vegetables,  truck-farming, 
small  fruits,  and  peaches.  The  region  of  meta- 
morphic  rocks  and  the  limestone  and  shale  val- 
leys of  the  west  are  of  heavier,  often  clay,  soils, 
usually  very  fertile  and  adapted  to  wheat,  maize, 
grass,  and  clover.  On  the  western- .slope  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  the  Cambrian  (Harper's) 
shale,  crossing  the  State  from  Harper's  Ferry 
northeastward,  produces  a  strip  of  sandv,  shaly 
soil  with  exceptional  adaptation  to  peaches, 
which  are  here  a  highly  specialized  crop.  Sim- 
ilar shaly  soils  are  on  the  flanks  of  all  the  ranges- 
and  the  valley  floors  are  usually  limestone. 

Geology.  J.Iaryland  presents  a  great  variety 
of  geologic  formations,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  various  outcrops  which  run  in  broad  bands 
parallel  with  the  Atlantic  coast  are  here  so  nar- 
row- that  the  whole  series  is  encompassed  by  the 
State,  from  the  coastal  plain  formation  to  the 
western  coal  fields,  while  farther  south  they 
widen  out  so  that  even  the  State  of  North  Caro- 
lina does  not  include  them  all.  The  entire  por- 
tion of  the  State  east  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  a 
strip  from  5  to  20  miles  wide  along  its  west- 
ern shore  are  covered  with  the  recent  unindurated 
coastal  plain  formation,  consisting  of  Tertiary 
sands  and  clays  east  of  the  bay.  and  chiefly  Cre- 
taceous, with  some  Eocene  deposits,  on  the'  west- 
ern shore.  West  of  this  follows  the  Archa'an 
belt  of  the  Piedmont  Plain.  It  is  here  about  50 
miles  broad,  occup,ving  the  whole  central  part 
of  the  State,  but  in  early  Mesozoic  time  this 
-Archaean  land  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
narrow  arm  of  the  sea  running  southwcstward 
from  the  present  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  and 
whose  bed  is  now  filled  with  a  deep  layer  of 
Triassic  red  sandstone  occupying  the  Frederick 
Valle.v.  The  narrow  western  part  of  the  State 
is  traversed  b.v  the  various  outcrops  brought  to 
the  surface  by  the  Appalachian  upheaval  and 
subsequent  denudafion.  The.v  are  chiefl.y  Devo- 
nian and  Silurian  strata,  more  or  less  tilted  and 


MAKYIiAND. 


126 


MARYLAND. 


covered  in  the  extreme  west  by  tlie  carboniferous 
formation.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  intru- 
sions of  eruptive  rocks  running  in  a  cliain  of  dikes 
east  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  During  the  Eocene  and 
Pleistocene  periods  the  eastern  part  of  the  State 
was  subjected  to  repeated  changes  of  level, 
whose  net  result  was  the  formation  of  a  system 
of  river  valleys  and  their  partial  submergence 
into  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  branching  estu- 
aries. 

.Mi.NER.\L  Resoukces.  The  most  valuable  min- 
eral res(mrce  of  JIaryland  is  coal,  which  is  the 
best  quality  of  bituminous  and  occurs  in  three 
areas  known  respectively  as  the  t'umberland. 
Georgia  Creek,  and  Frostburg  'basins.'  One  bed, 
the  "Big  Vein,'  is  14  feet  thick,  with  others  of 
less  value  below  it.  The  area  of  the  fields  is 
more  than  500  square  miles.  The  output  in  1901 
■was  5.113.12"  tons,  valued  at  $5,040,401,  giving 
Maryland  the  twelfth  rank  among  the  States. 
Useful  minerals  are  most  niuiierous  in  the  crys- 
talline rocks  of  the  Piedmont  region.  Here  are 
many  fine  building  stones,  and  there  are  found 
also,  but  mostly  in  unprofitable  qiuintities,  ores 
of  copper,  gold,  chrome,  lead,  zinc,  and  iron, 
besides  flint,  feldspar,  kaolin,  and  mica.  The 
absence  of  large  cities  has  limited  the  quarry 
industry  to  the  region  near  the  head  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  Of  building  stone  for  commercial  use 
the  State's  output  was  .$1,174,181  in  1901.  Fine 
granite  quarried  near  Port  Deposit  and  Balti- 
more and  marble  from  the  vicinity  of  Baltimore 
have  been  tised  for  the  Government  buildings  at 
Washington  and  for  important  structures  in  New 
York  and  Philadelphia.  Valuable  clays  are 
widely  distributed,  Baltimore  County  alone  pos- 
sessing clays  suitable  for  building-brick,  fire- 
brick, pottery,  stoneware,  terra-cotta,  sewer  pipe, 
and  paint.  Natural  cement  is  an  important  ar- 
ticle of  manufacture.  The  clay  oiltput  is  small, 
but  the  value  of  clay  products  is  high,  owing  to 
the  pottery  and  other  clay  manufactures  of  Balti- 
more, and  the  firebricks  of  the  coal  region,  which 
are  reported  to  be  the  best  in  the  coiwitry.  Pot- 
able waters  of  excellent  quality  abound;  springs 
are  numerous,  and  there  are  some  mineral  springs 
of  local  repute. 

Fisheries.  In  1807  Maryland  ranked  second 
only  to  Massachusetts  in  the  value  of  its  fisheries 
product.  However,  the  industry  has  declined 
greatly  since  1891,  the  value  of  the  catch  in  1897 
amounting  to  $:!,G17..306,  as  compared  with 
$6,4(i0,759  in  1891.  More  persons  arc  engaged  in 
the  industry  than  in  previous  years  or  in  any 
other  State",  the  number  in  1807  being  42.812. 
The  oyster  catch  amounts  to  about  80  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  product  and  exceeds  tli.'it  of  any 
other  State.  The  rivers  flowing  into  Chesapeake 
Bay  contribute  largely  to  the  fisheries  products, 
particularly  shad.  The  other  more  important  va- 
rieties taken  are  crabs,  alcwives,  striped  bass, 
and  white  perch. 

.XoRiciLTiRE.  There  is  81.9  per  cent,  of  the 
land  area  of  the  State  included  in  farms,  and  of 
this  08  per  cent,  is  improved.  The  acreage  of 
farm  land  increaseil  11.6  per  cent,  during  the 
last  half  of  the  century,  and  there  wa-;  a  still 
greater  increase  in  area  of  improved  land.  Dur- 
ing the  same  period  the  numlier  of  farms  more 
than  doubled,  while  the  average  size  decreased 
nearly  one-half — the  average  in  1900  being  112.4 
acres.    The  farms  operated  by  owners  amount  to 


60.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  number.  The  propor- 
tion  of  rented  farms  is  increasing,  particularly 
the  farms  rented  on  the  share  metliod,  which 
amounted  to  24.8  per  cent,  of  all  farms  in  1900. 
Only  12.7  per  cent,  of  the  farms  are  oi)erated  by 
colored  farmers,  while  the  proportion  of  renters 
among  these  is  much  larger  than  among  the 
whites,  and  the  average  size  of  the  farms  is 
much  smaller  among  the  former  than  among  the 
latter. 

The  area  devoted  to  cereals  in  1900  was  con- 
siderably larger  than  it  was  in  1890,  but  almost 
the  same  as  in  ISSO.  Corn  and  wheat  have  al- 
most equal  areas  devoted  to  them.  In  both  cases 
there  was  an  increase  during  the  decade  1890- 
1900.  As  compared  with  1850  the  product  of 
wheat  more  than  doubled  in  amount,  while  the 
increase  of  corn  was  only  a  little  less  pro- 
nounced. Frederick  County,  in  the  Piedmont  re- 
gion, is  the  largest  producer  of  these  cereals. 
The  area  devoted  to  oats  decreased  more  than 
one-half  during  the  census  decade  1890-1900. 
Other  cereals  raised  in  small  amounts  are  oats, 
buckwheat,  and  barle,v.  Hay  and  forage  erop^ 
rank  next  to  corn  and  wheat,  both  in  the  area 
devoted  to  them  and  the  value  of  the  product.  A 
much  smaller  acreage  is  devoted  to  tobacco,  but 
its  large  per  acre  value  makes  it  one  of  the  im- 
portant crops  of  the  State. 

The  lighter  soils  throughout  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Stale  are  largely  devoted  to  the  raising 
of  vegetables  and  fruits.  In  1900  the  value  of  the 
vegetable  products,  including  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  onions,  amounted  to  15.2  per  cent, 
of  the  gross  farm  income.  JIarvland  canned  a 
larger  amount  of  tomatoes  and  sweet  corn  than 
anv  other  State.  There  were  43.612  acres  de- 
voted to  tomatoes,  and  16.575  to  sweet  corn. 
The  region  south  and  east  of  Baltimore  is  notiil 
for  its  peach  orchards.  In  1900  the  peach  trees 
numbcretl  over  4,000.000  and  constituted  60  per 
cent,  of  all  fruit  trees,  although  there  was  a  large 
decrease  as  compared  with  the  number  at  thr 
beginning  of  the  decade.  There  was  a  large 
increase  during  that  decade  in  all  other  varieties 
of  fruit  trees.  In  the  same  year  17.510  acre-; 
were  devoted  to  small  fruit.s,  of  which  about 
four-fifths  were  strawberries.  Floriculture  is 
extensivel,v  developed  in  the  vicinity  of  Balti- 
more. Gardening  and  fruit-raising  have  given 
rise  to  the  extensive  use  of  fertilizers.  The  in- 
creasing demands  of  the  growing  centres  of 
population  have  given  rise  to  a  large  dairy 
industry,  and  the  number  of  dairv  cows  in 
creased' from  86.856  in  1850  to  147.284  in  1900. 
The  greater  inti'iisivcncss  of  (■ulti\ation  and  in- 
cvi'asi'd  UM-  of  machinery  have  necessitated  more 
work  horses,  and  the  number  of  these  has  nearly 
doubled  in  the  period  mentioned.  The  followiiiL' 
comparative  tables  give  the  more  inqiortant  crops 
and  the  number  of  domestic  animals  for  the 
census  years  1890  and  1900  (figures  for  crops 
given  in  acres)  : 


CHOPS 

1900 

1890 

668.010 
634.4-10 
44  .OJ.-. 
374 .84« 
42.911 
26.473 

61(1.727 

Ontn 

liny  mill  torafte 

O'.i.nw 
37'.'.026 

Potatoes  (Irish) 

24,987 

MARYLAND. 


127 


MARYLAND. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

XJalry  cows 

Other  neat  cattle 

Hori*eB 

Mules  and  asses 

Sht^p 

Swine 


1900 


li7,aS4 

112,198 

145.362 

124,991 

14»,994 

130,395 

17,580 

14,161 

111,5-20 

132,329 

317.902 

312,020 

^Manufactures.  Manufacturing  is  of  much 
iniportanee,  and  has  played  an  important  part 
from  the  first  settlement  of  the  State.  In  1850 
6.2  per  cent,  of  the  population  -were  engaged  as 
wiige-earnors  in  that  industry.  In  1900  the  per 
cent,  of  the  population  thus  engaged  was  9.1,  a 
little  less  than  the  figure  for  1890,  though  the 
actual  number  employed  in  the  former  year  ( 108,- 
300)  was  greater.  The  value  of  products  in- 
creased during  that  decade  41.3  per  cent.,  reach- 
ing $242,752,000  in  1900.  The  urban  manufac- 
tures of  the  State  are  confined  mainly  to  the  city 
of  Baltimore,  the  prominence  of  the  manufactur- 
ing industry  in  the  State  being  due  largely  to  the 
commercial  advantages  of  that  city.  The  largest 
and  most  important  group  of  manufactures  draws 
extensively  from  the  agricultural  products  of 
the  State.  The  canning  and  preserving  of  fruits 
and  vegetables,  though  of  recent  development, 
has  become  the  most  important  in  the  State;  the 
increase  during  the  decade  1890-1900  was  60,7 
per  cent.  California  alone  exceeds  Maryland  in 
this  industry.  The  tobacco  manufactures  are 
also  increasing,  the  growth,  however,  being  con- 
fined to  the  manufacture  of  chewing  and  smoking 
tobaccos  and  snulT.  The  canning  of  oysters  gives 
employment  to  many  hands.  The  other  indus- 
tries belonging  to  this  group  import  their  raw 
materials  largely  from  outside  States.  Of  these 
the  slauglitering  and  meat-packing  industry  made 
the  largest  gains  during  the  last  census  decade. 
The  flour  and  grist  milling  industry  and  the 
manufacture  of  textiles  are  long  established  in- 
dustries, Baltimore  is  the  largest  producer  of 
cotton  duck  in  the  United  States. 

.Another  group  of  industries  is  of  note--— iron 
manufactures.  The  iron  ore  was  at  first  secured 
from  the  State  mines,  but  when  the  Lake  Superior 
region  was  developed  the  grade  of  ore  was  so 
much  higher  than  the  Jlaryland  product  that  it 
rendered  the  latter  unprofitable  and  greatly  re- 
duced tile  extent  of  the  dependent  industries. 
More  recently  ore  has  been  imported  from  Cuba, 
and  the  industry  has  revived.  Fuel  is  secured 
from  the  mines  of  Pennsylvania  and  West  Vir- 
ginia. During  the  decade  1890-1900  the  value  of 
the  iron  and  steel  product  increased  204.6  ner 
cent.  There  are  now  extensive  shipments  of  steel 
rails  to  foreign  markets.  The  revival  of  the 
industry  is  reflected  in  foundry  and  machine  shop 
industries,  whose  products  increased  113  per  cent, 
during  the  same  period.  The  same  is  true  of 
shipbuilding.  During  the  colonial  period  and  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  this  i^ndustry 
was  very  pnuninent.  The  'Baltimore  clippers' 
■were  world  famous  and  were  instrumental  in 
greatly  extending  the  State's  commerce.  When 
iron  and  steel  were  substituted  for  wood  in  ship- 
building, the  industry  declined.  Since  the  recent 
revival  vessels  have  been  constructed  for  the 
United  States  Navy.  A  less  important  group  of 
manufactures  derives  its  raw  materials  from 
the  forest  resources  of  the  State  and  adjoining 
regions.      Almost   all    the    merchantable    timber 


has  been  cut  away  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Blue  Hidge,  and  the  pine  and  much  of  the  hard 
wood  have  been  cut  from  the  western  part  of  the 
State.  The  entire  wooded  area  is  estimated  at 
44  per  cent,  of  the  land  area. 

The  most  significant  gain  during  the  decade 
1800-1900  was  in  tlie  production  of  paper  and 
wood  pulp.  A  large  increase  was  also  made  in 
the  value  of  the  lumber  and  timber  products, 
planing  mill  products,  and  furniture.  The  ex- 
tensive cultivation  of  fruits  and  vegetables  has 
made  a  demand  for  fertilizers  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  this  product  is  one  of  the  principal  indus- 
tries. The  table  on  following  page  covers  tlie 
fourteen  leading  industries  for  the  years  1890 
and  1900. 

Transportation  and  Cojimerce.  Maryland  is 
well  supplied  with  transportation  facilities,  both 
natural  and  artificial.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  was  one  of  the  first  lines  operated  in  - 
the  United  States.  Other  important  lines  are 
the  Northern  Central,  the  Queen  Anne's,  the 
BaltiTuore,  Chesapeake  and  Atlantic,  the  West- 
ern Maryland,  the  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania, 
the  Annapolis  and  Baltimore  Short  Line,  the 
-Annapolis,  Washington  and  Baltimore,  and  the 
West  Virginia  Central,  The  total  mileage  in 
operation  in  1900  was  1339  miles.  The  Dela- 
ware and  Chesapeake  Canal  connects  the  head 
of  Chesapeake  Bay  with  the  Delaware  River. 
Chesapeake  Bay  gives  excellent  facilities  for 
water  transportation,  and  the  Potomac  River  is 
navigable  to  Washington.  The  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  Canal,  once  a  great  highway  of  commerce, 
still  carries  some  coal.  Baltimore  is  the  chief 
commercial  centre. 

Banking.  The  first  bank  in  the  State  was  the 
Bank  of  ]Maryland,  chartered  in  1790.  In  the 
early  thirties  there  were  half  a  dozen  banks  in 
Baltimore  which  sutTered  with  all  the  other 
banks  of  the  country  from  the  money  panic  of 
1837.  Six  or  seven  banks  failed,  among  them  the 
Bank  of  Jlaryland,  seriously  affecting  the  com- 
mercial interests  of  the  State.  In  IS.'iO  there 
were  27  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $9,310,407.  In 
1902  there  were  82  national  banks,  with  capital 
of  .$10,835,000;  surplus  of  .$8,524,000;  cash.  $6,- 
160.000;  loans.  $03,801,000;  and  deposits  of  $53,- 
041,000.'  There  were  also  31  State  banks  with 
capital  of  $1,739,185,  surplus  $577,000,  cash  on 
hand  $465,897.  loans  $6,279,112,  and  deposits  .$8,- 
378,861 ;  and  21  savings  banks,  with  186,293  de- 
positors and  deposits  to  the  amount  of  $64,367,- 
767,  There  are  also  a  number  of  trust  and  de- 
posit companies. 

FINANCE.S.  The  Stale  of  Maryland  led  in  the 
ngvement  for  internal  improvements  beginning  in 
the  early  twenties,  and  the  first  public  debt  of 
the  State  was  created  in  order  to  acquire  5000 
shares  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal.  In 
1836  an  issue  of  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $8,000,- 
000  was  authorized  to  be  invested  in  various  im- 
provoments,  mainly  canals  and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad;  and  by  1839  the  public  debt 
amounted  to  more  than  $16,000,000.  A  financial 
collapse  resulted  when  in  1840  the  State  stopped 
payments  of  interest.  Very  heavy  taxes  were  im- 
posed in  1841, 'which  it  was  almost  inipossilde  to 
collect;  and  a  rejmdiation  of  the  State  debts 
was  threatened.  Finally  in  1844  the  arrears  of 
interest  were  funded,  and  on  January  1,  1848, 
payment  of  interest  on  the  State  debt  was  re- 


MARYLAND. 


128 


MARYLAND. 


INDUBTBIE8 


Total  for  selected  Industriea  for  State -j 

Increase.  1S90  to  1900 

Per  cent,  of  increase 

Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  industries  in  State | 

Fruits  and  vegetables,  cauuiug  and  preserving ] 

Tobacco { 

Slaugliterinif j 

Flouring  and  grist-mill  products | 

Textiles:  Total j 

'     Cotton  goods I 

Hosier.v  and  knit  goods | 

Woolen  goods j 

Iron  and  steel | 

Foundr.v  and  machine  sbop  products | 

Shipbuilding :   Total { 

Ship  and  boat  building,  wooden j 

Shipbuilding,  iron  and  steel j 

Lumber  and  timber  products | 

Lumber,  planing    mill  products,  Including   sash,    doors,    and  r 
blinds j 

Paper  and  wood  pulp i 

Furniture,  factory  product j 

Oysters,  canning  and  preserving j 

Fertiiijers J 


Number  of 
establish- 
ments 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1S90 

1900 

1890 

1900 

18SI0 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890* 

1900 

1890* 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 

HKX) 

1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 

1900 

1890 


1.877 
1,470 


407 
27.7 

19.0 
19.6 

271 

197 

387 

391 

82 

17 

407 

335 

22 

32 

14 

16 

4 

8 

4 

9 

9 

10 

113 

81 

47 

34 

43 


367 
217 
53 
45 
21 
17 
42 
33 
16 
8 
40 
53 


A  venifre  '  "Value  of  prod- 
number  !  ucta,  including 
wage-  j  custom  work 
earners  and  repairing 


37,241 
36,110 


1,131 
3.1 

34.4 
36.9 

7.505 

13.048 

4.311 

3,026 

1)97 

389 

IMl 

026 

6,286 

4,921 

4.727 

4.256 

GS2 

289 

877 

376 

2,138 

1,247 

4,095 

3,3.52 

2,615 

1,043 

676 

1,939 

1,961 
1,5.52 
1.323 
1,174 
937 
472 
1,869 
1,376 
1,444 
2.a'M 
1.016 
1,051 


$86,343,509 
67,685,323 


$28,6.58,186 
49.7 

35.6 
33.6 

$I1.9ilfi.245 
7.1%.109 
9.89(1,928 
0.074..591 
8.114  (1.359 
4,C.70.690 
8.035.343 
6.904,888 
7,155.722 
6.218,131 
6.-12:t.2r.l 
6,4:i7.7'.l2 
514.1193 
l«(l.K23 
1,21S,37S 
579.510 
8.7:19.4":. 


h.  1  1 


■■17 


4. '.'-'"■, ''TJ 

4.1(U..525 

1.737.674 

862,034 

3,299,491 

2.050.082 
1.C(K).472 
3,753.0S3 
3.:i:t2, 5(1:1 
2..589..54U 
1,001.945 
2.97C.494 
2.110.9.55 
2,417,331 
2,834.4(10 
6.481.9(15 
6,2118,025 


'  Not  separately  reported  in  1890. 


sunicd.  During  tlie  Civil  W.ir  a  considerable 
debt  was  ineiirred  for  defense,  bounties,  etc..  but 
it  has  been  paid  olT,  and  the  debt  now  consists 
almost  entirelj-  of  bonds  sold  to  defray  the  cost 
of   new   public  buildings. 

The  debt  in  September,  1902,  amounted  to  $6,- 
909, 32G,  of  which  .$4,112,057  was  secured  by  in- 
terest-paying bonds  and  cash  with  sinking  fund, 
leaving  a  net  debt  of  $2,707,207.  The  receipts 
for  the  year  1901-02  were  .$3,031,259  (including 
a  loan  of  $400,000  I .  mainly  from  licenses,  taxes, 
and  taxes  on  corporations.  The  disbursements 
were  .$3,416,370,  of  which  25  per  cent,  was  for 
school  purposes. 

Popn.ATlON.  The  population  of  the  State  in- 
creased from  319.728  in  1700  to  583,034  in  1850; 
from  780,804  in  1870  to  1,042,300  in  1890;  and 
to  1,188.044  in  1000.  The  rank  of  the  State  has 
decreased  during  every  census  period,  being  0  in 
1700,  15  in  18,50,  and  20  in  1900.  The  foreign 
born  population  in  1000  was  only  03.934,  nearly 
half  of  whom  were  Germans.  Tlie  negro  popula- 
tion for  the  same  year  was  235.004.  The  increase 
in  the  white  population  during  the  decade  ending 
in  1000  was  15.2  per  cent.,  as  against  an  increase 
of  9  per  cent,  for  the  negro  i>opulation.  The 
density  per  square  mile  in  1900,  120.,'),  was 
greater  than  for  any  other  State  not  included  in 
the  North  -Atlantic  division  of  States.  In  1900 
there  were  five  places  having  a  population  ex- 
ceeding 8000,  aggregating  40,9  per  cent,  of  the 


total  population.  These  cities  were  Baltimore, 
.'J08.9.57;  Cumberland,  17.128;  Hagerstown,  13,- 
501;  Frederick.  920t);  and  Annapolis,  8525.  The 
State  has  six  representatives  in  the  Lower  House 
of  the  National  Congress. 

Religion.  The  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Metho- 
dist churches  far  surpass  all  others  in  number 
of  Church  communicants.  Of  the  other  denomi- 
nations the  strongest  are  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal, Lutheran,  Baptist,  and  Presbyterian. 

Education.  The  per  cent,  of  illiteracy  for 
the  native  whites  (4.1 )  is  the  lowest,  and  for  the 
negroes  (35.1)  next  to  the  lowest  of  any  State 
which  has  a  large  negro  population.  The  fiov- 
ernor.  tlie  principal  of  the  State  Normal  School, 
the  State  Superintendent  (an  olliee  established 
in  1900),  and  four  persons  appointed  by  the 
Oovemor  constitute  tlie  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. The  Governor  and  Senate  appoint  a  board 
of  school  commissioners  in  eacli  county,  who 
serve  six  years.  These  commissioners  appoint 
for  each  district  a  board  of  school  trustees  of 
three  persons.  In  1809-1000  the  average  length 
of  the  school  year  for  the  State  was  188  days, 
which  was  exceeded  in  only  two  other  States,  The 
State  law  requires  that  the  term  continue  ten 
months  when  possible.  In  1000  the  number  of 
children  between  five  and  eighteen  years  of  age 
was  345.350,  of  whom  229,332  were  enrolled  in 
the  public  schools,  and  I,'i2.(i85  were  in  average 
attendance.    The  total  number  of  colored  pupils 


MARYLAND. 


129 


MARYLAND. 


was  45,495,  of  whom  22,577  were  in  average  at- 
tendance, lu  lilOO  there  were  1074  male  and 
3U(i5  female  teachers,  828  of  the  total  number 
of  teneliers  bein;,'  colored.  The  average  .yearly 
salary  in  the  counties  is  less  than  ."fSOO,  but  in 
I'aitimore  city  it  is  nearly  double  that  sum.  A 
law  of  1002  introduced  the  pension  system  for 
such  teachers  as  have  reached  the  age  of  sixty, 
and  have  devoted  twenty-five  years  to  the  ser- 
vice of  the  State  schools.  Professional  training 
is  given  to  teachers  at  the  State  Normal  Schools 
at  Baltimore  and  Frostburg,  and  at  Washington 
College. 

Johns  Hopkins  University  (q.v. )  at  Balti- 
more, opened  in  187U,  is  distinguished  for  the 
hi<;li  rank  of  its  graduate  and  medical  schools. 
Tlicre  are  live  other  regular  medical  schools  and 
a  homceopathie  one  in  the  city,  three  law  schools, 
three  dental  schools,  two  theological  schools,  and 
one  of  pharmacy.  An  excellent  Woman's  College, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Jlethodist  Episcopal 
Church,  was  opened  in  Baltimore  in  1886.  Saint 
John's  College  (chartered  1784)  at  Annapolis  is  a 
non-sectarian  institution  taking  the  place  of  King 
William's  School  (founded  in  Kiflti).  Washing- 
ton College  at  Chestertown  (chartered  1782)  is 
tile  oldest  institution  of  collegiate  character  in 
the  State.  Western  JIaryland  College  at  West- 
minster (founded  1867)  is  an  important  institu- 
tion under  care  of  the  Jlethodist  Protestant 
Church.  The  Agricultural  College  is  in  Prince 
George  County.  Prominent  among  Roman  Cath- 
olic institutions  are  Saint  Mary's  Theological 
Seminary,  in  Baltimore  (founded  1791),  Mount 
Saint  Mary's  College,  and  the  .Jesuit  Woodstock 
College.  The  Jacob  Tome  Institute,  one  of  the 
most  richly  endowed  secondary  schools  in  the 
world,  is  at  Port  Deposit. 

Cii.\RiT.\BLE  AND  Pen.m.  INSTITUTIONS.  Ac- 
cording to  a  law  of  inOO,  there  is  a  Board  of 
State  Aid  and  Charities,  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor and  Senate.  This  board  receives  all  appli- 
cations for  State  aid  and  recommends  to  the 
Legislature  that  certain  grants  should  be  made, 
and  in  what  amounts.  In  1901  about  95  institu- 
tions and  organizations  applied  for  aid,  64  of 
which  were  favorably  recommended  by  the  board. 
These  included  2.3  hospitals,  of  which  the  State 
Insane  Asylums  at  Sykesville  and  at  Spring 
Grove  received  the  largest  contributions;  7  re- 
formatories, .3  of  which  were  semi-State  institu- 
tions, located  at  or  near  Baltimore,  viz.:  House 
of  Refuge,  for  boys;  Saint  IMary's  Industrial 
School,  for  boys;  and  the  Female  House  of  Ref- 
uge; 6  orphan  asylums  and  12  'homes'  for  the 
friendless,  infants,  etc..  including  the  iMaryland 
Line  Confederate  Soldiers'  Home  near  Pikesville, 
the  buildings  of  which  are  owned  by  the  State; 
and  a  number  of  schools,  including  the  State 
asylums,  the  training  school  for  feeble-minded 
children  near  Owings  INIills,  the  State  School  for 
the  L)enf  and  Dumb  at  Frederick,  and  the  semi- 
State  institutions  at  Baltimore,  namely.  School 
for  tile  Blind,  and  School  for  Colored  Blind  and 
Deaf.  The  two  last-named  institutions  do  not 
receive  aid  from  Baltimore,  but  most  of  the 
State-aiiled  institutions  are  endowed  and  receive 
local  aid  also.  The  endowed  Johns  Hopkins  Hos- 
pital at  Baltimore  is  probalily  the  most  widely 
known  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
States.  The  Sheppard  and  Enoch  Pratt  Hospital 
for  Mental  and  Nervous  Diseases,  located  near 


Baltimore,  is  also  worthy  of  note.  The  State 
penitentiary  is  in  Baltimore.  The  convicts  are 
generally  employed  under  contract,  the  majority 
of  them  being  eng:iged  in  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes.  Prisoners  confined  in  jails  do 
not,  as  a  rule,  have  employment.  About  half 
the  prison  population  are  negroes. 

Government.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  Se))tember,  1867.  Amendments  must 
be  proposed  by  three-fifths  of  each  House  of  the 
Legislature  and  ratified  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
people.  Once  in  every  twenty  years  the  ])eople 
must  vote  on  the  question  of  holding  a  conven- 
tion to  revise  the  Constitution.  Voters  must  have 
resided  in  the  I^tate  one  year,  and  in  the  legisla- 
tive districts  of  Baltimore  city  or  in  the  county 
six  months.     The  capital  is  Annapolis   (q.v.). 

Leoisl.\tive.  The  Legislature,  which  meets 
on  the  first  Wednesday  of  January  of  the  even 
years,  consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Dele- 
gates. The  Senators,  27  in  number,  one  from 
each  coimty,  and  one  from  each  of  the  four  legis- 
lative districts  of  Baltimore,  are  elected  for  four 
years,  one-half  retiring  biennially.  The  Dele- 
gates, 101  in  ninnbcr,  are  elected  for  two  years 
by  counties,  the  number  of  members  being  de- 
termined by  the  census.  Members  of  the  Legis- 
lature are  paid  .$5  per  day  during  the  sessions, 
besides  mileage.  No  minister  or  preacher  of  the 
Ciospel  or  of  any  religious  creed  or  denomination 
is  eligible  to  the  Legislature.  Regular  sessions 
are  limited  to  ninety  days,  special  sessions  to 
thirty  days.  A  majority  vote  of  all  the  members 
elected  to  each  House  is  required  to  pass  any  bill. 
The  power  of  impeachment  rests  with  the  House, 
the  trial  of  impeachment  with  the  Senate. 

Executive.  The  Governor  is  elected  for  four 
years,  has  a  salary  of  $4500  per  annum,  and  ap- 
points all  State  officers  with  the  consent  of  the 
Senate.  In  case  of  the  vacancy  of  the  Governor- 
ship the  Legislature  elects  a  man  to  that  posi- 
tion, or  if  the  Legislature  be  not  in  session  the 
president  of  the  Senate  and  Speaker  of  the  House 
are  respectively  in  the  line  of  succession  to  that 
position.  The  Governor  has  a  veto  over  any  bill 
or  any  item  of  an  appropriation  bill,  but  this 
veto  is  overcome  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of  the 
members  elected  to  each  House. 

Judiciary.  The  Court  of  Appeals,  composed 
of  the  chief  judges  of  the  first  seven  cii'cuits  and 
a  judge  specially  elected  in  Baltimore,  has  ap- 
pellate jurisdiction  only.  The  State  is  divided 
into  eight  judicial  circuits,  the  city  of  Balti- 
more constituting  the  eighth.  In  each  circuit, 
except  the  eighth,  a  chief  judge  and  two  asso- 
ciate judges  are  elected ;  and  in  each  county  a 
Circuit  Court  is  held,  having  original  jurisdic- 
tion, both  civil  and  criminal,  and  appellate  juris- 
diction of  the  judgments  of  justices  of  the  peace. 
In  Baltimore  city  there  are  nine  judges,  who  as- 
sign themselves  to  the  several  courts,  usually  sit- 
ting separately.  All  the  above  judges  are  elected 
by  the  people  for  a  term  of  fifteen  years.  The 
orphans'  courts  with  probate  jurisdiction  are 
composed  of  three  men  in  each  county,  elected 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  Governor  and  Sen- 
ate appoint  justices  of  the  peace,  and  the  county 
commissioners  appoint  constables  for  a  term  of 
two  years.  Each  county  elects  a  clerk  for  the 
Circuit  Court,  and  a  Register  of  Wills,  and  the 
State  elects  a  clerk  for  the  Court  of  Appeals, 

Local   Government.     The   General   Assembly 


MARYLAND. 


130 


MARYLAND. 


may  organize  new  counties  or  alter  the  bound- 
aries of  old  ones,  but  not  without  a  majority  con- 
sent of  the  parts  concerned.  County  commis- 
sioners are  elected  as  prescribed  by  law ;  the  term, 
however,  cannot  exceed  six  years.  A  shcriti'  and 
a  surveyor  are  also  elected  for  each  county.  Cor- 
oners, elisors,  and  notaries  public  are  appointed 
for  each  county. 

Other  Cox.stitutioxal  ob  Statutory  Pbovi- 
sio.NS.  General  elections  are  held  biennially,  on 
the  Tuesday  after  the  first  ilonday  in  November. 
The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  0  per  cent.  A  married 
woman  may  arquire,  hold,  and  mana;;e  property 
independently  of  her  husband,  and  dispo.se  of  the 
same  as  if  single.  Her  husband  must  join  her, 
however,  in  the  execution  of  any  deed.  Debtors 
are  jirotecti'd  in  the  possession  of  property  to  the 
value  of  $500. 

History.  In  1632  C'ecilius  Calvert,  second 
Lord  Baltimore,  received  from  Charles  I.  a  char- 
ter conferring  on  him  the  possession  of  the  ter- 
ritory now  forming  the  States  of  JIaryland  and 
Delaware.  The  grant  had  been  obtained  by 
George  Calvert,  first  Lord  Baltimore,  tlie  father 
of  Cecil,  but  he  died  before  tlie  charter  was  is- 
sued. It  was  the  intention  of  the  lord  proprietor 
to  found  a  feudal  State  in  Maiyland  (named  in 
honor  of  Charles's  (Jueen.  Henrietta  Maria),  and 
to  that  end  he  was  invested  with  sovereign  pow- 
ers, subject  only  to  the  recognition  of  tlie  King 
as  lord  paramount  by  the  payment  of  a  yearly 
tribute  of  two  Indian  arrows.  One  of  the  chief 
causes  that  led  to  the  settlement  of  Maryland 
was  the  desire  of  Lord  Baltimore,  a  Catholic,  to 
found  a  colony  where  his  fellow-believers  might 
profess  their  religion  openly  without  incurring 
the  penalties  to  which  they  were  subjected  in 
England.  Other  denominations,  however,  in  the 
proprietor's  sehenic.  were  to  be  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing with  the  Catholics,  and  of  the  twenty  gentle- 
men and  two  or  three  hundred  commoners  who 
arrived  at  Point  Comfort,  Va..  in  February,  1034, 
under  the  leadership  of  Leonard  Calvert,  it  is 
probable  that  more  than  half  were  Protestants. 
On  the  2.5lh  of  March  mass  was  celebrated  on 
Saint  Clement's  Island  in  the  Potomac,  and 
shortly  after  the  site  of  the  eily  of  Saint  Mary's 
was  traced  on  land  bought  from  the  Yaocomico 
Indians,  near  the  banks  of  the  river. 

In  his  use  of  the  vast  powers  granted  him  by 
the  King,  Baltimore  was  as  moderate  as  in  the 
expression  of  his  religious  views,  and  he  made 
no  attempt  to  establish  anything  like  an  absolute 
government.  By  the  terms  of  the  charter,  laws 
for  the  jirovinee  could  be  made  by  the  Proprietor 
only,  with  the  consent  of  the  freemen  or  their 
deputies,  and  on  .lanuary  20.  103.i,  the  first  as- 
sembly of  freemen  met  at  Saint  Mary's.  The 
right  of  initialing  laws,  claimed  both  by  the 
Assembly  and  by  the  Proprietor,  was  conceded  in 
1038  to  the  people,  Baltimore  reserving  to  him- 
self the  mere  veto  power.  The  first  'statutes  of 
the  province'  were  passed  in  IfiSS  and  103!). 
With  the  Indians  friendly  relations  were  estab- 
lished. Tlie  worst  enemy  of  Lord  Baltimore's 
colony  was  William  Claiborne  (f|.v.),  a  Vir- 
ginian, who  had  esfablislied  ,\  trading  post  on 
Kent  Island  in  Cliesapeake  Bay  in  1031.  He 
refused  to  recognize  the  authority  of  Lord  Balti- 
more. an<l  in  lfi3S  his  settlement  was  captured  by 
Leonard  Calvert  iluring  Claiborne's  al)senee  in 
England,     In   1C43  a  company  of  Puritans,  ex- 


cluded from  Virginia  for  nonconformity,  settled 
at  Providence,  now  Annapolis,  and  put  them- 
selves in  opposition  to  the  Government.  The 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  England  enabled 
Baltimore's  enemies  to  carry  their  opposition  to 
a  great  length.  In  l(i4.T  Captain  Richard  Ingle, 
acting  ostensibly  in  the  name  of  Parliament.  scIzimI 
Saint  Mary's.  Claiborne  also  returned  from  Eng- 
land, regained  possession  of  Kent  Island,  and 
the  Governor  attempted  in  vain  to  dispossess 
him.  For  nearly  two  years  Ingle  held  the  prov- 
ince under  his  sway  until  Governor  Leonard  Cal 
vert  returned  from  Virginia  with  a  military 
force  and  recovered  possession.  As  early  as  Ki.iS 
the  molestation  of  Protestants  had  been  pun- 
ished. In  1040  an  act  was  passed  at  the  desire 
of  the  Proprietor  guaranteeing  freedom  of  wor- 
ship to  all  followers  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  Puri- 
tans continuing  to  be  turbulent,  their  settlement 
by  way  of  conciliation  was  in  lO.iO  erected  into  a 
separate  county,  named  Anne  Arundel,  and  as 
other,  Puritans  arrived  from  England,  Charles 
County  was  shortly  afterwards  organized  for  tluir 
benefit.  Their  numbers  increased  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  soon  had  a  nuijority  in  the  .\ssembly.  In 
10.32  commissioners  from  England  visited  Mary 
land,  among  whom  were  Claiborne  and  Bennett, 
the  Puritan  leader  of  Anne  Arundd  County.  The 
authority  of  the  English  Commonwealth  was 
completely  established  in  the  colony,  and  Kent 
Island  was  given  up  to  Claiborne.  A  commis- 
sion for  the  government  of  the  colony  was  or- 
ganized with  Captain  William  Fuller  at  its 
head.  The  Puritans  made  use  of  their  ascend- 
ency to  repeal  the  Toleration  .\ct  of  1040  and  to 
enaet  penal  laws  against  the  Catholics.  .-\  severe 
con II let  ensued.  Providence  was  attacked  March 
2;'>,  l(\r>'>,  by  the  proprietaiy  party;  but  the  as- 
sault was  repulsed,  the  whole  invading  force 
being  either  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  In  I0.">4 
Lord  Baltimore  made  a  vain  attempt  to  reg-ain 
possession  of  the  province,  but  sucewded  only  in 
defeating  a  scheme  for  uniting  Maryland  to  Vir- 
ginia. Three  years  later  his  title  was  recognized 
by  the  Protector  and  in  10.58  the  proprietary  gov- 
ernment was  restored.  The  period  brfore  the  Revo- 
lution of  10S8  was  marked  by  an  imiMjrlant  treaty 
with  the  Susquehainia  Indians  (1001)  and  some 
dilTiculties  with  William  Penn  concerning  the 
boundary  line  between  the  two  provinces  in  the 
Delaware  country.  Upon  the  deposition  of  .lames 
II.,  the  incompetency  of  the  Governor,  the  failure 
to  proclaim  the  new  monarchs,  an<l  preposterous 
rumors  of  a  Popish  plot  stirred  up  the  people 
and  an  Association  of  the  Protestant  Frccnu-n 
headed  by  Captain  .John  Coode  seized  the  jirov- 
inee in  the  name  of  William  and  Mary.  The 
Legislature  laid  before  the  King  a  list  of  cum- 
plaints  against  the  government  of  Lord  Ralti- 
nuue,  and  in  .\ugust,  1001,  the  Proprietor  was 
deprived  of  his  political  privileges,  though  his 
properly  rights  were  left  intact.  In  17ir>,  how- 
ever, the  province  was  restored  to  the  fifth 
Lord  Baltimore,  a  Protestant.  .-Vt  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century  tobacco  was  the 
staple  product,  rommorce  and  manufactures 
were  greatly  restricted  by  the  Xavigatiou  .\cts. 
There  were  very  few  towns,  Baltimore  being 
foundi'd  as  late  as  1729.  Frederick  in  174.5, 
and  Gei>rgetown  in  17")1.  Prosperity  was  wide- 
ly diffused,  and  the  standard  of  living,  owinj; 
to  the  abundance  of  game  and  fish,  high.     All 


MABYLAND. 


131 


MARYLAND. 


sects  were  toloratcd,  except  the  Catholics,  who 
were  denied  tlie  suffra{;e  and  forbidden  to  wor- 
ship in  ])ublic.  Tlie  Anglican  Church  was  es- 
tablished in  1002.  Four  years  later  a  free  high 
school  was  opened  at  Annapolis.  The  question  of 
the  northern  boundary,  which  after  1730  threat- 
ened to  bring  on  war  with  Pennsylvania,  was 
settled  by  the  drawing  of  the  famous  Mason  and 
Di.Kon's  line    (1703-07). 

JIaryland  took  an  active  part  in  the  wars  re- 
sulting in  the  extinction  of  the  French  domina- 
tion upon  tliis  continent,  and  in  the  last  and 
most  important  of  these  its  western  border  suf- 
fered severely  from  Indian  attacks  owing  to  the 
obstinacy  of  the  Legislature  in  refusing  to  vote 
means  for  defense.  The  colony  was  also  among 
the  iirst  to  oppose  the  aggressions  of  the  Britisli 
Government,  which  led  to  the  War  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  Stamp  Act  was  received  with  great  in- 
dignation and  the  imposition  of  duties  on  tea  was 
responded  to  by  the  burning  of  a  tea  ship  ( 1774 ) . 
In  the  same  year  a  ]iopular  convention  began  to 
direct  tlie  revolutionary  movement.  It  gradually 
assumed  charge  of  tlie  government.  A  bill  of 
rights  and  a  constitution  were  adopted  in  No- 
vember. 1770,  and  the  Legislature  assembled 
at  Annapolis,  February  5,  1777.  Jlaryland  took 
a  most  ellicicnt  and  honoralile  part  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  tliough  it  did  not  join  the  Con- 
federation till  1781,  owing  to  her  claim  that  the 
western  lands  should  belong  to  the  Union.  In 
1783  Congress  met  at  Annapolis,  and  here,  on 
December  23d  after  the  conclusion  of  j:)eace, 
Wasliington  resigned  his  commission  as  general- 
in-cliief.  The  Federal  Constitution  was  adopted 
in  the  Slaryland  convention  April  28,  1788, 
by  a  vote  of  03  to  11.  -Maryland  sufl'ered  con- 
siderably in  the  War  of  1812.  (See  United 
States.)  The  beginning  of  the  w'ar  was  marked 
by  a  tierce  riot  against  a  Federalist  newspaper  of 
Baltimore,  in  which  a  number  of  people  were 
killed.  Havre  de  Grace  and  other  villages  wore 
burned  by  the  English  fleet  in  1813,  Baltimore 
was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  a  British  army, 
and  Fort  jMcllenry  was  bombarded  in  Septem- 
ber, 1814.  An  elaborate  system  of  internal  im- 
provements was  initiated  in  1828,  when  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal  and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad  wi're  begun.  In  1844  the  first 
line  of  electric  telegra])h  in  the  United  States 
was  run  from  Baltimore  to  Washington.  The 
position  of  Maryland  in  the  Civil  War  was  pe- 
culiar. As  a  slave-holding  State  her  sympathies 
were  naturally  to  a  great  extent  with  the  South ; 
but  her  proximity  to  Pennsylvania  made  her 
truly  a  Border  State,  ilany  of  her  people  fa- 
vored secession,  a  large  mimber  entered  the  Con- 
federate Army,  and  in  the  first  days  of  the  war 
the  passage  of  Union  troops  through  Baltimore 
was  opposed,  several  Massachusetts  soldiers  be- 
ing killed  on  April  10,  1801;  but  the  strength  of 
the  Union  party,  added  to  the  efforts  of  the 
Governor,  served  to  keep  the  State  from  seceding. 
Later,  bitter  feelings  were  aroused  by  the  policy 
of  the  General  Government  in  establishing  mili- 
tary rule  and  suspending  the  halieas  cor])us  in  a 
large  part  of  tlie  Stale.  The  adherence  of  Mary- 
land to  the  Union  was  extremely  important  in 
that  it  saved  Washington  from  falling  into  the 
power  of  the  Confederates. 

Railroad    development    was    facilitated    by    a 
system  of  State  and  county  aid.    For  many  years 


the  claims  of  the  State  against  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railroad  for  the  recovery  of  the  subsidy 
granted  the  company  in  1S30  were  fought  in  the 
courts  without  definite  result.  The  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  Canal  was  constructed  as  far  as  Cum- 
berland and  was  profitable  for  some  years,  but 
diversion  of  trallic  niul  danger  from  storms  made 
it  bankrupt.  In  ISGo  the  educational  system, 
antifiuated  and  inellicient,  was  reformed.  The 
in-eseut  system  of  county  boards  was  begun  in 
1808.  The  prevalence  of  corruption  in  city  elec- 
tions led  to  a  revision  of  the  election  laws  ia 
1880,  and  the  adoption  of  the  Australian  ballot 
in  1800.  In  1800  the  bi-partisan  system  of  elec- 
tion boards  was  fully  recognized. 

The  Constitution  of  1776  was  often  amended, 
especially  in  1802,  when  the  jnoperty  qualifica- 
tion for  the  suffrage  was  abolished,  and  in  1837 
the  election  of  the  Governor  was  given  to  the  peo- 
ple. New  constitutions  were  adopted  in  18.')!, 
1804,  and  1807,  the  second  of  which  abolished 
slavery.  Its  electoral  vote  has  been  as  follows: 
1706,  Adams  7,  Jefferson  4;  1800,  Adams  5,  Jef- 
ferson n;  1804,  Pinckney  2,  Jeft'erson  9;  1808, 
Pinckncy  2,  Madison  9;  1812,  Clinton  5.  Madison 
6;  1816,  Monroe  8;  1820,  Monroe  11;  1824,  Jack- 
son 7,  Adams  3,  Crawford  1;  1828,  Adams  0, 
Jackson  5;  1832,  Clay  5,  Jackson  3.  It  went 
Whig  from  1830  to  1848,  Democratic  in  18.52, 
American  Party  (Know-Xothing)  in  18,50,  and 
Democratic  in  1800.  In  1864  it  voted  for  Lin- 
coln, but  from  1808  to  1802  was  Democratic.  In 
1800  and  1000  it  went  Republican.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  the  Governors  of  the  State: 

PROPRIETAEY  GOVERNORS 

Leonard  Calvert 1034-47 

Thomas  Cn^t^iie ltU7-49 

William  stone 164',)-;i4 

Commissioners 1054-58 

Josias  Femlail lOSS-iiO 

Philip  Calvert leOU-lil 

Charles  Calvert  {became  Lord  Baltimore  1G75) lCGl-76 

Cei-iliiis  Calvert 1678 

Tlioinas  .Not ley 1670-79 

Charles,  tliini  Lord   Baltimore 107U-84 

lienediet  Leonard  Calvert  and  C(nincil 1084-88 

William  Joseph  (President  o(  Council) 1CP8-89 

Protestant  .\s8ociators 1689-90 

Neheniiah  Blakistone  and  Committee 1C90-92 

BOYAL  OOT£RNOR8 

Sir  Lionel  Copley 1692- 93 

Sir  Edward  -Vndros 1693-94 

Francis  Nicholson 1094-99 

Nathaniel  Blakistone 1699-I7tn! 

Thomas  Temh  (President  of  Council) 1702-04 

John  Seymour 1704-09 

Edward  Lloyd  (President  of  Council) 1709-14 

John  Hart 1714-13 

PROPRIETARY  GOVERNORS   (RESTORED) 

John  Hart 1715-20 

Charles  Calvert 1720-27 

Benedict  Leonard  Calvert 1727-31 

Samuel  Ople 1731-;i2 

Charles,  ilfth  Lord  Baltimore 1732-33 

Samuel  0)j,le 173ii-42 

Thomas  HIaden 1742-47 

Samuel  Ogle 1747-52 

Benjamin  Tasker 1752-53 

Horatio  Shnrpe .'..1753-69 

Robert  Eden 1709-76 

The  Convention  and  Council  of  Safety 1776-77 

BTiTE 

Thomas  Johnson 1777-79 

Thomas  .Sim  Lee 1779-S2 

William  Paea 1782-05 

William  Small  wood 1785-.S8 

John  E.  Howard 17KS-91 

GeorKe  Plat^T 1791-92 

Thomas  Sim  Lee 1792-94 

John  II.  stone 1794-97 

.lohn  Henrv Democratic-Republican ..1797-98 

Benjamin  Odle Federalist 1798-1801 

John  F.  Mercer Democratic-Uepublican 1801-03 


MARYLAND. 


132 


MARY  MAGDALENE. 


RoBert  Bon-le IiemociatiL-lii-iJUbllcan 1803-06 

Robert  Wright ■'  ■•  lBliti-09 

Edward  Llu.vd •'  "  18U9-11 

Kobert  Bowie "  '•  1811-12 

Levin  Wiuder Federalist 1812-15 

Charles  RiilRely ■'         1815-18 

Cliartea  Gold^borough "         1818-19 

Samuel  Spring Democratic-Republican 1819-22 

Bamuel  Stevens.  Jr.  .        ■•  "  1822-25 

Joseph  Kent "  "  1825-28 

Daulel  Martin Antl- Jackson 18'28-29 

Thoma.s  K.  Carroll Jackson  Democrat 1829-30 

Daniel  Martin Anti-Jackson 1830-31 

George  Howard Whig 1831-33 

James  Thomas "     1833-35 

Thomas  W.  Veasey "     183.")-38 

William  Oi'ason Democrat 18.38-41 

Francis  Thomas "         1841-44 

Thomas  G.  Pratt Whig 1844^7 

riiillp  F.  Thomas Democrat 1847-50 

Enoch  I,.  I.owe "         18r)0-o3 

Thomas  W.  I,lgon •■  1853-58 

Thomas  11.  Hicks American 1858-62 

August  W.  Bradford Unionist 1802-65 

Thomas  Swann Unionist,  later  Democrat 1865-68 

Oden  Bowie Democrat 1868-72 

William  1".  W'h.vte "         1872-74 

James  B.  (Jroome "         1874-76 

John  L.  Carroll "         1876-80 

William  T.  Hamilton "         1880-84 

Robert  M.  McLane "        1884-85 

Henry  Lloyd "        1885  88 

Ellhu  E.  Jackson "        1888-92 

Frank  Brown "         1802-96 

Lloyd   Lowndes Republican 189IW900 

John  W.  Smith Democrat 1900- 

BvBi.iOGn.^PHV.  Man/hnid,  Us  Resources.  In- 
duslries,  and  Institutions  (Biiltiniore,  1S03), 
largely  hy  members  of  .Tolins  Hopkin.s  T'niver- 
sity;  Mari/liind  (leolofiicol  »S'»n-c!/  Ih'ixirts. 
History.  MoSlierry.  History  of  Man/lund  from 
Its  First  Settlement  in  IGS'i  to  the  Yenr  IS-iS 
(Baltimore.  1840)  ;  Bozman,  Hisfori/  of  Mary- 
land. IG.U-nO  (Baltimore.  18.37).  The  mo.st  ex- 
tensive history  is  Scliarf.  History  of  Maryland 
from  the  Earliest  Period  (Baltimore.  1879); 
Browne,  Maryland,  the  Hislo/y  of  a  Palati- 
nate, "Ameriran  Commonwoalth  Series"  (Boston. 
1884)  :  (iambrill,  ,Studies  in  the  Civil,  tiocial. 
and  Ecelesiastieal  History  of  Early  Maryland 
(Xew  York,  18!)3)  :  Thomas,  Chronicles  of  Colo- 
nial Mnr/iland  (Baltimore,  1000)  ;  Mercness, 
Maryland  as  n  Proprietary  Province  (Xew  York. 
1901);  JMcMahon.  Historic  of  Maryland  tc  1T16 
(Baltimore.  18.31)  :  Hall,  Lords  liiillimore  (Bal- 
timore. 100.3):  (Jamhriil.  School  llisloru  of 
Maryland  (Baltimore,  1003).  Tlie  .Toliiis  Hop- 
kins Stuilies  in  Historical  and  Political  Science 
contain  many  useful  monorrraphs.  The  colonial 
Archives  are  hcinj,'  pulilishcd  inuler  the  care  of 
the  JIarylanil  Historical  Society  (twenty  vol- 
umes have  appeared);  Stciner.  institutions  and 
Ciril  CovrrnmenI  of  Maryland  (Boston.  ISOO). 

MARYLAND  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY. 
An  association  founded  in  IS  14  for  tiic  (iiirpose 
of  collectin}.'  and  arranfjing  material  ridating  to 
the  history  of  Maryland.  It  now  owns  the 
AthenaMun  Buildin;;,  on  Saratoga  Sti-cct,  Balti- 
more, in  which  it  has  gathered  a  priceless  collec- 
tion of  manuscripts,  documentary  records,  hooks, 
and  pamphlct.s.  There  are  also  three  galleries 
of  historic  curios,  portraits,  and  valuable  paint- 
ings. The  society  has  done  great  service  in 
rescuing,  editing,  and  printing  historical  data. 
Its  series  of  Tund  Bul)licatii>ns  (37  in  number) 
contaiTi>i  many  valiiabl.'  rrprin(~  and  monographs. 
MARYLAND  YELLOWTHROAT.  A  Xortli 
Aincriejin  warbh-r  {(li olhhii>is  trirhas),  common 
in  sununer  throughout  the  continent.  H  is 
about  ')V-i  inches  long,  olive-green  above  and 
bright  yellow  below,  with  a  conspicuous  broad 


black  band  or  'luask'  across  the  forehead  (of  the 
male),  which  includes  the  bill,  extends  back  to 
a  point  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  is  bordered 
above  by  a  white  line;  the  female  has  only  a 
dull  white  line  above  the  eye.  Tlicse  warblers 
spend  their  time  near  the  ground  and  make  their 


MABYLANn   YELLOWTHUOAT. 

nests  there,  usually  beside  a  stream ;  and  they 
utter  a  short,  questioning  song  as  cliaracleristic 
as  it  is  pretty.  Several  closely  allied  species,  as 
the  Kentucky  warbler  (q.v. ),  mourning.  Con- 
noetiout,  and  ileCIillivray's  warblers,  liclong  to 
this  genus,  and  visit  the  United  States,  while 
several  ntliers  are  found  only  in  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tra! .\nierioa. 

MARYLEBONE,  ma'ri-lf-bon',  commonly 
ma'ril-boii  or  niar'-i-biin.  A  metropolitan  and 
Parliamentary  borough  of  London,  in  the  nort'i- 
Wi'stern  part  of  the  city.  It  is  regularly  laid 
out,  with  many  handsome  streets,  and  here  an' 
situated  Regent's  Park,  the  gardens  of  the  Zoiilog- 
ical  and  Botanic  societies,  the  Colosseum,  Middle- 
.scx  and  otlier  hospitals.  University  College,  and 
the  terminal  stations  of  the  Midland,  tJreat  West- 
ern, and  (ireat  Xorthcrn  railroads.  Population, 
in  l.SOl,  144.083;  in  1001.  133,3-20. 

MARY  MAGDALENE,  mag'di-len,  or  mag'- 
dale'no,  or  J1.\KV  of  AIagdala.  .\  woman  men- 
tioned in  the  (iospels  as  ii  follower  of  .Tcsus 
and,  with  otlieis,  u  contributor  to  His  sup- 
port (Luke  viii.  2-3).  Her  home  was  donli!- 
less  at  Magdala  (q.v.).  She  had  been  cured  of 
demoniacal  possession  by  Jesus  and  was  among 
II is  most  devoted  friends.  With  the  like-minded 
women  she  was  a  witness  of  the  crucifixion 
(Matt.  x.\vii.  5.5.  56;  Mark  xv.  40-41:  Luke 
xxiii.  48-40)  and  of  the  entondmient  of  Jesus 
(Matt,  xxvii.  01  and  parallels).  The  same  com- 
pany came  to  llie  tomb  on  tlie  Sunday  morning 
following  tlie  crucifixion,  and.  finding  ii  open  .'ind 
empty,  ran  back  to  the  city  to  inform  tlu^  disciples 
(Matt,  xxviii.  1-10  and  "parallels) .  But  M;iry 
appears  to  have  soon  returned  alone  to  the  tomb, 
and  to  her  the  risen  .Jesus  first  appeared  (.lohn 
XX.  1-18;  Mark  xvi.  9).  Her  joy  on  hearing  and 
seeing  llim  again  was  excessive,  but  .Tcsus  would 
not  ])(>rmit  her  to  touch  Ilim.  to  show  her  that 
the  relation  between  them  was  now  entirely 
dilTennt  from  wh;\t  it  had  been.  X'otliing  more 
is  t(dd  of  her  in  the  Xew  Totament.  The  very 
common  identification  of  her  with  the  'woman 
who  was  a  sinner'  (Luke  vii.  3ri-,'j0)  rests  on  no 
sure  foundation.  This  idea,  the  ruling  one  in  art 
and  literature,  with  its  accompanying  concep- 
tion of  the  word  'Magdalene.'  has  therefore  no 
basis  in  fact.  .\  late  and  confused  Irsend  rr-pre- 
sentcd  her  as  endimr  her  days  in  Southern  Prance. 
Consult  Mrs.  .Tameson.  Snered  and  Leyendary  ■\rt, 
vol.  ii.  (London.  1800)  ;  Baring-Gould.  In  Trou- 
badour Land   (London.  1890). 


MARY  OF  BURGUNBY. 


133 


MARY  STUART. 


MARY  OF  BUR'GUNDY  (1457-82).  Daugh- 
trr  und  heiress  of  diaries  the  Bold,  Duke  of 
15urguiidy  and  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands, 
born  at  Brussels.  On  the  death  of  Charles  ( 1477) , 
Louis  XL  of  France  advanced  various  claims  to 
the  territories  over  which  that  prince  had  ruled. 
To  defend  herself  jNIary  married  ilaxiniiliau  of 
Austria,  with  wliom  she  lived  happily  for  five 
years,  dying  from  a  fall  from  her  horse.  She 
was  a  woman  of  great  beaut}-,  intelligence,  and 
amiability.  Through  her  the  Netherlands  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg, 
passing  subsequently  through  her  son  Philip  th^ 
Fair  to  her  grandson  Charles  V.   (q.v. ). 

MARY  OF  GUISE,  gwez  (1515-60).  Queen 
of  (Scotland.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Claude, 
Duke  of  Guise,  and  ^Vntoinctte  de  Bourbon,  and 
is  also  Icnown  as  Jlary  of  Lorraine.  At  the  age 
of  nineteen  .she  was  married  to  Louis  d'Orleans, 
Duke  of  Longueville,  who  died  in  1537.  In  1538 
she  married  James  V.  of  Scotland,  who  died  in 
1542,  soon  after  the  announcement  to  him  of  the 
birth  of  a  daughter,  Mary,  afterwards  Queen  of 
Scots.  jMary  of  Guise  was  Regent  of  Scotland 
for  a  short  period,  and  showed  herself  an  enemy 
of  the  party  led  by  Arran  and  an  opponent  of 
the  Reformed  religion.  She  caused  her  daughter 
to  be  sent  to  France  and  plighted  to  the  fu- 
ture Francis  IL,  the  marriage  taking  place  in 
15.58. 

MARY  OF  THE  INCARNATION  (1599- 
1G72).  A  French  educator  in  Canada,  born  at 
Tours.  Her  name  was  Marie  Guyard,  but  she 
was  married  in  her  eighteenth  year  to  M.  JLartin. 
She  was  left  a  widow  with  an  infant  son  before 
she  was  twenty.  She  then  gave  herself  almost 
entirely  to  religious  work.  Finally  she  claimed 
to  have  entered  into  a  mystical  marriage  with  the 
Christ,  and  entered  the  Ursnline  convent  at 
Tours.  In  1G39  she  was  chosen  superior  of  the 
convent  of  Ursulines  established  at  Quebec  by 
Madame  de  la  Peltrie  ( q.v. ) .  Though  a  mystic  and 
a  dreamer,  she  showed  great  executive  ability  and 
managed  the  convent  with  success  until  her  death. 
She  was  tall  and  stately,  and  impressed  all  with 
the  strength  of  lier  personality.  jMany  of  the 
letters  she  wrote  back  to  France  were  collected 
and  pvdilislied  posthumously  under  tlie  title 
Lcttres  dc  la  rciirrahle  mere  Marie  de  Flncania- 
tion  (Paris,  1081).  There  is  also  an  autobiog- 
raphy pre])ared  by  direction  of  her  superiors. 
Consult  also  JIartin  (her  son) ,  La  vie  de  la  vene- 
rahle  mere  ilarie  de  I'lncarnation  (Paris,  1677)  : 
Charlevoix,  Vie  (Paris,  1724)  ;  and  the  Life  by 
Casgrain,  published  in  his  collected  works,  vol. 
iii.    (Montreal.   1886). 

MARYPORT.  A  seaport  and  bathing  resort 
in  Cumberland.  England,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ellen,  25  miles  southwest  of  Carlisle  (Map: 
England.  C  2).  Shipbuilding  and  its  kindred 
branches  are  carried  on  extensively,  and  there  are 
iron  foundries,  saw-mills,  flour-mills,  tanneries, 
breweries,  etc.  A  large  quantify  of  coal  and  coke 
is  shipped,  especially  to  Ireland.  The  town  owns 
gas  and  water  works,  a  slaughter  house,  and 
markets,  and  maintains  an  isolation  hospital. 
Maryport  was  the  seat  of  a  Roman  camp  and 
is  rich  in  antiquities.  It  w\as  called  Ellenfoot 
until  1750,  when  it  received  its  present  name, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
landed  here  in  her  flight  from  Scotland.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1891,  12,400;  in  1901,  11,900. 


MARY  STUART  (1.542-87).  Queen  of  Scot- 
land from  1542  to  1507.  Slie  was  born  December 
7,  or  8,  1542,  at  Linlithgow  Palace,  tlie  daughter 
of  James  V.  of  Scotland  by  Mary  of  Guise.  Her 
father  died  within  a  week  of  her  birth,  and  she 
was  proclaimed  Queen.  The  English  began  nego- 
tiations for  her  betrothal  to  Prince  Edward  (later 
Edward  VI.),  but,  thougli  they  declared  war  to 
enforce  their  demands,  they  were  unable  to  do  so. 
After  the  Scots  were  defeated  at  Pinkie  Cleugh, 
tlie  young  Queen  was  sent  for  greater  security  to 
an  island  in  the  Lake  of  Monteith.  Meanwliile 
negotiations  were  opened  with  France  for  her 
marriage  to  the  Dauphin  (later  Francis  IL),  and 
tiiese  were  satisfactorily  concluded  on  July  7, 
1548,  whereupon  Mary  was  sent  to  France.  At 
the  French  Court  Maj-y  received  a  good  education, 
and  showed  considerable  intelligence.  On  April 
24,  1558,  her  marriage  to  the  Dauphin  took 
place,  and,  contrary  to  the  public  agreements,  she 
bound  herself  secretly,  that,  if  she  died  cliildless, 
her  Scottish  realm  and  her  riglit  of  succession  to 
the  English  throne,  as  great-granddaughter  of 
Henry  VIL.  should  pass  to  France.  In  1559 
her  husband  ascended  the  French  throne,  and 
during  his  reign  of  over  a  year  Mary  exerted 
supreme  influence.  But  the  death  of  Francis  IL, 
on  December  5,  1500,  destro.yed  all  her  plans. 
Catharine  de'  Medici  was  hostile  to  her;  and  so, 
on  August  15,  1501,  after  considerable  negotia- 
tion with  the  great  Protestant  lords  of  Scot- 
land, she  left  France  forever. 

Her  government  began  auspiciously,  and  even 
the  religious  situation  cau.sed  at  first  little  diffi- 
cult.y.  Protestantism  had  received  tlie  sanction 
of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  and  Mary  did  not 
oppose  this  settlement,  stipulating  merely  for 
liberty  to  use  her  own  religion.  Moreover,  she 
surrounded  herself  with  Protestant  advisers, 
her  cliief  minister  being  her  natural  brother, 
James  Stuart,  an  able  and  ambitious  statesman, 
whom  she  soon  created  Earl  of  Mar,  and  a  little 
later  Earl  of  Jlurray  (q.v.) .  Her  chief  difficulties 
w-ere  to  come  to  an  amicable  agreement  W'ith 
Elizabeth  concerning  the  succession  to  the  Eng- 
lish throne.  The  English  Queen,  however,  was 
suspicious  of  ]\Iary,  and  the  question  of  whom 
the  latter  would  marry  complicated  matters  fur- 
ther, Elizabeth  fearing  that  an  alliance  of  the 
Scottish  Queen  with  a  powerful  foreign  prince, 
like  Don  Carlos  of  Spain,  would  endanger  her 
throne.  Contrary  to  the  advice  of  all,  Mary,  on 
July  29,  1565,  married  her  cousin,  Henry  Stuart, 
Lord  Darnley,  who  had  some  claims  to  both  the 
Scottish  and  English  thrones.  The  marriage  was 
not  a  love  match,  but  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that 
Darnley  !iad  considerable  influence  with  the 
English  Catholics,  who  would  thus  aid  Mary  in 
any  plans  she  might  have  to  obtain  the  English 
throne.  On  the  other  hand,  the  marriage  .alien- 
ated tlie  powerful  Protestant  lords  of  Scotland, 
notably  Murray,  who  rose  in  rebellion,  and  it 
made  Elizabeth  more  suspicious  than  ever.  The 
insurrection  of  the  Protestant  lords  was  sup- 
pressed, but  Mary's  eyes  were  soon  opened  to 
the  mistake  of  her  marriage  with  the  utterly 
Avorthless  Darnley.  She  was  disgusted  by  his 
debauchery  and  alarmed  by  his  arrogance  and 
ambition,  which  went  so  far  as  to  prompt  him 
to  demand  that  the  crown  should  be  secured  to 
him  for  life,  and  that  if  the  Queen  died  witliout 
issue.it  should  descend  to  his  heir.  A.scribing 
Mary's  reluctance  to  accede  to  these  demands  to 


MARY  STUART. 


134 


MARYSVILLE. 


the  influence  of  her  contidcntial  adviser,  David 
Rizzio,  an  Italian  of  great  ability,  but  generally 
hated  as  a  foreigner  and  a  Konian  Catholic, 
Uarnley  conspired  with  the  Protestant  nobles  to 
murder  him  and  seize  the  govermnent.  It  was 
stipulated  that  Protestantism  should  remain  the 
recognized  religion.  On  March  !),  1500,  Kizzio 
was  dragged  from  Mary's  su|>perroom  and  assas- 
sinated. Mary  dissembled  her  indignation  at  her 
husband's  treachery,  succeeded  in  lU'taching  him 
from  the  conspirators,  and  persuaded  him  not  only 
to  escape  with  her  from  their  jwwer  by  a  mid- 
night flight  to  Dunbar,  but  also  to  issue  a  procla- 
mation in  which  he  denied  all  complicity  in  their 
designs.  Two  of  the  chief  conspirators,  Huthven 
and  Morton,  lied  to  England,  while  ilurray  and 
the  Queen  became  reconciled.  On  June  1"J,  1566, 
Mary  gave  birth  to  a  son  (later  James  VI.  of 
Scotland  and  James  I.  of  England)  ;  but  soon 
afterwards  she  quarreled  more  than  ever  with 
Darnley,  and  the  latter  thought  of  leaving  the 
country.  Meanwhile  the  (^ueen  showed  more  and 
more  favor  to  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  Bothwell, 
a  needy  ami  pmlligate  noble.  About  January  9, 
1567,  Darnley  fell  ill.  Mary  brought  him  to 
Edinburgh,  and  he  was  lodged  in  a  small  man- 
sion. Here  on  February  0th  the  Queen  visited 
him,  but  left  him  about  10  o'clock  in  the  even- 
ing. Early  the  next  morning  the  house  in  which 
Darnley  slept  was  blown  up,  and  his  lifeless  body 
was  found  in  a  neighboring  garden.  Bothwell 
was  undoubtedly  the  murderer,  and  it  is  a  matter 
of  controversy  whether  or  not  JIary  was  privy  to 
the  deed.  A  mock  trial  was  held,  and  Uothwell 
was  acquitted.  On  April  10th  he  carried  the 
Queen  to  Dunbar,  probably  with  her  full  consent. 
He  divorced  his  young  wife,  Catherine  (Jordon, 
whom  he  had  married  little  more  than  a  year 
before,  and  on  May  15,  1567 — only  three  months 
after  her  husband's  murder — Mary  became  Both- 
well's  wife. 

This  last  indiscretion  of  Mary  arrayed  all  her 
nobles  in  arms  against  her.  She  was  able  to 
lead  an  army  against  them,  but  it  melted  away 
without  striking  a  blow  at  Carberry  Hill,  June 
15,  1567.  She  had  to  abandon  Bothwell  and  sur- 
render herself  to  the  confederated  lords,  who  led 
her  to  Edinburgh,  and  from  there  to  l.oehleven. 
At  the  latter  place  she  was  compelled  on  .luly  24, 

1567,  to  sign  an  act  of  abdication  in  favor  of  her 
son.      Escaping   from    her   island   prison    May   2, 

1568,  Mary  found  herself  in  a  few  days  at  the 
hea'd  of  n  small  ■army,  hut  this  was  defeated 
on  May  13th  by  the  Regent  Murray  at  Langsidc, 
near  (Ilasgow.  Four  days  afterwards,  in  spite  of 
the  entreaties  of  her  best  friends,  Mary  crossed 
the  Solway.  and  threw  herself  on  the  protection 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  only  to  find  herself  a  prisoner 
for  life. 

Mary  was  first  taken  to  Tarlisle.  hut  on  July 
l.T,  1568.  she  was  removed  to  Bolton.  Elizabeth 
demanded  that  there  should  be  an  inquiry  into 
Darnley's  murder.  Mar\'  seems  to  have  held  out 
at  this  time  hopes  of  marriage  to  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  tliere  were  several  attempts  to 
bring  about  a  rising  among  the  Catholics  in 
England  and  Scotland  in  her  favor.  As  a 
result  Norfolk  was  ex<'c\ited.  as  being  implicated, 
on  Tower  Hill.  June  2.  1572.  T'ndoubtediv 
ElizalH'th  would  have  been  glad  to  be  rid  of 
her  danirerous  prisoner,  hut  could  not  on  ae- 
eount  of  her  relations  with  Spain  and  France  at 
the  lime.     Mary  was  moved  from  place  to  place. 


until  in  April,  1585,  she  was  placed  under  the 
care  of  Sir  Amyas  Paulet,  and  here  all  oppor- 
tunity was  given  her  to  become  entangled  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Antony  Babington  (q.v.)  against 
Elizabeth.  For  this  she  was  brought  to  trial, 
and  though  she  denied  all  complicity,  she  was 
found  guilty,  and  beheaded  on  February  8,  1587, 
at  Folheringay  Castle.  She  met  her  fate  with 
great  composure  and  dignity. 

Mary  was  reputed  to  be  the  most  beautiful 
woman  of  her  time,  ller  whole  life  was  dra- 
matic, and  hence  it  has  never  ceased  to  interest 
yoets  and  historians.  She  was  a  woman  of  great 
ability  and  varied  accomplishments.  Her  ])rose 
writings  have  been  collected  by  Prince  Alexander 
Labanoir,  in  his  Rcciicil  des  Icttrcs  de  Marie 
Stuart.  Setting  aside  the  twelve  sonnets  which 
she  is  said  to  have  written  to  Bothwell,  and 
which  survive  only  in  a  French  version  of  an 
English  translation,  no  more  than  si.x  pieces  of 
her  poetry  are  now  known.  They  have  no  remark- 
able merit.  The  best  is  the  poem  of  eleven 
stanzas  on  the  death  of  her  first  husband,  Francis 
II.  The  longest  is  a  Meditation.  All  are  in 
French,  except  one  sonnet,  which  is  in  Italian. 

Innumerable  books  have  been  written  about 
ilary  Stuart.  The  dilVerent  collections  of  Eng- 
lish State  papers  contain  considerable  material, 
as  do  also  the  French  and  Spanish  collections. 
Consult:  Froudc.  History  of  Eitr/ldnd  (London, 
1881):  Robertson,  nis>tory  of  Scotland  During 
the  Rcigtis  of  Queen  Mary  and  King  Jiimcs 
VI.  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1750)  ;  Mignet,  llifiloire  de 
Marie  Stuart  (2  vols.,  Paris.  1851)  ;  Strickland. 
Life  of  Mar;/,  Queen  of  Scots  (2  vols.,  London, 
187.3)  ;  Bresslau,  "Die  Kassettenbriefe  dcr 
Kiinigin  Maria  Stuart,"  in  Ili&torisclics  Taaclirn- 
huch,  6th  series,  vol.  i.  (Leipzig,  1882)  :  Hender- 
son, The  Cnakct  Letters  and  Mary.  Queen  of  Scots 
(Edinburgh,  1880):  Bell,  Life  of  Mary,  Queen 
of  Scots  (2  vols.,  London.  1800)  :  Cowan.  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  Wlio  Wrote  the  Casket  Let- 
ters? (2  vols.,  ib..  mni)  :  Lang.  The  .Mystery  of 
Mary  Stuart    (ib..   1001). 

MARY  SUMMER.  The  p.seudonym  of  the 
French  author  Marie  Filon  Foueaux  (q.v.). 

MA'RYSVILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Yuba  County.  Cal..  52  miles  north  of  Sacra- 
mento; at  the  junction  of  the  Yviba  and  the 
Feather  rivers:  and  on  the  Southern  Pacific  and 
the  Northern  California  railroads  (^lap:  Cali- 
fornia, C  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  the  College  of 
Xotre  Dame  (Roman  Catholic),  and  has  a  pub- 
lic library  which  occupies  a  fine  building,  a  hand- 
some rourlhouse  and  eity  hall:  also  three  parks 
and  two  bridges.  The  eity  is  in  an  agricultural 
anil  mining  region,  and  is  the  centre  of  large 
grain,  fruit,  and  live  stock  interests.  There  are 
tlour  and  woolen  mills,  fruit  drying  and  canning 
works,  and  olive  oil  and  cigar  factories.  The 
government,  under  a  charter  of  1876.  is  admin- 
istered by  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  uni- 
cameral coimeil.  elected  at  large,  though  repre- 
senting the  eitv  wards.  Population,  in  1890, 
3991  :   in   1000,  .3497. 

Jfar^-sville.  built  on  the  site  of  a  trading  post 
called  New  Mecklenburg,  was  founded  in  1849 
by  Charles  Covillaml.  a  Frenchman,  and  was 
called  YubavlUe  until  1.850,  when  it  received  its 
present  name.  Tn  1851  Marvsville  was  cliartercd 
as  a  eity:  in  1852  it  had  4.500  inhabitants,  and 
in  1855  8000;  and  in  1860,  when  it  began  to  de- 


MARYSVILLE. 


133 


MASAI. 


«line,  it  had  become  the  third  city  in  size  in  the 
State. 

MARYSVILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Marshall  County,  Kan",  113  miles  west  of 
Saiul  Joseph,  Mo.  ;'on  the  Big  Blue  Kiver,  and 
on  the  Union  Pacific  and  the  Saint  Joseph  and 
Grand  Island  railroads  (ilap:  ICansas,  F  2). 
It  has  good  water  power,  and  tliere  are  manufac- 
tures of  Hour,  foundry  and  machine-shop  prod- 
ucts, cigars,  etc.  Population,  in  1890,  1913;  in 
1900,  2000. 

MARYSVILLE.  A  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Union  County,  Ohio,  28  miles  northwest 
of  Columbus;  on  ilill  Creek,  ami  at  tlie  junction 
of  the  Toledo  and  Ohio  Central  and  the  Cleve- 
land, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  rail- 
roads (Map:  Ohio,  D  5).  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  farming  country  and  has  some  manufactures. 
There  are  a  public  school  library,  and  a  sub- 
scription library  maintained  b\'  the  Lilu'ary  and 
Reading  Room  Association.  Population,  in  1890, 
2810;   in   1900,   3048. 

MA'EYVILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Nodaway  County,  Mo.,  45  miles  north  of  Saint 
Joseph;"  on  the  Kansas  City,  Saint  Joseph  and 
Council  Bluffs  (Burlington  Roiite)  and  the 
Omaha  and  Saint  Louis  railroads  (Map;  Jlis- 
souri.  B  1).  It  has  Maryville  Seminary.  Among 
tlie  industrial  establishments  are  (lour  and  feed 
mills,  brick  and  tile  works,  a  grain  elevator, 
firandry,  carriage  works,  and  lumber  mill.  A 
large  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  hogs  is  carried 
on.'   Population,  in  1890,  4037;  in  1900,  4577. 

MARYVILLE.  A  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Blount  County,  Tenn.,  16  miles  south  of 
Knoxville ;  on  the  Knoxville  and  Augusta  Rail- 
road (ilap:  Tennessee,  H  5).  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  farming  covintry,  and  has  flour,  woolen,  and 
planing  mills.  The  village  possesses  a  fine  court- 
iiouse,  a  normal  school,  and  Freedmen's  Normal 
Institute  (Friends),  and  is  the  seat  of  Maryville 
College  (Presbyterian),  which  was  founded  here 
in  1819,  Mary\'ille  having  Ijeen  settled  as  early 
at  1795.  Population,  in  1890,  1086;  in  1900, 
over  2000. 

MARZIALS,  m;ir'z5-olz,  Fr.  pron.  miir'ze'al', 
TuKoriiiLE  Julius  Hekry  (1850—).  An  Eng- 
lish poet  and  composer,  born  in  Brussels.  His 
father  was  a  Frenchman ;  his  mother,  a  York- 
sliirc  woman.  He  passed  his  boyhood  in  Brussels 
and  in  Switzerland.  In  1870  he  obtained  a  posi- 
tion in  the  musical  department  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum, and  was  subsequently  employed  to  cata- 
logue the  Neo-Hellenic  and  Provencal  books.  In 
1872  he  published  for  private  circulation  a  pas- 
toral called  tlie  Passionate  Doirsiihelhi,  repub- 
lished the  next  year  in  A  Gallon/  of  Firieons,  and 
Other  Poems,.  The  volume,  showing  some  pre- 
Raphaelite  influence,  contains  poems  of  striking 
beauty.  Afterwards  he  composed,  with  their 
music,  many  delightful  songs.  His  ballads  in  Old 
English  style  have  been  especially  popular  in 
Kngland  and  elsewhere.  In  1882  appeared  Old 
Sonfis,  Arranged  roith  Accompaniments. 

MASACCIO,  nia-sat'cho.  properly  ToMMASo 
CriDi  (1401  28).  A  Florentine  painter  of  the 
e;irly  Renaissance.  He  was  born  at  Castello 
San  fJiovanni.  in  the  Vaf  d'.\rno,  on  December 
21,  1401.  His  slovenly  and  disorderly  habits 
gained  for  him  the  nickname  of  Masaccio.  From 
his  j-outh  he   showed  an  extraordinary  natural 


ability,  wliich  when  develoi)ed  by  continual  study 
and  the  training  of  Uouatello,  Brunelleschi,  and 
especially  Ghibcrti,  made  possible  fm-  him  au 
excellence  in  style  and  execution  previously  nnat- 
tained  by  the  painters  of  Italy.  He  entered  the 
guild  of  the  Speziali  iu  1421  and  was  enrolled  in 
the  guild  of  the  Painters  in  1424.  lie  worked  in 
Pisa  and  Florence,  and  in  1420  produced  the 
frescoes  in  San  Clemente,  Rome.  The  return  of 
the  Medici  from  exile  iu  1420  made  it  profitable 
for  him  to  take  up  his  work  again  in  Florence. 
The  next  eight  years  were  spent  in  painting 
frescoes  in  the  Braneacci  Cliapel,  Florence,  ujion 
which  our  knowledge  of  his  art  and  style  is 
based.  Of  the  series  in  the  chapel  Masaccio 
painted  seven,  viz.:  "The  Expulsion  from  Para- 
dise," ''The  Tribute  Money,"  "The  Resuscitation 
of  the  King's  Son"  (finished  by  Filii)pino  Lippi), 
"Saint  Peter  'in  Cathedra,'  "  ""Saint  Peter  Bap- 
tizing," "Peter  Almsgiving,"  and  "Peter  and 
John  Healing  the  Sick." 

The  art  of  Masaccio,  w'hile  showing  the  influence 
of  the  religious  idealist  Angelico,  and  continuing 
the  intellectual  and  humanistic  traditions  of 
Giotto  and  Gaddi.  was  essentially  individual. 
He  was  preeminently  indebted  to  Ghiberti  for  the 
stimulus  that  really  determined  his  artistic  char- 
acter. Ghiberti  had  successfully  worked  out  in 
pictorial  relief  many  of  the  in-oblems  toward 
whose  solution  the  fourteenth-century  masters 
had  been  groping.  The  solution  of  these  problems 
in  values,  perspective,  and  movement  Masaccio 
instinctively  transferred  to  painting — a  process, 
unconscious,  perhaps,  that  made  possible  the  art 
of  Leonardo,  Michelangelo,  and  Raphael,  and 
marks  an  era  in  the  history  of  the  world's  paint- 
ing. In  these  paintings  the  master  has  been 
able,  through  the  elimination  of  irrelevant  de- 
tail and  a  portrayal  of  the  significant,  to  present 
for  the  first  time  artistic  reality.  The  chapel 
thus  decorated  formed  a  veritable  school  where 
the  master  naturalists  of  Florence  drew  nnich 
of  their  inspiration.  Masaccio  painted  a  fresco 
of  the  "Trinity"  in  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Flor- 
ence, and  an  altar-piece  for  the  Church  of  the 
Carmine  in  Pisa,  part  of  which  is  now  in  the 
Berlin  jNIuseum,  which  also  possesses  the  "Con- 
finement of  a  Florentine  Lady"  attributed  to 
him.  To  avoid  financial  troubles,  it  is  supposed, 
the  painter.left  Florence  for  Rome  in  1427,  where 
he  disappeared.  The  only  record  of  his  end  was 
the  legend  on  Masaccio's  tax  record  of  1428, 
"Dicesi  6  morto   in  Roma." 

Bibliography.  Vasari,  Vite,  ed.  Milanesi 
(Florence,  1878;  Eng.  trans,  b^y  Blashfleld  and 
Hopkins;  New  York.  1890)  ;  Crowe  and  Caval- 
casellc.  nistorji  of  Paintincj  in  Itahj  (London, 
1860)  :  Knudtzon,  Masaccio  or/  den  fiorcntinske 
malcrkonst  (Copenhagen,  1875)  ;  Delaborde,  JjC.t 
ceuvres  et  la  maniere  de  Masaccio  (Paris,  1876)  ; 
Woltmann,  in  Dohme.  Ktinst  uiid  Kiinstler 
Italiens  (Leipzig.  1877)  ;  Schmarsow,  Masaccio- 
f!liidien[Casse\,  189;')),  the  most  complete  modern 
treatise.  For  reproductions  of  the  Braneacci 
frescoes,  see  the  publicalions  of  the  Arundel  So- 
ciety, with  text  by  Layard   (London,  1868). 

MASAI,  ma'sl.  A  mixed  Ethiopian-NcHro 
people  in  British  East  Africa,  east  of  Lake  Vic- 
toria, belonging  to  the  Niam-Niam  or  Zandeh 
group.  They  are  divided  into  the  nomad  jMasai 
or  11  Oikob.  and  the  settled  Masai  or  Wa  Kwafi, 
the  latter  having  been  forced  to  become  agricul- 
turists,  both   on   account   of   the    plague   which 


MASAI. 


13C 


MASBATE. 


destroyed  their  iuimeose  herds  of  cattle,  and  the 
intertribal  warfare  that  drove  them  into  the  ter- 
ritory of  nun-.Masai  tribes.  The  II  Oikob,  or 
'Freemen,'  are  typical  ilasai  and  arc  of  magnifi- 
cent phj'sique.  not  one  of  the  warrior  class  being 
under  si.x  feet  in  height.  Their  complexion  is 
chocolate,  their  hair  frizzly,  and  their  ejes  slight- 
ly oblique.  The  pure  blooded  tribes  have  good 
features,  and,  barring  tlieir  color,  would  jmss  for 
Europeans,  while  among  other  tribes  the  coarse 
negro  features  are  ob.servcd.  Each  tribe  is  no- 
madic within  certain  well-marked  boundaries 
and  the  subdivisions  are  named  from  tlieir  geo- 
graphical location.  Their  villag<>s.  set  in  a  circle 
in  which  the  cattle  are  herded,  consist  of  huts 
of  bent  boughs  plastered  with  cow  dung,  with 
flat  roofs.  Encircling  the  village  is  a  strong 
boma  or  thorn  fence.  They  practice  no  arts, 
their  weapons  and  utensils  being  ])rocured  by 
barter  or  from  a  subject  tribe  called  Andorobbo 
living  among  them.  The  country  is  elevated 
and  the  climate  temperate,  so  that  the  ilasai 
wear  more  clothing  than  the  tribes  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  Africa.  The  women  adorn  themselves 
with  a  profusion  of  strings  of  beads  and  circlets 
of  iron  and  brass.  They  wear  the  rudiments  of  a 
dress  consisting  of  a  small  apron  in  front  and  a 
larger  at  the  back.  The  men  have  an  ujiper 
garment  of  tanned  skin,  a  length  of  cloth  fas- 
tened at  the  neck  and  hanging  down  the  back, 
armlets  of  ivory  or  horn,  ornaments  of  slender 
iron  chain,  and  a  waist  cloth.  The  hair  is 
gathered  into  a  .sort  of  chignon  which  hangs  be- 
low the  shoulder  blades.  The  ear  lobes  are 
enormously  distended  by  ornament. 

The  Masai  are  divided  into  a  nundier  of  clans, 
the  synd)ol  of  which  the  warriors  ])aint  on  their 
shields.  The  people  are  divided  into  married 
men,  living  in  the  villages,  and  warriors,  living 
in  the  camps.  The  latter  youths  are  set  apart 
by  the  rite  of  circumcision  on  reaching  puberty, 
occupy  separate  quarters,  and  are  attended  by 
the  unmarried  women.  A  diet  of  meat  and  milk 
is  allowed  them,  but  only  one  of  these  must  be 
eaten  at  a  time,  and  between  the  periods  a 
purgative  treatment  is  required.  Hefore  going  on 
their  raids  they  gorge  themselves  with  blood  and 
meat.  The  warrior's  costume  consists  of  an 
oval  headdress  of  ostrich  feathers  encircling  the 
face,  a  shoulder  cape  of  v\ilture  feathers,  a  belt 
and  anklets  of  colobus  monkey  skin.  Their 
weapons  are  a  long-blailed  assagai,  a  short  sword 
and  club,  and  an  oval  shield  of  buffalo  hide. 
After  serving  his  time  the  warrior  settles  down 
to  married  life,  and  then  varies  his  flesh  diet  with 
vegetable  food  purchased  from  agricultural 
tribes.  The  Masai  are  dignilied,  self-contained, 
and  intellectually  capable,  and  their  skill  in 
oratory  is  of  a  high  order.  They  jiractice  no 
form  of  b\irial,  the  bodies  of  the  deaci  lieing  cast 
out  to  be  devoured  by  hyenas.  Prayers  and  of- 
ferings of  grass  dipped  in  cream  are  made  to  a 
sup<'rior  deity;  grass  is  also  an  otTering  to  ward 
ofT  evil.  They  believe  in  witchcraft  and  maintain 
shamans.  Consult  Thomson,  Throuqh  Mnsai 
l.niiil   (T.ondnn,   1HS.5). 

MASANIELLO,  mii'sft-nyel'lA.  iimpcrly  Tom- 
.MA.so  .\mei.io  (c.iri2.'?--J7).  .\  fisherman  of 
.Xninlti.  leader  of  the  revolt  which  took  place  in 
Naples  in  1047  against  the  Spanish  Viceroy,  the 
Diiko  of  .\rcos.  The  people  hail  lieen  exasperated 
by  oppression,  and  great  excitement  had  been  pro- 
duced by  n   new  tax  laid  upon  fruit,  the  chief 


sustenance  of  the  poor.  Masaniello  himself  was 
indignant  at  the  rude  treatment  which  his  wife 
had  received  when  she  was  detected  in  the  at- 
tem|)t  to  sMUiggle  a  little  tlour.  On  .July  7, 
11)47,  the  custom-house  officers  were  assaulted 
in  the  market  jilace  by  the  infuriated  people, 
ilasaniello  was  chosen  captain,  and  the  houses 
of  the  tax  farmers  were  sacked.  The  Governor 
fled  to  the  castle,  and  Masaniello  became  mas- 
ter of  the  city,  dispensing  justice  and  punishing 
severely  all  atlemjits  at  brigandage.  On  .July 
l.'ith,  in  the  Church  of  the  Carmelites,  the  Vice- 
roy agreed  to  restore  the  ancient  rights  of  the 
Xeapolitans  and  to  remove  the  ojjpressive  taxes. 
The  events  of  the  week  unbalanced  Jlasaniello's 
mind;  he  became  savage,  cruel,  and  irresponsible. 
The  people  lost  faith  in  him  because  of  his  com- 
promise with  the  Viceroy;  his  lieutenants  weri' 
seduced  by  the  Government,  and  he  himself  was 
arrested,  and  on  .July  ICth  four  hired  assassins 
nuirdered  the  fisherman  in  prison.  Aulter  used 
the  story  of  his  life  in  Ln  muctte  de  Portici. 
Consult  Saavedra,  Inxurecciun  de  Xapoli  en  IGp 
(Madrid,    1849). 

MASAYA,  niA-sa'yi'i.  A  town  of  Nicaragua. 
15  miles  southeast  of  Managua,  and  10  miles 
from  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  near 
the  volcano  of  Masaya — a  broad,  low  mountain, 
about  3000  feet  high  (ilap:  Central  America, 
Do).  The  town  stands  in  the  centre  of  a  fertile 
tobacco-growing  district,  and  is  connected  by 
railway  with  Granada  and  -Managua.  Popula- 
tion,  18,000,   largely  native   Indians. 

MASBATE,  mas-bii'ta.  One  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  fornnng  with  its  dependent  islands 
a  separate  province.  It  is  situated  nearly  in 
the  centre  of  the  archipelago  about  30  miles 
south  of  the  southeastern  end  of  Luzon  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  H  7).  It  is  of  elongated 
shape,  mea.suring  82  miles  from  northwest  to 
southeast,  with  an  average  width  of  l.">  milc~; 
from  the  nortliwestern  coast  a  triangular  pen- 
insula extends  24  miles  southwestwaril.  at  riglil 
angles  to  the  main  body,  and  forming  the  largv' 
Hay  or  Bight  of  Asid.  The  area  of  the  main 
land  is  1230  square  miles,  and  of  the  f)7  de 
jicndent  islands  ,")01,  making  the  total  area  of 
the  province  1731  square  miles.  Of  the  depend- 
ent islands  two  are  of  considerable  size,  namely 
Hurias,  2,'>8,  and  Tieao.  140  square  miles,  both 
lying  between  Masbate  and  Luzon.  Though  no- 
where rising  over  2000  feet  in  elevation,  the  isl- 
and is  very  mountainous:  a  principal  chain 
sending  out  a  nundier  of  spurs  extends  in  a  semi- 
circle  from  the  southeast  to  the  southwestern  end. 
Owing  to  the  shape  of  the  island  and  its  moun- 
tain range,  the  rivers  are  all  very  short.  The 
shores  arc  covered  with  mangrove,  and  there  are 
extensive  forests  in  the  interior.  The  climate  is 
subject  to  frequent  and  s\idden  changes,  and  the 
island  is  exposed  to  all  the  typhoons  that  occur 
in  the  Philippines. 

The  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
is  lumbering  and  the  extraction  of  forest  prod- 
ucts. Before  the  Spanish-.Vmeriean  War  cattle- 
raising  was  also  very  important,  and  1000  head 
of  cattle  were  exported  monthly.  In  the  last 
few  years,  however,  great  havoc  has  been  made 
by  the  rinderpest.  Fi'jhery  is  also  carried  on  to 
a  great  extent,  but  agriculture  is  in  a  backward 
state,  the  crops  of  rice  being  insufTicient  for  home 
needs.      The    principal   manufactures   are   sugar 


MASBATE. 


137 


MASCAET. 


sacks  and  palm  mats,  the  latter  beinf;  nntod  for 
their  excellent  workmanship  and  durability  of 
colors.  The  commerce  is  considerable,  as  JIasbate 
lies  not  only  opposite  the  Strait  of  San  Bernar- 
dino, one  of  the  two  main  eastern  entrances  to 
the  archipelago,  but  also  in  the  direct  route  from 
Manila  to  Samar  and  Leyte.  There  are  several 
excellent  land-locked  harbors.  The  population  of 
the  whole  Province  of  Masbate  was  in  1001  esti- 
mated at  23,000,  of  whom  about  5000  were  in  the 
dependent  islands.  The  predominant  races  are 
Vfcols  and  Visayans.  The  Vicol  and  Visayan, 
with  Ta-ialog,  are  the  principal  languages  spoken. 
There  is  no  large  town  on  the  island ;  the  capital 
is  Masbate,  situated  on  the  nortliern  coast;  it  is 
a  port  of  entry  with  a  good  harbor,  a  post-office, 
and  a  population  of  2.345. 

Perfect  peace  prevailed  in  the  island  before  the 
end  of  the  year  1900,  and  the  inhabitants  showed 
great  eagerness  to  have  civil  government  estab- 
lished, which  was  done  on  March  18,  1901. 

MASCAGNI,  maskii'nye,  PlETRO  (1803—). 
An  Italian  composer.  He  was  born  at  Leghorn, 
of  humble  parentage,  and  his  father  ( who  was  a 
baker)  planned  for  him  a  career  as  a  lawyer. 
Unknown  to  his  father,  the  boy  began  to  study 
music  with  SolTrediiii,  and  subsequently  his  uncle 
furnished  him  with  the  means  to  continue  his 
studies.  He  was  an  especially  apt  pupil  in  com- 
position, and  in  1879  wrote  a  symphony  in  C 
minor.  A  cantata.  La  Filanda  (1881),  and  a  set- 
ting to  Schiller's  An  die  Freude  { 1881 ) ,  both  met 
with  considerable  success.  It  was  an  admirer  of 
I.n  FihitHla.  a  rich  Italian  nobleman,  who  came 
forward  and  furnished  the  composer  with  the 
means  to  continue  his  studies  at  the  Milan  Con- 
servatory, where  he  worked  for  a  little  while, 
under  Ponehielli  and  Saladino,  but  suddenly  broke 
off  his  studies  to  make  a  tour  with  an  operatic 
troupe.  For  a  few  years  he  made  a  preca- 
rious livelihood  by  teaching,  until  one  day  he 
read  of  the  Milan  publisher  Sonzogno's  announce- 
ment that  he  would  give  three  prizes  for  the 
three  best  one-act  operas  to  be  performed  in 
Kome.  He  immediately  set  to  work,  and  taking 
the  libretto  furnished  by  two  of  his  friends,  Sig- 
nori  Targioni-Tozzetti  and  ^Menasci,  for  liis  text, 
he  submitted  their  joint  effort  in  tlic  form  of  the 
since  famous  Cavalleria  RuS'ticana  (1S90).  a 
story  based  on  a  Sicilian  tale  by  Giovanni  Verga. 
Ma.scagni  was  awarded  first  prize,  and  the  tre- 
mendous success  which  greeted  the  public  presen- 
tation of  his  work  raised  him  from  utter  obscur- 
ity to  the  height  of  fame.  Taking  advantage  of 
his  success,  he  hurriedly  and  prematurely  pre- 
sented L'Amico  Fritz  (1891),  the  text  nf'which 
was  based  upon  the  popular  Erckmann-Cliatrian 
story:  but.  like  /  Raiitzau  (1892),  it  met  with 
indifTerent  success.  His  subsequent  work's  met 
with  varying  degrees  of  favor,  none  of  them  ap- 
proaching his  first  work,  either  in  popularity  or 
sustained  merit.  His  entire  career  was  so  over- 
shadowed by  the  extraordinary  success  of  his  first 
opera  that  critical  opinion  everywhere  is  divided 
as  to  whether  his  later  works  have  received  their 
just  deserts.  The  libretto  of  Cnrallcrin  Rusti- 
cuna  undoubtedly  contributed  much  to  the  opera's 
success,  but  the  music  also  is  of  a  high  order.  In 
18fl5  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Rossini 
Oonservatorv  at  Pesaro.  He  made  several  tours 
in  European  countries,  and  in  1902  was  per- 
siiadod  to  make  a  tour  of  America ;  but  his  ig- 
norance of  conditions  in  the  New  World,  together 


with  the  bad  management  of  the  tour,  consider- 
aljly  limited  the  success  he  was  justified  in  ex- 
pecting. His  works  ai'e  representative  of  the 
modern  Italian  school.  Thev  include:  (liKilielmo 
RfitcJiff  (1895):  Zanvtto  ("1890);  Iris  (1898); 
and  several  smaller  compositions. 

MASCARA,  mas-kii'ra,  Fr.  pron.  mas'ka'ra'. 
The  capital  of  an  arrondisscmcnt  and  a  fortified 
town  in  the  Province  of  Oran,  Algeria,  45  miles 
southeast  of  Oran,  on  the  slope  of  the  Atlas 
ilountains  (Map:  Africa,  D  I).  Mascara  stands 
on  the  site  of  a  Roman  colony  and  is  inclosed 
by  walls  t\vo  miles  in  length.  In  1832  it  be- 
came the  residence  of  Abdel-Kader,  who  was  born 
in  the  neighborhood.  It  was  burned  by  the 
French  in  l835,  afterwards  regained  by  Abd-el- 
Kader,  and  finally  taken  by  the  Frcncli  in  1841, 
since  when  it  has  developed  into  an  important 
trading  centre.     Population,  in  1901.  20.!MI2. 

MASCARENE  (miis'ka-ren')  ISLANDS. 
The  collective  name  given  to  the  islands  of  Ri^- 
union,  Mauritius  ( qq.v. ) ,  and  Rodriguez,  situated 
east  of  ^Madagascar. 

MASCARILLB,  ma'ska'rJl'.  A  type  of  valet 
distinguished  for  elTrontery,  intrigue,  and  im- 
pudence, immortalized  by  Molifere  in  L'ctoiirdi, 
Les  prccieusef:  ridicules,  and  Le  dtpit  amoureux. 

MASCARON,  ma'skiVroN',  .Tules  (1634- 
1703).  A  French  prelate  and  Court  preacher. 
He  was  born  at  Marseilles.  He  was  intended  for 
the  law,  but  preferred  the  Church,  and  entered 
the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory.  He  began 
preaching  in  1663,  and  soon  attracted  attention, 
and  wherever  he  went  in  the  provincial  town.s — 
as  Angers.  Saumur,  Marseilles,  and  Nantes — 
large  audiences,  representing  various  classes,  and 
even  the  learned,  thronged  to  hear  him.  In  1666 
he  was  called  to  the  Court,  where  his  reputation 
continued  to  increase.  He  gained  and  lu'ld 
the  favor  of  King  Louis  XIV.  notwithstanding 
his  unsparing  denunciation  of  fashionable  and 
even  royal  sins.  He  was  made  Bishop  nf  Tulle 
in  1671,  and  was  transferred  thence  in  1679  to 
Agen :  but  still  continued  to  jircacli  before  the 
Court.  The  most  famous  of  his  orations  was 
that  on  Marshal  Turenne.  Other  orations  which 
have  been  much  admired  are  those  on  Chancellor 
Si'-guier,  Queen  Henrietta  of  England,  and  the 
Duke  of  Beaufort.  A  collection  of  his  sermons 
and  orations,  edited  by  Father  Borde,  a  member 
of  his  congregation,  was  iiublished  in  1740.  His 
sermons  may  also  be  found  in  a  collection  of 
funeral  orations  by  Bossuet,  FU'ehier,  and  Mas- 
caron  (Paris,  1734).  (Euvres  de  Mascaron  ap- 
]icarcd  in  Paris  in  1828. 

MASCART,  ma'skiir',  Eleutiii^re  Elie  Nico- 
l,.\.s  (1837—).  A  French  physicist,  born  at  Qua- 
rouble,  Nord.  He  was  educated  at  the  Ecole 
Xormale  Superieure.  He  succeeded  Regnault 
at  the  College  de  France,  becoming  professor 
in  that  institution  in  1872.  In  1878  he  was 
made  director  of  the  Government  Central  Meteor- 
ological Bureau  and  he  has  also  been  a  member 
of  the  International  Bureau  of  \Yeights  and 
Measures,  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1884.  taking  the  place  of  Jamin, 
and  has  been  honored  with  (he  various  decora- 
tions of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  being  made  a  com- 
mander in  1889.  ^Mascart  has  conducted  a  num- 
ber of  important  investigations  of  the  ultra-violet 
rays  and  of  atmospheric  electricity.  He  is  the 
author  of  Elements  de  mecaiiique  (1866)  ;  Traiti 


MASCART. 


138 


MASHONALAND. 


d'dlectriciU  statique  (187C);  Lemons  s-ur  l'6lec- 
tricilv  t'(  Ic  maynetisino,  in  collaboration  with 
Joubert  (188-2)  ;  volume  ii.  of  Mcthodcs  de  me- 
sures  et  appliciUions    (1888);   and   Traitc  d'op- 

li(Hic    (ISSD). 

MASCLE,  mus'k'l  (OF.  muscle,  made,  Fr. 
made,  fiuiu  Lat.  macula,  spot).  A  heraldic  bear- 
ing, in  the  form  of  a  lozenge  pierced  in  the  cen- 
tre.    Sei'  IIekalury. 

MASCOUTEN  (from  Mashkodahisuy,  little 
jirairie  people).  An  Algonqiiian  people  of  the 
Illinois  River  concerning  wlioni  there  has  been 
much  controversy.  From  a  misinterpretation  of 
their  Algonquian  name  they  were  known  to  the 
Hurons,  and  hence  to  the  French,  as  the  'Fire 
Nation'  (Salion  du  Feu).  Jluch  of  the  confu- 
sion in  relation  to  the  name  arises  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  apparently  used  in  a  general  as  well 
as  a  speeilic  sense  and  applied  without  warrant 
to  more  than  one  Algonquian  band  of  the  Illinois 
and  Wabash  prairies.  According  to  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  Ojibwa  and  Ottawa  they  drove  the 
ilascouten  froiii  the  neiglibrnhood  of  what  is  now 
JIackinaw,  and  forced  them  to  retire  to  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  earliest 
French  missionaries  heard  of  them  as  a  strong 
tribe  living  in  southern  Michigan,  with  whom 
the  .\e\itrals  and  Ottawa  were  constantly  at  war. 
About  1675  the  French  explorers  found  them  in 
southern  Wisconsin  in  close  alliance  with  the 
Miami  and  l-Cickapoo.  In  1712  they  joined  tlie 
Foxes  and  Kickapoo  against  the  French,  but  suf- 
fered terrible  reverses,  losing  150  in  a  single 
encounter.  In  the  same  year  the  Potawatomi 
and  other  Northern  tril)es  made  a  concerted  de- 
scent upon  the  Mascoulcn  and  Foxes  and  killed 
or  look  captive  one  thousand  of  them,  pursuing 
the  survivors  as  far  as  Detroit.  The  power  of 
the  Foxes  was  completely  broken  by  this  war 
with  the  French  and  their  allies,  and  the  Jlas- 
couten  were  so  far  reduced  that  in  17.^6  they 
were  said  to  number  but  00  warriors,  living  then 
with  the  Kickapoo  in  southern  Wisconsin.  In 
1705  tliey  are  again  mention<'(l  with  the  Kicka- 
poo, thistime  near  the  Wabash  Kiver.  They  are 
last  delinitely  mentioned  in  1770,  living  upon 
the  Wabash  River  in  alliance  with  the  Kickapoo 
and  I'iankishaw.  The  'Prairie  band'  of  Potawa- 
tomi, now  residing  in  Kansas,  is  known  to  the 
tribe  at  large  under  the  same  name  of  Mnsh- 
h'nihiiii.siif/. 

MASCOV,  miis'kif,  .Johann  Jakom  (1GS9- 
17G1).  A  German  publicist  and  historian,  born 
at  Danzig.  He  studied  theology  and  law 
at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  where  he  was 
afterwards  appointed  professor  of  law  and 
liistory.  Of  his  publications,  the  following 
iire  considered  of  great  merit:  Principia  Jiiria 
I'lililiti  Imperii  Uomano-dermaniei  (1720;  fith 
cd.  1700),  which  for  a  lone  time  remained  a 
nindcl  textbook  in  many  universities;  and  Oc- 
xrhirhte  drr  D'u I ■■<rhen  bin  cinii  Ahfianfj  dor  mero- 
irinrii.irhrn  h'iinim'  (1720-37).  a  very  valuable 
viiluiiic-  fnr  tlie  larly  bi-tory  of  Prussia. 

MAS-D'AZII.,  ma'da 'zi'-l'.  An  areha>olngical 
grotto  in  the  Department  of  Ari^ge,  France, 
yielding  relics  especially  of  the  latest  I'alenlithie 
period.  Regnault  discovered  in  the  grotto  of 
Massat  in  the  same  region  forms  similar  to  those 
found  bv  Piette.  Consult  .Mortillet,  Lc  prt'hi.ito- 
rif/iie  (Paris,  1001). 


MASERES,  nuVzar',  Francis  (1731-1824). 
An  Lngli.sh  mathciualician,  born  in  London  of  a 
French  family.  He  was  educated  at  C'lare  t^ol- 
lege,  Cambridge,  obtained  a  fellowship  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  This  led  to  his  being 
appointed  Attorncy-Cieneral  for  Canada,  and  he 
lived  in  Quebec  un'til  1773.  He  published:  I'riii- 
ciples  of  the  Doctrine  of  Life  Anmiilics;  (S'cn;i- 
torcx  Loyarithmici  { 1791-1807)  ;  Scriptores  Optiri 
(1823);  besides  Select  Tracts  on  Civil  Wars  in 
the  Reign  of  Charles  I.  (1815). 

MASH'AM,  AiuGAiL.  Lady  (1070-1734).  .\ 
friend  and  conlidante  of  Queen  Anne  of  England. 
She  was  born  in  London,  the  daughter  of  l-'ramU 
Hill,  a  merchant,  and  his  wife  Mary  Jennings,  nii 
aunt  of  the  Duchess  of  :Marlbor(nigh,  by  who^,' 
inlluence  she  was  appointed  a  lady  of  the  bol- 
chamber  to  Princess  Anne.  She  became  tlie  cmi- 
iidante  of  the  Princess,  and,  after  the  latter  Ik- 
came  Queen,  did  all  she  could  to  destroy  the 
:Marlbor(>ngh  inlluence  at  Court.  In  1707  slie 
was  married  to  Sanmel  Masham,  a  gentleman  of 
the  bedchamber  to  Prince  (Jeorge  of  Denmail,. 
This  marriage  brought  about  an  open  ruplui.' 
with  the  Marlboroughs.  The  intrigues  of  .Mi^ 
Masham  finally  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  tli 
Whigs,  the  elevation  of  Harley  to  power,  and 
the  dismissal  of  the  Duke  of  .Marlliorongh.  Jlrs. 
Masham  was  engaged  in  jdots  to  bring  hack  tlie 
Stuarts;  and  she  seems  always  to  have  used  her 
position  for  her  pecuniary  advantage.  Her  h>is- 
band  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1712.  Liuly 
Masham  adhered  to  B(dingbroke  in  the  quan.  I 
between  him  and  Oxford.  After  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne  in  1714  she  lived  in  retirement.     See 

AXNK. 

MASHONALAND,  ma-sho'na-land.  A  i>rov- 
vince  of  Southeastern  Rhodesia  (q.v.).  South 
Africa,  between  Matabeleland  and  the  Zambezi 
River  (Map:  Africa,  H  0).  It  consists  mainlv  nf 
.a  fertile  and  savanna  covered  plateau,  300(i  i^ 
iiOOO  feet  above  the  sea,  intersected  by  sever. 1 1 
rivers.  iiOlnents  of  the  Zambezi  and  the  SaM. 
The  climate  is  healthful  to  Europeans,  (inld 
has  been  found  in  considerable  quantities,  and 
settlements  have  arisen  around  Forts  Salislniry 
and  Victoria.  Hartley  Hall,  and  in  several  other 
places.  The  white  population  in  1001  numbered 
4021:  the  luimber  of  natives  was  estimated  at 
328.729.  .-\  railroad  from  Heira  on  the  coast  to 
Fort  Salisbury  was  completed  in  1890.  and  an- 
other from  the  latter  place  to  P.uhnvayo  in 
Matabeleland  was  linished  in  1902.  In  1890 
Mashonaland  was  accpiired  by  the  British  South 
Africa  Company,  and  in  1893  the  company's 
possession  and  the  peace  of  the  country  were  se- 
cured through  a  successful  war  with  the  Matn- 
heles.  The  seat  of  the  administraticm  is  at  Fort 
Salisbury. 

The  ruins  of  Southern  Mashonaland.  of  which 
the  l>estknown  are  those  of  the  Zimbabwe  group, 
are  numerous.  .Mong  the  gold-benring  reefs  are 
thousands  of  excavations  into  the  i|Uarlz  veins 
as  well  as  many  hundred  ancient  ruins,  teniph -, 
fortresses,  and  the  like,  which  belong  both  to 
l>rehistoric  and  to  historic  times.  The  early  hi-tory 
of  this  region  was  not  known  by  the  Mashonas 
who  were  living  here  at  the  time  of  the  advent  of 
the  Europeans.  The  announcement  of  the  find- 
ing of  the  r;iins  by  the  traveler  Carl  Alancli  in 
1871  attracleil  much  attention,  and  in  ISill  Theo- 
dore Bent  surveved  and  described  the  ruins  of 


V 


i 


MASHONALAND. 


139 


MASK. 


Zimbabwe.  Ho  fouud  ouo  portion  to  be  elliptical 
with  a  round  tower  and  to  cover  a  considerable 
area  of  a  gentle  rise;  below  this  in  the  valley 
lay  a  mass  of  ruins;  while  another  structure,  ap- 
parently a  fort,  crowned  a  bold,  rocky  hill.  The 
walls  are  constructed  of  small,  squared  blocks  of 
rouj.'h-face  granite,  laid  dry.  an<l  occasionally 
haviiijf  ornamental  courses  in  herring-bone  or 
chevron  pattern.  The  walls  are  very  thick,  in 
some  places  standing  over  thirtj-  feet,  and  tlie 
coursing  and  broken  joints  show  fair  skill  in 
masonry.  The  elliptical  ruin  has  several  gate- 
ways, the  interior  is  broken  by  walls  into  a 
labyrinth,  and  in  a  central  space  arc  an  altar  and 
two  remarkable  round  towers,  the  latter  built 
solid.  Jlonoliths  of  rough,  unhewn  blocks  of 
granite,  set  in  the  ground,  occur  in  these  ruins, 
and  in  some  cases  the  monoliths  are  set  upright 
on  the  top  of  the  wall.  The  hill  fort  consists  of 
curving  walls  built  among  gigantic  granite  bould- 
ers, forming  a  maze  above  a  cliff  00  feet  high, 
and  is  Hanked  on  the  accessible  side  by  a  wall 
36  feet  high  and  13  feet  thick  at  the  top.  Around 
the  rude  altar  in  the  temple  ruins  were  found 
phallic  emblems,  birds,  and  decorated  bowls 
carved  from  soapstone.  Remains  of  gold  smelt- 
ing furnaces  with  crucibles  and  pottery  blow- 
pi])cs,  and  stone  ingot  molds,  Avere  discovered,  and 
glass  beads,  celadon  pottery,  Persian  pottery,  and 
Arabic  glass  occurred  in  the  ruins.  Spearheads 
and  arrowheads,  battle-axes,  bells,  chisels,  spades, 
and  other  tools  were  taken  out.  The  ruins  may 
be  ascribed  to  the  pre-Mohammedan  Arabs,  prob- 
ably of  the  Saba;o-Hiniyaritic  period,  so  that 
there  is  good  reason  for  locating  the  Land  of 
Ophir  in  this  region. 

The  Mashonas  are  a  Bantu  negro  people,  whom 
the  JIatabeles  have  driven  to  live  in  hill  forts 
overlooking  their  fields.  They  are  peaceful  agri- 
culturists, raising  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  rice,  to- 
bacco, and  Indian  hemp.  They  have  herds  of  cat- 
tle and  goats,  and  a  common  occupation  is  hunt- 
ing for  gpld.  The  JIashonas  are  of  chocolate 
brown  color,  above  the  average  height,  slender  in 
build,  and  the  young  women  have  good  figures 
and  are  graceful.  The  men  wear  bracelets  of 
buffalo  hide,  necklaces  of  bone  and  claws  of 
gazelle  hoofs,  and  aprons  of  leather  interwoven 
with  Ijeads  of  iron  and  brass.  Their  headdress 
is  of  feathers  and  their  coiffure  is  elaborate.  The 
two  front  teeth  are  filed  to  a  V-shape.  The  wom- 
en shave  their  heads,  but  young  girls  string  beads 
on  their  hair.  They  wear  aprons,  and  their  bodies 
are  decoratetl  with  raised  tattocjing.  The  warriors 
carry  three  assagais,  a  club, shield  and  battle-axe. 
The  bow  and  arrow  are  also  used.  They  are  skill- 
ful iron  smelters  and  workers,  using  the  double 
bellows  and  working  out  implements  and  weapons 
with  stone  tools.  They  also  make  pottery,  wooden 
dishes,  and  bark  cloth.  They  smoke  and  snuff 
tobacco  and  use  the  narcotic  hemp  to  excess. 
Travelers  remark  on  their  fondness  for  heat; 
many  are  disfigured  from  scorching  caused  by 
sleeping  too  near  the  great  fires.  Their  musical 
instruments  are  the  African  harp,  jewsharp.  and 
drum.  Consult:  Kerr.  The  Far  Interior  (Lon- 
don. ISSn)  :  Bent,  The  Ruined  Cities  of  ^fnsJwnn- 
land  (London,  ISO.'?)  :  Knight-Bruce.  Memories  of 
Mnnhonrilnnrl  (London.  ISO.'i)  :  With  Rhodes  in 
Mashonal/ind.  translated  by  Dr.  Waal  (Cape 
Town,  1806)  :  Brown.  On  the' f^outh  African  Fron- 
tier (New  York,  1809).  See  Matabeleland. 
Vol.  XIII.— lu. 


MASTNIS'SA  (c.230-148  B.C.).  King  of  the 
JIassylians,  in  Numidia.  He  was  educated  at 
Carthage,  and  in  B.C.  213  induced  his  father  to 
form  a  league  with  the  Carthaginians,  with  whom 
he  fought  against  Syphax,  King  of  the  Jlassa;- 
sylians,  the  ally  of  the  Komans.  He  then  passed 
over  into  Spain  at  the  head  of  a  troop  of  Numid- 
ian  cavahy,  and  displayed  great  zeal  and  valor 
in  the  war  against  Rome.  But  the  victory  of 
the  Romans  at  Silpia  in  B.C.  206,  and  (so  the 
story  goes)  the  action  of  tlie  Carthaginians  in 
giving  Sophonisba,  the  beautiful  daughter  of 
Hasdrubal  (son  of  Cisco),  who  had  been  prom- 
ised him  in  marriage,  as  wife  to  his  old  rival 
Syphax,  led  ilasinissa  to  enter  into  an  alliance 
with  the  Romans.  The  Carthaginians  incited 
Syphax  to  make  war  upon  him.  Defeated  and 
stripped  of  his  sovereignty,  which  he  had  just 
inherited  from  his  father,  he  was  compelled  to 
seek  refuge  on  the  coast  of  Syrtis, where  he  brave- 
ly defended  himself  until  the  arrival  of  Scipio 
in  B.C.  20-1.  when  he  identified  his  cause  with  that 
of  the  Romans.  He  defeated  Syphax,  overran  his 
country,  captured  his  capital,  and  took  prisoner 
his  Queen.  Sophonisba,  whom  Masinissa  still 
loved.  Seipio,  who  feared  the  influence  of  the 
Carthaginian  princess,  demanded  her  surrender 
as  a  captive  of  war,  and  Masinissa,  to  spare  her 
the  shame,  gave  her  poison  to  drink.  In  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  Zama,  wiiich  followed  the  arrival 
of  Hannibal  in  Africa  (B.C.  202),  he  made  a 
brilliant  charge  at  the  head  of  his  Xumidian 
liorse,  drove  the  cavalry  of  Hannibal  from  the 
field,  and  was  the  first  to  turn  the  tide  of  battle 
against  the  Carthaginians.  For  this  service  he 
received  the  kingdom  of  Syphax  in  the  following 
year.  He  now  profited  by  the  leisure  which  peace 
afforded  him,  devoting  his  attention  to  the  or- 
ganization of  his  government  and  to  the  civilizing 
of  his  semi-barbarous  subjects.  But  his  lust 
of  conquest  was  never  satiated.  He  made  con- 
tinuous inroads  into  the  territory  of  Carthage, 
and'  liis  de])redations  finally  drove  the  Cartha- 
ginians to  war  (B.C.  150),  an  event  which  the 
Romans  seized  on  as  a  welcome  pretext  for  in- 
tervening and  utterly  crushing  their  ancient 
rival. 

MASK  (Fr.  inas<iue,  from  Sp.  mdscara,  from 
Ar.  miislch(ir<it.  bulToun,  mask,  fi-om  sakhnra.  to 
ridicule).  A  disguise  or  covering  of  the  face, 
worn  either  to  aid  in  the  sinuilation  of  some 
character  or  for  other  purposes,  as  in  the  rites  of 
savage  people  for  the  frightening  away  of  demons 
or  even  protecting  the  faces  of  the  dead.  The 
use  of  masks  in  the  drama  originated  perhaps  in 
the  harvest  festivities  of  the  most  ancient  CJreek 
peasantry,  appearing  subsequently  to  have  been 
associated  with  the  representation  of  Satyrs,  Si- 
lenns,  and  Bacchus  in  the  orgies  of  Bacchus.  In 
CJreek  tragedy,  which  was  an  outgrowth  from 
these,  masks  were  used  from  the  first,  and  in 
comedy  at  least  at  a  later  day.  Regular  types 
of  masks  were  developed  for  the  different  char- 
acters in  tragedy  and  comedy,  expressive  of  fixed 
emotions.  They  were  often  provided  with  metal- 
lic mouthpieces  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
power  of  the  voice,  as  was  made  necessary  bythe 
great  size  and  openness  of  the  ancient  theatres. 
Their  use  indeed  was  adapted  both  to  the  vastness 
of  the  buildings  and  to  a  formal  style  of  dramatic 
representation  in  which  the  ideal  prevailed  over 
any  reality  of  individual  impersonation.  In  the 
modern  theatre  the  use  of  masks,  coming  down 


MASK. 


140 


MASKINONGE. 


tlircmgli  llic  iiiiuRs  and  pantomimes  of  the  Ro- 
mans ami  the  early  Italian  com  media  dclVaite 
(•comedy  of  masks'),  has  been  chietly  confined 
to  that  class  of  entertainments  in  which  the 
very  names  o.f  the  characters,  like  Pantaloon 
and  Harlequin  (q.v.),  have  been  derived  from 
Italy.  The  use  of  masks  at  costume-balls  also 
orifiinated  in  Italy,  when  the  domino,  or  half- 
mask,  worn  l>y  ladies,  liecamc  esiiccially  p(i])nlar. 
The  name  licath-masks  is  given  to  masks,  usu- 
ally of  ])laster,  made  after  death.  In  the  prepara- 
tion of  these  masks  the  face  of  the  dead  body  is 
usuallv  covered  with  oil.  and  i)laster  of  Paris 
is  then  a|)plicd.  After  the  plaster  lias  liardened 
it  is  removed,  being  prevented  by  the  oil  from 
adliering  too  closely  to  the  skin.  Into  the  mold 
thus  formcil  fresh  plaster  is  poured,  and  the  re- 
sulting cast  is  the  death-mask.  Such  masks  are 
of  the  utmost  value  as  exact  resemblances  of  the 
faces  from  which  they  are  taken,  allliough  the 
change  of  contour  caused  by  death  necessarily 
impairs  to  some  e.\tent  their  value:  Similar 
masks  are  occasionally  made  from  living  men. 
Here,  however,  the  mobile  e.xpression  is  f re- 
quentlv  of  necessity  sacrificed,  so  that  it  is  in 
gcnera'l  true  that  the  more  expressive  the  living 
face,  the  fainter  is  the  likeness,  while  a  set  and 
determined  face  gives,  as  a  rule,  a  clear  and 
accurate  mask.  Tlu'  use  of  death-masks  is  both 
ancient  and  widespread.  The  Romans  made  them 
of  wax,  while  among  the  Egyptians  ar.d  in 
the  ruins  of  Hissarllk  masks  of  thin  gold  plate 
have  been  found,  and  among  the  American 
Indians  occasional  sj)eeimens  have  been  discov- 
ered. 

Among  certain  groups  of  savages,  masks  play 
an  important  rSle  in  their  ceremonials.  They 
are  sometimes  constructed  to  imitate  living 
forms,  as  of  animals,  but  more  often  to  portray 
mvtlinlogical  characters.  As  a  consequence  the 
in'iagination  of  the  maker  is  allowed  a  certain 
frceibim,  and  tlie  result  is  seen  in  the  grotesque 
productions  which  are  familiar  from  the  ethno- 
logical collections  of  our  nniseums.  They  are 
most  conunonly  employed  in  shamanistic  rites 
and  in  dances"  of  a  religious  and  more  or  less 
secret  character.  Their  use  is  perhaps  most 
pri)mincnt  in  North  .^nu'rica,  particularly  among 
llic  Iribes  on  the  North  I'acific  Coast,  and  in  the 
islands  of  the  South  Seas,  notably  in  the  Me- 
lanesian  group.  Consult:  Altmann,  Die  Masken 
rlr.i  Schau.ii>iiltis  (3d  ed..  Herlin.  ISnil)  :  Sand, 
Mnsi/ucs  ct  bonffons  (Paris,  18G0)  ;  Ficoroni, 
/)<•  lAirrix  Hccnici»  et  Fifiuris  Comicis  (Rome, 
17:)4)  ;  id.,  Lc  niaschcrc  scrnirhe  c  Ic  fifjiire 
comiclic  d'antichi  Romaiii  (Rome.  1730)  ;  Benn- 
dorf,  Antihr  dcsirlitshclmc  mid  Stiiiilvnilm<isl:ni 
(Vienna,  Li^VS)  ;  Dall,  MukKs.  l.iihnls.  mid  Ccr- 
lain  Aborifiinal  Ciixtonix  (Washington,  IS.S,'))  ; 
Frobenius,  Die  Ma.ikrii  uiul  llcheimbiindc  Afrilcas 
(Halle,  ISnS)  :  Hutton,  I'orlrails  in  I'lasler 
(New    York.    1804). 

MASK.  In  architecture  iind  dcccnalion.  the 
face  of  a  human  being  or  animal,  convention- 
alized in  character:  sometimes  calleil  a  maxrarnn 
(Krench).  The  Greeks  and  Romans  copied  the 
tragic  and  comic  masks  of  tlieir  actors  in  sculp- 
ture and  painting  for  decorative  jiurposcs.  and 
similar  designs,  but  willi  ixag'_'<'rated  grotcsque- 
ness,  were  popular  with  the  laic  licnaissanee  ar- 
tists, especially  of  the  Pnroque  i>criod.  for  the 
key.stones  of  doorways  and  other  prominent  posi- 
tions.    See  Gargoyle;  Antefix. 


MASK.      A   kind   of  dramatic  entertainment. 

See  il.vsijiE. 

MASKAT,  mu-skiit'.     A  town  of  Arabia.     See 

Ml  .SC.N.T. 

MASKED  PIG.  An  extraordinary  breed  of 
domestic  swine,  cultivated  in  .Japan.  It  is  black, 
has  a  short  head,  broad  forehead  and  nuizzle, 
great  ears,  and  deeply  furrowed  skin;  and  thick 
folds  of  skin,  which  "are  harder  than  the  other 
parts,  resembling  the  plates  on  the  Indian  rhi- 
noceros, hang  about  the  shoulders  an<l  rum)i. 

MAS'KEGON  (Swamp  People).  A  wander- 
ing AI.L;i.ii(|uian  people,  an  offshoot  of  the  Ojibua, 
scattered  over  the  immen.se  swamp  region  of 
British  .\merica,  stretching  from  Lake  Winnipeg 
to  Hudson  liay,  including  the  basins  of  the  Nel- 
son and  Severn  rivers.  In  former  times  they 
lived  entirely  by  liunting  and  fishing,  to  which 
those  upon  reservations  now  add  lumbering  and 
a  little  farming.  As  they  are  ollicially  classed 
with  the  Cree  and  tJjibwa,  no  reliable  estimate 
of  tlieir  population  can  be  given,  but  they  may 
numlicr  from   1.500  to  2000. 

MAS'KELL,  William  (c.I814-nn).  An  Eng 
lish  theologian,  born  at  Bath.  From  University 
College,  Oxford,  he  graduated  B..\.  in  183(1.  and 
the  next  year  took  holy  orders.  In  lS4'i  be  be- 
came rector  of  Corscombe  in  Dorsetshire,  where 
he  began  his  researches  in  Church  history.  |)ar- 
ticularly  in  the  .Vnglican  ritual.  He  produced 
at  this  period  the  Ancient  Liliirgn  of  the  Church 
of  England  (1844)  ;  IJistory  of  the  Martin  Mar- 
prelate  Controversy  (1845);  and  Moniimenta 
Ritiialia  Ecctcxiw  Ani/lieanw  (1S4G).  These 
works  jdaced  him  among  the  most  able  exponents 
of  High  Church  doctrines.  Resigning  Corscombe, 
he  became  Vicar  of  Saint  Jlary  Church  near 
Torquav,  and  domestic  cliaiilaiu  to  the  Bishop  of 
Exeter' ( 1847).  His  earlier  investigations  were 
now  followed  by  Uoli;  Baptism  (1848)  :  .1»  En- 
qiiirii  into  the  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Entjland 
npoii  Atisolntion  (1849)  ;  and  v  volume  of  doc- 
trinal sermons.  He  took  an  active  ))art  in  the 
Gorham  controversy  (q.v.)  ;  and  when  Gorham 
Mon  his  case  in  the  Privy  Council,  Haskell  went 
over  to  the  Church  of  Rome  ( 18.i0 ) .  To  t  he  Priv.v 
Coinu'il  he  had  addressed  two  mcTUorable  letters 
on  the  Present  Position  of  the  Hii/h  Church  Party 
(18o0).  Maskcll  never  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  Rome.  His  later  life  was  |)assed  in 
the  west  of  England,  where  he  restimed  his 
learned  researches,  publishing,  among  several 
works,  Protestant  Pitiialisis  (1872)  and  Irorics 
Ancient  and  Media  nil  (187.5).  He  died  at  Pen- 
zance. April   12,  1800. 

MASKELYNE,  m;-is'kr-lln,  Xevil  (1732- 
ISIli.  An  i'.nglish  astronomer,  born  in  London. 
He  was  e(lucal<'d  at  Westminster  and  at  Cam- 
bridge; carried  out  niuuerous  investigations  char- 
acterized by  extreme  accuracy  of  work,  and  be- 
came in  17ti;5  roval  astrononuT  and  clircclor  of 
the  obscrv;ilory  at  Greenwich.  He  fouinlid  The 
Xaalieal  Almanac  in  1707.  and  published  The 
Hrilish  Mariner's  Guide  (17(13):  A  si ninomical 
0/),vcnvi/i'..,i.s-    (I7(i.5):    and   other  works. 

MASKINONGE,  or  MUSKELLUNGE  (Al- 
gonkin.  great  piekeicl.  from  mas.  great  -f  Ici- 
7ionae.  Chii.i)eway  dialect  l-enozhn.  Uinoje.  pick- 
erel, from  A-ciio.sr,"  long) .  The  great  pike  (Lucius 
niasiiuinonqy.  or  Esor  iwbilior)  of  the  lakes  of 
tlw  Northern  I'liited  States  and  Western  Canada, 


MASKINONGE. 


141 


MASON. 


from  the  Ohio  River  iiorUwvartl.  This  magnifi- 
cent fish,  tlie  largest  of  its  family,  and  the  most 
to  be  feared  as  a  predatory  force  in  American 
fresh  waters,  has  the  general  form  of  a  pike  ( q.v. ) , 
a  length  of  from  four  to  eight  feet,  and  often  a 
weight  exceeding  100  pounds.  It  is  swift,  strong, 
and  fierce,  and  a  high  prize  for  the  angler.  Its 
characteristics  arc  its  dark  gray  color,  the  sides 
in  the  typical  form  (confined  to  the  Cireat  Lakes) 
with  blackish  spots  of  varying  size  on  a  grayish 
silvery  ground;  the  fins  are  spotted  with  black; 
and  the  opercle  and  lower  parts  of  the  cheeks 
are  scaleless.  See  Colored  Plate  of  American 
Game  Fishes,  accompanying  article  Trout. 

MASKWELL.  In  Congreve's  Double-Dealcr, 
the  running  and  hypocritical  .scoundrel  from 
wlio>c  character  the  play  is  named. 

MASOLINO  DA  PANICALE,  ma-s61e'n6 
di  piL'ne-kil'la,  properly  Tom.maso  di  Cristo- 
FANDo  DI  FiNi  (1383-1447).  A  Florentine  paint- 
er of  the  early  Renaissance.  He  was  born  at 
Panicale  di  Valdese.  As  a  youth  he  became  an 
assistant  to  Lorenzo  Ghiberti,  who  was  at  that 
time  engaged  in  making  the  first  set  of  bronze 
doors  for  the  Baptistery  of  Florence.  The  actual 
rendering  in  relief  of  tiie  pictorial  composi- 
tion of  Ghiberti  gave  to  Masolino  a  certain  mas- 
tery of  imagery  and  surety  of  teehniqiu'  that 
determined  the  character  of  his  art  method. 
Ghcrardo  da  Stamina,  a  Florentine  painter  of 
whom  little  is  known,  gave  him  his  first  instruc- 
tion in  painting.  It  is  possible  that  Vasari.  in 
his  biography,  may  have  confounded  Masolino 
with  Masaccio  or  JIaso  di  Cristoforo  Bracci — the 
names  of  all  of  these  contemjioraries  being  cor- 
ru])tions  of  Tommaso.  The  arguments  are  not 
sulficicntly  convincing  to  withdraw  from  ^Maso- 
lino  the  paintings  hitherto  assigned  to  him  in 
the  Brancacci  Chapel,  Florence,  upon  which  his 
fame  is  chiefij'  founded.  These  frescoes  were  un- 
dertaken shortly  after  his  admission  into  the 
guild  of  the  Physicians  and  Apothecaries  in 
1423,  and  received  his  continued  attention  until 
his  departure  for  Huniiary  in  142(i.  where  he 
flourished  under  the  patronage  of  F^ilippo  Scolari. 
In  1428  he  was  at  work  in  the  Church  of  Castig- 
lionc  di  Olona  representing  incidents  in  the  life 
of  the  Virgin.  Saint  Stephen,  and  Saint  Law- 
rence. The  Nativity  of  the  series  is  especially 
interesting,  bearing  the  inscription,  "Masolinus 
de  Florentia  pinxit."  In  the  baptistery  of  the 
church  he  frescoed  scenes  from  the  life  of  .John 
the  Baptist.  In  these  Castiglione  works  there  is 
exhibited  the  same  naturalistic,  almost  human- 
istic tendency  that  characterized  the  Brancacci 
frescoes.  Dr.  Burckhardt  has  attributed  to  Maso- 
lino the  frescoes  in  one  of  the  chapels  of  the  Church 
of  San  Clemente,  Rome.  Masolino  died  at  Flor- 
ence in  October.  1447.  His  work  at  the  best  was 
that  of  an  experimenter — one  dissatisfied  with  ex- 
isting methods  and  groping  after  a  more  advanced 
technique.  In  his  extreme  eagerness  to  hold  the 
mirror  to  nature  he  emphasized  the  unit  at  the 
expense  of  the  whole — his  excessive  study  of  de- 
tail overshadowed  breadth  and  homogeneity,  ele- 
ments dependent  upon  rational  composition. 

MA'SON.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Ing- 
ham County.  Mich.,  12  miles  south  by  east  of 
Lansing;  im  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad 
(Map:  Micliigan,  .1  fl).  It  is  in  a  region  en- 
gajed  principally  in  farming,  dairying,  and  fruit- 
growing, and  has  fiour  mills,  fruit  evaporators,  a 


foundry  and  machine  shop,  buggj'  factory,  brick 
and  tile  works,  a  creamery,  etc.  The  court  house 
here  ranks  with  the  finest  county  buildings  in  the 
State.  There  are  municipal  water-works  and 
electrie-light  plant,  ilason  was  settled  in  1838, 
incorporated  as  a  village  in  1805,  and  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1875.  Population,  in  18'J0,  1875; 
in  I'JOO,  1828. 

MASON,  CiiAKLES  (1730-87).  An  Engli.sh 
;istronomcr.  lie  was  long  em])loycd  as  an  assist- 
ant at  the  Greenwich  Observatory  and  was  sent 
with  .Jeremiah  Dixon  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  17(il  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus.  In  17t)3 
the  same  gentlemen  were  employed  by  the  jiro- 
prietors  of  ilaryland  and  Pennsylvania  to  survey 
the  boundary  line  between  their  respective  pos- 
sessions, a  task  upon  which  thej-  were  engaged 
until  December  20,  1707.  The  boundary  fixed  by 
them  has  since  been  known  as  'Mason  and  Dix- 
on's line'  (q.v.).  Thej-  also  fixed  'the  precise 
measure  of  a  degree  of  latitude  in  America.'  The 
particulars  of  this  work  are  recorded  in  vol.  Iviii. 
of  the  Royal  Society's  Transactions.  ilason 
and  Dixon  returned  to  England  in  the  autumn 
of  1768.  In  the  following  year  Mason  went 
to  Cavan,  Ireland,  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus,  his  report  of  which  appeared  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  for  1770.  He  was 
also  employed  by  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes  to 
verify  the  lunar  tables  of  Tobias  Mayer;  these 
were  published  after  his  death  under  the  title 
(>f  Mayer's  Lunar  Tables  Improred  bi/  Charles 
Zlason  (London,  1787),  and  were  long  considered 
the  best  authorit.y.  At  an  luiknown  date  he  re- 
turned to  America,  and  died  in  Philadelphia  in 
1787.  His  private  journal,  field  notes,  etc..  were 
found  among  a  pile  of  waste  paper  in  the  cellar 
of  the  Government  house  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia, 
in  1860,  and  an  account  of  their  contents  was 
published  by  Porter  C.  Bliss  in  the  HistorioU 
Mafia.-in-e  for  July,  1861. 

MASON,  EuEXEZEK  Porter  (1819-40).  An 
American  astronomer,  born  in  Washington,  Conn. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1830,  and  in  1840  pub- 
lished Observations  on  Xcbulee,  a  paper  which 
was  highly  commended  by  Sir  .John  Ilcrschel. 
His  health  had  been  delicate  and  he  died  a  few 
days  after  attaining  the  age  of  twenty-one.  His 
Life  and  Writings  were  published  by  Prof.  Deni- 
son  Olmsted  in  1842. 

MASON,  Edwwrd  G.\y  (1839-08).  An  Ameri- 
can law;5'er  and  historian,  born  in  Bridgeport, 
Conn.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1800,  studied 
law  in  Chicago,  and  became  a  niend)er  of  the  firm 
of  Mattocks  and  Mason,  and  later  of  that  of 
Mason  Brothers.  He  published  a  numlier  of  pam- 
phlets dealing  with  local  history,  which  were  col- 
lected in  two  volumes,  entitled  h'arli/  Chiear/o  and 
Illinois  (1800),  and  Chapters  from  Illinois  His- 
torx)    (1901). 

MASON,  Fr.\ncis  (1700-1874).  An  Ameri- 
can missionary  and  Orientalist.  He  was  born 
at  York,  England,  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1818,  entered  Newton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1827,  and  in  1830  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to 
Burma.  His  labors  were  chiefly  among  the 
Karens.  Into  two  dialects  of  their  language  ho 
translated  the  Bible  and  other  religious  hooks, 
and  a  seminary  for  the  training  of  preachers  and 
teachers  was  conducted  by  him.  He  published, 
in  18.52,  Tenasserim.  or  the  Fauna,  Flora.  Min- 
erals, and  \ations  of  British   Burma  and  Pegu, 


MASON. 


142 


MASON. 


a  second  edition  of  whieli  appeared  under  the 
title  liiirma :  Its  People  and  yatiircil  Produc- 
tions (18(i0).  He  also  published  a  grammar, 
chrestoniathy,  and  vocabulary  of  Pali,  besides 
translations  from  the  Burman,  Pali,  and  San- 
skrit; Life  of  Ko-Thah-Byu,  the  Karen  Apostle: 
.4  Memoir  of  Mrs.  Helen  .1/.  Mason  (1847);  a 
Minutir  of  iSau  Quala  (1850)  ;  The  tStory  of  a 
M'orl.ingman's  Life,  tcith  Sketches  of  Travel 
(I87n). 

MASON,  George  (172502).  An  American 
political  leader  of  the  Revolutionary  jieriod,  born 
in  Stafl'ord  (now  Fairfax)  County,  Va.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  and  nei^hlxir  of  Washington, 
was  a  memlicr  of  the  Ohio  (\)mpany,  and  as  early 
as  1759  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Assembly. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  opposition  in  Virginia  to 
the  Stamp  Act,  and  in  1700  drafted  the  non-im- 
portation resohitions.  which  were  presented  by 
Washington  and  adopted  by  the  Assembly.  At  a 
popular  meeting  of  the  citizens,  held  July  18, 
1774,  he  offered  twenty-four  rcsoluti<ms  on  the 
issues  between  Oreat  Britain  and  the  Colonies, 
in  which  were  outlined  liotli  the  non-intercourse 
policy  with  Great  Britain  and  the  scheme  of  a 
general  inter-colonial  Congress.  These  resolu- 
tions were  sanctioned  by  the  Virginia  Convention  in 
August,  and  were  reaffirmed  by  the  Continental 
Congress  in  October  of  the  same  year.  Mason 
served  on  the  Virginia  Counnittee  of  Safety,  and 
occupied  a  seat  in  the  Virginia  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1776.  in  the  Inlter  capacity  he 
earned  distinction  as  the  author  of  the  well- 
known  Bill  of  Bights  which  constitutes  so  notable 
a  ])art  of  the  Virginia  Constitution  of  1770,  and 
which  was  probably  the  most  complete  as  well  as 
the  most  advanced  statement  of  the  rights  of  man 
that  had  then  appeared.  In  1777  the  Legislature, 
of  which  he  was  still  a  member,  elected  him  to 
the  Continental  Congress;  but  he  declined  to 
serve  and  remained  an  active  and  inlluential 
member  of  the  Legislature  for  many  years.  In 
1787  he  became  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  at  Pliiladel|iliia,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  ddiatcs  on  the  Constitution.  He  spoke 
against  the  provision  for  the  contiiniance  of  the 
slave  trade  and  disapproved  of  the  instrument  as 
a  whole.  He  refused  to  sign  it.  and.  with  Pat- 
rick Henry  in  the  Virginia  Ratification  Conven- 
tion, thrfw  his  inlluence  against  ratification  and 
proposed  twenty  alterations,  some  of  which  were 
afterwards  adopted.  He  was  chosen  as  one  of 
the  first  I'nited  States  Senators  from  \'irginia, 
but  declined  to  serve.  His  death  occurred  Octo- 
ber 7,  1702.  at  'Gunston  Hall.'  and  his  statue, 
with  those  of  other  distinguished  Virginians, 
stands  in  front  of  the  State  Capitol  at  Richmond. 
Consult  Rowland.  Life  of  George  Mason  (New 
York,    1S!I2|. 

MASON,  George  IIeming  (1818-72).  An 
English  painter,  born  in  Stralfordshire.  Mason 
first  .studied  medicine,  but  afterwards  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  earned  a  living  painting  por- 
traits. He  returned  to  England  in  1858.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  between  Straf- 
ford^iiire  ami  London.  Mason's  pictures  repre- 
sent English  or  Roman  subjects:  Ihr  best  of 
them  are:  "Ploughing  in  the  Camiiagna"  (18.57). 
"Dancing  Girls"  (1868),  and  "Harvest  Moon" 
(18721.     Mis  color  is  notably  rich  and  pleasing. 

MASON,  .Tames  Mi'rray  (17081871).  An 
American  lawyer  and  legislator,  best  known  as 


one  of  the  representatives  of  the  Confederate 
Government  in  Europe  during  the  Civil  War.  He 
was  born  on  ^Mason's  Island,  Fairfax  County, 
Va. ;  graduated  at  the  University  of  I'ennsy'l- 
vania  in  1818,  and  practiced  law  for  some  time 
at  Winchester,  Va.  He  soon  became  prominent 
in  politics,  and  was  a  member  of  the  \irginia 
House  of  Delegates  from  1826  to  1832,  of  the  Vir- 
ginia Constitutional  Convention  of  1820,  of  the 
national  House  of  Keprcsentatives  from  18.'!7  to 
18.30,  and  of  tlie  United  States  Senate  from  1847 
to  1801,  when  he  resigned  to  take  part  in  the 
secession  movement.  In  Congress  he  was  con- 
spicuous as  an  upholder  of  slavery  and  as  an 
ardent  advocate  of  llic  principle  oi  .-^rates'  rights,' 
and  in  1850  he  drafted  and  introduced  the  famous 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  which  formed  part  of  the 
compromise  measures  of  that  year.  For  ten 
years  he  was  chairman  of  the  Senate  Committee 
on  Foreign  Affairs.  Late  in  ISO!  lie  was  ap- 
pointed commissioner  of  the  Confederate  Gov- 
ernment to  England,  and  on  October  12  started 
from  Charleston.  S.  C,  with  .John  Slidell.  the 
Confederate  commissioner  to  France;  but  after 
touching  at  Havana  he  and  Slidell  were  seized 
on  board  the  British  steamer  Trent,  by  Captain 
Wilkes  of  the  I'nited  States  ship  /Son  Jacinto, 
and  were  confined  at  Fort  Warren.  Boston,  until 
January  2.  1862,  when  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment, yielding  to  the  demand  of  England, 
ordered  their  release.  Their  seizure  caused 
great  excitement  on  both  sides  of  the  At- 
lantic and  threatened  to  bring  on  a  war  between 
the  United  .States  and  Great  Britain.  (See 
Trent  -\ff.vir.  The.)  After  his  release  Mason 
proceeded  to  London,  where  he  endeavored  to  win 
over  the  British  Government,  and  the  British 
people  as  well,  to  the  side  of  the  Confederacy, 
but  he  was  never  received  olhcially  by  the  min- 
isters, and  in  September,  lS(i:),  his  commission 
was  withdrawn.  He.  however,  remained  ill  Eu- 
rope, spending  his  time  principally  in  Paris  and 
London  and  vainly  attempting  to  induce  France 
and  England  to  intervene  a<'tively  on  the  side 
of  the  Confederacy.  Immediately  after  the  war 
he  returned  to  .America.  Fearing  arrest  at  the 
hands  of  the  Federal  Government,  he  lived  in 
Canada  until  1808.  when  he  removed  to  Virginia 
and  thereafter  until  his  death  lived  near  Win- 
chester. 

MASON,  Ji-,ni:.\ii.\ii  (1708-1848).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  legislator.  lie  was  born  in 
Lebanon.  Conn.,  graduated  at  Vale  in  1788,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1791.  and  began  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession  at  Wcstmnreland,  X.  H. 
He  removed  to  Walpole,  X.  H.,  in  1794.  and  in 
1707  to  Portsmouth,  which  was  his  home  fcu'  the 
next  thirty-five  years.  He  was  soon  recognized 
as  the  head  of  his  profession,  in  a  State  whose 
biir  was  unequaled  in  this  countrj',  and  which 
could  number  among  its  members  Ezekiel  and 
Daniel  Webster,  and  .Jeremiah  Smith.  He  was 
appointed  .\ttorney-General  of  the  State  in  1802, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Ignited  States  Senate  in 
181;!.  He  became  one  of  the  foremost  debaters 
in  that  body,  his  speech  delivered  in  1814.  on 
the  Embargo,  being  especially  powerful:  but  in 
1817  he  resigned  his  seat  to  cnntinue  the  |)rac- 
tice  of  his  profession.  He  afterwards  served  for 
a  number  of  terms  in  the  New  Hampshire  Legis- 
lature, where  his  ser\'ice  had  little  connection  . 
with   politics,  but  was  given  largely  to  revising 


MASON. 


143 


MASON. 


and  codifvinf;  the   t^tate   laws.     In   IS.'J'Z   he  re- 
'     moved  lo  Boston,  where,  until  his  age  compelled 
;     him   to   retire,   he   maintained   the   liigh   reputa- 
j     tion  which  lie  had  previously  won. 
j         MASON,  John   (1580-10.35).     The  founder  of 
I     New   Hampshire.     He   was   born   at   Lynn   Regi.s, 
Norfolk,  England;    served   in    1010   in   the  navy; 
in   1010  went  to   Newfoundland  as  Governor  of 
the  colony,  and  in  1G20  published  a  description 
of  the  country,  to  which  he  added  a  map  in  1020. 
He  explored  the  New  England  coasts  in  1017;  in 
1022  obtained  a  grant  of  a  region  called  Mari- 
ana,  now    the   northeastern    ])art    of   Massachu- 
setts;  in  the  same  year,  in  connection  with  Sir 
Ferdinando    Gorges,    procured    a    patent   for    the 
Province  of  ilaine;   and  in  102:i  sent  a  colony  to 
the  Piscataqua  River.     In  1629  he  obtained  a  pat- 
ent for  the   New   Hampshire   colony,   and   with 
Gorges  took  one  also  for  Laconia,  a  region  inclu- 
ding Lake  Champlain.  He  held  various  honorable 
I     positions  in  England,  in  10.35  being  a  judge  in 
1     Hampshire  and  receiving  in  the  same  year  the 
^     appointment   of   vice-admiral    of    New   England. 
;     His  riglits  in  New  Hampshire  were  sold  in  1091 
[     to  Governor  Samuel  Allen.    He  died  in  London  in 
December,  1035,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.    Consult  Tuttle,  Memuir  of  Captain.  John 
Miison,   the   Founder   of   Xew   Hampshire,   in   an 
illustrated  edition  of  Mason's  tract  on  Newfound- 
land, publislicd  for  the  Prince  Society   (Boston, 
1887). 

MASON,  .John  (1000-72).  An  American  co- 
lonial commander.  He  was  born  in  England; 
served  under  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  in  the  Nether- 
lands; emigrated  in  1030  to  Dorchester,  Mass.; 
in  1033  obtained  a.  military  command  at  Boston, 
and  in  1035  aided  in  founding  Windsor,  Conn. 
In  1()37  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  small 
force  of  English  and  Indians  sent  against  the 
Pequots  (q.v. ).  After  the  destruction  of  that 
trilie  Jlason  removed  to  Saybrook,  at  the  request 
of  the  inhabitants,  for  the  defense  of  the  colony, 
and  in  1059  removed  to  Norwich.  He  was  a 
major  of  the  colonial  forces  for  thirty  years. 
Deputy  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1000-70,  and 
chief  judge  of  the  colonial  court  from  1042  to 
lOtiS.  He  prepared,  at  the  request  of  the  Gen- 
eral Court  of  Connecticut,  a  Brief  Histortj  of  the 
Pc<jiiot  ^Yar,  which  was  incorporated  by  Increase 
Mather  in  his  Rrhilion  of  Trouble  bi/  the  Indians 
(Bo.ston,  1077,  republished  with  introduction  by 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Price,  Boston,  1730).  Consult 
Ellis,  "Life  of  .John  Mason  of  Connecticut,"  in 
Sparks,  Library  of  American  Biography,  vol.  xiii. 
(1804). 

MASON,  .John  Young  (1799-1859).  An 
American  jiolitician,  born  at  Greensville,  Sussex 
County,  Va.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  North  Carolina,  and  in  1819  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  After  presiding  over  Federal  and  State 
Courts  and  serving  for  a  number  of  terms  in  the 
Virginia  Assembly,  he  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1831  until'  1837,  and  was  judge  of  the 
I'niteil  States  District  Court  for  Virginia  from 
1837  until  1844,  when  President  Tyler  made  him 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  He  entered  the  Cabinet 
of  President  Polk  as  Attorney-General,  hut  was 
soon  returned  to  the  Navy  Department.  In  1853 
President  Pierce  made  him  Afinister  to  France, 
Mhere  lie  remained  until  his  death.  On  October 
10.  1854,  he  met  Buchanan  and  Snulc.  the  min- 
isters of  the  United  States  to  England  and  Spain, 


respectively,  in  a  conference  at  Ostend,  and  in 
conjunction  with  them  issued  the  famous  Ostend 
Manifesto   (q.v.). 

MASON.  Lowell  (1792-1872).  An  American 
music  teacBer,  born  in  Medfield,  Mass.  When  only 
sixteen  he  directed  a  cluirch  choir  at  Medfield 
and  upon  his  removal  to  Savannah  continued  his 
interest  in  musical  affairs.  In  1827  he  returned 
to  Boston,  wiiere  he  became  president  of  the 
Handel  and  Haydn  Society  and  strongly  advo- 
cated the  Pestalozzi  system  of  teaching.  He 
founded  the  Boston  Academy  of  Music  ( 1832 ) , 
and  in  1837  went  to  Germany  to  study  musical 
pedagogic  methods.  The  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York  gave  him  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
music  (1855).  He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his 
numerous  liymn-tunes,  which  are  still  in  general 
use  throughout  the  country,  and  his  collections  of 
songs,  Boston  Handel  and  Haydn  Collection  of 
Church  Music  (1822);  Juvenile  Psalmist 
(1829)  ;  Lyra  Hacra  (1837)  ;  The  Sahhnth  Hyinn- 
and  Tunc  Book  (with  E.  A.  Park  and  Austin 
Phelps,  1859);  The  Psaltery  (1845);  Carmina 
Sacra   (1841)  ;  and  Kew  Carmina  Sacra  (1852). 

MASON,  Otls  TUFTON  (1838—).  An  Ameri- 
can ethnologist,  born  at  Eastport,  Me.  He  grad- 
uated in  ISOO  at  the  Columbian  University,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. ;  was  principal  of  the  preparatory 
school  of  the  university  (1802-84)  ;  and  in  1884 
became  curator  of  ethnologj'  in  the  LTnited  States 
National  iluseum.  Mason  founded  the  An- 
thropological Society  of  Washington;  was  an- 
thropological editor  of  the  American  Naturalist 
and  of  the  Standard  Dictionary ;  and  wrote,  for 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Summaries  of  Prog- 
ress in  Anthropology,  and  contributions  to  a 
history  of  primitive  American  industries. 

MASON,  William  (1724-97).  An  English 
divine  and  poet,  born  probaljly  at  Kingston-upon- 
Hull.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  in 
1749  became  a  fellow  of  Pembroke  College.  He 
was  appointed  rector  of  Aston  in  Yorkshire,  and 
chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Holderness  in  1754.  The 
next  j-ear  he  visited  GJermany,  and  in  1757  was 
appointed  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  King.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  for  more  than  thirty  years  pre- 
ceptor and  canon  residentiary  of  the  cathedral  at 
York.  Among  his  writings  are  lluswns  (1747), 
a  monody  to  the  memory  of  Pope;  I  sis  (1"^8), 
a  monologue  denouncing  the  .Jaeobitism  of  Ox- 
ford; and  the  dramatic  poems  Elfrida  (1752) 
and  Caraetacns  (1759).  He  also  wrote  a  number 
of  odes  in  imitation  of  his  friend  Gra.y,  of  whom 
he  published  a  Life  in  1774.  The'  first  book 
of  The  English  Garden  anneared  in  1772.  and 
in  1782  he  published  a  Critical  and  Historical 
Essay  on  Cathedral  Music.  His  collected  works 
were  issued  in  1811.  A  tablet  to  his  memory 
was  erected  in  the  Poets'  Corner  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  Consult  Chalmers,  English  Poets,  xviii. 
(London.    18101. 

MASON,  William  (1820—).  An  American 
musician,  born  in  Boston.  After  having  studied 
music  in  Europe  with  Hauptmann.  irnsclieles, 
Richter,  Dreyschock,  <and  Liszt,  he  appeared  as 
a  pianist  in  Prague,  Frankfort,  Weimar,  and 
London,  and  upon  his  return  to  the  United 
States  made  several  successful  tours.  In  1855 
he  settled  in  New  York,  and  foimded  there  the 
Mason  and  Thomas  j'ecitals  of  chamber  music, 
which  were  continued  until  1808.  After  1855 
he  devoted   himself  almost  entirely  to   teaching 


MASON. 


144 


MASON  BEE. 


and  coiiiposing.  His  works  include  numerous 
compositions,  mostly  for  the  pianoforte,  but  he 
is  hest  known  for  his  text-books:  .1  Method  for 
the  I'iuiiofoitc  (1807).  >Si/stem  for  licgiiuicrs 
(1871).  both  in  collaboratiim  with  H!  S.  Hoad- 
ley;  Touch  uitd  'I'tchnic  (1878)  ;  and  his  interest- 
in};  Memorie.i  of  a  Musical  Life   (1901). 

MASON,  William  Pitt  (1853—).  An  Ameri- 
can chemist,  burn  in  New  York  City.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  Rensselaer  I'dlytccluiic  institute 
(1874  and  1877);  and  returned  there  as  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  after  studyinj;  medicine  at 
I'nion  I'niversity  and  bacteriolofjy  at  the  Pasteur 
Institute  in  Paris.  His  works  include:  Examin<t- 
tion  of  Potable  Water  ( 1890)  ;  llaYer  Sup/ilj/ 
(189(i)  ;  Xotes  on  Qualitative  Analysis  (189(i)': 
and  Examination  of  ll'a^er  (1899). 

MASON  AND  DIXON'S  LINE.  The  boun 
d:uy  line  IhIwi-'U  tli,'  States  of  .Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania,  as  nni  by  two  distinguished  Eng- 
lish surveyors.  Charles  .Mason  and  .Jeremiah 
Dixon,  during  the  years  1703-07,  and  popu- 
larly accepted  prior  to  the  Civil  War  as  the 
dividing  line  between  the  free  States  and  the 
slave  States.  The  line  was  the  result  oi  a  dis- 
pute between  the  States  of  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania over  their  respective  boundaries  as  de- 
scribed in  (heir  charters.  The  chief  contro- 
versy turned  upon  the  meaning  of  the  phrases 
'the  beginning  of  the  40°'  and  Hhe  beginning  of 
the  43°  of  N.  Lat.'  employed  in  the  description 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Ooundary.  The  quarrel,  in 
which  Lord  Maltiniore  and  Penn  soon  engaged, 
eontinued  for  more  than  cigiity  years;  was  the 
cause  of  endless  trouble  between  individuals,  and 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  proprietors  of  both 
provinces,  the  Lords  of  Trade  and  Plantations, 
the  High  Court  of  Chancery,  and  the  PriN-j' 
(Jouneils  of  three  kings.  Xo  compromise  was 
reached  during  the  life  of  Penn.  but.  after  his 
death,  his  s<ins  succeeded  in  obtaining  from 
Charles.  Lord  Baltimore,  in  1732,  an  agree- 
Tnent  by  which  the  boundary  line  was  to  be 
drawn  "oy  eoinmissioners  repiescnting  both  par- 
ties to  the  controversy.  Baltimore  at  once  came 
over  with  his  commissioners.  Init  was  unable  to 
get  the  Pennsylvania  proprietors  to  take  action. 
The  unseUlcd  condition  of  the  boiindary.  there- 
fore, continued  and  with  it  increasing  disturb- 
ances in  the  disputcil  territory.  The  (iovcrnor 
of  Maryland  then  laid  the  matter  before  the  Pro- 
prietary and  the  King.  an<l  invoked  their  inter- 
viiitioM  for  the  settlement  of  the  dispute,  liy  an 
order  in  Council  the  King  commanded  both  sides 
to  keep  the  peace  and  instructed  the  Proprie- 
taries to  grant  no  lands  in  the  disputed  territory 
until  the  bo.imbiry  could  be  adjusted.  Pending 
a  decision  of  the  question  by  the  English  Coiirt 
of  Chancery,  to  which  the  matter  was  submitted 
in  173.5,  both  p;irties  agreed  upon  a  provisional 
houndarj".  \  decision  wa-  finally  n  ached  in 
I'.iO  by  the  Chancellor.  Lord  Ilardwicke.  which, 
with  (he  agreement  of  1732.  served  as  the  basis 
of  a  compromise  between  the  proprietors  in  17C0. 
Commissioners  representing  both  sides  were  ap- 
pointed, and  the  eastern  boundary  was  deter- 
mined. To  run  the  east  and  west  line,  as  well 
as  other  parts  unsettled.  Mason  and  Oixen  were 
appointed  in  1703.  and  at  once  enlered  upon 
their  task.  Ry  the  year  1707  they  had  carried 
the  line  over  llie  mountains  to  a  point  244  miles 
from  the  Delnware  Rivei.     Farther  advance  was 


stopped  by  the  Indians,  but  the  line  was  subse- 
quently' completed  by  others.  The  boundary  was 
marked  by  mile-stones,  every  lifth  one  having 
tile  arms  of  Baltimore  engraved  on  one  side  and 
those  of  Penn  on  the  other.  Its  exact  latitude  is 
39°  43'  20.3"  North.  A  resurvey  of  the  line  was 
made  in  1849.  and  in  1900  another  resurvey  was 
authorized  by  the  States  of  Pennsylvania  and 
^Maryland,  the  work  being  placed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  eoiiiniission  consisting  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  the  L'nited  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey,  the  Secretary  of  Hiternal  Affairs  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Director  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  Maryland.  Consult :  Browne.  Mury- 
liiiiil.  the  Hislury  of  a  I'alalinute  (Boston, 
1884)  ;  Donaldsonj  The  I'ublic  Domain  (3d  ed., 
Washington,  1884)  ;  and  Hin.sdale,  The  Old 
Xorthuest   (Boston.  1899). 

MASON  BEE.  A  bee  of  the  sub-family 
Gsniiiuic  of  the  family  Megaehilidic ;  especially  in 
the  L'nited  States  one  of  the  genus  Osniia,  and  in 
Europe  one  of  the  genus  Chalicodonia.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  manner  in  which  tbi'se  bees 
construct  small  earthen  cells,  sometimes  mixed 
with  sand,  pebbles,  and  wood-scrapings,  glued 
together  so  firmly  that  they  are  smooth  inside. 
Ten  to  twenty  of  the  cells  are  usually  found  to- 
gether, and  each  one  contains  a  store  i}f  honey 
and  pollen  for  the  larvae,  only  one  of  which  is 
found  in  each  of  the  cells.  These  bees  show  a 
iiigh  order  of  intelligence  in  the  manner  in  wliich 
they  adapt  themselves  to  circumstances,  and  this 
accounts  for  tlie  very  great  diversity  seen  in 
the  situations  in  which  the  cells  are  placed. 
Ceratosmia  lignivora  is  a  true  wood-borer.  Cer- 
tain s])ccies  excavate  the  pith  of  brambles, 
alternately  widening  and  e(mtracting  the  bur- 
row to  correspond  with  the  proposed  cells  and 
the  intervals  between  them.  Others  use  the  hol- 
lows of  reeds  and  straws:  two  European  species 
utilize  the  enijity  shells  of  several  species  of 
Helix,  compactly  filling  c;icli  shell  with  their 
cells,  which  arc  plae<>d  in  diirerent  relative  posi- 
tions according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  ease,  and 
then  carefully  closing  the  entrance  with  pellets 
of  clay,  sticks,  and  pebbles;  others  again  |)laster 
their  cells  thickly  upon  the  under  side  of  a  flat 
stone  which  is  slightlv  raised  from  the  ground; 
and  still  another  sjx'cies  places  its  cells  in  com- 
])aratively  uni)rotect<'cl  situations  at  the  roots  of 
grass.  The  Clialic<idomas  make  very  perfect, 
mason  work  in  the  walls  of  their  cells. 

The  f<K)d  stored  up  in  the  cells  is  composed  of 
a  mixture  of  honey  and  iiolhii,  Reaumur  and 
Kabre  experimented  with  the  young  bees  to  find 
whether  they  were  able  to  overcome  additional 
dillieulties  in  making  their  way  out  of  the  cell. 
When  the  mouth  of  the  cell  is  covered  with  earth 
and  pith  or  brown  paper  put  in  contact  with  the 
covering  of  the  cells,  the  bees  make  their  way 
out  without  any  great  apparent  dilTieulty,  but 
when  some  -ipaee  intervenes  between  the  niinith 
of  (he  cell  and  the  new  barrier,  the  bees  are 
unable  to  gain  their  freedom.  The  Osmiina'  are 
of  comparatively  small  size,  and  are  usually  of 
dark  metallic  colors.  The  eggs  are  white,  oblong, 
and  ;iliout  the  size  and  shape  of  a  caraway  seed. 
They  hatch  in  abcnit  eight  days.  Development  of 
the  larvir  is  rapid;  they  spin  delicate  cocoons 
and  winter  as  pupic. 

Consult:  Fabre.  T>">rrt  Life,  translated  from 
the  French    (London,  1901)  ;   Howard,  Standard 


MASON   BEE. 


145 


MASONRY. 


'Salural  History,  vol.  ii.  (Boston,  1884);  How- 
ard. The  Insect  Hook  (New  York,  1901).  See 
Plate  of  WihD  Bees. 

MASON  CITY.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Cerro  Gordo  County,  Iowa,  90  miles  northeast 
of  Koit  Dod<^e,  on  the  Iowa  Central,  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul,  the  Chicago  Great 
Western,  and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
railroads  (Map:  Iowa,  D  1).  The  city  has 
ii  public  library,  a  fine  court-house,  and  a 
city  ])ark,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  National 
Memorial  University,  and  of  an  Odd  Fellows' 
Orphans'  Home.  Its  population  is  increasing 
rapidly,  and  it  enjoys  considerable  industrial  and 
conuncrcial  activity.  There  are  important  agricul- 
tural, grain,  and  live-stock  interests,  and  a  whole- 
sale trade  in  groceries,  fruits,  etc.;  also  .sandstone 
quarries,  brick  and  tile  works,  flour  mills,  lime 
works,  sash  and  door  factories,  and  foundries. 
Mason  Cit}',  settled  about  18.55.  is  governed  under 
a  charter  of  1870,  which  provides  for  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  .a  unicameral  coun- 
cil. The  citv  ow'ns  and  operates  the  water 
works.     Population,  in  1890.  4007;  in  1900,  0740. 

MA'SONRY.  The  art  of  construction  in 
stone.  The  earliest  existing  examples  are  among 
the  most  magnificent  specimens  of  the  art.  No 
nation  has  excelled  the  ancient  Egyptians  in 
stonework,  whether  we  consider  the  size  of  the 
materials,  or  the  unequaled  exactness  with  which 
they  are  fitted  together.  The  Eg^'ptians  did  not 
use  mortar  in  their  important  structures,  such 
as  the  Pyramids,  the  joints  being  all  carefully 
polished  and  fitted.  Cyclopean  or  polygonal  ma- 
sonry, of  wliieh  remains  exist  in  many  parts  of 
Greece  and  Italy,  as  well  as  Asia  Minor,  also  ex- 
hibits stones  of  great  size  and  with  carefully  ad- 
justed joints.  The  walls  of  Myeena;  are  among 
the  earliest  examples.  These  are  built  with  huge 
irregular  blocks,  the  spaces  between,  being  filled 
up  with  smaller  stones.  The  Italian  specimens 
are  usually  more  carefully  executed:  the  stones 
are  not  squared,  but  they  are  all  carefully  fitted 
together.  In  some  cases,  the  beds  or  horizontal 
joints  are  made  level,  and  the  upright  joints  left 
unsquared.  No  mortar  is  used  in  Cyclopean  ma- 
sonry. 

The  masonry  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  very 
closely  resembled  that  of  the  present  day : 
Kubhle-wort,-  {opus  incertum) ,  in  which  the 
stones  are  not  regularly  coursed;  coursed  work, 
where  the  joints  are  all  level,  and  the  stones  of 
equal  height;  (islilar,  resembling  the  latter,  but 
built  with  larger  stones  all  carefully  dressed  on 
the  joints.  Many  of  the  Roman  buildings  in  the 
East  were  constructed  with  blocks  of  enormous 
size,  as  at  Baalbek  (q.v.),  where  some  of  the 
stones  are  00  feet  in  length. 

Modern  stone  masonry  is  classified  according 
to  (1)  the  degree  of  finish  of  the  face  of  the 
stones,  into  quarry  faced,  pitch  faced,  and 
dressed;  according  to  (2)  whether  the  horizontal 
courses  or  layers  are  of  the  same  thickness  at 
similar  heights,  into  range,  broken  range,  and 
random  masonry;  according  to  (3)  the  care  exer- 
cised in  dressing  the  beds,  into  ashlar,  squared 
.stone,  and  rubble  masonry.  (1)  Quarry  faced 
nias<mrv  is  thai  in  which  the  faces  of  the  stones 
are  left  as  they  come  from  the  quarry;  it  is  used 
chiefly  for  massive  structures  such  as  bridge 
piers,  retaining  walls.,  dams,  and  areh  bridges. 
Pitch  faced  masonry  is  that  in  which  the  face  of 


the  stones  is  roughly  dressed  so  as  to  make  the 
front  of  the  horizontal  joint  a  straight  line;  it 
is  used  for  work  where  a  rugged  appearance  is 
desired  without  the  extreme  roughness  of  quarry 
faced  masonry.  Vressed  masonry,  as  the  name 
indicates,  is  that  in  which  the  face  of  the  stones 
is  dressed  to  a  more  or  less  smooth  plane  surface; 
it  is  emjiloyed  chiefly  in  building  construction 
and  for  the  finishing  courses  of  engineering 
works.  I'linrje  masonry  is  that  in  which  the  hori- 
zontal joints  are  continuous  throughout,  or, 
stated  in  other  woi'ds.  in  which  each  eour.se  is 
of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  lirokcn  range 
masonry  is  tluit  in  which  the  horizontal  joints 
are  not  continuous  throughout,  but  in  which  the 
masonry  is  not  laid  in  courses  at  all.  Ashlar 
masonry  is  cut  stone  masonry  in  which  the  joint 
faces  are  so  trul_y  cut  that  the  distance  between 
the  general  planes  of  the  contiguous  surface  of 
the  stones  is  Vj  inch  or  less.  Ashlar  masonry 
ma}'  be  subdivided  into  range  ashlar,  broken 
range  ashlar,  random  ashlar,  quarry  faced  ashlar, 
pitch  faced  ashlar  or  dressed  ashlar,  and  also 
into  combinations  of  these  sub-classes,  as,  for  e.x- 
ample,  quarry  faced  range  ashlar.  Squared  stone 
masonry  is  that  in  which  the  stones  are  roughly 
dressed  and  roughly  squared  on  their  joint  faces; 
when  the  distance  between  the  general  planes  of 
the  contiguous  surfaces  of  the  stones  is  lA  inch 


ASHLAR   MAsn.NKV. 


or  more,  the  masonry  belongs  to  this  class.  In 
])ractice  the  distinction  between  ashlar  masonry 
and  squared  stone  masonry  is  not  well  defined. 
Rubble  masonry  is  that  composed  of  unsquared 
stone,  and  may  be  laid  with  or  without  an  at- 
tempt to  approximate  regular  courses.  Several 
of  the  above  types  are  illustrated  in  the  article 
Building. 

Some  of  the  other  current  definitions  of  stone 
masonry  work  are  as  follows:  Face,  the  front 
surface  of  a  wall;  back,  the  inside  surface; 
facing,  the  stones  which  form  the  face  of  a  wall ; 
bucking,  the  stones  which  form  the  back  of  a 
wall;  batter,  the  slope  of  the  surface  of  a  wall; 
course,  a  horizontal  layer  of  stone  in  a  wall ; 
joints,  the  mortar  l.ying  between  the  stones  (usu- 
ally the  horizontal  joints  are  called  beds  or 
bed  joints,  while  the  vertical  joints  are  called 
builds  or  simply  joints)  ;  coping,  a  coul'se  of  stone 
on  the  toj)  of  the  wall  to  protect  it:  pointing,  a 
better  quality  of  mortar  put  in  the  face  of  the 
joints  to  help  them  to  resist  weathering;  bond, 
the  arrangement  of  stone  in  adjacent  courses; 
stretcher,  a  stone  whose  greatest  dimension  lies 
parallel  to  the  wall ;  header,  a  stone  whose  great- 
est dimension  lies  perpendicular  to  the  wall ; 
quoin,  a  corner  stone:  dou'cls.  straight  bars  of 
iron  which  enter  a  hole  in  the  upper  side  of  one 
stone  and  also  a  hole  in  the  lower  side  of  the 
stone  above;  cramps,  bars  of  iron  having  the  ends 


MASONRY. 


146 


MASONS. 


bent  to  right  angles  with  tlio  body,  the  bent  ends 
of  which  enter  holes  in  the  upper  surfaces  of 
adjacent  stones. 

Ashlar  masonry  is  used  for  works  in  wliich 
great  strength  and  stability  are  reiiuired.  The 
stones  for  ashlar  masonry  usually  have  a  lengtli 
of  from  three  to  five  times  the  depth,  and  a 
breadth  of  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  times 
the  depth.  The  thickness  of  the  mortar  joints 
in  the  very  best  class  of  ashlar  masonry  for 
building  purposes  is  about  %  inch;  for  railway 
and  bridge  masonry  about  V4  inch  to  ',:;  inch. 
The  stones  are  laid  so  that  the  vertical  joints  of 
one  course  come  ajiproximately  over  the  middle 
of  the  stones  below,  or,  technically,  the  stones 
'break  joints.'  The  arrangement  of  headers  and 
stretchers  varies;  the  strongest  arrangement  is 
wlii-re  a  header  and  a  stretcher  are  used  alter- 
nately. Dowels  and  cramps  are  used  where  ex- 
ceptional strength  is  re(|uiri'd.  Pointing  is  done 
by  .scraping  out  tlie  mortar  to  a  depth  of  at  least 
>/i  inch  from  the  face  of  each  joint  and  lilling  the 
void  with  a  high-quality  mortar  tliorougbly 
rammed,  and  sometiuies  (inisliing  tlie  exposed' 
edge  with  a  bead.  Ashlar  masonry  is  usually 
backed  with  rubble  masonry,  the  backing  being 
built  simultaneously  with  the  facing.  Squared 
stone  masonry  is  built  like  ashlar  masonry  ex- 
cept that  dressed  stones  are  not  used  and  range 
work  is  seldom  employed;  tlie  backing  and  point- 
ing are  the  same  as  for  ashlar  masonry. 

Iluhhle  masonry  is  employed  for  backing  ash- 
lar, and  squared  stone  masonry  is  used  for  small- 
sized  abutments,  culverts,  small  building  founda- 
tion walls,  etc.  The  stones  are  prepared  for  laying 
by  simply  knocking  oil'  the  weak  corners  and  loose 
pieces.  .VU  interstices  are  filled  with  small 
pieces  of  stone  and  mortar,  and  the  mortar  joints 
are  made  thick  enougli  to  prevent  adjacent  stones 
from  Iduchiiig.  Very  often  rubble  masonry  is 
laid  without  mortar,  and  is  then  called  dry  rubble 
masonry.  The  strength  of  stone  masonry  varies 
with  the  strength  of  the  stone,  the  size  of  the 
blocks,  the  accuracy  of  the  dressing  of  the  joint 
faces,  the  proportion  of  headers  to  stretchers,  and 
the  kind  and  quality  of  the  mortar  used.  Prof. 
I.  O.  Baker,  in  .1  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construc- 
tion (Xew  York,  1000),  gives  the  following  as  a 
safe  load  per  .square  foot  on  diltVrent  kinds 
of  stone  masonry:  Rubble,  10  to  1:3  tons; 
squared  stone.  15  to  20  tons;  limestone  ashlar, 
20  to  25  tons;  granite  ashlar.  .30  tons.  In  cer- 
tain classes  of  stone  masonry,  such  as  arch 
bridges  and  lighthouses,  the  stones  are  cut  to 
exact  dimensions  and  to  special  forms.  In  light- 
house construction  these  special  forms  are  sonie- 
tiniiv  quite  intricate.  (See  LuiiiriiorsE. )  In 
building  ma>iinry  arches  a  framework  of  timber 
wliose  to))  surface  is  tinored  over  on  a  curve  cor- 
responding exactly  to  the  curve  of  the  arch  is 
used  on  wbhh  to  set  the  wedge-shaped  stones  of 
the  arch  ring.  See  Centrino,  and  illustrations 
in  article  V.lii.niNO. 

BiiicK  Masoxkv.  With  due  allowance  made 
for  the  dilTerence  of  the  material  and  the  dif- 
ference in  the  dimensions  of  the  blocks  used, 
brick  masonry  corresponds  very  closely  to  dressed 
dimension  stone  range  ashlar  masonry.  The 
bond  \iscd  is  varied  eonsideralily.  but  is  usually 
either  the  Kuglish  bond  or  the  Flemish  bond.  In 
the  English  bond  the  courses  are  alternately  head- 
er* and  stretchers,  and  in  the  Flemish  bond  the 
hrirk  in  each  course  are  altcrnatelv  headers  and 


stretcliers.  ( For  further  description  and  illus- 
trations of  brick  masonry,  see  1Jlildi.\o.)  The 
mortar  used  in  brickwork  may  be  either  lime 
mortar  or  cement  mortar,  the  former  being  most 
used  in  ordinary  building  work.  Practice  varies 
in  the  amount  of  pressure  allowed  upon  brick 
masonry,  bvit  it  should  carry  safely  a  load  of  20 
tons  per  square  foot  when  laid  in  lime  mortar. 
Brick  uuisonry  is  cliieliy  used  in  buihling  con- 
struction and  in  lining  tunnels  and  constructing 
sewers.  Uom])ared  with  stone  masonry,  brick 
masonry  is  not  so  strong  as  ashlar  masonry,  but 
it  costs  less,  while  it  is  stronger  than  rubble 
masonry,  but  costs  more;  it  resists  fire  better 
and  is  at  least  eoually  as  durable  against  ordi- 
nary weathering  as  best  stone  masonry. 

Concrete  J1.\so>ry.  Concrete  masonry  may 
consist  of  molded  blocks  of  concrete  laid  like 
ashlar  or  squared  stone  masonry  or  of  moni)lithic 
masses  of  concrete  deposited  or  constructed  in 
situ.  In  the  first  class  of  work  the  plastic  con- 
crete (see  Concrete)  is  rammed  into  suitable 
molds  and  allowed  to  harden,  and  then  the  hard- 
ened blocks  are  laid  in  the  structure  just  asi 
similar  blocks  of  natural  stone  would  be  laid 
In  the  second  class  of  work  the  plastic  concrete 
is  deposited  directly  in  the  position  it  is  to  oc 
cupy  in  the  finished  structure,  molds  being  used 
to  confine  tlie  nuiterial  to  particular  forms  and 
positions  when  necessary.  Concrete  masonry  is 
extensively  used  for  ncarlj'  all  the  purposes  for 
wliieh  brick  and  stone  are  now  employed.  For 
a  comprehensive  treati.se  on  masonry  work,  cmi 
suit:  Baker,  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction 
(Xew  York,  1900)  ;  ilerrill,  Htones  for  liuilding 
and  Decoration  (New  York,  1891).  See  Build- 
ing; Builuinu-Sto.ni;;  Brick;  Ceme.nt;  Con- 
crete; MoRT.vK;  QuAKKY;  Stone  Cuttino  and 
Dressing;  and  Stone,  Arth-ici.^l. 

MASONS,  Free.  .\  secret  fraternal  organiza- 
tion of  worldwide  celebrity,  and  one  credited  by 
enthusiastic  writers  with  great  antiquity.  The 
Order,  however,  is  now  conceded  to  have  been 
instituted  about  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century — the  pretensions  put  forth  to  a  date 
coeval  with  the  building  of  the  Temple  at  .Jerusa- 
lem, with  King  Solomon  as  the  first  grand 
master,  being  considered  by  those  who  have  thor 
oughly  investigated  the  subject  as  not  worthy  nf 
credit.  The  attempt  also  made  to  establish  a 
connection  between  the  fraternity  and  many  of 
the  sci-ret  culls  and  organizations,  such  as  tin- 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  the  Pythagoreans,  the  Rosi 
eruei:ins  and  others,  in  the  early  stages  of 
its  existence,  has  also  failed,  the  utmost  a<- 
eomplished  in  that  direction  being  the  deter- 
tion  of  a  certain  similarity  between  the  symboU 
and  ceremonies  of  these  older  institutions  and 
the  system  of  ritual  and  rule  observed  by 
the  ^iasonic  Order — cireumambulation.  the  u~c 
of  aprons,  the  forty-seventh  jiroblem  of  Km 
clid.  etc.  .Another  consideration  which  tend^ 
to  discredit  any  connection  between  these  older 
associations  and  the  Freemasons  is  the  fact  that 
the  conception  of  Masonry  implies  a  cosmopol- 
itan brotherhood,  which  would  have  been  impo;;- 
sible  of  realization  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the 
worlil's  history.  The  more  rational  and  the  gen- 
erally acceiited  theory  regarding  the  origin  of  tlie 
society  of  Freemasons  is.  that  it  is  the  successor 
of  the  buililing  associations  of  the  ^liddle  .\ges 
of  whicti  the  ^trinmctzcn  nr  stonemasons  of  Ger- 
many   were   a    representative.      The   term    Free- 


J 


I 


MASONS. 


147 


MASONS. 


mason  has  also  been  a  puzzle  to  philologists,  some 
claiming  that  it  is  Norman  French — Frcrc  ilaron 
(brother  mason) — while  otliurs  maintain  the 
second  part  of  the  title  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  German  word  Melzen,  having  the  same  sig- 
nification. These  early  building  societies,  the 
precursors  of  the  Masons,  are  found  to  have 
been  grouped  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies for  the  most  part  around  the  Benedictine 
monasteries,  the  abbots  being  the  architects  who 
employed  the  masons  on  ecclesiastical  buildings 
and  repairs.  The  development  of  architectural 
taste  and  the  acquisition  of  greater  wealth  by  the 
Clmrcli  led  to  the  erection  of  buildings  on  a 
larger  and  more  imposing  scale,  requiring  the 
association  of  craftsmen  in  the  various  branches 
of  construction  for  longer  periods"  together.  This 
led  to  the  formation  of  societies  known  as  the 
Bauhiitten,  so  called  from  the  wooden  booths, 
where,  during  the  continuance  of  the  work  on  any 
particular  building,  the  craftsmen  kept  their 
tools,  took  their  meals,  and  held  their  meetings. 
By  the  latter  part  of  tlie  thirteentli  century  tliese 
societies  had  increased  so  in  number  that  a  gen- 
eral association  of  the  Bauhiitten  was  formed  in 
Germany,  governed  by  one  code  of  craft  laws, 
acknowledging  one  set  of  secret  signs  and  cere- 
monies, and  working  under  one  central  authority, 
the  Eiiiipthiitte  of  Strassburg.  That  there  is  a 
certain  connection  admitted  lictween  this  organi- 
zation and  the  ilasonic  fraternity  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  the  trade  customs  and 
symbolic  forms  of  the  Bauhiitten  have  been  de- 
scribed by  JIasonic  writers  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. (See  Fort,  Emit/  Tlistorji  mid  Anfifjiiitirs  of 
Freemasonrij .  Philadelphia,  ISST).  The  require- 
ment most  rigidl.y  enforced  from  the  earliest 
period  was  secrecy,  which  was  enjoined  in  the 
most  solemn  manner,  both  journevmcn  and  ap- 
prentices being  sworn,  before  initiation,  on  the 
Bible,  Sqimre  and  Compasses,  to  preserve  invio- 
late the  secrets  of  the  brotherhood,  ilembership 
was  at  this  early  period  confined  strictly  to  the 
operative  class,  who  were  sup])osed  to  preserve  the 
old  secrets  of  Gothic  ilasonry,  but  later,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  it  no  longer  was  deemed 
necessary  to  restrict  membership  to  craftsmen 
alone,  and,  the  bars  being  lowered,  gentlemen  be- 
came eligible.  The  Haiipfhiitte  went  out  of 
existence  in   17.31. 

From  the  Continent  of  Europe  England  derived 
much  of  her  lodge  organization.  The  earlier 
English  associations  of  operative  builders  were 
first  called  Freemasons  in  the  fourteenth  and  fif- 
teenth centuries,  because  of  the  freedom  granted 
them  to  carry  on  their  occupation.  From  1607 
to  IGIS  Inigo  .Tones,  under  the  patronage  of  Lord 
Pembroke,  was  actively  engaged  in  Jlasonic  w^ork, 
but  the  civil  wars  and  the  agitation  caused  bv 
the  Reformation  so  materially  broke  up  the 
Masonic  connection  that  it  was  not  until  1663 
that  definite  steps  were  taken  to  put  the 
fraternity  on  a  permanent  basis.  A  general  as- 
sembly of  Jlasons  was  held  in  London  in  tliat 
year,  new  rules  were  formulated  and  statutes 
enacted,  and  a  f(u-mal  resolution  was  jiassed  that 
Masonic  privileges  should  be  no  longer  confined  to 
the  operative  Masons.  Professional  and  literary 
men.  those  learned  in  astrology-,  or  alchemy,  as 
well  as  theoretic  geometricians  and  architects, 
now  identified  themselves  with  the  fraternity. 
This  class  of  membership  at  first  was  honorary, 
whence  the  term  Free  and  'Accepted'  Masons. 


The  historic  period  of  Freemasonry  begins  with 
the  formation  of  what  is  known  as  the  jiremier 
Masonic  Grand  Lodge  of  the  world  in  London, 
England,  in  1717.  This  is  generally  styled  the 
'revival'  of  Freemasonry.  Prior  to  that  time  a 
Masonic  lodge  was  composed  of  "any  number  of 
brelliren  assembled  at  any  place  for  the  perform- 
ance of  work,  and,  when  so  assembled,  were  au- 
thorized to  receive  into  the  Order  brothers  and 
fellows,  and  to  practice  the  rites  of  Masonry. 
The  Ancient  Charges  were  the  only  standard  for 
tlie  regulation  of  their  conduct.  The  master  of 
tile  lodge  was  elected  pro  leinijore.  and  his  au- 
thority terminated  with  the  dissolution  of  the 
meeting  over  which  he  had  presided,  unless  the 
lodge  was  permanently  established  at  any  par- 
ticular place."  Such  lodges  are  known  in  Ma- 
sonic history  as  time  innnemorial  lodges.  On 
June  24,  1717,  four  of  the  old  lodges  then  ex- 
isting in  London  constituted  themselves  into  a 
Grand  Lodge,  the  first  ilasonie  Grand  Lodge  ever 
organized,  and  elected  Anthony  Sayer  their  first 
granil  master.  George  Pa,vne  succeeded  Saver 
as  grand  master  in  1718,  and  Dr.  .John  The- 
ophilus  Desaguliers  followed  in  1710.  In  1720 
George  Payne  was  again  grand  master,  and 
in  that  year  compiled  for  the  first  time  a  set 
of  'General  Regulations,'  which  were  subsequently 
revised  by  Dr.  Desaguliers  and  Rev.  James  An- 
derson, a  Scotch  Presbrterian  minister,  and  were 
first  published  in  172.3,  under  tlie  title  of  "The 
Charges  of  a  Freemason,  extracted  from  the 
ancient  records  of  lodges  bevond  the  sea  and  of 
those  in  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  for  the 
use  of  lodges  in  London."  After  1717  new  lodges 
could  be  created  onlv  under  a  warrant  from  the 
Grand  Lodge.  In  1724  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Eng- 
land came  into  conflict  with  a  time  immemorial 
lodge  at  York,  claiming  to  have  originated  at  an 
assembly  of  Masons  in  926.  This  led  (o  the 
formation  in  1725,  b.y  the  old  Lodge  of  York,  of 
the  'Grand  Lodge  of  All  England.'  The  Grand 
Lodge  of  all  England,  however,  appears  to  have 
maintained  friendly  relations  with  the  London 
Grand  Lodge.  In  1751  nine  lodges  owing  alle- 
giance to  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England  seceded 
from  that  body  on  the  ground  that  the  Grand 
Lodge  suffered  subordinate  lodges  of  its  jurisdic- 
tion to  depart  from  the  ancient  landmarks  of 
Freemasonr.v,  and  organized  a  'Glrand  Lodge  of 
England,  according  to,  old  In.stitutions.'  They 
styled  themselves  'Ancients,'  and  called  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England  'Moderns.' 
In  1750  Laurence  Dermott,  the  leader  of  the 
seceders,  published  the  '".^himan  Rezon,"  or  Book 
of  Constitutions,  which  he  copied  from  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  original  or  'ilodern'  Grand 
Lodge,  and  addressed  it  to  'The  Ancient  York 
Masons  in  England.'  The  Grand  Lodge  of  All 
England,  at  York,  died  in  1702.  There  then  ex- 
isted in  England  but  two  Grand  Lodges,  the 
'Ancients'  and  the  'Moderns.'  After  negotiations 
extending  over  a  number  of  years,  finally,  in 
1S13,  through  the  efforts  of  the  Duke  of  Sussex, 
grand  master  of  the  'ilodcrns,'  and  his  distin- 
guished brother,  the  Duke  of  Kent,  grand  master 
of  the  '.\iicients,'  a  permanent  union  was  estab- 
lished under  the  title  of  the  'ITnited  Grand  Lodge 
of  Ancient  Freemasons  of  England,'  by  which  the 
fraternity  has  since  been  known.  Freemasonry 
has  always  been  favorably  considered  in  England. 
In  1700,  when  an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed 
directed  against  seditious  societies,  an  exception 


MASONS. 


148 


MASONS. 


was  made  in  favor  of  Jlasoiiic  lodf;es,  which  were 
credited  with  meeting  solely  for  benevolent  pur- 
poses. .Jews  were  admitted  to  nieniborship  on 
the  same  footing  as  other  religious  denomina- 
tions. The  growth  and  progress  of  the  fraternity 
has  been  so  marked  that  there  are  now  in  tiio 
(irand  Lodge  of  Kngland  nn>re  tlian  liOIMI  bulges, 
a  tirand  Lodge,  sixty  provincial  (irand  Lodgis, 
a  tirand  Lodge  of  JIark  Masters,  a  Supreme 
tirand  Chapter  of  Royal  Arch  Masons,  a  (ireat 
Priory  of  iCuiglits  Templars,  and  a  Su])reme 
Coimcil  of  the  .\ncient  Accepted  Scottish  Hite. 
A  few  years  after  the  revival  a  Committee  on 
Charity  was  formed  and  since  then  Masonic 
schools  have  been  founded  for  boys  and  girls  and 
institutions   for  the  aged  and   intirm. 

In  Scotland  the  early  history  of  the  JIasons 
dillercd  in  no  essential  respect  from  that  of 
otiicr  trade  crafts.  In  15!I8-!1U  the  statutes  and 
ordinances  of  the  Order  to  be  observed  ""by  all 
Jlaster  Masons  as  set  down  by  William  Shaw, 
Master  of  Work  to  His  Majesty,  and  general  war- 
dent  of  the  craft"  (see  Lyon,  History  of  Free- 
masonry in  Scotland) ,  were  published.  These 
ordinances,  however,  are  largely  concerned  with 
trade  relations.  The  system  of  degrees  was  not 
<lcvelo]jed,  but  a  'pass-word'  was  adopted.  In 
IT.'ili  a  final  elVort,  set  on  foot  tifteen  years  be- 
f(M-e  by  Disaguliers,  the  oi-ganizer  of  the  English 
^Masonic  nuivcment,  to  consolidate  the  various 
lodges  into  a  representative  body,  was  successful, 
and  on  November  30,  1736,  the  first  general  as- 
sembly of  symbolical  Masons  was  held  and  a 
Grand  Lodge  for  Scotland  formed.  The .  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  of  Saint  Clair,  wdiich  was 
patron  of  the  ilasonie  Lodge,  was  elected  first 
grand  master;  |)rovincial  grand  masters  were 
appiiintcd.  a  general  adhesion  of  Seotdi  lodges 
to  the  new  organization  was  eHected,  and  Saint 
Andrew's  Day  was  substituted  for  the  day  of 
Saint  .Folin  the  Baptist,  the  fete  day  in  England. 
I'recTnasonrv  was  introduced  into  Ireland  in  1730, 
when  the  first  lodge  was  opened  at  Dublin.  The 
English  system  and  ritual  were  adopted,  but, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  religion  of  the  country 
is  so  largely  Roman  Catholic,  Masonry  has 
not  made  :i  very  marked  progress.  At  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century  its  representation  con- 
sisted of  one  (irand  Lodge  and  about  3.j0  lodges. 

The  first  .Masonic  lodge  in  Erance,  according 
to  Clavel  and  other  wi'll-authcnticafcd  authori- 
ties, was  established  at  Dunkirk  on  October  13, 
1721,  and  was  styled  'h'Amitif  ct  Frittrniite.' 
The  second  was  (uganized  by  Lord  Derwcnt water 
in  Paris  in  172').  It  was  at  fir.st  largely  patron- 
ized by  the  nobility,  but  its  purpose  does  not  seem 
til  have  been  of  an  clivateil  character,  and  this, 
supplemented  by  tiii'  vigorous  op]>osition  of  tlu' 
Calliolic  Church.  t<'nded  to  invest  the  institution 
of  Masonry  with  a  very  unstable  character.  In 
173(!  a  Grand  Lodge  was  formed,  and  in  1706 
a  new  (iriinilr-Lotie  yntionntr  of  Eranee  was  cre- 
ated (subsequently  altered  in  title  to  the  flrnnd 
fiririil).  ami  a  representative  system  adopted  un- 
der which  the  various  lodges  were  brought  into  a 
degree  of  .tubordination  to  the  central  and  au- 
thoritative body.  Considerable  hostility,  how- 
ever, was  manifested  toward  the  new  organiza- 
tion by  the  original  tirand  Lodge,  and  there  was, 
besides,  a  conllict  between  the  rituals  in  us<',  the 
Grand  Orient  following  the  Scottish  rite,  while 
the  original  Grand  Lodge  had  adopted  a  wildly 
superstitious    form,     fathered    by    the    impostor 


Cagliostro.  The  Revolution  practically  suspended 
both  organizations,  which  subsequently  were  re- 
vived and  in  1799  became  united  in  one  national 
organization.  Hardly  had  this  iniion  been  ctrcct- 
cd  when  another  entering  wedge  was  inserted  by 
the  introduction  of  two  new  systems  of  ritual, 
one  the  Scottish  Philosophical  Rite,  including 
till'  luminous  ring  and  the  white  and  black  eagle, 
and  the  other  the  Ancient  and  .\ccepted  Scottish 
Rite  of  thirty-three  degrees.  Einally,  in  1804,  a 
\iTiio7i  was  again  effected  between  the  (irand 
Orient  and  the  Supreme  Council,  but  since  that 
period  the  cause  of  Freemasonry  in  France  has 
not  been  as  progressive  as  in  other  European 
countries.  At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  number  of  lodges  in  existence  was  only 
about  3.50.  The  Grand  Orient  has  ceased  to  re- 
()uire  belief  in  a  pcr.-fonal  (!od  as  a  test  of  mem- 
bership. The  introduction  of  Freemasonry  into 
other  European  countries,  notably  Spain,  Hol- 
land, Italy,  Austria,  Germany,  and  Russia,  took 
place  between  1725  and  1750,  but  with  varying 
results.  In  Russia  the  Jlasonic  lodges  have  been 
suppres.sed,  while  in  Austria-Hungary  they  mere- 
ly preserve  an  existence,  owing  to  the  ban  of 
the  Church  being  placed  on  them. 

The  introduction  of  ilasonry  into  America  was 
under  the  <lcputation  to  Daniel  Coxe  of  New 
Jersey,  from  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England,  dated 
.June  5.  1730,  which  appointe<l  him  provincial 
grand  master  for  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and 
New  .Jersey,  'for  the  space  of  two  years.'  While 
Coxe  does  not  seem  to  have  been  active  in  estab- 
lishing lodges  in  his  territory,  reliable  evidence 
that  Saint  .John's  Lodge  was  founded  in  Phila- 
del])hia  in  the  latter  part  of  1730  or  early  in 
1731  is  found  in  a  letter  written  by  Henry 
Bell,  dated  November  17,  1754,  in  which  he 
speaks  of  a  charter  being  granted  by  Daniel 
Coxe  to  a  number  of  Philadelphians.  The  exist- 
ence of  the  lodge  in  1731  is  further  proved  by  the 
account  books  of  Renjannn  Franklin,  who  sold 
stationery  to  and  did  printing  for  Saint  .John's 
Lodge.  The  entries  bear  dates  in  1731.  Another 
corroborative  proof  is  found  in  a  ledger  of  the 
lodge  discovered  in  1SS4.  which  is  callcil  'Liber 
B.'  Its  entries  begin  with  .Line  24.  1731,  and 
consist  of  amounts  paid  into  the  lodge  by  mem- 
bers. Franklin  was  made  a  Mason  in  .January, 
1731.  In  1733  the  Grand  Tvodge  of  England 
granted  a  deputation  to  Major  Henry  Price  of 
Boston,  as  'Provincial  Grand  Master  of  Free 
and  Accepted  Jlasons  in  New  England.'  On 
July  30,  1733,  a  warrant  was  granted  to  form 
Saint  .John's  Lodge  in  Boston,  Mass.  From  this 
beginning.  Freemascmry  spread  throughout  the 
colonies.  There  also  existed  a  large  number  of 
military  and  traveling  lodges,  usually  attached 
to  H'giments  or  battalions  of  the  British  Army, 
and  formed  imder  warrants  from  the  Grand 
Lodges  of  England.  Scotland,  and   Ireland. 

When  the  War  of  the  Revolution  came  to  a 
successful  close  the  American  lodges  so  created 
withdrew  their  allegiance  to  the  parent  lodges 
in  England  and  Scotland  and  created  Grand 
Lodges  in  several  of  the  States,  and  the  Order 
thus  became  deeply  rooted  in  .American  soil, 
where  it  has  continued  to  grow  without  inter- 
rujiticm  other  than  what  is  known  as  the  great 
anti-Masonic  movement,  which  began  in  1826  and 
continued  for  about  ten  years,  during  which 
period  the  membership  was  reduced  to  a  very 
small    number.       (See    Anti-Masons;    Morgan, 


MASONS. 


149 


MASONS. 


William.)  The  Order  is  also  prospering  in 
British  America,  while  in  the  republics  of  South 
America,  whore  the  Catholic  religion  i.s  in  the 
ascenilenl,  the  same  influences  operate  to  its 
hindrance  as  in  the  European  countries  where 
Church  influence  is  powerful. 

A  system  of  what  is  known  as  Freemasonry 
exists  among  the  colored  people  in  America, 
which,  while  admitted  to  be  regular,  is  not  recog- 
nized hy  white  members  of  the  Order,  or  tlieir 
grand  and  subordinate  lodges  in  this  country, 
although  receiving  full  recognition  as  to  tlie 
regularity  of  tlicir  organization  from  some  of 
the  foreign  Grand  Lodges.  The  parent  lodge  was 
opened  in  Boston.  jMarch  (i,  177.5.  through  the 
exertions  of  Prince  Hall,  known  in  the  archives 
of  the  Order  as  the  father  of  Freemasonry  among 
colored  men.  There  were  fifteen  charter  mem- 
bers and  the  lodge  was  known  as  African  Lodge. 
It  received  a  warrant  from  the  Grand  Lodge  of 
England  in  1784  and  was  organized  as  African 
Lodge  No.  420  in  1787,  with  the  rank  of  a 
Provincial  Grand  Lodge  and  Prince  Hall  as  pro- 
vincial grand  master.  This  lodge  became  dor- 
mant after  the  death  of  the  charter  members, 
was  subsequently  revived,  but  failed  to  receive 
recognition  from  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England. 
The  African  Grand  Lodge  of  Bo.ston,  now  known 
as  Prince  Hall  Grand  Lodge  of  llassachusetts, 
was  organized  in  1808.  and  there  are  at  the 
present  time  in  the  L'nited  States  twenty-eight 
colored  Grand  Lodges,  iind  one  in  Ontario,  Can- 
ada. These  are  distributed  as  follows:  Ala- 
bama, Arkansas,  California,  Colorado,  Con- 
necticut, Delaware,  District  of  Columbia,  Flor- 
ida, Georgia,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Kansas, 
Kentueky,  Louisiana.  Maryland,  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  New  Jerse,v,  New  York,  North 
Carolina,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Penns,vlvania, 
Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  Texas,  and  West 
Virginia.  There  also  exist  among  the  negroes 
bodies  of  the  higher  degrees  of  Masonry,  viz. 
Chapters  of  the  Koyal  Arch,  Councils  of  Royal 
and  Select  ilasters,  Commanderies  of  Kni,ghts 
Templars,  subordinate  bodies  of  the  Ancient  Ac- 
cepted Scottish  Rite,  a  Supreme  Council  of  Sov- 
ereign Grand  Insi)ectors-General,  and  Temples  of 
Nobles  of  the  Mystic  Shrine. 

Concerning  the  rites,  ceremonies,  and  princi- 
ples of  Freemasonry  it  should  be  said  that  the 
underlying  principle  is  a  belief  in  a  Supreme 
Being  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Next  to 
that  is  the  recognition  of  fraternal  obligations 
among  members  of  the  Order.  The  duties  of  a 
^lason  are  always  to  be  held  subordinate  to 
his  duty  to  his  God,  to  his  country,  and  to  his 
fellowmen,  a  fact  not  generally  credited  outside 
the  fraternity,  and  ignorance  of  which  has  led 
to  much  of  the  opposition  it  has  encountered, 
on  account  of  its  being  a  secret  institution.  It 
differs  from  other  secret  and  beneficial  societies 
in  the  matter  of  its  beneficiary  features,  for  theie 
is  no  obligation  expressed  in  the  ord<'r  of  pro- 
cedure set  forth  as  part  of  its  fixed  policy.  The 
measure  of  relief  to  be  extended  to  fellow 
members  in  di.stress  and  the  participation  in  any 
work  of  charity  are  matters  implied  rather  than 
commanded.  Some  of  the  lodges  volvintarily  cre- 
ate funds  for  charitable  purposes,  but  this  is  a 
matter  which  rests  with  the  particular  lodge, 
which  is  independent  in  any  line  of  action  it 
adopts  not  antagonistic  to  the  objects  or  prin- 
ciples of  the  Order.     As  a  rule,  the  dispensing  of 


relief  is  entirely  governed  by  circumstances,  and 
is  not  circumscribed  by  conditions  of  membership 
in  any  particular  loilge.  A  sojourning  or  visit- 
ing Mason,  in  any  locality  where  he  may  be  tiui- 
porarilj'  staying,  if  in  distress,  has  a  claim  on 
his  brother  ilasons,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit 
and  teaching  of  the  Masonic  fraternity.  A  system 
of  benevolence  has  been  adopted  in  many  of  the 
American  jurisdictions  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  fraternity.  It  is  the  establishment  in  difl'cr- 
cnt  jurisdictions  of  Masonic  homes  and  inlinua- 
ries  for  the  needy  and  distressed  of  the  Order. 
Tlie  first  of  these  homes  was  established  in  1807 
at  Louisville,  Ky.,  as  the  'Masonic  Widows  and 
Orphans  Home  and  Infirmary.'  Other  institu- 
tions have  been  founded  in  Philadelphia,  Chicago, 
Saint  Louis,  Nashville,  Springfield,  Ohio,  W"icli- 
ita,  Kan.,  Waterford,  Conn.,  Burlington,  N.  J., 
Richmond.  Va..  and  in  Michigan,  Texas,  and 
California.  Funds  have  been  established  in  many 
other  jurisdictions  either  to  found  homes  or  to 
provide  a  systematic  administration  of  charity. 
Tlie  liomes  are.  like  the  English  institutions, 
largely  supported  by  voluntary  contributions,  but 
in  some  States  a  per  capita  tax  is  levied  upon 
each  Master  Mason  within  the  jurisdiction. 

The  teachings  of  Freemasonry  are  symbolical, 
ceremonial,  and  allegorical.  Rites,  almost  with- 
out nmnber,  were  formed  by  degree-makers  dur- 
ing the  past  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  but 
most  of  them  had  but  a  short  existence.  There 
are  now  ten  JIasonic  rites  or  systems  in  use 
throughout  the  world,  all  having  as  their  founda- 
tion the  three  s.vmbolic  degrees  of  Entered  Ap- 
prentice, Fellowcraft.  and  ilaster  Mason.  The 
two  rites  that  .are  ranked  as  universal  are  the 
York  or  English  rite,  and  the  Ancient  Accepted 
Scottish  rite  of  thirt.v-three  degrees.  The  Eng- 
lish rite  comprises  the  three  fundamental  sym- 
bolic degrees,  and  the  Royal  Arch  degree,  ap- 
pended in  181.3.  The  English  rite  has  been  en- 
larged and  changed  in  this  country  and  Canada 
and  is  known  as  the  American  rite.  It  consists 
of  thirteen  degrees,  grouped  as  follows:  Entered 
Apprentice,  Fellowcraft.  and  Master  Mason,  con- 
ferred in  sj'mbolic  lodges :  jMark  Master,  Past 
Master,  Most  Excellent  ilaster.  and  Royal  Arcli, 
conferred  in  chapters  of  Royal  Arch  Masons ; 
Royal  Master,  Select  Master,  and  Super-Excellent 
Master,  conferred  in  councils  of  Ro.val  and  Select 
Masters;  and  Orders  of  the  Red  Cross,  Knight 
Templar,  and  Knight  of  Malta,  conferred  in 
commanderies  of  Knights  Templars.  Of  the 
tliirty-three  degrees  of  the  Ancient  Accepted  Scot- 
tish rite  the  first  three  or  symbolic  degrees  are 
never  conferred,  all  control  of  them  and  right 
to  use  them  having  been  relinquished  b.v  the 
Supreme  Councils  of  the  Scottish  Rite  to  the 
Grand  Lodges  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  degrees  from  the  fourth  to  the  fourteenth 
are  conferred  in  the  Lodge  of  Perfection ;  these 
are  Secret  Master,  Perfect  Master,  Inti- 
mate. Secretary,  Provost  and  Judge,  In- 
tendant  of  the  Building,  Knight  Elect  of  Nine, 
Knight  Elect  of  Fifteen.  Sublime  Knight 
Elect,  Grand  Master  Architect.  Knight  of 
the  Ninth  Arch,  and  Perfect  and  Sublime  ilasou. 
The  degrees  Knight  of  the  East  or  Sword  and 
Prince  of  .Terusalem  are  conferred  in  councils  of 
Princes  of  .Terusalem.  The  degrees  of  Knight  of 
the  East  and  West  and  Knight  of  Rose  Croix  are 
conferred  in  chapters  of  Rose  Croix.  In  con- 
sistories of  Sublime  Princes  of  the  Royal  Secret 


MASONS. 


130 


MASONS. 


are  conferred  the  following  degrees :  Grand  Pon- 
tiff, Master  urf  vitam  or  ilaster  of  All  Symbolic 
Lodges,  Noachite  or  Prussian  Knight,  Knight  of 
the  Ro_val  Axe  or  Prince  of  Libanus,  Chief  of  the 
Tabernacle,  Prince  of  the  Tabernacle,  Knight  of 
the  ]!razen  Serpent,  Prince  of  ilercy.  Knight 
Commander  of  the  Temple,  Knight  of  the  Sun  or 
Prince  Adept,  Knight  of  Saint  Andrew,  Knight 
Kadosh,  Inspector  Inquisition  Commander,  and 
Sublime  Prince  of  the  Kojal  Secret.  The  thirty- 
third  and  last  degree,  that  of  Sovereign  Grand 
Inspector-General,  is  conferred  in  the  Supreme 
Council  upon  Masons  who  have  rendered  distin- 
guished services  to  the  craft.  The  English  and 
the  Scottish  rites  are  the  only  two  that  are  prac- 
ticed in  the  United  States  and  are  recognized  by 
Masons  generally.  The  Scottish  rite  in  tlie  I'nited 
States  is  controlled  by  two  bodies,  the  Supreme 
Councils  of  the  Northern  and  Southern  Masonic 
jurisdictions.  They  are  in  fraternal  communion 
with  each  other  and  with  the  Supi'eme  Council 
of  France  as  well  as  those  of  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Belgium,  Brazil,  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
Paraguay,  Peru,  Portugal,  Italy,  Mexico,  Colom- 
bia, Chile,  Central  America,  Greece,  Canada, 
Cuba.  Switzerland.  Egypt.  Tunis,  and  Spain.  The 
number  of  subordinate  bodies  in  these  jurisdic- 
tions is:  Xorthern  .Jurisdiction,  239,  with  a  mem- 
bership of  .34.0:5."):  Southern  .Turisdiction,  267, 
with  a  membership  of  I4.8fi7.  There  are  in 
addition  to  the  foregoing  a  number  of  societies 
in  the  United  States,  which,  though  not  in  any 
sense  Masonic  in  character,  yet  require  as  a  pre- 
requisite to  tiniting  with  them  membership  in 
Slasonic  bodies.  The  largest  and  most  popular 
is  the  .\ncient  .Vrabic  Order  of  Nobles  of  the 
Mystic  Shrine.  (See  .Mvstic  Shrine,  .\nciext 
Ar.xric  Order  of  Norles  of  the.)  Elinor  or- 
ganizations are  the  Mystic  Order  of  Veiled 
Prophets  of  the  Enchanted  Realm,  Avith  head- 
quarters at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  and  the  Independent 
International  Order  of  Owls,  with  headquarters 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.  These  societies  are  purely 
social  organizations,  founded  for  amusement  and 
recreation. 

The  only  society  allied  to  ^Masonry  that  re- 
ceives women  into  membership  is  the  Order  of 
the  Eastern  Star.  It  is  not  a  Jlasonic  body,  nor 
has  it  ever  been  recognized  by  the  Masonic  fra- 
ternity, but  its  mendicrs  are  composed  of  Alaster 
Masons  in  good  standing,  their  wives,  daughters, 
mothers,  and  sisters,  together  with  the  widows  of 
such  Master  Masons.  The  system  which  ad- 
mitted women  to  membership  in  bodies  allied  to 
Freemasonry  originated  in  France  about  1730. 
The  bodies  were  called  'Lodges  of  .\doption.'  be- 
cause each  organization  was  required  to  be 
adopted  bv  a  JIasonic  lodge  and  was  imder  its 
control.  Lodges  of  adoption  are  said  to  have 
been  introduced  into  this  country  about  177S.  but 
they  never  flourished  to  any  extent.  .\s  early  as 
1793  there  was  an  'Order  of  the  Eastern  Star'  in 
existence  in  this  coiuitrv.  This  organization  dis- 
appeared early  in  the  last  century.  The  system 
at  present  prevailing  in  the  United  States  was 
foimded  in  ISfiS  by  Robert  Macny  of  New  York, 
upon  the  basis  of  a  ritiial  developed  by  Robert 
Morris,  an  eminent  ^lasonic  writer.  There  are 
now  in  the  United  States  thirty-two  Grand  Chap- 
ters and  over  2."i0.000  members. 

The  Sovereign  College  of  .Mlied  l\rnsonie  and 
Christian  Degrees  of  America  is  a  body  of 
Masons  clothed  with  power  to  confer  academic  as 


well  as  ritualistic  degrees,  the  former  being  given 
for  honorable  cause.  The  highest  academic  de- 
gree conferred  is  that  of  Doctor  of  Universal 
JIasonry,  which  has  been  conferred  on  only  five 
distinguished  members  of  the  Order.  Tlie  fitual 
of  the  college  comprises  the  degree  of  Ark  Mar- 
iner, Secret  Monitor,  Tylers  of  Solomon,  Saint 
Lawrence  the  Martyr,  Knight  of  Constantinople, 
Holy  and  Blessed  Order  of  Wisdom,  Trinitarian 
Knight  of  Saint  .Tohn  of  Patmos.  The  Order  is 
in  fraternal  communication  with  the  CJrand 
Council  of  the  Allied  Degrees,  and  the  Grand 
Ark  Mariners  Council,  both  of  England. 

The  following  table  gives  the  Grand  Lodges  in 
the  United  States  and  British  Anu'rica,  with 
their  respective  and  total  membership  brought 
down  to  a  recent  date : 

Masoxtc   Graxd   Lodges   in   the    United   States    ani> 
British  America,  with  their  Respkctive  Mem- 
bership AT  THE  Close  of  11102 

Alabama 12,7S8    Nevada 885 

Arizona 939    .W'w  Brunswick 1.884 

Arkansas i:j.3ii6    .New  Hampshire 9,387 

British  Columbia 11.978    New  .Jersey 19.150 

California 22,77B    .New  .Mexico 1,U79 

Colorado 8.895    New  York 111,365 

Connecticut  17.7:10    North  Carolina 12.012 

Delaware 2,:ir.4    .North  Dakota 3,744 

District  of  Columbia..    0,257    Nova  .Scotia 3,574 

Florida 4,62:i    Ohio 48,349 

Georgia 20,844    Oklahoma 3.291 

Idaho 1.410    Ontario 26.939 

Illinois 59.689    OreRon 5.598 

Iniliana 33.604    I'enns.vlvania 57,266 

Indian  Territory 4,024  Prin('e  Edward  Island       659 

Iowa 30.324    tjuebec 4.019 

Khode  Island 5.471 

.South  Carolina 6..' 


Kansas 22,;tS8 

Kentucky 20.627 

Louisiana 6.361    .South  Dakota 4,ss 

Maine 23.224    Tennessee 17.' 


Manitoba.... 


3,2;)8    Texas 29.680 


Mar.vland 8.278    Utah 9«2 

Massachusetts 42.09:J    Vermont 10,235 

Michigan 45,304    VirKiuia ; 13.842 

Minnesota 17,528    Washington 6,795 

•Missis.'iippi 10.531    West  Virginia 7.421 

Mi.^aouri 34.707    Wisconsin 18.210 

Montana 3.:)25    Wyoming 1.187 

Nebraska 12,767       "  

Total  membership...933,023 

The  above  American  and  British  American 
(Jr:uid  Lodges  maintain  fraternal  relations  witli  the 
Grand  Lodges  of  Belgium,  Costa  Kica.Cuba.  Den- 
mark, Eclectic  Union  (  Frankfort-on-the-Mainl , 
England,  Germany.  Hungary,  Ireland,  New  South 
Wales,  New  Zc:ilan(l.  Norway,  Peru,  Porto  P.ico, 
Royal  York  (Berlin).  Saxony,  Scotland.  South 
Australia,  Sweden.  Switzerland.  Tasmania,  Three 
Globes  (Berlin),  Victoria  ( .Vustralial ,  Zur  Ein- 
tracht  (Darmstadt),  and  Zur  Sonne  (Bayreuth). 

Besides  what  may  be  called  orthodox  Masonry 
there  are  two  other  bodies  operating  in  the 
United  States  known  as  tho<e  of  the  Cerncau  rite 
and  the  .\ncient  and  Primitive  Rite  of  Memphis, 
which  iliffcr  in  ritual  from  the  older  Ordcr-i.  Tlie 
Cerncau  Masons,  or  Sovereign  Grand  Consi>itory, 
founiled  in  1807  by  .Toseph  Cerneaii  in  affiliation 
with  the  Grand  Orient  of  France  and  enrolled 
under  the  Scottish  rite,  has  two  consistories  in 
New  York  City,  and  a  'Supreme  Council  of  Sov- 
ereign Grand  Inspectors-General  of  the  Thirty- 
third  and  Last  Degi-ce.'  It  is  not  in  affiliation 
with  Masonic  bodies  generally  in  America  and 
Canada,  owing  to  its  connection  with  the  Orand 
Orient  of  France,  which  does  not  require  for  ad- 
mission to  membership  the  necessity  of  a  be- 
lief in  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being.  It 
has  jurisdiction  over  seventy  subordinate  con- 
sistories of  Sublime  Princes  of  the  Royal  Secret, 
which  are  subdivided  into  Lodges  of  Perfection, 


MASONS.  151 

Councils  of  Princes  of  Jorusalem,  Chapters  of 
Rose  Croix,  and  Consistories.  The  Ancient  and 
Primitive  Rite  of  Jfeniphis  was  establislied  in 
llontauban,  France,  in  1814,  by  Jacques  Etienne 
Marconis  and  others.  On  November  9,  1850,  the 
first  organization  of  the  Ancient  and  Primitive 
Rite  in  America  was  created  in  Xew  York  imder 
the  title  of  'A  Supreme  Council  Sublime  blasters 
of  the  Great  Work  Ninetieth  Degree'  by  Jacques 
Etienne  JIarconis.  On  !March  1,  1857,  he  organ- 
ized a  'Sovereign  Grand  Council-Gener.al  Ninety- 
fourth  Degree'  and  granted  a  charter  with  full 
authorily  for  the  administration  and  government 
of  the  Order,  and  on  Jime  21,  1802,  a  'Sovereign 
Sanctuary  Ninety-fifth  Degree'  was  created  in 
and  for  the  continent  of  America  in  affiliation 
with  the  Grand  Orient  of  France.  The  'Jlystic 
Temple  Grand  Council-General  Ninety-fourth  De- 
gree' lias  charge  of  the  State  of  New  York.  There 
are  branches  in  existence  for  the  government  of 
other  countries  under  titles  of  Sovereign  Sanctu- 
aries, viz.  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Egypt, 
Rumania.  Naples,  Palermo,  and  India. 

MASO'RA,  MASSORAH,  MASSORETH 
(Heb.  tradition,  from  wi'ixar,  to  hand  over  I .  A 
particular  collection  of  critical  notes  on  the  text 
of  the  Old  Testament,  its  divisions,  accents, 
vowels,  grammatical  forms,  letters,  etc.  Accord- 
ing to  the  early  mode  of  Semitic  writing,  only 
the  consonants  were  indicated;  hence  in  the 
course  of  time  there  inevitably  arose  a  vast  num- 
ber of  variants  in  the  Old  Testament  text,  or 
rather  different  ways  of  reading  and  interpreting 
the  same  letters  by  dividing  them  into  different 
words  with  different  vowels  and  accents.  Some 
measures  for  the  more  accurate  preservation  of 
the  documents  became  indispensable,  and  the 
desideratum  was  supplied  by  the  Slasora,  which, 
by  fixing  an  immutable  reading  upon  each  verse, 
word,  and  letter,  put  an  end  to  the  confusion  and 
left  the  individual  fancy  free  to  take  its  own 
views  for  homiletical  purposes  only.  The  origin 
of  the  JIasora  is  shrouded  in  mystery,  though 
tradition  carries  it  back  to  the  days  of  Ezra.  The 
first  certain  traces  of  it  are  found  in 
certain  Halachistic  works  treating  of  the  syna- 
gogue rolls  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  mode  of 
writing  them,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  practical  necessities  called  forth  by  the  in- 
stitution of  readings  from  the  Pentateuch  and 
Prophets  as  a  regular  feature  of  relitrions  ser- 
vices led  to  accurate  determination  of  the  text 
of  each  verse,  the  number  of  letters,  and  the 
pronunciation  of  each  word,  including  the  proper 
intonation.  A  late  Talmudic  treatise,  Masse- 
flicth  ffnpherim,  treats  of  these  matters.  Some 
of  the  earliest  works  on  the  subject  have  survived 
in  their  titles  only,  such  as  The  Hook  of  the 
Croinif:,  The  Book  of  the  f^oundi.  etc.  There  can 
hardly  be  a  doubt  that  the  Masora.  like  the 
Halacha  and  Hnsgada.  was  the  work,  not  of  one 
ape  or  century,  but  of  niany  ages  and  centuries, 
as.  indeed,  we  find  in  ancient  authorities  mention 
of  different  svstems  of  accentuation  used  in 
Tiberias.  Babylon  f -Assyria),  and  Palestine.  In 
the  period  of  Hadrian  we  learn  of  two  scholars, 
Nakkai  and  TTamnium.  who  are  said  to  have 
pounted  the  number  of  verses  in  the  books  of  the 
■Old  Testament,  but  the  systematic  work  of  the 
Masoretes  belongs  to  a  much  later  period.  The 
vowel  system  at  present  employed,  which  is  their 
work,  cannot  be  traced  further  back  than  the 
■seventh  century,  and  appears  to  be  based  on  the 


MASPERO. 

example  fumi.shed  by  Syrian  grammarians;  but 
before  this  was  perfected  at  Tiberias  in  Pales- 
tine, another  system,  chiefly  superlinear  in  char- 
acter and  much  more  complicated,  was  evolved 
and  adopted  in  Babylonia.  These  two  systems 
are  distinguished  as  the  Tiberian  and  the  Baby- 
lonian respectively.  It  was  in  Tiberias  that  the 
ilasora  was  first  committed  to  writing,  between 
the  sixth  and  ninth  centuries  A.D.  ponographs, 
memorial  verses,  finally  glosses  on  the  margins 
of  the  text,  seem  to  have  been  the  earliest  forms 
of  the  written  Masora,  which  gradually  expanded 
into  one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  minute  sys- 
tems, laid  down  in  the  'Great  Jlasora,'  made  up 
of  longer  notes  placed  upon  the  upper  and  lower 
margins  (about  the  eleventh  century).  Besides 
this  there  was  compiled  the  'Small  ilasora,'  notes 
placed  between  the  columns  of  the  texts.  A 
further  distinction  is  made  between  JIasora 
texfiKilis  and  fiiialis,  the  former  containing  all 
the  marginal  notes:  the  latter,  larger  annota- 
tions, which,  for  Avant  of  space,  had  to  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  paragraph.  Of  independent 
Masoretic  works,  the  most  important  is  the  one 
known  as  Ochlah  iccochlah.  The  final  arrange- 
ment of  the  Masora,  which  was  first  printed  in 
Bomberg's  Rabbinical  Bible  (Venice,  1524-25),  is 
due  to  Jacob  ben  Chayim  ben  Adonijah,  and  to 
Felix  Pratensis.  The  language  of  the  Masora  is 
Aramaic,  and  besides  the  difileulty  of  this  idiom, 
the  obscure  abbreviations,  contractions,  sym- 
bolical signs,  etc.,  with  which  the  work  abounds, 
render  its  study  exceedingly  difficult.  An  ex- 
planation of  the  Masora  is  found  in  Elias  Le- 
vita's  Masoreth  H<immesoreth  (trans,  into  Ger- 
man by  Seniler,  Halle,  1772),  and  Buxtorfs 
Tiberias  (Basel.  1620).  Consult  also:  Ginsburg, 
The  Massorah  (London.  1880-85)  ;  id.,  Introdue- 
Hon  to  the  ITehrew  Bible  (London,  180fl)  ;  Har- 
ris, "Rise  and  Development  of  the  ^Massorah,"  in 
the  Jevish  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  i.  (1888); 
Konig.  Einleitvng  in  das  Alte  Testament  (Leip- 
zig. i8n,3). 

MASPERO,  ma'spe-ro',  G.\STON  Cajiille 
Chakles  (1846—).  A  distinguished  French 
Egyptologist.  He  was  born  at  Paris.  .June  23. 
1846,  and  received  his  early  education  at  the 
Lyc6e  Louis  le  Grand.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
years  he  studied  the  Egyptian  language  privately, 
and  in  1805,  when  he  entered  the  Eeole  Norniale, 
he  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  proficiency  in  the 
interpretation  of  hieroglyphic  texts.  Two  years 
later  he  ])ublished.  with  the  approval  of  Mariette, 
his  Essai  stir  Vinscription  dMieatoire  dii  temple 
d'Abydos  et  la  jeunesne  de  Kesostris.  In  1807  he 
went  to  Montevideo  to  cofiperate  with  Vicente 
Fidel  Lopez  in  his  studies  on  the  Indian  dialects 
of  Peru,  translating  into  French  and  editing 
Lopez's  work.  Les  races  aryeiiiies  de  Peroti.  On 
his  return  to  Paris,  a  year  later,  he  resumed  his 
Egyptological  studies,  and  in  1809  he  read  before 
the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  a  memoir  on  the 
.\bbott  Papyrus,  containing  an  official  report  in 
regard  to  the  tomb  roblieries  in  the  Theban  necrop- 
olis under  Rameses  IX.  This  memoir,  under  the 
title  Une  enquHe  judieinire  a  Thebes  au  temps  (fe 
la  XXeme  dynnstie.  was  published  at  Paris  in 
1871.  In  18fin  Maspero  became  repetiteur  in  the 
department  of  Egyptology  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes 
Etudes,  and  three  years  later  he  passed  the  ex- 
amination for  the  degree  of  doctor,  presenting  two 
theses.:  De  Carchemidis  Oppidi  Sitn  et  Uistoria 
Antiquissima  and  Dti  genre  dpistolaire  chez  les 


MASFEBO. 


152 


MASQUERADE. 


Egyptiens  de  I'ipoque  pharaonique.  In  1874  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Egyptology  in  the  Col- 
lege de  France  as  the  successor  of  E.  de  Rouge. 
In  1875  was  published  his  L'Uistoire  ancicnnc  dcs 
peuplcs  de  rUiUnl,  which  was  the  first  attempt 
to  present,  from  monumental  sources,  the  history 
of  the  ancient  East  as  a  whole,  and  to  exliibit 
the  relations  e.\isting  in  antiquity  between  the 
peoples  of  Western  Asia  and  the  Xile  Valley. 
In  the  course  of  the  next  five  years  Maspero 
wrote  a  number  of  valuable  memoirs  on  Egj'ptian 
pliilolog^'.  history,  and  archieology,  the  most  im- 
portant being:  "De  quelques  navigations  des 
pjgyptiens  sur  la  nier  Erythrce"  (Rcnic  II ix- 
iorique,  1878)  ;  "La  grande  inscription  de  Beni- 
Hassan"  {liecueil  de  Travaiix,  1878);  "Rceit  de 
la  campagne  de  Mageddo  sous  Thoutm6s  111." 
(Recueil  de  Travaux,  1879-80).  He  received  the 
decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1879,  and 
in  1882  was  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion.  In 
1880  he  was  sent  by  the  French  Government  to 
Egypt  at  the  bead  of  the  Mission  Archeologique, 
which,  under  his  skillful  management,  developed 
into  a  school  for  the  prosecution  of  advanced 
studies  in  Eg>-ptologv-  and  kindred  subjects.  On 
the  death  of  Marictte  in  1S81,  Maspcro  was  ap- 
pointed his  successor  as  director  of  the  excava- 
tions and  antiquities  of  Egypt.  His  excavations, 
though  less  extensive  than  those  of  his  prede- 
cessor, were  more  methodical,  and  he  is  entitled 
to  special  credit  for  his  successful  efforts  for  the 
preservation  and  protection  of  the  monuments  of 
Egj'pt.  In  1883  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Academic  dcs  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres.  In 
June,  188G,  leaving  Grebaut  as  his  successor  in 
Egj'pt,  he  returned  to  Paris  and  resumed  his 
chair  at  the  Collfge  de  France,  assuming  at  tlie 
same  time  tlie  direction  of  Egj'ptologieal  studies 
in  the  Eeole  dcs  Hautes  Etudes.  In  1899  he  re- 
turned to  Egypt  to  resume  the  position  which 
he  had  resigned  in  ISSfi.  Maspero's  works  are 
veri-  numerous.  In  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  some  of  the  most  important  are: 
Bymne  au  Sil  (1808)  ;  IJtiidrfi  Cfjuptieiiiics  (1879- 
91)  ;  Les  conlcH  populaircs  de  VEgypte  ancienne 
(1882,  2d  ed.  1890);  Mdmoirc  stir  qurJques 
papyrus  du  Louvre  (1883);  L'arch(''oIo(jir  I'-pyp- 
iictine  (1887:  Eng.  trans,  by  Amelia  B.  Edwards, 
New  York.  1887)  ;  Les  momies  roynles  dr  Drir- 
el-Bahari  (Paris,  1889)  ;  Lectures  historiques: 
Egi/pte  ct  Isstirie  (1890)  :  Eludes  de  miitholoft'ie 
el  d'archfolofiie  ^miplienties  (1892-98).  Maspero's 
Histoire  nneicnne  des  peuptes  de  VOrirnt  has 
been  frequently  reedited.  In  the  edition  of  1894- 
99  the  author  treats  the  whole  range  of  ancient 
Oriental  history  in  three  profusely  illustrated 
volumes.  English  translations,  edited  by  Sayce, 
are  entitled:  The  Daum  of  Cirilization:  Eoypt 
and  Chnldwa  (2d  ed.  London,  1890)  ;  The  Slruq- 
gle  of  the  yulimis:  Erj)/pt.  Syria,  and  Assyria 
(New  York.  1897)  :  anil  The  Passitifj  of  the  Em- 
pires SnOXM  B.C.  (New  York.  1900).  Ataspero 
edited  several  posthumous  works  of  ilariette.  as 
also  the  valualile  Mriiioivrs  de  la  mission  fran- 
Caise  au  Caire  (Paris.  1884  et  seq.),  and  in 
1879  assumed  the  editorial  direction  of  the 
Rceueil  de  IraraiiT  relnlifs  A  la  philologie  et 
Varehfologie  fgypliennes  et  nssiiriennes  (Paris, 
1870  et  seq.).  It  was  in  this  journal  (vols,  i.- 
xiv. )  that  he  published  the  text  and  translation 
of  the  inscriptions  engraved  upon  the  walls  of  the 
jiyramids  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  dynasties  at  Saq- 
qara     (i|.v.).       He    has    also    ]iublislied    a    large 


number  of  valuable  papers  in  various  scientific 
journals.    See  also  Egyptology. 

MASQUE  (Fr.,  mask),  or  MASK.  A  species 
of  dramatic  entertiiinnient  much  in  vogue  in 
England  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, so  named  from  the  masks  (q.v. )  which 
were  originally  worn  in  it.  It  was  introduced 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  Vlll.  in  imitation  of 
some  of  the  Italian  allegorical  pageants  of  the 
period,  and  was  at  the  same  time  a  development 
of  the  festive  processions  of  the  city  of  London 
and  of  the  royal  progresses.  Around  the  acted 
pageantry  of  the  mythological  and  allegorical 
personages  in  these  there  grew  up  regular  dra- 
matic performances  in  which  music  and  dancing 
were  prominent  and  which  were  comparable  to 
the  ballets  of  the  French  Court.  (Sec  Ballet.) 
JIasques  were  in  their  time  the  favorite  form  of 
private  theatricals,  though  the  elaborate  and 
expensive  style  in  which  they  were  usually  given 
limited  them  for  the  most  part  to  the  homes  of 
the  nobility  and  the  Court.  They  were  at  their 
best  in  James  I.'s  day.  Ben  Jonson,  above  all, 
made  the  masque  a  thing  of  literary  beauty,  in 
wliich  his  classic  learning  and  graceful  fancy 
united  to  furnish  royal  amusement.  As  spec- 
tacles, masques  were  largely  an  all'air  of  costume 
and  of  scenic  design,  to  which  the  architect  Inigo 
Jones  lent  his  aid.  The  taste  for  this  style  of 
entertainment  died  away  under  Charles  I.;  yet  to 
his  time  belongs  Milton's  Comus.  In  this,  how- 
ever, though  it  was  made  to  be  acted,  the  masque 
has  become  a  literary  form  practically  inde- 
pendent of  actual  presentation,  and  as  such  it 
has  survived  to  our  day.  Consult:  Evans.  Eng- 
lish Masques  (London,'  1897);  Greg.  A  Lis,t  of 
Masques,  I'agrants,  ete.,  supplementary  to  a  list 
of  English  Flays  (London,  1902)  ;  Soergcl,  Die 
cnfilischen  M  a  si- ens  pi  el  e  (Halle.  1S82)  ;  Brotanek, 
Die  enylischen  Mashcn»piele  (Vienna  and  Leip- 
zig, 1902)  ;  Symonds.  Shalcspere's  Predecessors  in 
the  English  Drama  (London,  1884)  ;  Ward,  Eng- 
lish Dramatic  Literature   (London,  187.51. 

MASQUERADE  (Fr.,  from  Sp.,  Port,  mas- 
eariiild,  mascpieraili',  from  mascara,  mask).  The 
disguise  effected  by  wearing  a  mask  or  strange 
apparel,  or  the  assembly  itself  of  persons  masked 
and  disguised  with  fantastic  dress.  In  early 
times  the  masquerade  often  accomi)anied  religious 
observances :  it  was  a  feature  of  the  Greek  Bac- 
chanalia and  the  Roman  Saturnali;i.  and  fan- 
tastic costume,  at  least,  is  known  to  have  been 
worn  at  the  Jewish  feast  of  Purini.  The  Druids 
when  proclaiming  the  New  Year  (q.v.)  masked 
and  disguised  in  women's  robes,  the  skins  of 
beasts,  etc.  During  the  Middle  .\ges  masquerades 
characterized  by  gieat  frivolity  and  extrava- 
gance Avere  held  in  the  churches  in  spite  of  the 
attempts  of  the  Fathers  to  do  away  with  them. 
Even  the  priests  took  part  in  them.  Of  this 
nature  were  the  feast  of  fools  (q.v.)  and  other 
burlcscpiing  festivals,  n'calling  the  heathen  Sa- 
turnalia, They  bore  dilTercnt  names  in  dilTer- 
ent  countries  and  were  continued  until  the  six- 
teenth century.  Such  was  probably  the  origin 
of  the  masked  ball,  an  exclusive  form  of  masquer- 
aile  which  was  introduced  into  the  French  Court 
bv  Catharine  de"  Medici,  It  found  its  way  to 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,.  but  did  not 
reach  any  of  the  coiirfs  of  Germany  fill  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  hal  eostunu'  is 
a  very  modified  and  much  less  objectionable  form 


MASQUERADE. 


153 


MASS. 


of  the  masquerade.  During  the  carnival,  public 
masquerades  are  held  in  all  the  theatres  and 
dancing  saloons  of  Paris,  and  processions  of 
maskers  pass  through  the  streets  playing  mad 
pranks.     See  Caknival;  Greek  Festivals. 

MASS.  The  name  given  among  Catholics  to 
the  Eucharist  or  Lord's  Supper  (q.v. ),  considered 
as  the  highest  form  of  Christian  worship,  as  a 
sacrifice,  and  the  oft'cring  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Jesus  Christ  under  the  forms  of  bread  and 
wine.  The  proofs  adduced  to  show  its  institution 
under  this  aspect  at  the  Last  Supper  are  the 
words  employed  on  that  occasion;  the  teaching 
of  Saint  Paul  and  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Churcli ; 
the  practice  of  the  Apostles;  the  unbroken  tradi- 
tion of  all  Christendom  for  sixteen  centuries;  and 
its  retention  as  a  sacrificei  in  the  Eastern 
churches  which  separated  from  Catholic  unity. 
The  prophecy  of  Malachi  (i.  11)  is  likewise  re- 
garded as  foretelling  it.  The  teaching  of  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  is  that  in  the  Eucharist 
Christ  is  'as  it  were  slain.'  It  is  a  quasi-anni- 
liilation.  He  is  not  merely  present,  but  is  in  a 
state  which  is  a  kind  of  death.  He  is  there  with 
all  the  perfections  of  His  Godhead,  and  all  the 
complete  nature,  functions,  and  glory  of  His 
manhood ;  all,  in  fact,  that  He  is  in  heaven ;  but 
He  does  not  manifest  it;  nor  does  He  exercise  His 
powers  in  the  Sacrament  as  He  does  in  heaven. 
How  much  or  how  little  His  human  .senses  are 
exerted  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion  among 
theologians.  This  quasi-annihilation  of  Christ  is 
evidently  the  greatest  conceivable  way  of  ex- 
pressing subjection  to  God's  dominion,  of  im- 
petrating,  atoning,  and  rendering  thanks,  the  four 
objects  which  are  considered  to  be  the  purposes  of 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  ^Fass.  Necessarily  it  sup- 
poses transubstantiation  (q.v.)  and  the  priestly 
power.  Accordingly  it  can  only  be  offered  by  one 
who  is  in  priest's  orders.  By  the  la«  of  the 
Church  he  must  be  fasting,  absolutely,  from  the 
midnight  previous  to  the  celebration  of  the  mass. 
It  is  offered  in  the  morning,  though  this  time 
may  be  extended,  for  reasons  legislated  upon,  to 
a  limited  time  after  midday.  Each  priest  is  per- 
mitted to  offer  it  once  a  day;  though  on  Christ- 
mas Day  he  may  offer  three  masses,  and  in 
some  countries  two  on  All  Souls'  Day.  In  some 
countries  where  there  is  a  lack  of  priests  it  is 
permitted  to  celebrate  mass  twice  on  Sundays; 
otiierwise  the  people  would  not  be  able  to  fulfill 
the  obligation  which  is  incumbent  upon  them  of 
assisting  at  mass  on  Sundays  and  certain  great 
festivals.  (See  CoMirAXDMENT.'f  of  the  Church.) 
Absence  from  this  public  worship  without  suffi- 
cient reason  is  held  to  be  a  grievous  sin. 

The  priest  who  celebrates  always  communi- 
cates. This  is  for  the  integrity  of  the  sacrifice; 
but  the  essence  of  the  sacrifice  is  commonly 
taught  to  be  in  the  consecration.  Whether  some 
or  none  of  the  congregation  communicate  does 
not  affect  the  sacrifice ;  the  rule  is.  however,  that 
some  one  nuist  be  present  to  make  the  responses. 
(For  the  teaching  and  details  as  to  communion, 
see  Sacrament;  Communion  in  Both  Kind.s). 
The  bread  must  be  wheaten  bread :  the  wine,  wine 
of  the  grape.  In  the  Eastern  Church  leavened, 
in  the  Western  unleavened  bread  is  used.  The 
time  of  the  introduction  of  unleavened  bread  in 
the  West  is  not  certain. 

Private  masses  are  said  in  a  low  tone,  and 
hence  called  low  masses.  Those  which  are  sung 
are  called  high  masses,  and  if  the  celebrant  is 


assistedby  other  ministers,  the  mass  is  said  to  be 
solenui;  if  the  celebrant  is  a  bishop  it  is  pon- 
tifical. Those  celebrated  for  the  dead  arc  called 
from  the  first  word  of  the  introit,  requiems;  and 
the  mass  at  the  celebration  of  marriage  is  called 
a  nuptial  mass.  As  saints  are  honored  on  almost 
every  day  of  the  liturgical  year,  prayers  in  which 
their  intercession  is  invoked  are  introduced  at 
the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  service,  and 
also  in  the  part  which  the  priest  recites  in  a  tone 
audible  only  to  himself,  and  hence  called  the 
Secret. 

Tliere  are  certain  days  not  devoted  to  the 
commeinoration  of  any  mystery  or  saint,  and  the 
piiest  is  permitted  to  choose  one  in  whose  honor 
he  may  celebrate  according  to  his  devotion ;  these 
are  termed  votive  masses.  There  is  no  such 
thing  as  dry  mass;  the  expression  is  used  to  de- 
note the  going  through,  by  one  who  is  preparing 
for  the  priesthood,  of  the  various  prayers  and 
ceremonies  in  order  to  familiarize  himself  with 
them.  The  "mass  of  the  presanctified,'  used  on 
CJood  Friday  (see  Holy  Week),  is  not  a  complete 
mass,  lacking  the  consecration. 

The  use  of  an  unchanging  language  like  Latin 
and  some  Oriental  languages  is  intended  to  be  a 
safeguard  against  new  meanings  that  grow  into 
words  in  the  use  of  living  tongues.  It  is  not 
necessary,  on  the  theory  here  explained,  that  the 
words  should  be  understood  or  even  heard  in  de- 
tail by  the  congregation  any  more  than  it  was 
necessary  for  the  Jews  to  enter  the  sanctuary 
where  the  sacrifice  was  being  offered.  They  un- 
derstand that  they  are  taking  part  in  the  supreme 
act  of  worship  though  even  the  assistant  at  the 
priest's  side  may  not  be  able  to  hear  the  words 
of  consecration. 

For  the  vestments  used  in  the  mass,  see  Cos- 
tume, Ecclesiastical;  and  for  the  early  devel- 
opment of  liturgical  structure,  see  Lituroy.  The 
mass  is  divided  into  two  main  parts,  known  from 
ancient  analogy  as  missa  catcchumen'orum  and 
viissa  fidelium.  the  latter  or  more  sacred  part 
having  been  originally  that  from  which  the  un- 
baptized  were  excluded.  ( See  Disciplina  Arcani.  ) 
A  similar  distinction,  though  not  identical,  is 
made  between  the  Pro-Anaphora  and  Anaphora 
of  the  Greek  liturgies.  The  first  consists  of  the 
celebrant's  preparation  at  the  foot  of  the  altar, 
introit,  Kyrie  eleison.  Gloria,  collect,  epistle  and 
gospel,  and  creed.  The  second  begins  with  the 
ofl'ertory  or  oblation  of  the  elements;  the  preface 
leads  up  to  the  Sanctiis.  and  then  follow  the 
canon  or  practically  unvarying  central  portion 
of  the  mass  (including  the  consecration)  and  its 
accompanying  prayers,  the  communion,  and  the 
post-communion ;  the  congregation  is  dismissed 
with  the  ancient  formula  Itc  missa  est,  from 
which  the  mass  derives  its  name  (Lat.  missa). 
See  the  articles  on  all  the  more  important  parts 
of  the  service  named  above. 

The  musical  history  connected  with  the  mass 
is  of  consideralile  importance,  as  the  early  devel- 
opment of  polyphonic  music  was  almost  exclusive- 
!.v  along  the  lines  of  sacred  use.  Originally  the 
whole  service,  when  simg,  was  set  to  plain  chant 
(q.v.)  ;  but  later  the  Ki/rie.  Oloria.  Credo,  Sane- 
Ins,  and  Agviis  Dei  were  detached  and  .set  to 
new  music,  these  numbers  constituting  what  is 
called  a  mass  in  the  musical  sense.  The  masses 
of  the  composers  of  the  Gallo-Bclgic  school  of 
the  fifteenth  century  had  become  so  complicated 
and  overloaded  with  contrapuntal  tricks  that  a 


IIASS. 


134 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


desire  for  a  simple  and  more  dignified  style  was 
created.  Palestriua  inaugurated  the  new  epoch, 
in  writing  distinguished  by  grandeur  and  maj- 
esty ;  his  compositions  were  usually  for  four  to 
eight  voices.  The  great  masters  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  wrote  masses  for 
eight,  twelve,  sixteen,  twenty-four,  and  soniclimes 
even  more  voices.  All  these  works  were  written 
a  cuppcUu,  without  instrumental  accompaniment. 
The  development  of  instrumental  music  suggested 
new  combinations,  and  the  missa  solemnis  of 
Bach  and  Beetlioven  thus  grew  up.  Gounod, 
Silas,  and  Widor  have  given  notable  examiiles  of 
this  style  in  more  recent  times.  See  Sacred 
Mi'sic. 

Consult:  Gihr,  Das  heilige  Messopfer  dogma- 
liscli.  liturqisch  tind  ancetisch  erkl-firt  (.5th  ed., 
Freiburg.  1802:  Kng.  trans.,  Saint  Louis,  1002)  ; 
and  many  of  the  books  referred  to  under  Lord's 
Supper. 

MASS.     See  Matter. 

MASSA,  mUs'sa.  A  city,  capital  of  the  Prov- 
imv  of  Massa  e  Carrai'a.  Italy,  on  a  liill  rising 
from  the  banks  of  the  Frigido,  .3  miles  from  its 
outlet  in  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  26  miles  north 
of  Pisa  (Map:  Italy,  E  3).  Its  chief  buildings 
are  the  ducal  palace,  now  the  prefecture  building, 
a  former  summer  residence  of  Elisa  13;u'ei<icchi, 
Napoleon's  sister,  llassa  has  fine  marble  quar- 
ries, which  are  extensively  worked,  and  impor- 
tant manufactures  of  silk,  paper,  and  dlivc  oil.  It 
was  formerly  tlie  capital  of  a  principality  and 
later  of  the  Dueliy  of  Jlassa-Carrara,  which  was 
united  witli  Mndcna  in  1829.  Population,  in 
1001    (coMiinuiii-),  211.41.1. 

MAS'SACHU'SET  (At  tlie  great  hills,  i.e. 
tlie  lilue  hills  of  Milton).  An  important  Algon- 
quian  confederacy  formerly  occupying  the  terri- 
tory about  Jfassachusetts  Bay.  aud  extending 
along  the  coast  from  Plymouth  northward  to 
about  Salem,  including  the  basins  of  the  Xepon- 
set  and  Charles  Pivers.  Their  principal  village, 
from  which  they  took  tlieir  name,  was  on  the  site 
of  Quincy.  in  Norfolk  County.  Before  the  com- 
ing of  the  wliiti's  they  seem  to  have  held  tlie  lead- 
ing plaee  among  the  tribes  of  southern  New  Eng- 
land, and  are  said  on  good  authority  to  have  had 
over  twenty  villages  in  1(!14.  They  .sufTered  more 
than  any  other  tril)e  from  the  great  pestilence  of 
1617,  aiid  when  the  English  arrived  a  few  years 
later  they  found  the  Massaehuscts  reduced  to  a 
mere  liandf\il  and  most  of  the  villages  depopu- 
lated. In  1(1.11  they  numbered  only  about  ."JOO, 
and  two  years  later  were  still  further  rediu-ed 
by  smalljiox.  wliich  earried  olf  their  chief,  Chicka- 
tabot.  In  1(140  they  were  gathered,  with  other 
converts,  into  the  mission  villages  of  Natiek, 
Nonantum,  and  Ponka|iog,  and  ceased  to  have 
a  scp;u;\ti'  trib:il  I'xisti'Mce. 

MAS'SACHTJ'SETTS.  A  North  Atlantic 
State  of  the  .\meriean  I'nion,  belonging  to  the 
New  England  group.  Exeopt  the  eastern  part, 
■which  expands  along  the  ocean  front.  Massachu- 
setts resemlih's  generally  a  parallelogram  and  lies 
approxinint(dy  between  latitudes  42°  and  42°  43' 
N.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  States  of 
Vermont  and  New  llanipshire.  on  (he  west  by 
New  York,  on  the  south  by  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island  and  the  .\tlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  east  by 
the  .Atlantic.  Its  greatest  length  is  IS4  miles; 
the  distance  from  Cape  .Ann  due  west  to  the  Xew 
York  State  line,  13S  miles;  the  extreme  width  is 


llSOi  miles,  and  the  average  width  in  the  west 
47%  miles.  The  total  area  is  8315  square  miles, 
of  which  the  water  surface  amounts  to  275 
s<iuaro  miles.  The  irregular  coast  line  gives  an 
ocean  frontage  of  nearly  .100  miles,  excluding  the 
shore  lines  of  the  islands  and  lesser  inlets.  There 
are  three  great  bays:  Cape  Cod  Bay,  Massachu- 
setts Bay,  and  Buzzard's  Bay. 

Topography.  The  western  half  of  the  State  has 
as  its  distinguishing  features  the  mountain  ranges 
wliich  traverse  its  western  section,  the  minor 
valleys  between,  the  general  slope  eastward  to  the 
Connecticut  River,  and  the  corresponding  west- 
ward slope  from  the  opposite  side.  The  eastern 
section  is  a  rolling  and  hilly  country  with  a  gentle 
slope  to  the  ocean.  From  Wiuiont,  the  Green 
Mountains,  as  a  jiart  of  the  App;ilaehians.  con- 
tinue southward  into  Massachusetts,  where  they 
lie  in  two  distinct  ranges.  These  stretch  south- 
ward across  the  whole  width  of  the  State,  cover- 
ing Berkshire  County  (whence  the  name  Berk- 
shire Hills).  The  Taconie  range  follows  the 
western  border  on  the  boundary  line,  and  east  of 
this  range  and  jiarallel  wiili  it  extend  the 
Hoosac  ilountains.  The  Taconie  range  attains 
an  extreme  elevation  of  ;!5.1.>  feet  in  tJrcylock  or 
Saddle  Mountain,  near  the  northern  bo\m- 
darv — the  highest  elevation  in  Massachusetts. 
The"  altitude  falls  away  slightly  to  the  south, 
where  ilount  Washington  or  Everett,  in  the 
southwest  corner  of  the  State,  rises  to  a  height  of 
2()24  feet.  The  Hoosac  range  has  a  somewhat 
regular  altitude  of  1200  to  KiOO  feet,  reaching  its 
maxiiiium  in  Spruce  Hill — 2.>8S  feet.  The  llou- 
satonic  A'allcy  has  an  elevation  of  1100  feet  at  its 
northern  end  and  falls  t<i  800  in.  the  south.  East 
of  these  ranges  to  the  Connecticut  the  slope  is 
southeast,  and  is  deeply  cut  by  rivers.  In  the 
Connecticut  Valley  the  trap  ridges,  so  conspicu- 
ous in  the  State  of  Conneetieut  from  Long  Island 
Sound  up.  are  rei)resented  in  the  centre  of  the 
State  bv  Mount  Tom,  with  an  altitude  of  1214 
feet,  and  Jlount  Holyoke,  !).")5  feet,  which  rise  as 
isolated  |)eaks  above  the  surrounding  low  coun- 
try. The  country  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Connecticut  Rivei"  is  a  dissected  plateau,  with 
an  elevation  of  about  1100  feet  at  the  middle 
of  the  State,  the  surface  sloping  griulually 
eastward.  Upon  the  old  Cretaceous  base 
level,  which  forms  the  top  of  most  of  the 
hills,  some  older  hills  stand  out  as  monad- 
nocks,  the  most  conspicuous  of  which  is  \Va- 
ehusett  Mountain,  2108  feet  in  height.  In  the 
eastern  section  the  country  is  generally  level 
or  undulating.  This  low.  sandy  laml  continues 
southeaslward  into  the  Cape  C<h1  ])eninsula.  ex- 
tending in  the  form,  of  an  arm  bent  at  the  elbow 
for  a  distance  of  do  miles.  3,t  miles  eastward 
and  a  nearly  equal  distance  northward,  curv- 
ing slightly  "westward  at  the  extremity.  Near 
this  southern  projcetion  of  the  State  lie  many 
islands  similar  in  character  to  the  Cape  Cod 
peninsula:  Martha's  \ineyard,  the  sixteen  Elizll- 
bcth   Islands,  and   Nantucket  Island. 

Hvdhoorapiiv.  The  rivers  of  Afassachusetts 
arc  numerous,  but  unimportant  for  purposes  of 
navigation.  The  Connecticut  traverses  the  State 
from  north  to  south.  It  varies  in  wiilth  from  450 
feet  to  1000  feet,  but  its  flow  is  broken  by  falls  at 
various  points.  On  its  western  side  it  receives 
the  Peerfield  and  West  field,  and  from  the  east, 
Miller's  River  and  the  Chicopee.  Though  navi- 
gable for  small  craft,  it  is  chietly  iniportiint  for 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  MASSACHUSETTS 
BY  COUNTIES. 


lianibtabk-. 
Iti-iksliirc 

l!ii-Iiil 

Dukes 

fofcx 


Friiiiklici 

Hampden  .. . 
llainpshirc. 
Middlesex ... 
Nantucket . . 


NorMk... 
Plyninnth 
Snffolk.... 
Worcester . 


Map 
Judex. 


ii  4 

A  3 

K  4 

!'•  5 

F  -i 

B  2 
I)  3 
B  2 
E  3 
U.5 

E2 
F  4 
E  3 

c  a 


C'uuuty  Seat, 


jArea  in 
wjuare 
miles. 


Uarnstablc 

IMtlslield 

Taunlon  

Edgai  lo«  n  ,   . 
Salcni 

(ircenfield 

Sprin^fieUl. . . . 
Niutliauiiiton  . 

t'and)i-idfic 

Nantucket    ... 


Di'dliaui. 
I'lynioutli- 

Kdston 

Fitcliljurg 


Populatitm. 


41!) 
&!'.! 
57'.) 
100 
514 

T21 

Sfl5 

(jia 

8U4 
51 

408 

672 

.'il 

l,.Jf-'o 


l.'!l(Hl. 


£<i,inj 

M.IOS 

ISIl.lC.'i 

4,3li'.l 

2il0.yJ5 

38,f.l0 
l:ffi.ri3 

,51.f5'J 

431.167 

3,268 

118,950 

92,700 

4W.780 

280,787 


87,826 
!l5,fiG7 

252,029 
4,.561 

357,0.30 

11,209 
17.''i,l'fl3 

5S,K20 
56'.,(jn(i 

3,006 

151, .isg 

1 13,985 
611,117 
310,958 


\ 


k 


«MD  ieo3.  at  oooo  «£*[>  A  compwv. 


r^ 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


155 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


its  water  power.  Between  the  Taconie  and  the 
lloosae  iiiouiitaius  How  north  and  south,  respect- 
ively, the  lloosae  and  Housatonic  rivers,  the  for- 
mer discharging;  into  the  Hudson,  the  latter 
into  Long  Island  Sound.  The  valleys  of  the  Con- 
necticut and  its  branches  and  the  Housatonic 
are  noted  for  their  picturesque  scenery.  De- 
scending from  New  Hampsliire,  the  Jlerrimac 
flows  for  thirly-tive  miles  through  the  northeast- 
ern corner  of  the  .State,  discharging  into  the  At- 
lantic. It  is  navigable  for  small  craft  as  far  as 
Haverhill,  15  miles  from  its  mouth,  but  is  val- 
uable especially  for  its  water  power.  Other  rivers 
important  also  chielly  for  their  water  power  are 
the  Concord,  emptying  into  the  Jlerrimae  at 
Lowell;  the  Charles,  discharging  into  Massachu- 
setts Hay  at  Boston ;  and  the  Blackstone  and  the 
Taunton,  flowing  .south  into  Narragansctt  Bay. 
The  courses  of  the  rivers  are  marked  by  broad 
reaches  and  sudden  declines,  instead  of  uniform 
gradients.  Numerous  small  glacial  lakes  are  scat- 
tered over  the  State,  especially  near  Cape  Cod. 
Excellent  harbors  occur  at  Boston,  Lynn,  Marble- 
head,  Salem,  and  Gloucester,  and  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Jlerrimac.  Boston  Harbor  is  the  most  impor- 
tant harbor  in  the  State.  It  has  been  protected 
against  sanding  up  by  drumlins  and  pocket 
beaches,  formed  outside  the  harbor,  which  act  as 
guards  to  its  entrance.  South  of  Boston  the  in- 
lets are  all  of  the  'hook  spit'  type,  a  prominent 
feature  along  this  part  of  the  coast;  but  only 
the  harbor  of  Provincetown  is  deep  enough  to 
accomnuxlate  the  largest  ocean  ships.  Buzzard's 
Bay,  the  tliird  largest  indentation  of  the  State, 
extends  thirty  miles  inland  to  the  west  of  Cape 
Cod,  and  contains  New  Bedford  and  Warehani 
harbors.  The  former  is  one  of  the  most  important 
havens  in  the  State. 

Climate  .\xd  Soil.  Massachusetts  lies  in  the 
middle  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  yet,  because 
of  its  proximity  to  the  paths  of  the  cyclonic  and 
anticyclonic  disturbances,  it  is  strongly  inlluenced 
by  the  noi1h  winds  of  winter  and  by  the  west  and 
southwest  winds  of  summer,  bringing  the  hot 
eontinental  air  to  the  coast.  The  average  tem- 
perature for  .January  is  between  25°  and  30°, 
and  for  .July  about  70°.  In  summer  the  maxi- 
mum temperature  may  rise  in  places  above  100°; 
in  winter  the  mercury  sometimes  falls  to  10°  be- 
low zero.  The  average  growing  season  lasts  about 
six  and  one-half  months.  There  is  an  average  an- 
nual rainfall  of  40  inches  and  over,  very  evenly 
distributed  through  the  year.  The  snowfall  is 
rather  heavy,  ranging  from  30  inches  at  the 
southern  coast  to  60  inches  in  the  northwestern 
counties.  The  average  annual  relative  humidity 
ranges  from  80  per  cent,  on  the  islands  at  the 
southeast  to  less  tlian  70  per  cent,  in  the  north- 
western counties.  The  islands  of  Martha's  Vine- 
yard and  Nantucket  have  an  avei'age  wind  velo- 
city for  the  year  of  14  miles  per  hour,  the  high- 
est average  recorded  in  the  United  States.  'The 
normal  wind  direction  for  January  is  northwest, 
and  for  .July  is  southwest. 

The  soil  of  Massachusettg  is  largely  the  result 
of  glacial  erosion  and  deposition.  The  harder 
ridges,  overridden  by  the  ice,  were  denuded  of 
all  soil;  the  debris  of  the  granitic  hills  is  too 
coarse  and  too  new  to  invite  cultivation.  The 
Triassie  valley  of  the  Connecticut  Kiver  gives 
flat  lands  of  exceeding  fertility,  while  river  and 
lake  dej)osits  of  worked-over  glacial  till  furnish 
many  alluvial  plains  of  very  rich  land,  but  of 
Vol.  XIII.— u 


limited  area.  Many  glacial  lakes  are  partly 
filled,  and  are  utilized  as  cranberry  marshes. 

For  Floka  and  Fauna,  see  these  sections  under 
Umted  States. 

tiEOLOGY.  Massachusetts  has  a  very  complex 
geological  history.  At  the  beginning  of  Cambrian 
time  three  mountain  masses  of  granitic  rock  ex- 
tended across  the  State  to  the  northeast,  alter- 
nating with  arms  of  the  sea.  Cambrian  and  Ord(ivi- 
cian  strata  were  deposited  on  the  slujre  of  the 
Champlain  channel,  west  of  Hoosac  Mountain; 
in  a  narrow  gulf,  which  extended  from  Gaspe 
Point  to  Worcester;  and  in  a  trough  extending 
from  western  Rhode  Island  via  Portsmouth  to 
Fundy  Bay.  The  Hoosac  Jlountain  and  its  con- 
tinuation in  the  Green  Mountains  represent  the 
axis  of  the  Appalachian  mountain-making  in 
New  England,  and  the  older  Paleozoic  elastics  to 
the  w^est  were  very  strongly  metamorphosed — • 
the  limestones  into  marbles,  the  muds  and  gra- 
vels into  slates  and  schists^  and  some  of  the 
sandstones  into  quartzites.  In  Carboniferous 
time  the  whole  State  had  been  worn  down  to  base 
level,  and  coal  measures  were  deposited  in  the 
Rhode  Island-Nova  Scotia  basin,  and  in  the 
Gaspg-Worcester  trough.  In  Triassie  time  there 
was  an  estuary  in  the  Connecticut  River  Valley 
extending  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  State, 
with  an  average  of  twenty  miles  in  width.  This 
estuary  was  gradually  filled  with  sandstones; 
and  during  their  formation  there  were  great  out- 
flows of  trap  rock.  In  the  later  Cretaceous  all 
New  England  was  reduced  to  base  level,  the  south- 
eastern margin  of  Massachusetts  being  under 
a  shallow  sea,  receiving  deposits  of  clays,  as  at 
Gay's  Head,  in  Martha's  Vineyard.  The  State 
was  involved  in  the  uplift  of  the  Appalachian 
region  at  the  close  of  the  Cretaceous,  and  was 
raised  into  a  plateau  of  moderate  elevation. 
Jlassachusetts  shared  with  the  whole  of  New 
England  in  the  denudation  and  erosion  of  the 
Pleistocene  glaciation.  The  ice  moved  south- 
ward and  southeastward  across  the  State,  dis- 
charging into  the  sea  beyond  Nantucket  and  Long 
Island,  It  strongly  accentuated  the  southward 
trending  valleys,  while  the  higher  ridges  were 
denuded  of  soil,  and  the  ice,  on  receding  to  the 
north,  left  the  State  strewn  with  a  mantle  of 
drift. 

Mineral  Resoubces  and  Mining.  Massachu- 
setts has  been  for  many  years  the  largest  pro- 
ducer of  granite  in  the  United  States.  In  1901 
the  output  was  valued  at  $2,616,258,  which  was 
about  half  a  million  more  than  the  average  for  a 
number  of  years  and  over  14  per  cent,  of  the  total 
granite  production  of  the  country.  Limestone  is 
quarried,  most  of  the  product  being  burned  into 
lime;  the  value  of  the  output  in  1901.  ,$244,039, 
was  also  a  decided  increase  over  preceding  years. 
Some  marbles  are  found  in  the  metamorphosed 
Paleozoic  strata,  and  small  but  increasing  quan- 
tities are  quarried.  The  dikes  and  sills  of  trap 
found  in  the  Connecticut  Valley  are  the  very 
finest  road  metal,  and  are  used  as  such  in  consid- 
erable quantities.  The  sandstones  are  almost 
wholly  the  brown-stones  of  Triassie  age  in  the 
Connecticut  Valley  beds.  The  value  of  the  pro- 
duction di'creased  continuoiisly  from  $640,000  in 
1890  to  about  one-fifth  that  ainount  in  1899,  but 
the  two  following  years  showed  a  revival  of  tlie 
industry.  Glacial  clays  are  widely  distributed. 
Fire  clays  are  found  in  the  coal  measures, 
rich  clay  beds  in  the  Cretaceous,  and  later  de- 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


156 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


posits  on  the  southeastern  coast  or  islands.  The 
clavs  are  largely  manufaoturcd  into  brick,  the 
product  in  I'JOO  being  valued  at  $2,150,822.  Many 
minerals  are  found  in  the  Slate,  some  of  which 
figure  largely  in  a  commercial  way.  Iron  pyrile, 
used  in  the"  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  is 
extensively  produced,  the  output  in  1809  being 
175,075  long  tons,  which  was  23  ])er  cent,  of  the 
entire  production  in  the  country.  Slate  is  found, 
and  is  put  on  the  market  occasionally;  tripoli 
is  produced  in  a  small  way  at  Framingham, 
and  small  quantities  of  corundum,  iron,  man- 
ganese, and  tin  are  also  met  with  in  various 
localities. 

Fisheries.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony 
early  recognized  the  fisheries  as  one  of  the  lead- 
ing industries,  in  fact,  second  only  to  fanning. 
Special  legislation  was  adopted  whereby  they 
were  exempted  from  taxation,  and  ship  carpen- 
ters and  fishermen  from  military  duty.  Boston 
began  to  export  fish  in  10.33,  and  soon  fishing 
villages  sprang  up  all  along  the  coast  for  the 
shore  fisheries,  and  Gloucester  became,  as  it  still 
continues  to  be,  the  most  ])ronHnent  port  in  the 
world  in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisbcrics  otV  New- 
foundland and  Labrador,  Whales  were  first 
caught  ofT  Nantucket  in  KiOO,  and  New  Bedford 
became  famous  in  the  whale  fisheries,  its  whal- 
ing vessels  frequenting  the  remotest  seas.  This 
industry,  however,  has  been  declining  steadily 
for  several  years.  The  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission has"  extensive  hatcheries,  laboratory,  and 
school  at  Woods  Hole,  and  the  State  has  hatch- 
eries at  Wilkinsonville  and  Winchester.  In  the 
items  of  investment  and  value  of  products  the 
fishing  industry  of  Massachusetts  exceeds  that 
of  all  the  other  Atlantic  coast  States.  It  has  over 
two-thirds  of  the  investment  in.  more  than  half 
of  the  quantity  of,  and  nearly  half  of  the  value  of 
the  products  of  the  coast  fisheries  of  New  Eng- 
land. The  products  of  the  fisheries  are  derived 
chielly  from  the  numerous  oflT-shore  fishing  banks 
extending  along  the  coast  from  Nantucket  Shoals, 
Mass.,  to  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfcaindhind. 
Only  about  20  per  cent. — viz.  that  taken  by 
boats  and  small  vessels  in  the  shore  fisheries — 
is  secured  from  Massachusetts  waters.  There  were 
6962  men  engaged  in  1898  in  vessel  fishing.  3305 
in  the  inshore  or  boat  fisheries,  and  4032  shore- 
nien.  This  is  a  less  nunit>er  of  men  than  are  em- 
ploved  in  the  fisheries  of  Maine,  or  in  one  or  two 
of  the  Middle  .Xtlantic  coast  States.  The  capital 
in  1898  was  estinuited  at  .$  13. 372.000— al)out  the 
same  as  for  1889.  The  value  of  tlie  product  for 
the  same  year  was  $4.tlj3.000.  a  decrease  of  over 
a  million  "since  1889.  This  was  due  to  the  fall  in 
price,  as  the  amount  of  the  catch  increased  during 
the  same  period. 

Ar.RiCfi.TiRE.  Only  a  small  per  cent,  of  the 
population  of  JIassachusetts  is  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, and  but  61.2  per  cent,  of  the  land  area  is 
included  in  farms.  During  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  total  acreage  of  farms 
diminished  0.2  percent.  For  the  same  period  the 
improved  acreage  decreased  30.4  per  cent.,  and 
in  lOOn  only  41.1  per  cent,  of  the  farm  land  was 
improved.  The  average  size  of  farms  has  de- 
creased from  103  acres  in  1870  to  83.4  acres  in 
1900.  There  is  an  unusually  small  number  of 
rented  farms,  constituting  less  than  one-tenth  of 
the  total  number.  A  considerable  portion  of  the 
State  is  not  well  adapted  to  agricnltural  pur- 
suits. The  most  extensive  arable  districts  are  in 


the  central  and  northeastern  parts  of  the  State. 
The  value  of  farm  property  and  products,  how- 
ever, has  greatly  increased.  This  is  the  result 
of  a  very  decided  change  in  the  nature  of  the 
industry.  Under  the  competition  brought  about 
by  the  development  of  the  more  fertile  lands  of 
the  West  and  the  increase  of  transportation  fa- 
cilities, the  raising  of  cereals  has  been  rendered 
unprofitable.  At  the  same  time  the  growth  of 
a  large  citj'  population  has  created  a  market  for 
fruits  and  garden  and  dairy  products.  The  pro- 
duction of  these  has  therefore  largely  taken  the 
place  of  the  crops  formerly  raised.  From  1880 
to  1900  the  area  devoted  to  cereals  iliminished 
from  104,631  to  53.385  acres.  Of  the  latter  area 
39.131  acres  were  in  corn.  The  western  counties 
are  best  suited  to  cereals,  and  the  decrease  has 
been  least  in  this  section.  The  acreage  devoted  to 
hay  and  forage  in  1900  was  610,023,  and  this 
crop  contributed  39.1  per  cent,  of  the  total  value 
of  all  crops  for  that  year.  There  were  27,.521 
acres  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  Irisli  potatoes, 
and  a  slightly  greater  amo\mt  to  miscellaneous 
vegetables,  the  two  together,  including  onions, 
contributing  nearly  24  [)er  cent,  of  the  total  value 
of  all  crops.  A  much  less  acreage  (8346)  was 
devoted  to  small  fruits,  but  the  greater  per  acre 
value  of  the  product  ($175)  gives  them  an  im- 
portant position  among  the  crops  of  the  State. 
Cranberries  are  the  most  important  of  the  small 
fruits,  the  marshy  lands  of  Barnstable  and  Plym- 
outh counties  being  well  adapted  to  the  prod\ic- 
tion  of  this  fruit.  Of  the  orchard  fruits  the  apple 
is  the  most  important,  the  apple  trees  in  1900 
numbering  1,852.046,  or  78.2  per  cent,  of  all  fruit 
trees.  From  the  earliest  colonial  days,  tobacco 
has  been  raised  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut 
Kiver.  From  1890  to  lOOO"  the  acreage  of  this 
crop  almost  doubled,  being  3827  in  the  latter 
year.  But  few  States  equal  Massachusetts  in  the 
im])ortance  of  its  floricultural  interests.  In  1900 
there  were  734  establishments,  the  products 
amounting  to  $1,639,760.  The  following  census 
figures  show  in  acres  the  relative  importance  of 
the  leading  crops: 


1900 

1S90 

39.131 

t>.7IV2 

4..W7 

610.023 

27,521 
3,827 

34,010 

14.3:11 

Kve               

lO.CliS 

HftV 

627.:iK5 

26.873 

2.012 

Stock-raising  also  has  suffered  from  the  effects 
of  Western  competition.  There  was  a  loss  in  the 
number  of  sheep  during  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  However,  the  development  of 
intensive  farming  has  necessitated  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  horses,  and  the  growth  of  the 
dairy  industry  has  naturally  resulted  in  a  gain 
in  the  number  of  dairy  cows.  Ne:uly  40  per 
cent,  of  all  farms  derive  their  princip:U  income 
fnim  the  dairy.  In  1900  the  total  valiu'  of  the 
ilairy  products  was  $12,885,744.  of  which  amount 
80  per  cent,  was  realized  from  sales.  The  pro- 
duction of  milk  increased  27.9  per  cent,  during 
the  decade  1890-1000.  and  the  sales  of  this 
product  in  the  latter  year  amounted  to  $0,711 
380.  In  the  same  year  the  products  of  the  poultry 
industry  amoimtcd  to  .$3,970,022. 

The  following  census  figures  show  the  relative 
importance  of  the  leading  varieties  of  farm 
stock  : 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


157 


MASSACHTJSETTS. 


Dairy  ei^ws.. 
Other  cuttle 

Hciraes 

Mules  aud 

Slieep 

Swiuo 


1900 


184,662 
101,382 
75,03-1 
349 
33,81)9 
18,925 


1890 


172,046 
84,082 
63,638 
196 
51.438 
91,483 


KoUESTS.  Accoiiling  to  the  State  census  the 
■  forest  area  in  1895  was  1,460,994  acres,  which 
acreage,  tliough  somewhat  greater  than  that 
in  1885.  was  estimated  at  a  lower  value,  indica- 
tive of  a  depreciating  grade  of  timber.  Prac- 
tically all  the  primeval  growth  of  commercial 
value  has  been  removed.  Forest  tires  are  still 
frequent.  Returns  from  59  cities  and  towns  in 
1900  showed  that  there  had  been  229  fires,  ex- 
tending over  51,808  acres  of  forest  area. 

Manifactukes.  ilanufacturing  has  been  of 
great  importance  in  Massachusetts  almost  from 
tiic  beginning  of  its  history.  Only  three  other 
States  (New  YorI<,  Pennsylvania,  and  Illinois) 
exceed  it  in  the  value  of  this  output.  During  the 
last  lialf  of  the  nineteentli  century  the  value 
of  manufactured  juoducts  increased  more  than 
sixfold,  being  estimated  in  1900  at  $1,035,198,989. 
The  wage-earners  engaged  increased  180.3  per 
cent,  during  the  same  period,  or  only  about  2  per 
cent,  less  than  tlie  percentage  of  increase  for  the 
total  population.  The  actual  number  of  wage- 
earners  in  1900  was  497.448.  or  17.7  per  cent,  of 
the  total  population.  Of  these  143,109  were  wo- 
men, and  12.550  were  children  under  sixteen 
years  of  age.  From  1890  to  1900  the  percentage 
of  gain  for  both  the  value  of  the  products  and 
number  of  wage-earners  did  not  increase  as  rapid- 
ly as  the  population  or  as  rapidly  as  the  corre- 
sponding percentage  for  the  entire  countiy. 

Tile  great  growth  which  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry has  attained  is  the  more  remarkable  be- 
cause of  the  dependence  on  outside  sources  for 
raw  materials,  and  because  the  local  markets 
consume  but  a  small  part  of  the  product.  The 
State  is  not  witliout  natural  advantages,  how- 
ever, the  chief  of  these  being  the  abundance  of 
water  power.  Tlie  interests  of  the  industry  are 
also  greatly  facilitated  by  the  excellent  advan- 
tages of  transportation  afforded  both  by  rail  and 
by  the  ocean. 

Clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  and  their  materials, 
represent  the  most  important  group  of  manufac- 
tures. M.Tssachusetts  has  long  ranked  first  in 
the  manufacture  of  textiles.  In  1900  nearly  a 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  wage-earners  were 
engaged  in  the  industry,  or  30  per  cent,  of  the 
W'agcearners  employed  in  the  State.  During  the 
decade  1890-1900  the  value  of  the  product  in- 
creased 15  per  cent.  Over  half  of  the  total  prod- 
uct is  accredited  to  cotton  goods.  The  State  has 
ranked  first  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods 
from  the  beginning  of  the  industry  in  the  colo- 
nies. The  first  cotton  mills  in  the  United 
States  were  established  at  Beverly  in  1788.  Owing 
to  tlie  secrecy  surrounding  the  English  invention 
of  power-looms,  these  were  not  introduced  until 
1814.  In  moo  there  were  7,784,687  spindles 
in  the  State.  The  increase  of  spindles  during  the 
decade  ending  then  was  33.7  per  cent,  and  con- 
stituted 40.6  per  cent,  of  the  increase  for  the 
whole  country.  The  cotton  products  are  equal 
to  33.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the  United 
States.  The  increase  was  greatest  for  tlie  finer 
kinds  of  goods.     For   fancy   woven   products   it 


was  132.1  per  cent.;  napped  fabrics,  51  per  cent.; 
cotton  duck,  190  per  cent.:  print  cloths,  52  per 
cent.  Ginghams  suffered  slight  decrease  during 
the  period.  After  cotton  goods  the  most  impor- 
tant are  worsteds  and  woolens.  Woolens  had  led 
mitil  1900,  when  they  were  surpassed  in  value  by 
worsteds.  The  manufacture  of  woolens  is  one  of 
the  earliest  industries  established  in  the  State, 
dating  from  1043.  Tlie  spinning  jennj',  operated 
by  water  power,  was  introduced  about  1815,  and 
the  power-loom  for  broadcloth  in  1826.  The  in- 
dustry declined  from  1890  to  1900.  but  the  prod- 
uct for  that  year  was  more  than  one-fourth  that 
for  the  whole  countiy.  Worsteds,  on  the  con- 
trary, increased  84.9  per  cent,  for  the  same  period, 
as  compared  witli  an  increase  of  39.3  per  cent, 
for  all  otlier  States.  The  State  now  has  31.3  per 
cent,  of  all  spindles  in  the  United  States.  Of  the 
other  varieties  of  textiles  produced  the  most  im- 
portant are  carpets  and  rugs,  hosiery  and  knit 
goods,  and  silk  and  silk  goods.  All  of  these, 
with  the  exception  of  carpets  and  rugs,  increased 
in  production  from  1890  to  1900.  There  was  a 
decrease  during  that  period  in  the  production 
of  clothing,  as  also  of  cordage  and  twine. 

In  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes — both 
leather  and  rubber — Jlassachusetts  holds  first 
rank.  In  1900  it  produced  44.9  per  cent,  of  the 
total  amount  of  leather  boots  and  shoes  for  the 
United  States.  The  industry  was  begun  in  1635. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  the  custom  for  each  work- 
man to  make  the  entire  shoe.  Xot  infrequently 
the  industry  furnished  the  farmers  with  winter 
occupation,  ilost  of  the  machinery  which  now 
takes  the  place  of  hand  labor  in  this  line  is  the 
invention  of  Massachusetts  men.  From  1890  to 
1900  the  production  of  leather  boots  and  shoes 
increased  but  little,  while  the  value  of  boots  and 
shoes  made  from  rubber  increased  68.4  per  cent. 
Closely  related  to  this  industry  are  the  tanning, 
currying,  and  finishing  of  leather,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  rubber  and  elastic  goods.  With  the 
increase  of  the  tanning  industry  in  the  West, 
where  tanning  bark  is  more  readily  obtainable, 
the  industry  is  declining,  but  the  production  of 
rubber  and  elastic  goods  increased  03  per  cent,  in 
value  from  1890  to  1900.  The  first  production 
of  india-rubber  goods  in  the  United  States  was  at 
Roxbury  in  1833.  Massachusetts  has  continued 
to  hold  first  place  in  this  industry. 

The  next  most  prominent  group  of  manufac- 
tures includes  foundry  and  machine-sliop  prod- 
ucts and  other  specially  related  products,  such  as 
iron  and  steel,  electrical  apparatus  and  supplies, 
and  carriages  and  wagons.  The  manufacture  of 
machinery  dates  from  the  early  days  of  the  colo- 
nial period,  and  has  from  the  first  included  a 
great  variety  of  products.  From  1890  to  1900 
there  was  a  very  large  gain  in  them — 44.7  per 
cent.  The  manufacture  of  iron  was  of  greater 
relative  importance  in  the  colonial  period  than 
in  recent  times.  The  industry  at  first  was  stim- 
ulated by  the  local  deposits  of  iron  ore.  hut  these 
have  been  superseded  by  a  higher  grade  of  ore 
obtained  in  other  regions.  The  manufactures  of 
electrical  apparatus  almost  doubled  during  the 
last  census  decade.  The  making  of  jewelry  is  a 
long-established  industry.  From  1890  to  1900 
its  manufactures  nearly  doubled. 

Massachusetts  has  long  ranked  first  in  the 
manufacture  of  paper  and  wood-pulp.  It  pro- 
duces 71  per  cent,  of  all  the  fine  writing  paper 
made   in   the  United   States.     In   book  paper  it 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


158 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


is  also  fust.  Four-fifllis  ui  all  llio  loft-dricd 
paper  mamifattured  in  the  United  States  from 
ISUO  to  18'J7  was  made  within  fifteen  miles  of 
Sprinjjtield.  As  early  as  1728  a  Colonial  fj'ant 
was  made  for  the  encouragement  of  the  industrj'. 
In  Cambridge  was  done  the  first  printing  in  the 
Colonies,  and  all  the  printing  in  the  ('olonies 
for  nearly  forty  years  was  done  at  Canihridge  and 
Boston.  The  manufacture  of  lumber  and  its  prod- 
ucts, especially  furniture,  is  important;  the  gain 
for  the  latter  for  the  decade  1800  to  1900  was 
82.3  per  cent.  The  slaughtering  and  meat-pack- 
ing industry  is  acquiring  considerable  impor- 
tance, as  are  also  the  refining  of  sugar  and 
molasses  and  the  production  of  malt  liquors. 

Massachusetts  has  an  unusual  number  of  im- 
portant manufacturing  centres.  Boston  ranks 
first  distinctly,  with  a  manufactured  product 
of  over  .$200,000,000.  Its  superiority  is  due 
largely  to  the  excellence  of  its  transportation 
facilities.  From  1890  to  1900  there  was  a  slight 
decrease  in  its  total  product,  although  there  was 
a  yery  large  gain  in  the  suburban  towns — for  in- 
stance, 188  per  cent,  in  Somervillc.  The  location 
of  a  number  of  the  other  large  centres  has  been 
determined  by  their  accessibility  to  water  power 
— for  instance,  Lowell  and  Lawrence  on  the  Mer- 
riniac,  and  Fall  Kiyer,  supplied  \vith  water  power 
from  Watuppa  Pond,  each  of  these  being  an  im- 
portant cotton  manufacturing  centre.  Lawrence  is 
also  a  yery  large  producer  of  worsteds.  Holyoke, 
the  largest  producer  of  paper  and  \yood  pulp, 
deriyes  its  power  from  the  Connecticut  River. 
New  Bedford,  another  important  cotton  manufac- 
turing centre;  Lynn,  a  great  boot  and  shoe  man- 
ufacturing town;  and  Gloucester,  a  fish  canning 
and  preserving  centre,  all  have  advantages  of 
coast  navigation,  while  Haverhill,  another  lead- 
ing hoot  and  shoe  manufacturing  town,  is  at  the 
head  of  navigation  of  the  Merrimae  River.  Among 
the  important  centres  not  located  on  the  coast  or 
on  rivers  are  Worcester,  whose  largest  establish- 
ments are  foundries  and  machine  shops,  and 
Brockton,  another  large  producer  of  boots  and 
shoes.  Omitting  the  towns  already  referred  to 
near  Boston,  those  having  the  largest  gains  from 
1890  to  1900  were  Lawrence.  (j8.4  per  cent.;  New 
Bedford,  50.8  per  cent.;  Gloucester,  01.7  per 
cent.;  Fall  River,  32.4  per  cent.;  and  Brockton, 
2.5.2  per  cent. 

The  table  on  following  page  shows  the  develop- 
ment for  the  twenty-one  leading  industries  from 
1890  to  1900.  It  will  be  seen  that  while  the  total 
product  for  these  industries  increased  greatl.v, 
there  was  an  actual  decrease  in  the  number  of  es- 
tablishments, the  tendenc,v  toward  centralization 
being  most  marked  in  the  boot  and  shoo  industry. 

Tn.\N'spoRT.\TioN  .\Nn  COMMERCE.  A  majorit.v 
of  the  many  railway  lines  centre  in  Boston,  and 
the  mileage  for  the  eastern  end  of  the  State  is 
greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  the  other  parts.  The 
first  railroad  in  the  I'nited  .States  was  the  Qnin- 
oy  Hailroail,  three  miles  long,  constructed  in  182G- 
27  to  convey  granite  from  the  Quincy  quarries 
for  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument.  H  was  not.  how- 
ever, operated  by  steam.  The  Boston  and  Lowell 
steam  railroad  was  opened  in  18.35.  About  the 
same  time  roads  wire  built  to  Proviilence  and  to 
Worcester,  anil  by  1842  the  latter  line  bad  been 
extended  to  .\lbany.  In  1800  the  total  mileage 
for  main  and  branch  lines  amounted  to  12fi4 
miles;  in  1880.  1915;  in  1890,  209fi ;  and  in  1900, 
2108.     This   was  equivalent  to  26.40   miles   for 


every  100  .square  miles  of  the  State's  area,  a 
rate  higher  than  that  of  any  other  State  except 
New  Jersey.  In  1900  forty-si.x  railroad  corpora- 
tions had  lines  located  wholly  or  in  part  within 
the  limits  of  Massachusetts.  However,  only 
eleven  of  these  were  engaged  in  actual  railroad 
operations,  the  roads  of  the  other  thirty-five  being 
operated  by  certain  of  the  eleven  companies.  Four 
of  these  eleven  companies — the  Boston  and  Al- 
bany; Boston  and  Jlaine;  Fitchburg;  and  New 
York,  Xew  Haven  and  Hartford  railroads — oper- 
ated over  97  per  cent,  of  the  total  railroad  mile- 
age. The  average  passenger  fare  per  mile  de- 
creased from  2.51  cents  in  1871  to  1.75  cents  in 
1900,  and  the  average  freight  rate  per  ton  mile 
^vas  reduced  from  3.11  to  1.71  cents.  The  strik- 
ing feature  in  the  transportation  of  to-day,  how- 
ever, is  the  great  rapidity  with  which  electric, 
car  lines  are  being  constructed.  At  the  present 
rate  this  mileage  will  soon  exceed  that  of  steam 
railroads. 

Massachusetts  has  followed  the  example  if 
Xew  .Jersey  in  providing  State  aid  in  the  cnn 
struction  of  public  highways,  and  the  policy  has 
resulted  in  a  superior  quality  of  roads. 

Maritime  conmierce  dates  from  the  first  days 
of  the  colony.  As  early  as  1031  Governor  Win- 
throp  launched,  for  coast  trade,  a  bark  called  the 
Blessing  of  the  Bay,  and  a  few  years  later  ves- 
sels were  plying  regulaily  between  the  various 
ports.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  there 
was  a  large  West  India  trade.  JIany  ships  were 
also  built  for  the  French  and  Spaniards,  who 
paid  for  them  largely  in  rum  and  molasses. 
After  the  Revolution  an  immense  trade  with  the 
Fast  Indies  and  with  the  African  Coast  was  de- 
veloped. In  fact,  the  commercial  interests  of 
Jlassachusetts  and  other  Xew  Fngland  States 
played  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  United  States  Constitution  and  in  the  sub-, 
sequent  political  life  of  the  States,  being  espe- 
cially prominent  during  the  period  of  the  War  of 
1812".  (See  History.)  Still  later,  notably  be- 
tween the  years  1840  and  18()0,  the  clippers  built 
at  East  Boston  and  Xewburyport  were  the  fastest 
ships  then  known,  and  carried  on  no  small  share 
of  the  world's  freighting.  Forty-four  of  them 
were  built  in  1855  alone,  and  the  tonnage  owned 
in  Boston  in  that  year  was  over  five  hundred 
thousand  tons.  But  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
nearly  paralyzed  the  commerce  of  American  ship- 
owners, and  it  has  never  been  fully  reviyed. 
Boston  (q.y. )  is  second  only  to  Xew  York  in  its 
shipping  interests.  Steamships  and  sailing  ves- 
sels connect  it  with  the  principal  ports  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic.  The  ports  of  entry  in 
the  State  are  Barnstable.  Boston,  and  Charles- 
town;  Fall  River.  Gloucester,  JIarbli'head,  Xew 
Bedford. Salem, and  Beverly;  Xcwburyi)ort,  Plym- 
outh, and  Edgarton.  (S>e  Tofioriraphy  above  for 
an  account  of  the  harbors  in  the  State. ) 

Banks.  The  first  commercial  bank  in  tlio 
Colonies  is  said  to  have  been  established  in  Bos- 
ton in  1(180.  The  Massachusetts  Land  Bank  was 
started  in  1739,  but  all  colonial  banks  were  pro- 
hibited in  1740.  The  Massachusetts  Bank,  or- 
ganized in  Boston  in  Fel)ruary,  1784,  was  the 
first  local  bank  in  the  State  and  the  second  in 
the  Union.  The  I'nion  Bank  of  Boston  \yas  char- 
tered in  1792.  By  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  five  banks  had  been  incorporated  in  the 
State.    j^Iassachusetts  was  the  first  State  to  re- 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


1."".) 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


INDD8TBIE8 


Total  for  selected  Indufitrles  fop  State j 

Increase  l&O  to  1900 

Percent,  of  increase..; 

Percent,  of  total  of  all  industries  in  State | 

Textiles:  Total { 

Carpets  and  rugs,  other  than  rag j 

Cotton  goods,  including  cotton  small  wares j 

Dyeing  and  finishing  textiles j 

Hosiery  and  linit  goods j 

Silk  and  silk  goods { 

Woolen  goods j 

Worsted  goods j 

Clothing j 

Cordage  and  twine j 

Boots  and  shoes,  factoi-y  product -; 

Boot  and  shoe  cut  stock j 

Boots  and  shoes,  rubber | 

Rubber  and  elastic  goods } 

Leather,  tanned,  curried  and  finished j 

Foundry  and  machine  shop  products | 

Iron  and  st«el | 

Electrical  apparatus  and  supplies j 

Jewelry j 

Carriages  and  wagons | 

Paper  and  wood  pulp | 

Printing  and  publishing i 

Lumber | 

Furniture,  factory  product j 

Slaughtering:  Total ) 

Sugar  and  molasses,  refining | 

Liquors,  malt 1 

Confectionery ( 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 

1900 
1890 
190O 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
190O 
1890 
190U 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 


Number  of 
establish- 
ments 


5,570 
5,699 


•129 
•2.3 
19.1 
21.2 

612 

502 

8 

7 

177 

187 

37 

33 

61 

74 

20 

20 

131 

165 

16 

33 

313 

205 

19 

32 

640 

1,057 

270 

288 

6 

5 

70 

60 

119 

191 

825 

711 

8 

16 

61 

26 

138 

106 

388 

430 

93 

85 

981 

813 

696 

652 

120 

136 

22 

21 

7 

1 

40 

26 

249 

218 


Average 
number 
wage- 
earners 


332.232 
295,011 


37,221 
12.6 
66.8 
06.0 


Value  of  prod- 
ucts, including 
custom  work 
and  repairing 


8672.170,907 
575.226.750 


$97,241,157 
10.9 
65.0 
61.8 


119.316 

$214,000,980 

125.611 

186.552,!>33 

1.180 

6,966,237 

5.109 

7.275.009 

92,515 

111,125,175 

75.514 

100.202.882 

4,678 

8.868,290 

4.270 

6.496,215 

6,667 

6,620,257 

1.562 

6,082,087 

3,110 

6,967,532 

2.993 

6,557,569 

17.717 

30,888,101 

19.152 

35.771,161 

18,867 

10.557.363 

11,835 

21,933.775 

6,776 

15.032.604 

8,608 

23,106,161 

3,303 

9,635,571 

3,351 

10,510,630 

68,615 

117,115,213 

67,371 

116.387,900 

1,390 

18.238,922 

4.208 

15,923,650 

5,250 

16,190,015 

1.932 

9,792.024 

6,941 

13,885,059 

3,172 

8,518,612 

7,010 

26,067,714 

7.725 

27,771,815 

32,234 

56.290,159 

23,379 

38.906,680 

6,125 

13,491,159 

5.210 

11,201.149 

5.202 

10.190.361 

2.581 

5.762,599 

6.696 

10,315,331 

3.503 

6.507,115 

3,161 

6,118,121 

1,131 

7,607.869 

9.001 

22.111.161 

7.817 

21.521,173 

10,859 

28.961.680 

8.182 

18.918.912 

5.202 

12.818.511 

6.619 

13,323.708 

6.092 

11.211,503 

3,110 

6,166.522 

2,718 

31.633.183 

1.779 

20.221,615 

692 

19.626.882 

201 

16.875,638 

1.651 

11,265,613 

818 

6.355,138 

2.912 

7.011.532 

1.994 

6.291,844 

•  Decrease. 

quire  (1803)  semi-annual  bank  reports  to  be 
sworn  to  by  tlie  directors.  Thus  its  banics  were 
put  on  a  firmer  basis  and  passed  tlirough  the 
panic  of  LSOSOU  in  better  shape  than  the  other 
New  England  banlcs  as  a  rule.  In  1814  again  the 
Massachusetts  banks  showed  their  superior 
strength.  A  comprehensive  banking  law  was 
enacted  in  1829,  with  stringent  provisions  as  to 
capitalization  and  limits  of  circulation.  Yet 
these  were  evaded  during  the  speculative  regime 
of  18.S0-.36:  as  a  consequence  in  the  financial  de- 
pression 1837-44.  32  banks  failed.  In  1838,  how- 
ever, a  .system  of  official  examination  of  banks 
by  a  board  of  bank  conimissiimers  was  adopted. 
The  banking  law  of  \S^7  ])rovided  for  one  com- 
missioner. Under  this  improved  system  there 
was  only  one  bank  failure  in  the  panic  of  1857. 
The  banking  capital  of  the  State  banks  reached 


its  maximum  in  1862,  when  there  were  138  banks, 
witli  a  capital  of  $67,544,200.  When  the  system 
of  national  banks  was  introduced  State  banks  of 
discount  were  prohibited  and  do  not  exist  at 
present.  The  necessity  for  loans  on  real  estate 
(which  the  national  banks  are  prohibited  from 
making)  led  to  the  development  of  trust  com- 
panies. Savings  banks  are  numerous  and  popu- 
lar, and  their  investment  and  general  manage- 
ment are  strictly  regulated  by  law.  In  1902 
there  were  241  national  banks,  with  capital  .$73,- 
187,000.  surplus  $27,922,000,  cash,  etc.,  $29,027,- 
000,  loans  $245,841,000.  .nnd  deposits  $231,856,- 
000;  37  trust  companies,  with  an  agsregate  cap- 
ital of  $12,595,000,  surplus  of  $9,248,500,  cash 
$4,332,363,  loans  of  $105,991,407,  and  deposits 
$127,928,218:  41  savings  banks,  with  1,593,640 
depositors  and  deposits  of  $560,705,752. 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


160 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


GovEBXMEXT.  The  Constitution  is  that  of 
1780  with  amendments  adopted  at  different 
periods  since.  .V  jiroposed  amendment  must  re- 
ceive a  majority  vote  of  the  Senators  and  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  House  at  two  consecutive  ses- 
sions, and  afterwards  be  approved  by  a  majority 
vote  of  the  people.  In  order  to  vote,  one  must 
have  lived  in  the  State  one  year  and  in  tlie  town 
or  district  si.\  months,  and  registration  is  re- 
quired. SutTrage  is  further  conditioiied'upon  the 
payment  of  taxes  by  the  voter  and  his  ability  to 
read  English  and  to  write  his  name. 

Legisi..\tive.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  General  Court..  comi)Osed  of  a  Senate  of  40 
members  and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  240 
members,  elected  respectively  from  Senatorial  and 
Representative  districts,  composed  of  contiguous 
undivided  towns  or  wards,  and  upon  the  basis 
of  population.  The  election  occurs  annually,  on 
the  Tuesday  following  the  first  Jlonday  in  No- 
vember. The  General  Court  or  Legislature  meets 
on  the  first  Wednesday  in  .January  and  such  other 
times  as  the  members  judge  necessary,  or  when 
called  by  the  (Jovcrnnr.  Jloncy  bills  must  origi- 
nate in  the  Lower  House.  The  power  of  impeach- 
ment rests  with  the  House,  the  trial  of  impeach- 
ment Avith  the  Senate.  A  two-thirds  vote  of  each 
House  overrides  the  (Jovernor's  veto.  The  capital 
of  the  State  is  Boston. 

Executive.  The  Governor  and  other  principal 
executive  oflieers  are  elected  annually  by  the 
people.  A  council  composed  of  eight  members, 
elected  annually  by  districts,  gives  the  Governor 
advice  upon  matters  of  ollicial  duty.  The  J.ieu- 
tenant-Govcrnor  succeeds  to  the  Governorship  in 
ease  of  its  vacancy,  and  if  the  office  again  be- 
comes vacant  the  council  performs  the  executive 
functions.  The  Governor  and  council  grant  par- 
dons for  offenses. 

Judiciary.  The  supreme  judicial  court  con- 
sists of  a  Chief  .Justice  and  six  associate  justices. 
The  superior  court  consists  of  a  Chief  .Justice  and 
15  associate  justices.  All  judges  in  the  State 
are  appointed  l>y  the  Governor  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  council,  and  they  hold  office 
during  gdod  behavior.  Each  county  has  a  |)ro- 
bate  court  an<l  court  of  insolvency,  distinct  in 
their  jurisdiction,  powers,  etc.,  but  having  the 
same  judge  and  register.  These  courts  are  held 
by  the  judge  of  probate  and  insolvency  appointed 
for  the  county;  but  the  judges  of  the  several 
counties  nuiy,  in  ease  of  necessity  or  convenience, 
interchange  services. 

T.oc.M.  (iovEitXMENT.  The  General  Court  estab- 
lishes municipal  governments  in  towns  exceeding 
12.000  populaliiin,  with  the  consent  and  tipon 
the  application  of  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 
All  bylaws  of  such  city  governments,  however, 
are  at  all  times  sul)ject  to  annulment  by  the  Gen- 
eral Court.  Sheriffs,  registers  of  probate,  and 
clerks  of  the  courts  arc  elected  by  the  people  of 
the  several  counties.  District  attorneys  are 
chosen  by  the  people  of  the  districts. 

Statutory  Provi.sions.  The  legal  rate  of  in- 
terest is  (i  per  cent.  Willful  desertion  for  three 
years,  failure  to  provide  for  that  period,  and 
habitual  ilnmkenness  are  among  catises  for  which 
divorce  is  granted.  I'nder  the  local  option  law 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  cities  and  towns 
prohibit  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors. 

Tlie  State  has  14  Representatives  in  the  Lower 
House  of  the   National    Congress. 


Finance.  Massachusetts  has  always  been  one 
of  the  leading  States  in  matters  of  finance  and 
taxation,  and  its  methods  have  been  often  fol- 
lowed by  otlier  Slates.  In  l(i4U  the  Colony  intro- 
duced a  system  of  direct  taxation  and  a  poll  tax, 
and  soon  after  a  "faculties'  tax,  which  had  income 
as  a  basis.  The  first  treasurer's  report,  though  ' 
crude,  was  published  in  1G55.  When,  in  1090 
Massachusetts  was  reorganizeil  under  a  ])rovincial 
charter,  direct  ta.xation  upon  property  anil  a  j)oU 
ta.\  were  again  made  the  main  foundation  of  the 
revenue  system.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  lotteries  were  establislied  for  many  ex- 
traordinarj-  and  even  normal  needs  of  the  treas- 
ury. The  sjstem  was  abandoned  in  1705  only  to 
be  reestablished  at  the  advent  of  the  Revolution. 
In  17SG  the  direct  debt  of  the  State  was  .$5,000,- 
000  and  as  much  more  was  the  State's  share  of 
the  national  debt.  The  immediate  current  liabili- 
ties were  .$1,500,000.  In  1790,  however,  a  large 
part  of  this  debt  was  assumed  by  the  Federal 
Government.  By  1794  the  State  debt  was  almost 
canceled.  A.  well  regulated  system  of  taxation 
of  corporations  grew  up  in  Massachusetts  iu  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Banks  were 
taxed  after  1812,  and  insurance  companies  after 
1.S32.  The  public  debt  grew  during  the  Civil 
War.  It  amounted  at  one  time  to  more  than 
$32,000,000.  By  1871,  however,  it  had  been  re- 
duced to  $16,573,000,  for  the  payment  of  which 
there  was  created  a  sinking  fund  of  $8,201,000. 
The  public  debt  grew  again  rapidly  in  the  seven- 
ties because  of  many  railroad  loans  and  other 
public  improvements,  but  it  was  always  well  pro- 
tected with  a  sinking  fund.  On  December  31, 
1901,  the  funded  debt  for  which  the  State  was 
directly  responsible  was  $25,738,223.  The  con- 
tingent debt  for  which  the  State  loaned  its  credit 
to  various  cities  was  $51,058,412.  The  total  cash 
in  the  treasurv-  was  $0,030,100;  the  securities 
were  valued  at  $29,723,729.  The  general  revenues 
for  the  year  1901  were  $22,086,174  (30  per  cent, 
from  loans,  25  per  cent,  from  corporation  taxes, 
14  per  cent,  from  taxes  on  banks  and  insurance 
companies,  and  only  8  per  cent,  from  general 
property  tax).  The  expenditures  were  $20,859,- 
496.  Besides  there  were  a  number  of  spciial  funds 
for  various  purposes,  receipts  on  whidi  amounted 
to  .$25,257,825   and  payments  to  $25,719,889. 

Militia.  According  to  the  census  of  1900  there 
were  032.369  men  of  militia  age  in  the  State. 
The  militia  in  1901   numbered  5119. 

Population.  The  population  bv  decades  has 
been  as  follows:  1790,  378.000;  1800,  422.000; 
ISIO.  472.000;  1820.  .523.000;  18.30.  610.000; 
1840,  737.000:  1850.  994,000:  1860.  1.231.000; 
1870,  1.457.000;  1880.  1,783.000;  1890.  2.238,000; 
1900,  2.805.000 — negroes.  31.974.  In  1790  Massa- 
chusetts ranked  fo\irtli  in  population,  then  gradu- 
ally fell  to  the  eighth  place  in  1840,  since  which 
period  its  rank  has  been  sixth  or  seventh.  •  In 
density  it  stands  first,  with  a  population  of  348  to 
the  square  mile.  The  )iercentas;e  of  increa.se 
in  the  last  decade  was  25,3.  being  exceeded 
by  that  of  only  four  other  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  The  increase  in  the  class 
of  native  born  of  native  parents  was  small 
(about  76.000).  and  of  the  foreign  born, 
large.  Tlie  increa.se  of  the  native  born  of 
foreign  parents  was  equal  to  the  other  two 
classes  combined.  Until  near  the  middle  of 
the  last  century  the  people  of  Massachusetts 
were   almost    whollv   of   English   descent.      Two 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


161 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


movements,  liouevcr,  liave  wionjjht  a  vast 
change  with  respect  to  race.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  migration  westward  of  the  native  popu- 
lation. The  other  was  tlic  great  influx  of  foreign- 
ers, hirgely  from  Ireland  and  Canada,  those  from 
the  latter  country  being  mainly  of  French  descent. 
The  foreign  born"  in  1900  numbered  840.000,  or  30 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  while  897,000 
were  native  born  children  of  foreign  parents,  thus 
making  the  present  population  of  the  State  pre- 
dominantly of  a  non-English  type.  The  influence 
of  the  westward  emigration  from  the  Slate  and 
the  increased  opportunity  for  females  to  find  em- 
ployment in  the  mills  and  at  domestic  service  has 
resulted  in  a  preponderance  of  this  sex.  the  per- 
centage of  females  being  51.3 — greater  than  in 
any  other  State.  The  decided  growth  of  the 
manufacturing  industry  has  resulted  furthermore 
in  placing  the  State  second  in  the  percentage  of 
its  urban  population.  There  are  50  towns  hav- 
ing over  8000  inhabitants,  which  is  a  larger  num- 
ber than  in  any  other  State.  In  1900  the  popula- 
tion of  Boston  was  560.892;  Worcester,  118,- 
421;  Fall  River,  104,863;  Lowell,  94,969;  Cam- 
tridge,  91.886:  Lvnn,  68.513;  Lawrence,  62,559; 
New  Bedford.  02.442  :  Springfield,  62,059;  Sonier- 
ville,  61.643;  Holvoke,  45,712;  Brockton,  40,063; 
Haverhill.  37.175;  Salem,  35.950;  Chelsea.  34,- 
072;  Maiden.  33,664;  Newton,  33,587;  Fitchburg, 
31,531;  Taunton,  31,036;  Gloucester,  26,121. 

Religion.  In  the  colonial  period  the  population 
belonged  mainly  to  the  Congregational  Church. 
Before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
Baptists  and  Methodists  had  become  prominent 
and  are  now  leading  denominations.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  Massachusetts  be- 
came the  centre  of  Unitarianism  in  the  United 
States.  The  Episcopalians  have  a  considerable 
following.  With  the  coming  of  large  numbers  of 
Irish  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  Catholic  Church  for  the  first  time  became 
prominent,  and  it  is  now  much  stronger  than 
any  one  of  the  Protestant  denominations. 

Edccatiox.  The  establishment  of  public 
schools  was  regarded  as  an  important  matter 
from  the  first  settlement.  The  first  free  school 
was  organized  in  1635,  and  Harvard  College  was 
founded  in  1636.  In  1647  a  statute  was  enacted 
that  each  town  having  50  families  shouldmaintain 
a  school  to  teach  the  children  to  read  and  write, 
and  each  town  having  100  families  a  grammar 
school  to  fit  youths  for  college.  This  statute  was 
amplified  and  amended,  until  the  system  has  be- 
come one  of  the  best  in  the  world.  The  State 
Board  of  Education  was  created  in  1837.  Horace 
5Iann  was  its  first  secretary,  and  his  reports  and 
labors  gave  impulse  and  vigor  to  the  schools  of 
the  entire  Union.  The  educational  system  of  the 
State  holds  its  high  rank  by  virtue  of  its  superior 
organization  and  siipervision.  its  adequate  finan- 
cial support,  and  its  admirable  adayitability  to 
the  needs  of  all.  The  local  unit  of  organization 
is  the  town  (township),  each  town  having  a 
school  committee  appointed  by  the  people  and  a 
skilled  superintendent  appointed  -by  the  commit- 
tee. The  State  Board  is  the  central  coiirdinating 
and  supervisory  body  and  between  it  and  the 
local  organizations  stand  the  agents  of  the  State 
Board,  each  of  whom  has  his  particular  district 
or  his  special  phase  of  educational  work  to  over- 
see. Thus  uniformity  and  efficiency  in  super- 
vision are  secured.  Financial  support  is  secured 
hy  taxation  and  by  the  income  from  the  State 


school  fund.  Tliis  fund  was  established  in  1834 
from  proceeds  derived  from  the  sale  of  lauds  in 
the  State  of  ilaine,  and  from  the  claims  of  Mas- 
sachusetts upon  the  United  States  for  militarj' 
services,  and  it  has  been  greatly  augmented  from 
numerous  sources,  the  total  on  December  31, 
1900,  amounting  to  $4,370,000.  The  fund  has  de- 
rived its  great  efficiency  from  the  admirable  man- 
ner in  which  its  income  has  been  distributed, 
having  been  used  from  the  beginning  .so  as  to 
stimulate  the  towns  to  greater  exei'tion  for  edu- 
cational purposes.  It  has  lifted  the  standard 
in  the  poorer  localities  by  increasing  their  allow- 
ances at  the  expense  of  the  more  wealthy  muni- 
cipalities. At  present  towns  with  a  taxable  valu- 
ation of  over  .$3,000,000  derive  no  benefits  from 
the  fund,  while  the  poorer  localities,  in  addition 
to  lump  sum  allotments,  which  vary  inverselj'  to 
the  property  valuation,  receive  also  assistance  for 
superintendents'  and  teachers'  salaries  and  cer- 
tain other  purposes.  With  this  financial  back- 
ing, every  town  is  enabled  to  maintain  a  long 
school  term.  The  minimum  established  b5'  law  is 
eight  months.  In  1900  only  14  towns  out  of  339 
fell  under  this  limit,  while  the  average  for  all 
e.xceeded  nine  months  from  1890  to  1900.  The 
system  also  enables  fair  wages  to  be  paid  the 
teachers,  the  men  (constituting  one-tenth  of  the 
total  number)  receiving  an  average  of  $136  per 
month,  and  the  women  an  average  of  $52  per 
month.  The  scope  and  completeness  of  the 
school  system  of  Jlassachusetts  are  realized  w'hen 
it  is  seen  that,  in  addition  to  the  grammar 
schools,  there  are  261  high  schools,  every  child 
having  the  advantage  of  free  high-school  tuition; 
that  49  towns  and  cities  maintain  night  schools; 
that  36  towns  and  cities  maintain  a  kindergarten, 
system;  that  every  town  with  a  population  above 
20,000  affords  manual  training  in  its  high 
schools ;  and  that  the  training  of  teachers  is 
provided  for  by  the  maintenance  of  ten  normal 
schools.  All  this  is  supplemented  b_v  private 
schools.  The  proportion  of  pupils  in  the  private 
schools  to  those  in  public  schools  is  as  1  to  7. 
While  there  was  a  reduction  from  1890  to  1900 
in  the  number  attending  private  schools  of  aca- 
demic rank,  there  has  been  a  decided  increase  in 
the  number  attending  other  private  schools.  If 
one  applies  the  test  of  enrollment  and  attendance 
he  finds  that  out  of  a  total  of  630,000  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  eighteen  years,  474,891 
are  enrolled  in  the  public  schools,  and  73,205  in 
the  private  schools,  making  a  total  enrollment 
of  548,096.  The  attendance  at  the  public  schools 
for  the  last  decade  has  averaged  over  90  per  cent, 
of  the  enrollment.  The  average  taxation  cost  for 
all  school  purposes  per  each  child  in  the  average 
membership  of  the  public  schools  is  $33.92. 

While  the  State  system  of  education  does  not 
include  higher  institutions  of  learning  excepting 
normal  colleges,  these  have  been  amply  pro- 
vided by  private  enterprise.  Detailed  informa- 
tion concerning  these  institutions  will  be  found 
under  their  separate  headings.  The  oldest  col- 
legiate institution  is  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge (non-sectarian).  The  others  (exclusive  of 
those  for  women) ,  in  the  order  of  their  founding. 
are:  Williams  College  (Congregational).  Wil- 
liamstown;  Amherst  College  (Congregational), 
.■Amherst;  College  of  the  Holy  Cross  (Roman 
Catholic).  Worcester;  Tufts  College  (fTniver- 
salist).  Tufts  College  Station;  Boston  College 
(Roman  Catholic)  ;   Boston  University    (Metho- 


MASSACHirSETTS. 


162 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


dist  Episcopal)  ;  and  Clark  University  (non- 
sectarian),  Worcester.  Tlie  colle<;es  for  women 
nre,  in  similar  order:  Mount  llolyoke  College, 
South  Hadley:  Wellesley  Colle-ro".  Wellesley; 
Sniitli  College,  Xoitlianipton;  and  KadcIUlV  Col- 
lege. Cambridge,  all  non-sectarian.  The  theo- 
logical institutions  are:  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  (Congregational),  Andover;  Newton 
Theological  Institution  (Baptist),  Newton;  Har- 
vard Divinity  School  (non-sectarian)  ;  New 
Church  Theological  School,  Camhridge;  Boston 
I'nivvrsity  Seiiool  of  Tlieology  (non-sectarian 
imder  Jlethodist  auspices)  ;  Protestant  Episcopal 
Theological  School,  Cambridge;  Tufts  College 
Divinity  School  (Universalist) ,  Tufts  College 
Station.  There  are  two  law  schools,  that  of  Har- 
vard and  that  of  the  Boston  Vnivcrsily.  The 
schools  of  medicine  arc:  Harvard  Jledical  School, 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Boston, 
Tufts  College  Medical  School,  and  Boston  Uni- 
versity School  (homoeopathic).  There  are  also 
Boston  Dental  College.  Harvard  Dental  School, 
and  JIassachusetts  College  of  Pharmacy.  The 
schools  of  science  arc  six  in  number,  viz.:  Massa- 
chusett.s  .Agricultural  College  at  Amherst;  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  TcchnologT^'  in  Boston; 
Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Cambridge;  Clark 
I'nivcrsity,  Worcester;  Worcester  Polytechnic 
Institute.  The  New  England  Conservatory  of 
Music  at  Boston  and  the  Boston  University  Col- 
lege of  JIusic  have  high  standards  of  require- 
ment. 

ClIARITARI-E,  PEXAI.,  AND  REFORMATORY  In.STI- 
TVTIOX.S.  The  State  schools  for  the  deaf  are  the 
American  School  at  Hartford,  the  Clark  School 
at  Northampton,  the  New  England  Industrial 
•Schiinl  at  Beverly,  the  Horace  Mann  Si'linol  at 
Boston,  the  Boston  Si-hool  for  the  Deaf,  and  the 
Sarah  Kuller  Home  at  Medford.  The  blind  are 
educated  at  the  Perkins  Institute  and  Massa- 
chusetts School  for  the  Blind.  The  feeble-minded 
are  provided  for  at  the  ilassachusetts  School  for 
the  Fceble-Mlndcd.  located  at  Waltham.  Other 
charitable  institutions  are  the  State  Hospital 
(almshouse),  at  Tewksbury;  State  Primary 
School  at  Monsou ;  State  Farm  at  Bridgcwater; 
insane  hospitals  at  T;niuton.  Northamptcm.  Dan- 
vers,  and  Westboro;  and  the  Hospit;il  for  In- 
ebriates at  Foxboro.  The  total  n\unber  of  in- 
mates of  the  nine  foregoing  institutions  increased 
from  27.iO  in  ISli:!  to  .3800  in  1900.  Besides  ths 
above  there  are  many  city  and  town  almshouses 
and  hospitals  and  insane  asylums.  The  number 
of  imnatcs  of  the  former  increased  as  shown 
aliove;  that  of  the  latter  increased  from  420  to 
4204.  The  net  cost  of  all  paupers  in  Massa- 
chusetts— State  and  town — incre:ised  from  $2.- 
442.000  in  ISHO  to  .'i;.3.487.000  in  1000.  The  cost 
per  each  inluibitant  of  Massachusetts  increased 
during  the  same  period  from  $1.0G  to  $1.26.  The 
increase  in  the  number  of  the  inmates  of  the 
insane  hospitals  and  asyhims  in  that  decade  has 
averaged  about  .100  annually,  resulting  in  a  very 
greatly  overcrowded  condition  in  these  institu- 
tions. There  are  about  000  of  the  insane  still  in 
the  city  and  town  almshouses,  but  a  recent  law 
pr'ividi's  that  these  shall  be  s>i])piirtc<l  :ind  cared 
fur  liv  the  State  after  .Tanuary  1.  1004.  There 
nre  separate  hospitals  for  ejiilcptlcs  and  tuber- 
culous patients.  The  State  mainl;iins  a  reforma- 
tory for  men  at  Concord,  and  a  reformatory  for 
wonien  nt  Sherborn.  Convicts  in  the  State  prison, 
reformatories,    jails,    ami    houses    of    correction 


work  only  under  the  public  account  system,  ex- 
cept in  ease  of  the  industries  of  cane-seating 
and  making  umbrellas.  Both  in  the  State  and 
county  institutions  the  labor  of  prisoners  is  under 
the  supervision  of  the  (Jcncral  Superintendent  of 
Prisons.  The  State  Boanl  of  Charities,  consist- 
ing of  nine  meiubers,  is  vested  with  greater 
power  than  is  commonly  exercised  by  similar 
boards  in  other  States.  And  they  have  succeeded 
in  bringing  about  decided  improvements  in  the 
administration  of  cliaritable  ailairs.  such  as,  for 
in.stance,  the  curt:iilmcnt  of  unnecessary  aid 
which  creates  rather  tlian  lessens  pauperism;  cr, 
again,  the  more  judicious  treatment  of  childrea 
who  may  rccpiire  the  attention  of  State  authori- 
ties. The  tendency  in  the  latter  kind  of  ca.ses 
is  to  find  homes  for,  or  board  children  in.  jirivate 
families  rather  than  in  institutions,  great  care 
being  taken  to  find  proper  homes  and  to  keep  in 
close  touch  with  the  children  placed  therein.  As 
a  consequence,  although  the  number  of  children 
in  State  care  has  increased  from  201).')  in  1866  ■ 
to  3742  in  1900.  the  children  in  instituticms  have 
decreased  in  number  during  that  time  from  1437, 
or  70  per  cent.,  to  558,  or  15  per  cent,  of  the 
total. 

History.  In  1002  Bartholomew  Gosnold  (q.v.) 
etl'ected  a  settlement  on  Cuttyhunk  Island,  be- 
tween Buzzard's  Bay  and  \'ineyard  Sound,  but 
the  colony  was  abandoned  after  three  weeks.  The 
first  successful  attempt  at  colonization  was  made 
by  a  band  of  Pilgrims,  102  in  number,  who  came 
from  Leyden  in  Holland.  They  were  a  Puritan 
sect,  known  as  Separatists  or  Brownists.  who 
had  fled  from  England  to  Holland  in  IIIOS  to 
escape  ])ersecution,  and.  wearj-  of  living  in  a  for- 
eign land,  had  determined  to  found  a  ]dace  of 
refuge  in  -\merica.  Through  a  company  of  mer- 
chant adventurers,  a  patent  was  obtained  from 
the  Council  for  New  England  for  a  settlement 
within  the  limits  of  'Virginia.'  The.y  set  sail 
from  Delft  Haven,  .luly  22,  1020.  "and  from 
PIynio\ith  in  England  on  the  sixth  of  Scptemtier. 
It  was  their  intention  to  settle  south  of  the 
Hudson  River,  but  storms  drove  the  Uiiv/'oiccr 
to  file  neighborhood  of  Cape  Cod.  and  on  Decem- 
ber 11th  (new  style  December  21st,  the  anniver- 
sary of  Forefathers'  Day  being  celebrated  on  De- 
cember 22d)  the  emigrants  landed  at  Plymouth 
Rock. 

Before  landing  they  drew  up  and  subscribed 
to  a  compact  or  frame  of  government  for  the  new 
settlement,  and  elected  .lohn  Carver  (Jovernor  for 
one  year.  Shortly  after  landing  they  entered  into 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Indian  chief  Massa- 
soit  ami  his  tribe,  which  remainid  (uibrnken  for 
a  long  time.  Within  four  months  forty-four  of 
the  colonists  died  from  exposure  to  the  cold  and 
the  lack  of  wholesome  food,  and  for  two  years 
they  sullercd  many  privations,  but  in  1023  they 
were  relieved  by  a  bountiful  harvest.  Others 
from  the  Leyden  Church  joined  them,  and  by 
1031  six  hundred  persons — nearly  the  whole  of 
that  body — had  emigrjiled.  In  li")24  the  property 
of  the  Colony,  which  h:ul  been  held  as  common, 
was  divided  among  tlie  settlers:  in  1027  the 
rights  of  the  trading  coni])any  were  bought  out, 
and  two  years  later  a  patent  confirming  the  colo- 
nists' right  to  the  territory  tlicy  had  occupied 
was  issued  to  Oovernor  Bradford  and  others.  The 
Colony  grew  up  in  practical  independence,  and, 
organized  as  a  perfect  democracy,  it  carried  on 
its  government  without  any  royal  sanction.     By 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


163 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


1040  there  were  ci.L'lit  towns  willi  2500  inhabi- 
tants in  the  I'lymoulli  Colony.  Outsido  the  lim- 
its of  the  Colony  several  scattered  settlements 
were  made  in  Boston  Harbor  between  1023  and 
1628. 

In  1G28  an  expedition  organized  by  an  Enj^lish 
company  and  eonimanded  by  John  Endieott  land- 
ed at  ISalem.  The  company  had  obtained  a  grant 
of  the  territory  lying  between  tlie  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  and  extendinfr  to  a  point  three  miles  south 
of  the  river  Charles  and  three  miles  north  of 
the  river  ilerrimac.  After  persistent  efforts  a 
royal  patent  was  obtained  for  "the  Governor  and 
company'  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  the 
associates  were  constituted  a  body  politic,  with 
a  Governor,  deputy,  and  eighteen  assistants  to 
be  annually  elected,  and  a  general  assembly  of 
the  freemen,  with  legislative  powers  to  meet  four 
times  in  a  year,  or  oftener  if  necessary.  Meas- 
ures contrary  to  English  laws  and  statutes  were 
forbidden  by  the  charter,  but  religious  liberty 
was  not  named  in  the  document,  though  this  was 
the  ultimate  aim  of  the  emigrants.  In  1029  the 
colony  was  reenforced  and  the  government  and 
patent  of  the  companj'  were  transferred  from 
London  to  New  England.  The  old  officers  re- 
signed, giving  place  to  others  chosen  from  among 
those  who  were  about  to  emigrate,  .John  ^Yin- 
throp  being  elected  Governor.  The  Colony  grew 
rapidly.  The  conflict  between  the  Puritans  and 
Charles  I.  brought  about  a  large  emigration  to 
Massachusetts,  and  between  1030  and  1040  about 
20,000  persons  arrived  in  the  Colony.  Charles- 
town.  Boston,  Watertown,  Dorchester,  Roxbury, 
Mystic,  Saugus  f  Lynn ) ,  and  otlier  places  were  set- 
tled at  this  fjeriod.  The  settlers  of  JIassachusetts 
Bay,  as  distinguished  from  the  Plymouth  pilgrims, 
were  wealthy,  and  as  a  rule  of  a  higher  social 
class.  They  came  in  congregations  luider  the  lead 
of  their  ministers, who  were  graduates  of  the  Eng- 
lish universities.  Fraternal  relations  were  quick- 
ly established  between  the  two  colonies,  however. 
Education  was  fostered  from  the  beginning.  Har- 
vard College  was  founded  in  1030,  and  in  1642 
a  system  of  public  schools  was  organized.  Having 
no  charter  to  occasion  disputes,  Plymouth  Col- 
ony prosj)ered  peacefully  and  monotonously,  and 
its  history  is  unmarred  by  records  of  religious 
narrowness;  but  Massachusetts  Bay  was  in  tur- 
moil from  the  first,  owing  to  its  theocratic  gov- 
ernment and  the  stern  and  arbitrary  conduct  of 
the  magistrates.  It  was  the  desire  to  escape 
from  the  yoke  of  the  Massachusetts  theocracy 
that  led  to  the  settlement  of  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut.  Prejudiced  by  the  dissensions  be- 
tween magistrates  and  people,  and  by  the  fear 
that  the  Colony  would  become  independent,  the 
Crown  demanded  back  the  charter  in  1034 :  but 
the  colonists  evaded  the  order,  made  preparations 
to  resist,  and  were  fortunate  in  liaving  attention 
diverted  from  them  by  the  political  troubles  in 
England.  To  strengthen  itself,  the  Bay  Govern- 
ment exacted  an  oath  of  allegiance  in  1033-34, 
and  that  he  had  opposed  this  oath  as  well  as  the 
patent  was  the  main  reason  for  the  banishment 
of  Roger  Williams  (q.v.).  The  banishment  of 
Anne  H\itchinson  (q.v.)  and  the  hanging  of 
Quakers  were  excused  by  the  authorities  on  the 
ground  that  their  teachings  endangered  the  sta- 
bility of  the  government:  and  the  same  spirit 
was  at  the  basis  of  the  act  which  made  church 
membership  a  qualification  for  the  franchise,  and 
finally  made  the  Congregational  the  established 


Church  of  the  Colony  (10.')1).  In  1043  JLassa- 
chusetts  Bay  united  with  Plymouth,  Connecticut,, 
anil  New  Haven  to  form  the  New  England  Con- 
federacy, for  protection  against  the  Indians  and 
the  Dutch. 

The  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  was  followed  by- 
fresh  disputes  with  the  Crown,  but  in  l(i02  the 
King  confirmed  the  Massachusetts  charter,  and 
made  a  conditional  promise  of  amnesty  for  past 
political  oll'enses.  He  insisted,  however,  upon  his 
right  to  interfere  in  tlic  affairs  of  the  Colony,  re- 
quired the  complete  toleration  of  the  Church  of 
England,  the  taking  of  an  oath  of  allegiance,  and 
the  administration  of  justice  in  his  name.  Com- 
missioners were  sent  over  from  England  to  inves- 
tigate the  affairs  of  the  Colony,  but  they  met  with 
defiance  from  the  magistrates  and  coiild  accom- 
plish nothing.  The  contest  with  the  Crown  con- 
tinued in  spite  of  the  pressure  of  the  Indian  War 
(1075-76),  in  which  the  New  England  colonies 
were  plunged.  (See  Philip.  ICixg.)  Charles  II. 
was  incensed  at  the  independent  course  of  the 
Colony  in  assuming  certain  sovereign  powers,  as 
it  had  done  in  coining  money,  or  taking  posses- 
sion of  the  Maine  settlements.  The  English  mer- 
chants were  irritated  by  the  active  trade  that 
was  carried  on  illegally  with  the  West  Indies 
and  Europe,  Edmund  Randolph  (q.v,)  urged  on 
the  English  Government  against  the  Colony,  and 
Massachusetts,  under  its  tlieocraey,  on  its  side, 
would  make  no  concession.  In  1684  the  charter 
of  the  Colony  was  declared  forfeited,  the  (Jcneral 
Court  was  dissolved,  and  a  royal  commission 
superseded  the  charter  government.  In  1080  Sir 
Edmund  Andros  was  made  Governor,  and  ruled 
without  restraint  and  without  sense.  When  news 
of  the  landing  of  William  of  Or.ange  in  lOngland 
arrived,  the  people  of  Boston  threw  Andros  intS 
prison,  reinstated  the  old  magistrates. and  revived 
the  General  Court.  In  1002  a  new  charter  wa.s 
granted  uniting  Massachusetts  Bay  and  Plym- 
outh. Its  terms,  however,  were  less  favorable- 
than  the  old  charter,  in  that  the  Governor,  Dep- 
uty Governor,  and  Secretary  were  to  be  appointed 
by  the  King,  and  the  members  of  the  Assembly 
were  to  be  elected  by  freeholders  instead  of 
church  members.  In  1002-03  the  witchcraft  delu- 
sion broke  out  in  Salem  and  vicinity,  but  the  ex- 
citement was  short-lived,  and  was  confined  to  a. 
limited  area.  (See  WitciicI!.\ft, )  In  1703-04  and 
1722-25  there  were  wars  with  the  Indians.  Tlie 
Colony  aided  England  zeaUmsly  in  her  contest 
with  France,  notably  in  the  capture  of  Port 
Royal  (1600).,  and  of  Louisburg  (1745).  (Sce- 
PEPrKRRELL.  WiLi.i.\xr.)  In  the  early  French  and 
Indian  wars  the  settlers  of  western  ilassachu- 
setts  suffered  greatly  at  the  hands  of  the  Indians; 
towns  like  Haverhill  and  Deerfield  were  sub- 
jected to  pillage,  many  of  the  inhabitants  were 
massacred,  and  tlie  survivors  led  away  into  cap- 
tivity. In  1765  the  population  of  JIassachusetts 
was  "about  240.000,  falling  into  well  defined 
classes,  but  all  equal  in  political  power,  and  held 
firmly  together  by  the  consciousness  of  a  conmion 
origin  and  the  possession  of  a  common  creed. 
The  austerity  of  seventeenth-century  Puritanism 
liad  passed  away  in  great  measure,  but  Church 
and  State  were  still  connected,  and  the  Great 
Revival  of  1740  showed  how  deeply  faith  lay 
rooted  in  the  hearts  of  the  people.  The  first 
printing  press  had  been  brought  over  in  1039,  and 
a  newspajier.  the  Boston  Xeifs  Letter,  was 
issued   in    1704.      Educational   institutions  were 


MASSACHUSETTS.                      164  MASSACHUSETTS. 

being  constantly  founded.  Property  was  well  an  extent,  indeed,  that  after  18H.5  tlie  depressed 
diffused,  tliougli  for  half  a  century  after  1690  the  condition  of  the  textile  trades  was  attributed  by 
Colony  Midi-red  from  a  reckless  tinancial  policy,  some  to  the  fact  that  employers  were  unduly 
which"  Hooded  the  country  with  paper  money.  In  hampered  by  oppressive  State  regulations  passed 
resistance  to  the  arbitrary  acts  of  the  British  to  protect  labor,  and  could  not  meet  the  conipeti- 
Parliament,  Massachusetts" was  the  pioneer.  The  tion  of  the  rising  manufactures  of  the  South, 
struggle  against  the  writs  of  assistance  and  the  In  1898  and  subsequent  years  a  succession  of 
famous  speech  of  .James  Otis  (May.  1701)  marked  strikes  among  the  mill  operatives  caused  great 
the  opening  of  the  contest  which  ended  in  inde-  distress  among  the  working  classes.  The  period 
pendcnce.  The  opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act,  after  the  Civil  War  witnessed  the  rise  of  many 
the  Boston  massacre,  the  destruction  of  the  tea  jiolitical  nuivcnicnts.  The  temperance  question 
in  Boston  Harbor,  the  closing  of  the  port  of  Bos-  came  into  prominence  in  1807:  the  question  of 
ton.  and  the  virtual  annulment  of  the  charter,  fol-  the  admission  of  women  to  the  suffrage  was  agi- 
lowed  in  rapid  succession.  In  October,  1774,  the  tated  up  to  ISSO:  the  National  Labor  Party  ex- 
General  Court  resolved  itself  into  a  Provincial  erted  great  inHuence  in  1878.  Frnni  18.58  to  1874 
Congress  and  proceeded  to  erect  an  in<lependent  the  State  government  was  Republican.  In  1874 
State  government.  The  organization  of  a  militia  the  Democrats  elected  their  candidate  for  Cover- 
and  the  storing  of  supplies  led  to  Lexington  and  nor  on  an  anti-prohibition  platform:  in  1882 
Concord.  (For  military  operations  during  the  they  were  victorious  with  Benjamin  F.  Butler  as 
Revolution,  .see  Uniteu"  States.)  In  the  war  their  candidate.  In  1890  the  revelation  of  cor- 
Massachusetts  took  the  leading  part,  though  rujjtion  in  the  Legislature  brought  about  the 
her  population  was  by  no  means  united  in  choice  of  a  Democratic  Governor  in  the  person 
the  cause  of  the  Revolution.  Among  the  of  William  E.  Russell,  whose  great  popularity 
Loyalists  who  were  banished  or  who  volun-  caused  him  to  be  reelected  in  1891  and  1892. 
tarily  abandoned  their  homes  were  many  of  Since  then  the  State  has  been  Republican  by 
the  most  prominent  and  wealthy  families.  In  hea%-y  majorities.  In  national  elections  Massa- 
1780  a  cimstitution  was  adopted,  and  by  the  Bill  chusetts  has  been  Federalist.  Whig,  and  Reptibli- 
of  Rights,  prefixed  to  it,  slavery,  as  was  subse-  can.  with  the  exception  of  the  years  1804  (.Teffer- 
quently  decided  by  the  courts,  was  abolished.  In  son),  1820  (Monroe).  1824"  and  1828  ( .Tohn 
I78C  the  rising  known  as  Shays's  Rebellion,  oc-  Quincy  Adams).  The  list  of  colonial  and  State 
casioned  by  heavj-  taxes  and  the  poverty  of  the  (governors  of  Massachusetts  is  as  follows: 
people,    occurred"  in    the    western    jiart    of    the 

State.     The  Anti-Federalist  element  in  the  State  plvmodth  colont 

was   powerful   till    1797,  a..d    tl,e   United   States  ^^^■^^U^^IIl^-^^I^IIIIIIIIIIl^l^M 

Constitution   was   ratified   m   .January.    1(88.   by     Edward  Winslow iesi-m 

the  close  vote  of  187  to  168.     After  1797  the  Fed-     Tlmmas  Prence     1B.14-M 

eraiist  Party  became  predominant,  the  opposition  Jj;i',;^,?™l[r':;;;;;;;;;;;;:;;:;::;:::::::;:::::::;:::;:;;:;:;;;;;:  1^ 

to   the    War   of    1812    was   bitter,    and    delegates     \vi:iiam  Bradford 1G37-38 

from  Massachusetts  participated  in  the  Hartford     Tliomas  Prence     iia«-39 

Convention  (q.v.).   The  State  remaine.1  stub-  ^^:;!i  ^::^::::::::z::::::::::::::z:::::::z:::z:::^:^ 

bornlv   Federalist   long  after  the  party  had  dis-     William  prndtord la.s-.'iT 

appeiired  evcrvwhere  else,  and  as  a  result  it  took     Ttiomas  Pivnce 1™'I? 

little  interest  "in  national  affairs.  With  the  pass-  :5:;^;«;:,^'^:Xv::;::::::;;:;::;::::::;;:::::::::::::::::::::::::;;;:  !^?S 

ing   of   the    Federalist    Party   greater    liberty   of    sir  EdwnnI  Andfos  (Rovernor-General) I686-X9 

thought  came  into  the   field's  of  politics  and  re-  Tlmmas  Hinckley              r  ;■/■■,,          u      ■•■  •-    l***"* 

ligion.     In    1815   -dissenters'   weri  releas.>d   from  Pl.vmouth  Colouy  absorbed  by  Massacbusett*  B«.v. 

paying   taxes   to   support    Congregational    minis-  massachcsetts  bay  coloky 

ter's.  and  in  183.3  the  Congregational  Church  was     J<.l]n  Endicott^ ^. 1609^ 

di.iestablished.     Educational  develo|)ment  eontin-  ^",„"„ag  n„dlef'II!"'"'."'"""'"'.".'."'.".'.!"".""."'.""- ■   )«H-35 

ued  under  all  regimes.     In  1793  Williams  College     .i,,i,n  iinyncs...". \eiK>-36 

and  in  1821  An.herst  c.diege  «we  founded,  and  j!--\,^;i-;p:;:;::::::::::::;::;;:;:;:;:;;:::;;;;::;::;:::::::::;::::;|gl?:JJ 

in   1837  a  State  board  of  education  was  created.     Thomas  Diulley 1640-41 

The    anti-slaverv    movement    had     its    birth    in     itirlmrd  licllluKliam 1041-42 

Massachusetts,  "and  at  Boston  William  Lloyd  -Jo';"  ^nSu'lIu'::;:;:.::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;::::::;::  iM4:l5 

(iarrison     (q.v.)     began    the    ]Uilili(ation    of    the  Thomas  nndley.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"!.!!.!!!.!!.!!!!!.!!!!!!!!!!!!.!!!"'.li'>45-46 

l.ihrnttnr  on  .Tanuarv  1.  1831.    .\liolitionisin  grew     .lohn  Wiiitlirop IMiMS 

rapidly  after  1840.  and  was  favored  in  its  growth     :J;>^,^'S^^ r-illlllllllllllll^ISM 

by  such  episoili's  as  the  capture  ot  the  runaway     j,,),,,  i.;,„iu.ott! iCil-M 

siavc  Shadraih   in  the  streets  of  Boston  in   18.'>1,      Klchanl  IlpUinKliam KiH-W 

and  of  Anth.my  Btirns  in  1854.   In  the  Civil  ^^^tmU<^::"::::z::::::::::z:-^^^^^^^ 

^\ar,  uniler  the  administration  of  the   patriotic     .lolm  l.pvprett li"3-79 

f.overnor,  .lohn  .\.  .\ndrew.  the  State  contributed     Simon  nrndstiwt 16;9-«4 

nearlv   ItiO.OOO   men   to  the   Union  armies.  Jnspph  imdlov  iPw»i.l.Mit> Jbm-sJ 

"    •       ,     ,  ,    .  .      .         ■  ,.  1  sir  Edinund  Aiulros  (flovcrnor-Oeneral) iR«fv-f>i) 

One  of  the  most  important   public  works  ever     Thomas  Hart.irth  (actinpi ifixs-W 

undertaken  bv  the  State  was  tlie  construction  of     William  Phips Ifiifi-M 

the  iioosac  Tunnel  which  was  completed  in  1873.  S^llli^^^iJif'^sy.^B.iio^o.ii:;;::::;;::::::::::::::::::!.:^^ 

Legislation  since  the  (  ivil  War  lias  dealt  largely     vviuiain  stoutthton  (acting) ITOOJil 

witli  the  questions  of  the  liquor  trade,  the  rcgil-      Thcrnniuil l-no'?? 

lation  of  cor|>orations,  municipal  government,  the     ThTrliiinHI '.!!.!'.....!!...'.!!'.....!!!!!!!1..'.  I'ilS 

civil  service,  and  labor.     .\s  earlv  as  18")3  a  law     .inspph  inidlev '.. 1'I5 

reducing  the  working  dav   from 'twelve  hours  to     William  Taller (actinB) 171,^16 

.  ^  ,        c-  .',  ,1       t'.    i      1         1  Snniupl  Shute 1i1b-23 

ten  was  passed.     Since  then   the   State  has  been      william  IMimmer  (oetinn) nit-W 

active  in  caring  for  the  industrial  classes,  to  such     William  linrnett l"2S-2« 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


165     MASS.  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY. 


William  DumnuT  (:ic'tiiig) 1729-30 

Wlllia.rn  Tuilei- (acting) ITM 

JoiiatliuTi  lielchcr 1730-41 

Williiini  Siiirle.v 1741-49 

Six'iu'iT  riiippH  (auting) 1749-53 

William  Shirle.v 1763-56 

Spt^m-'er  rhiiii>8  (acting) 1756-57 

Thi>  Coum-il 1757 

Thimias  Powiiall 1757-60 

TlmniaH  Hutchinson  (acting) 1760 

!Sir  FraiK-is  Bernard 1760-69 

Thomas  Hutchinson 1769j74 

ThDUias  (iage 1774 

The  Council 1774-80 

STATE 

John  Hancock 1780-85 

JaluHH  BowUoin 1785-87 

John  Hancock 1787-93 

Samuel  Adams 1793-97 

Increase  Sumner Federalist 1797-99 

Moses  Cill  (acting) " 1799-1800 

Caleb  Strong ••  1800-07 

James  Sullivan Democratic- Republican 1807-08 

Levi  Lincoln  (acting)  •'  "  180S-09 

Christopher  Gore Federalist 1809-10 

Eibriilge  Gerry Democratic-Uepublican 1810-12 

Caleb  Strong Federalist 1812-16 

John  lirooks ■•  1816-23 

William  Eustis Democratic-Republican 1823-25 

Marcus  Morton  (acting)         "  *■         1825 

Levi  Lincoln Democrat  and  Federalist 1825-34 

Jolin  Davis Whig 1834-35 

Samuel  T.  Armstrong  (acting)     '*     1835-36 

Edward  Everett "      1836-40 

Marcus  Morton Democrat 1840-41 

John  Davis Whig 1841-43 

Marcus  Morton Democrat 1843-44 

George  N.  Brlgga Whig 1844-51 

George  S.  Boutwell Democrat  and  Free  Soil 1851-53 

John  H.  Clifford Whig 1853-64 

Euiory  Washburn "    1854-55 

henry  J.  Gardiner .American 1855-58 

Nfttlianiel  P.  Banks Republican 186S-61 

John  A.  Andrew "  „, 1861-66 

Alexander  H.  Bullock "  1866-69 

William  H.  Clatlin •■  1869-72 

William  B.  Washburn •■  1872-74 

Thomas  Talbot  (acting) "  1874 

William  Gaston Democratic 1875-76 

Alexander  H.  Rice Republican 1876-79 

Thomas  Talbot •■  1879-80 

John  D.  Long "  1880-.S3 

Betijamin  K.  Butler. ..Democrat  and  Independent 1883-H4 

Gei)rge  D.  Robinson Republican 1884-87 

Oliver  .4nies "  1887-90 

J.  Q.  A.  Bracket* "  1890-91 

William  E.  Russell Democrat 1891-94 

Frederick  T.  Greenhalge*. Republican 1894-96 

Roger  Wolcott ••  1896-1900 

Winthrop  Murray  Crane "  1900-03 

John  L.  Bates •■  1903- 

BiBLioGRAPHY.  Hitchcock,  "Report  on  Geology, 
Minerals.  Botany,  ami  Zoology  of  Massachu- 
setts." in  Massacliiisctts  Geolotjical  Hurvcy 
(Boston,  1833)  ;  Massachusetts  Zoological  and 
Bolimiral  Survey  Reports  (Boston,  1839  et  seq.)  ; 
Emerson.  Iteport  on  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massa- 
chusetts ("2d  ed.,  Boston.  1875)  ;  Crosby,  fleoloyy 
of  Eastern  Massachusetts  (Boston,  1880)  ; 
Douglas.  Financial  History  of  Massachusetts 
(Xew  York,  1802)  ;  Weeden,  Economic  and  So- 
cial History  of  Xew  Enfiland.  l(ii>0-1189  (Boston, 
1S!)0);  Martin,  Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts 
Public  School  System  (Xew  York.  1894)  ;  Howe, 
liirils  of  Massachusetts  (Cambridge,  1901); 
Hutchinson.  History  of  the  Province  of  Massa- 
chusetts Hay  (London.  1828)  ;  Bradford,  History 
of  Massarhuselts  for  Two  Hundred  Years  (Bos- 
ton. 1835)  ;  Young.  Chronicles  of  the  Pilyrim 
Fathers  (Boston.  '  1841 )  ;  Holland,  History  of 
^\(■stern  Massachusetts  (Springfield.  18.5.'))  ; 
Barry.  History  of  Massachusetts  (Boston.  18.5.5- 
.57)  :  Oliver,  The  I'urilan  Cnmmonuealth  (Bos- 
ton. 1S.56)  :  Palfre.v.  History  of  \c,r  Enfiland 
(Boston.  1858-04)  ;'Sehonler.  Histoni  of  }i(issa- 
chusrtls  in  the  Ciril  War  (Boston.  1808-71); 
Austin.     History     of     Massachusetts      (Boston, 


1870)  ;  tioodwin.  The  Pilyrim  Ueimblic  (Boston, 
1888)  ;  Kiske,  The  lieyinnings  of  Xew  England 
(Boston,  1889)  ;  Hale,  Story  of  Massachusetts 
(Boston,  1892)  ;  Adams,  Three  Episodes  of  Mas- 
sachusetts History  (Boston,  1892);  id.,  Massa- 
chusetts: Its  Historians  and  Its  History  (Boston, 
1893)  ;  Massachusells  Historical  Society  Col- 
lections (Boston,  1800  et  seq.)  ;  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society  Proceedings  (Boston,  1855 
et  seq.). 

MASSACHUSETTS  AGRICULTUBAL 

COLLEGE.  A  co-edueational  Slate  institution 
at  .\niherst.  Mass.,  chartered  in  1803  and  opened 
in  1807.  The  college  buildings  are  situated  on  a 
farm  of  400  acres.  210  acres  of  which  are  devoted 
to  experimental  farming  and  100  to  horticulture. 
Winter  courses  are  offered  for  those  unable  to 
take  the  regular  four  years'  course  and  special 
courses  in  botany,  dairying,  market  gardening, 
and  other  departments  are  offered  to  women.  The 
degrees  conferred  are  B.S.,  M.S.,  and  Ph.D.  The 
attendance  in  1902  was  100;  the  number  of  in- 
structors was  21.  The  buildings  and  lands  were 
valued  at  about  $200,000.  and  the  equipment  at 
,$110,000.     The  library  had  23,055  volumes. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY.  A  wide,  triangu- 
lar indentation  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Massa- 
chusetts, extending  from  Cape  Ann  to  Pl.vmouth 
Harbor,  a  distance  of  42  miles,  while  its  depth 
inland  from  the  middle  of  this  base  line  to  Bos- 
ton is  about  22  miles  (Map:  Massachusetts,  F  3). 
Its  northern  shore  is  rock.v,  the  southern  marshy 
and  sandy,  and  both  are  irregular  and  indented 
b.v  numerous  large  and  small  bays,  forming  the 
harbors  of  Gloucester,  Salem,  Marblehead,  LjTin, 
and  Boston.  The  bay  contains  a  number  of 
islands  along  the  shores,  especiallv  in  the  en- 
trance to  Boston  Harbor.  The  name  Massachu- 
setts'Bay  is  sometimes  made  to  include  Cape 
Cod  Ba.v! 

MASSACHUSETTS  HISTORICAL  SO- 
CIETY. .\  learned  association  with  headquar- 
ters in  Boston,  the  oldest  historical  society  in 
the  country,  having  been  organized  in  1781  and 
incorporated  in  1794.  Its  objects  are  the  col- 
lection, preservation,  and  diffusion  of  the  mate- 
rials for  American  histor.y.  The  first  volume  of 
"Collections"  was  printed  in  1792.  and  this  has 
been  followed  by  fift.y  more,  together  with  about 
twent.y  volumes  of  "Proceedings."  The  society 
has  a  museum  of  relics  and  antiquities,  and  a 
fine  library  of  30.000  books.  00.000  pamphlets, 
and  many  rare  manuscripts,  including  the  Park- 
man«follection  of  thirty  volumes  of  manuscripts 
relating  to  the  history  of  the  French  in  Canada. 

MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF 
TECHNOLOGY.  A  school  of  industrial  science 
in  Boston,  ilass..  established  in  1801  through  the 
efforts  of  W.  B.  Rogers  and  others,  "for  the  pur- 
pose of  instituting  and  maintaining  a  society  of 
arts,  a  museum  of  arts,  and  a  school  of  indus- 
trial science,  and  aiding  generally  by  suitable 
means  the  advancement,  development,  and  prac- 
tical application  of  science  in  connection  with 
arts,  agriculture,  manufacture,  and  commerce." 
The  society  of  arts  was  the  first  section  of  the 
institute  to  be  established,  holding  its  first  meet- 
ing in  1802,  and  has  done  nnicli  valuable  work. 
The  museum  of  arts  has  not  yet  lieen  established, 
mainly  owing  to  the  extraordinary  growth  of  the 
school    of    industrial    science,    which    has    over- 


MASS.  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY.      166 


MASSAGE. 


shadowed  the  other  departments.  Owing  Lo  the 
disturbed  state  of  the  country  during  tlie  Civil 
War,  tlie  regular  courses  of  instruction  were  not 
opened  until  18G5.  The  development  has  recently 
been  so  rapid  that  more  tlian  half  of  tlie  total  of 
about  3000  graduates  of  the  school  belong  in  the 
last  nine  classes.  The  institute  was  a  pioneer  in 
the  introduction  of  laboratory  methods,  wliich  are 
a  distinguisiiing- characteristic  of  its  work.  In 
addition  to  instruction  in  tlie  sciences  and  their 
application  to  the  arts,  general  .studies  essential 
for  a  liberal  education  are  required.  Tliirteen 
di.stinct  courses  are  oll'ered,  each  of  four  years' 
duration:  Civil  enginering,  medianical  engineer- 
ing, mining  engineering  and  metallurgy,  archi- 
tecture, chemistry,  electrical  engineering,  biologj*, 
physics,  general  studies,  chemical  engineering, 
sanitary  engineering,  gcologj',  and  naval  arclii- 
tecture.  Each  of  these  courses  leads  to  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Science.  Within  most  of  the 
regular  courses  a  considerable  latitude  is  per- 
mitted in  the  selection  of  branphes,  a  partial 
choice  of  professional  course  being  made  at  the 
middle  of  tlie  first  year,  whik'  in  the  fourth  year 
nearly  the  entire  time  is  devoted  to  profession- 
al subjects.  Tlie  school  in  \[n)2  had  183  in- 
structors and  a  total  attendance  of  1008  stu- 
dents. The  lilirary  contained  00,727  volumes  and 
16,682  pamplilets.  The  institute  publishes  the 
Technoloijjj  Qudrtrrly  and  I'roccedin(js  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Arts,  and  a  graduate  magazine,  the 
Technology  liericic.  It  occupies  nine  buildings 
in  the  Back  Bay  district  of  Boston,  comprising 
the  Rogers,  Walker,  and  Pierce  buildings,  engi- 
neering buildings,  mechanical  laboratories,  boiler 
and  ]>owcr  house,  and  gymnasium,  valued  with 
the  grounds  at  $1,00."),'2'22.  Plans  are  in  prepara- 
tion (1903)  for  additional  buildings.  The  en- 
dowment is  relativelv  small,  .$1,845,139,  .  The 
income  in  1902  was  $403,137,  Of  tliis  amount, 
more  than  half  is  derived  from  .students'  fees, 
the  remainder  largely  from  interest  on  various 
funds  and  gifts  from  the  State  of  Massaclnisetts 
and  the  United  States,  Tlie  total  value  of  the 
Institute's  property  was  $9, .552, 023.  The  presi- 
dents have  been:  William  B.  Rogers  (lS(i2-70, 
1878-81).  .John  D.  Runkle  (1870-78),  Francis  A, 
Walker  (lSSl-97).  James  .M,  Crafts  (1897-1900), 
Henry  S,  Pritchett   (1900—). 

MASSACHUSETTS   MEDICAL   SOCIETY. 

.•\ii  a--^(iciat  ii  II  willi  lic'adi]Uarters  in  Biisdin,  es- 
talilislied  in  Xuvciiiber,  1771,  and  incoi]iorated 
Xovember  1,  1781,  making  it  the  oldest  State 
organization  of  the  kind  that  has  met  regularly 
from  the  date  of  founding.  Its  charter  was 
signed  by  Samuel  .\dams  as  president  of  the 
Senate,  and  .lolin  Hancock  as  Governor  of  the 
Commonwealth,  Its  fellows  may  include  all 
respectable  physicians  and  surgeons  of  the  Stale, 
and  in  1884  the  motion  was  carried  to  admit 
women  to  nii'iiibership.  Its  charter  gave  it  au- 
tliiirity  to  c\:iiiiine  all  canilidate^  for  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  ami  surgerv.  The  society  has 
issued  a  nnniber  of  valuable  publications,  includ- 
ing The  Mrrliral  Cuiiimiitiirntinns.  and  The  I'ub- 
liriilions  of  the  Massachuselts  Medical  Society, 
a   I'linrnntrnpnia,  and   many  reports  and  essays. 

MASSAFRA,  mftssii'frA.  A  town  in  the 
ProviiKC  of  l.cice,  Italy,  12  miles  by  rail  from 
Taranto  (Map:  Italy,  M  7).  The  principal  arti- 
cles of  commerce  are  wine,  cotton,  and  fruits. 
Population,  in  1001   (commtine),  11,026. 


MASSAGE  I  Fr,  massage,  from  masscr,  Gk. 
/idaffeir,  iiiassciii,  to  knead).  A  means  of  reme- 
dial treatment  consisting  in  the  manipulation  of  a 
part  or  the  whole  of  tlie  body  by  friction,  strok- 
ing, pressing,  kneading,  percussion,  and  like 
movements.  When  these  applications  are  com- 
bined with  active  or  passive  movements,  the 
process  is  called  the  Swedish  iiiorciiient  cure. 

The  practice  of  rubbing  and  anointing  is  prob- 
ably as  old  as  the  race.  Homer  alludes  fre- 
quently to  it.  The  Egyptians  used  it.  Massage 
in  one  fonn  or  another  was  one  of  the  luxuries  of 
the  baths  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Socrates  spoke  of  the  curative  pro|icrties  of  olive 
oil  with  friction;  Hippocrates  laid  stress  on  rub- 
bing and  unguents;  Asclepiades  held  that  disease 
was  the  result  of  an  abnormal  arrangement  of 
the  atoms  which  form  the  human  body,  and 
consequcntlj'  friction,  bathing,  and  exercise  would 
necessarily  open  the  pores  and  allow  the  escape 
of  all  useless  and  worn-out  atoms,  and  restore 
equilibrium ;  Heropliilus,  Athenieus,  Celsus,  and 
Galen  gave  written  rules  for  such  treatment.  The 
Chinese  are  said  to  use  massage,  in  place  of  bleed- 
ing, on  the  theory  of  producing  better  circulation. 
Both  the  Turks  and  the  Russians  combine  it  with 
their  bath.s,  and  their  excellent  |)racticc  has 
taken  its  place  in  our  Western  civilization. 
Travelers  report  that  massage  in  one  form  or 
another  is  in  vogue  among  the  peojdes  they  have 
visited.  In  Sweden,  and  later  in  the  United 
States,  massage  has  received  scientific  consid- 
eration. 

Among  the  procedures  of  scientific  massage  arc 
friction  by  rubbing,  rolling  under  the  fingers, 
and  gently  pinching  the  skin,  and  rubbing,  tap- 
ping, kneading,  and  exercising  the  muscles  and 
joints.  Beginning  at  an  cxtremit.v.  the  foot  for 
example,  the  skin  is  taken  up  between  the  thumb 
and  fingers  and  rolled  and  pressed;  then  tli(i 
muscular  masses  are  well  grasped,  rolled,  and 
pressed  and  kneaded,  and  rapidly  tapped ;  and 
then  each  articulation  is  in  turn  put  through  all 
its  motions.  Even  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and 
face  may  be  subjected  to  the  same  treatment. 
^Massage  by  percussion, alone  consists  in  ajiplving 
to  various  parts  of  the  body  a  very  rapid  suc- 
cession of  short  blows,  not  forcible  enough  to 
cause  pain. 

The  elTccts  of  massage  are  local  and  systemic. 
The  local  eiTccts  are  the  result  of  the  masseur 
or  rubber  putting  forth  more  or  less  muscular 
power,  which  at  the  ])oints  of  contact  or  friction 
develops  or  is  transformed  into  another  mode  of 
motiim — heat.  The  action  thus  induced  in  the 
constituent  tis,sues  of  the  parts  operated  on  also 
,serves  to  elevate  the  temperature.  The  blood- 
vessels dilate  and  an  increased  i|iiantity  of  blood 
enters  them,  and  the  motion  of  the  blood-current 
is  accelerated.  The  immediate  elTect  of  these 
changes  is  to  promote  tlii'  nutritive  energy  of  the 
tissues  subjected  to  frictiiui.  This  result  is  seen 
in  the  improved  color,  warmth,  and  volume  of  the 
parts.  .-Vmong  the  systemic  ell'ccts  of  massage 
are  a  uniform  slight  ri.se  of  temperature  and 
increase  in  bodily  weight.  All  the  oig:inic  func- 
tions are  |)erfornie(l  with  more  eiicigy.  and 
jHiwer  is  gained  in  every  way.  The  ell'etts  upon 
the  nervous  system  ure.  in  general,  excellent. 
For  instance,  if  an  inflamed  joint  is  rubbcil  with 
extreme  gentleness,  the  sensibility,  at  first  so 
ac\ite  that  the  slightest  touch  would  give  pain, 
rapidly  subsides,  until,  after  an  hour  of  friction, 


MASSAGE. 


167 


MASSENA. 


it  may  be  handled  willi  suiiie  rougliness,  -without 
evoking'  painful  sensutiuns.  The  aeutest  suffering 
is  ot'len  alleviated  bj-  persistent  frietiun  of  a 
gentle  kind.  The  state  of  spasm  of  a  muscle  is 
relieved  and  relaxation  iiulueed  by  persevering 
rubbing  of  the  affected  muscle.  These  results  are 
no  doubt  due  to  the  fact  that  the  gentle  titillation 
of  the  cutaneous  branches  of  the  nerve.s  (end- 
organs)  has  so  far  lowered  their  irritability  that 
they  cease  to  receive  and  transmit  painful  im- 
pressions. Among  the  ali'ections  which  may  be 
either  cured  or  temporarily  relieved  by  massage 
are  wakefulness  and  nocturnal  restlessness,  sim- 
])le  headache,  or  even  severe  paroxysms  of  neu- 
ralgia, tic  douloureux,  hemicrania,  migraine, 
spinal  pain,  infantile  paralysis,  progressive  mus- 
cular atroph}',  chronic  joint  affections,  synovitis, 
contractions,  and  deformities,  and  thickening 
from  inflammatory  deposits  in  joints  and  other 
tissues.     8ee  JIovememt  Ci'BE. 

Consult:  Graham,  A  Treatise  on  Massage 
(New  York,  18!)0)  ;  id..  Recent  Developments  in 
Massage  (Detroit,  1893)  ;  Mitchell,  Fat  and 
Blood,  and  How  to  Make  Them  (Philadelphia, 
1884);  Schreiber  (trans,  by  W.  Mendelssohn), 
Treatise  on  Massage  (Philadelphia,  1887). 

MAS'SAGE'T.ffi  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Maffcay^rai.). 
A  nomadic  people  who  anciently  inhabited  the 
broad  steppes  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Herodotus  says  that  the.y  practiced  group-nuxr- 
riage;  that  they  sacrificed  and  devoured  their 
aged  people;  that  they  worshijied  the  sun.  and 
offered  horses  to  him  ;  tliat  they  lived  on  the  milk 
and  tlesh  of  their  herds  and  on  fish ;  and  that 
they  fought  on  horseback  and  on  foot  with  lance, 
bow,  and  double-edged  axe.  Cj'rus  the  Great  is 
said  to  have  lost  his  life  in  fighting  against  their 
Queen,  Tomyris,  in  B.C.  520. 

MASS  ASIANS,  or  MESSA'LIANS  (Gk. 
ilajjaXiifOi.,  Massalianoi,  from  Syr.  Maslhi,  they 
who  pray,  from  sali,  to  bow).  A  party  of  wan- 
dering fanatics,  of  both  sexes,  who  without  well- 
recognized  leaders  came  from  Mesopotamia  in  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries  into  Ai'mcnia,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Syria,  and  caused  great  .scandal  by 
begging  and  their  idle  mode  of  life.  They  re- 
nounced njarriage  and  seem  to  have  believed 
that  by  means  of  long  continued  prayer  such 
spiritual  exaltation  could  be  obtained  that  they 
came  into  some  sort  of  contact  with  the  Trinity. 
Hence  the  name  given  to  them,  meaning  the 
pr.nying  people.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
heretical.     The   Greeks   called  them   Euehites. 

MAS'SASAU'GA  (Nortli  American  Indian 
name  I .  'I'lic  small  ground  rattlesnake  of  the 
Central  United  States.     See  Rattlesnake. 

MAS'SASOIT  (1580?-1661).  A  celebrated 
sachem  of  tlie  Wampanoag  or  Pokanoket  Indians, 
whose  territory  embraced  nearly  all  the  southern 
part  of  the  present  Massachusetts,  from  Cape 
Cod  to  Narragansett  Bay.  His  tribe  was  .said 
to  have  been  very  large  at  one  time,  but  to  have 
been  almost  exterminated  by  disease,  so  that. 
on  the  coming  of  the  whites,  it  numbered  only 
about  ."inn.  On  ^larch  2-2.  1021,  he  visited  Plym- 
outh with  sixty  warriors,  and  on  behalf  of  the 
Wampanoags  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  and 
mutual  protection  with  Governor  Carver.  Tliis 
was  sacredly  kept  by  both  sides  for  more  than 
fifty  years,  and  Massasoit  himself  remained  the 
steadfast  friend  of  the  colonists  until  his  death 
in  1661.    He  lived  at  Pokanoket,  within  the  pres- 


ent to«ii  of  Bristol,  K.  I.,  where  commissioners 
from  the  adjacent  settlements  often  visited  him. 

MASSE,  ma'sa',  F£lix  Marie,  called  Victor 
(1822-84).  A  French  dramatic  composer,  b(M'n 
at  Lorient  (JNIorbihan).  He  studied  under  lla- 
le\y  and  Zimmcrniann  at  the  Paris  Conserva- 
tory, and  won  the  Pri.x  de  Rome  in  1844,  his  com- 
position in  the  competitive  examination  being 
Le  regenat.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  chorus- 
master  at  the  opera,  and  six  years  later  became 
professor  of  composition  at  the  Conservatory. 
By  this  time  he  had  become  one  of  the  command- 
ing personalities  of  French  musical  life,  and  in 
1872  became  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  died 
in  Paris,  Jul,y  5,  1884.  A  statue  of  him  was  erect- 
ed in  his  native  town  in  1887.  Masse's  music 
is  distinguished  for  its  grace  and  gayety  and  its 
attractive  poetic  quality.  His  best  operas  are: 
Les  noces  de  Jeanctte  (1853)  ;  Galatie  (1854)  ; 
Lafiancie  du  diahle  (1854)  ;  Les  saisons  (1850)  ; 
and    Faiil    ct    Virginie     (1876). 

MASSENA,  niiis-se'na.  A  village  in  the  town 
of  the  same  name,  in  Saint  Lawrence  County,  N. 
Y.,.  36  miles  northeast  of  Ogdensburg;  on  the 
Grasse  River,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk  of  Canada 
and  the  New  Y'ork  Central  and  Hudson  River 
railroads  (Map:  New  Y'ork,  F  1).  The  town 
includes  also  Massena  Centre  and  ilassena 
Springs,  the  latter  a  popular  watering  place. 
Massena  has  a  public  library,  and  among  other 
features  of  interest  are  the  Saint  Lawrence  Power 
Company's  huge  concrete  power-house  and  high- 
way bridge  (412  feet  span  and  65  feet  above 
water).  The  power  plant  of  this  concern  in  1001 
was  equipped  to  generate  electrical  energy  equiva- 
lent to  35.000  horse  power,  and  the  scheme  as 
projected  admits  of  a  very  considerable  expansion 
in  the  event  of  an  increased  demand,  the  water- 
power  development  possible  here  being,  next  to 
that  of  Niagara,  the  greatest  in  the  United 
States.  The  water  power  is  obtained  by  means 
of  a  canal  3  miles  long,  200  feet  wide,  and  18 
feet  deep,  starting  at  the  head  of  the  Long  Sault 
Rapids  on  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  enipt3'ing  into 
the  Grasse  River.  Settled  about  1792,  Massena 
was  incorporated  in  1803.  Population,  in  1890, 
1049;  in  1900,  2032. 

MASSENA,  ma'sa'nii',  Andr^,  Duke  of  RivoH, 
Prince  of  Essling  (1758-1817).  A  marshal  of 
France,  born  at  Nice,  May  0,  1758.  In  his  youth 
he  was  a  ship-boy  in  a  small  vessel  and  after- 
wards for  fourteen  years  served  in  an  Italian 
regiment  in  the  pay  of  France,  but  left  the 
service  in  1789  becau.se  his  birth  precluded  him 
from  promotion.  He  was  married  and  settled  at 
Nice  when  the  French  Revolutionary  wars  began, 
but  he  at  once  volunteered  and  soon  rose  to  be 
chief  of  battalion.  In  December,  1793.  he  was 
niade  a  general  of  division.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of  1794-95, 
particularly  at  Loano  (November  23,  1795),  and 
in  1796  was  put  in  command  of  the  advance  guard 
of  the  Army  of  Italy.  He  won  renown  at  Arcole 
(November  15-17,  1796)  and  Rivoli  (.Tanu.'irv 
14.  1707).  Bonaparte  called  him  'the  favorite 
child  of  victory.'  Massena  resigned  his  command 
on  account  of  charges  of  rapacity,  but  at  the  close 
of  1798  he  was  put  in  command  of  the  anny  in 
Switzerland  which  operated  against  the  allied 
Austrian  and  Russian  forces.  He  defeated  the 
Russians  under  Korsakoff  at  Zurich.  September 
25-20,   1799.     In  1800  he  was  charged  with  the 


MASSENA. 


168 


MASSILLON. 


defense  of  Genoa,  but  alti'i-  an  heroic  resistance 
of  nearly  two  uiontlis  was  (.'onipcUed  to  surrender 
the  city  to  the  Austrians  in  June.  After  the 
battle  of  ilarenf;()  Bonaparte  gave  him  the  eom- 
nianil  of  the  Army  of  Italy.  In  1804  he  was  made 
a  marshal  of  tlie  Empire.  In  1805  he  again  com- 
manded in  Italy,  ably  mauceuvring  against  Arch- 
duke Charles.  In  1800  he  compelled  the  surren- 
der of  Gacta,  and  was  largely  instrumental  in 
placing  .loseph  Bonaparte  on  the  throne  of 
Xaples.  After  the  battle  of  Eylau  |  February  7-8, 
1807)  ilassena  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the 
I'"rencli,army,  and  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  (q.v.) 
he  was  nuidi'  Duke  of  Kivoli.  He  subsequently 
distinguished  himself  in  the  sanguinarv  battle 
of  Aspern  (E'^sling),  in  ISOfl,  and  at  U'agram 
(q.v.)  be  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  Kreneh 
army.  For  these  services  he  was  ereate<l  Prince 
of  Essling.  In  1810  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
chief  command  in  Portugal,  and  coni]H!lled  the 
British  and  their  allies  to  fall  back  to  Lisbon; 
but  l)eing  unable  to  make  any  impression  on  Wel- 
lington's strong  position  at  Torres  Vedras,  he 
resigned  his  conunand  and  retired  in  semi-dis- 
grace. His  failure  he  attributed  to  the  disobe- 
dience of  his  lieutenants  Ncy,  Regnier,  and  ,Iunot. 
During  the  Rest<nation  he  gave  his  adhesion  to 
the  Bourbons.  He  died  April  4,  1817.  His  Me- 
moircft  (Paris.  184!)-r)0),  edited  by  General  Koch, 
contain  historical  matter  of  interest  and  value. 
Consult  also  Toselli,  Xolice  biographiqiic  sur 
Mdsxrna    (Nice,  1809). 

MASSENET,  mas'na',  Jules  Emile  FRfin^Rlc 
(1842—  ).  A  French  composer,  bom  at  Jfontaud, 
in  the  Department  of  the  Loire.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Paris  Conservatory,  where  he  won 
prizes  for  his  pianoforte  playing  and  for  fugue- 
writing.  Subsequently  he  studied  under  Ani- 
broise  Thomas  and  in  18G3  won  the  Grand  Prix 
de  Rome.  In  1878  he  was  made  professor  of  ad- 
vanced composition  at  the  Conservatory,  which 
post  he  held  until  1800,  and  in  1878  he  was 
elected  to  the  Academic  des  Beaux-Arts.  In  the 
latter  year  he  made  a  successful  tour  of  Great 
Britain.  His  instrumentation  is  especially  fine, 
and  he  is  a  master  of  dainty,  bizarre  elfccts.  His 
works  include  the  following  operas:  Don  Cfsar  de 
linzan  (1872)  ;  IjCx  Erinniiea  (187.3)  ;  /ye  roi  de 
hahore{\%n)  ;  lUr(>dinde'{\9i^\)  :  .1/nnon  ( 1884)  ; 
Lc  aid  (188.">)  ;  Exvlnirmonde  (1880)  ;  Le  Mage 
(1801:  ^y,^rthrr  (1892);  Thais  (1894):  An  A'a- 
varraixe  (1894):  Saplio  (1807):  Crndrillon 
(1899):  Le  Jongleur  de  yotre-Dame  (1902). 
He  also  wrote  the  cantatas  Marii-  Mudrlcinr 
(1873);  Eve  (187.'J):  Ea  Vierge  and  \arcisxc 
(1878);  orchestral  suites,  firi'neii  hoiigrnises, 
fleenes  pittorrxr/iiex,  and  Seenes  dramatiqties 
after  Shakespeare,  and  several  orchestral  over- 
tures, notably  to  Racine's  Phedre.  His  many  col- 
lections of  songs  are  world  famous.  Consult 
Hervey.  Musleis  of  French  Music  (London.  1894). 

MAS'SEY,  Gerald  (1828—).  An  English 
Iioet,  born  at  Gand)le  Wharf,  near  Tring.  Here- 
fordshire, of  poor  parents  who  gave  liim  little 
education.  When  eight  years  old  he  was  placed 
in  a  silk  mill  where  he  worked  twelve  hours  a 
day.  At  fifteen  he  found  employment  in  London 
ns  an  errand  boy.  and  soon  began  writing  verse. 
Stirred  by  the  Chartist  movement  and  the  Revo- 
lution of  1848,  he  started  a  weekly  pnner  called 
the  Spirit  of  Freedom,  which  was  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  workingrnen;  joined  the  'Christian 
Socialists,'  and  was  encouraged  in  his  undertak- 


ing by  Kingsley  and  JIauriee.  He  afterwards 
lectured  on  spiritualism  in  England,  the  United 
Stales,  and  Australia.  Among  his  poems  arc; 
]uices  of  Freedom  and  Lyrics  of  Love  (1850); 
The  Balhid  of  liabc  Vhrislahel,  and  Other  I'ocms 
(1854);  lIaeelocl;'s  March,  and  Other  I'ocms 
(18(10);  .1  Tale  of  Eternity,  and  Other  Po- 
ems (1809);  My  Lyrical  LiYe  (coUecteil  poems, 
1889).  We  may  mention,  also,  many  contribn- 
tions  to  the  periodicals,  and  several  volumes  of 
prose;  as,  Shakespeare's  Sonnets  .Yerer  Before 
Interpreted  (1866)  :  The  Secret  Drama  of  Shake- 
speare's Sonnetsi  (1888)  ;  and  Concerning  Spiritu- 
alism (1872).  ilassey's  social  verse  now  ap- 
pears bombastic;  his  dramatic  songs  and  lyrics 
are  often  sweet  and  beautiful. 

MASSI,  miis'se,  Gextile,    An  Italian  painter. 

See  I  .'KMII.K  UA  F.\BRIA.XO. 

MAS'SICOT  (Fr.  massicot,  from  masse.  Lat. 
mas.vi.  mass.  lump,  from  Gk.  /liSfa,  nia::a,  barley 
cake,  from  iiAaaeiv,  nuissein,  to  knead ) .  A  mineral 
yellow  leacl  oxide.  It  is  found  massive,  usually 
with  a  crystalline  and  shining  surface,  whidi. 
when  broken,  shows  a  scaly  te.xture.  Artificial 
crystals  of  massicot  have  been  obtained  ami>ng 
furnace  products,  and  by  direct  chemical 
methods. 

MAS'SrLLON.  A  city  in  Stark  County.  Ohio, 
65  mih-s  south  of  Cleveland,  and  S  miles  west  of 
Canton,  the  county-seat:  on  the  Tuscarawas 
River,  tlie  Ohio  Canal,  and  the  Cleveland.  Lorain 
and  Wheeling,  the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie,  and 
the  Peimsylvania  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  (i  4). 
It  is  the  centre  of  the  noted  Tuscarawas  Valley 
coal  field,  and  in  its  vicinity  are  several  ipiarries 
of  valuable  white  sandstone.  The  industrial 
)dants  produce  extensively  farming  implements 
and  machinery,  stationary  and  portable  engines, 
iron  bridges,  bar  iron,  glass  liottles.  stoves  and 
heating  furnaces,  and  steel  tubing  and  I)ipe.  In 
llassillon  is  the  new  State  Hospital  and  ,\syl\mi 
for  the  Insane,  llassillon  was  founded  in  1825, 
was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1S53.  and 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1868,  the  original 
charter  now  being  in  operation.  The  government 
is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  biennially, 
and  a  unicameral  council  which  elects  the  boards 
of  health  and  eqinilization.  and  cimfirms  the 
executive's  nominations  to  the  boards  of  sewer 
and  park  commissioners.  The  board  of  education 
is  independentiv  elected  bv  popular  vote.  Popu- 
lation, in   1890,'  10,092;   iri  1900,   11,944, 

MASSILLON,     mft's^-yox',    Jean     Baptiste 

( 166.'!- 1742  ) .  .\  distinguished  French  pulpit  ora- 
tor, born  at  Hyi^res,  .Tune  24.  160.'!.  He  en- 
tered the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  l(i81, 
and  while  engaged  in  teaching  theology'  in  the 
diocese  of  ^Nfeaux,  he  delivered  an  eloquent 
funeral  oration  on  the  .Archbishop  of  Vienne. 
which  led  to  his  being  called  to  Paris  and  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  Seminary  of  Saint  Maghiire. 
There  a  course  of  conferences,  delivered  in  the 
seminary,  established  his  reputation.  More  than 
any  of  his  contemporaries,  he  was  able  to  lay 
bare  the  secret  springs  of  human  action.  He  was 
twice  called  to  [ueach  in  (he  presence  of  Louis 
XrV.  at  Versailles.  His  funenil  oration  on  the 
Prince  of  Conti.  in  1709.  was  one  of  his  greatest 
triumphs.  In  1710  he  pronounced  a  funeral  ora- 
tion over  the  Dauphin,  and  in  1715  one  on  Louis 
XIV.  In  1717  Massillon  was  named  Bishop  of  Cler- 
mont,  and   was  appointed   to  preach   before  the 


MASSILLON. 


169 


MASSON. 


young  King  Louis  XV.,  lor  wliiili  occasion  he  eora- 
poscil  liis  celebrated  inlit  cdiuiic — a  scries  of  ten 
sermons  preached  in  1718.  It  was  not  until  171!) 
that  he  was  consecrated  bisliop,  in  which  year 
also  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  In  1723  he  preached  tile  funeral 
oration  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  his  last  public 
discourse  in  Paris.  From  this  time  he  lived 
almost  entirely  for  his  diocese  of  Clermont, 
where  his  charity,  gentleness,  and  amiable  dis- 
position gained  him  the  afi'cctions  of  all.  He 
died  of  apoplexy  at  Clermont,  September  28, 
1742.  His  works,  consisting  mainly  of  .sermons 
and  other  similar  compositions,  were  collected 
in  lifteen  volumes,  by  his  nephew,  and  published 
in  174o-4t!:  later  editions  have  appeared  in  great 
numbers,  the  best  being  that  of  the  Abbe  Guillon 
(Paris,  1828),  and  that  of  Blanipiguan  (ib., 
ISSG).  The  latter  has  also  published  a  biography 
of  the  great  preacher,  -1/o.s.si7/oh  d'aprcs  drs 
(loriiiitcnts  iiudits  ( ib.,  1879). 

MASSINA,  mas-se'na.  A  State  of  tlie  French 
Sudan,  situated  on  the  Upper  Niger  south  of 
Timl)iiktu.  Hs  area,  boundaries,  and  population 
arc  all  uncertain.  It  belonged  originally  to  the 
empire  of  the  ilandingoes.  but  in  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  overrun  by  tlie 
Fulb'.  who  founded  a  kingdom  with  the  capital 
at  Banjagara.  and  were  the  ruling  class  tmtil  the 
French  occupation   in   1893. 

MAS'SINGBEKD,  Francis  Charles  (1800- 
72).  Chancellor  of  Lincoln.  He  was  born  in 
Lincolnshire ;  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  after  graduation 
with  high  honors,  entered  the  Church  and  became 
rector  in  1825  of  South  Ormsby  in  his  native 
coimty.  He  was  made  a  prebendary  in  Lincoln 
Cathedral  in  1847,  and  chancellor  in  1862.  As 
chancellor  he  strove  to  improve  the  practical 
efliciency  of  the  cathedral.  He  was  early  and 
prominent  in  the  movement  for  the  restoration 
of  the  deliberative  functions  of  convocation,  with 
reference  to  which  he  published  in  1833  Reasons 
for  a  Session  of  Convocation.  In  addition  to 
many  papers  and  discussions  on  ecclesiastical 
subjects,  he  was  the  author  of:  Church  Reform 
(1837);  The  Educational  and  Missionari/  Work 
of  the  Church  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1857)  ; 
Bistort/  of  the  Leaders  of  the  English  Reforma- 
tion ('l842)  :  The  Law  of  the  Church  and  the 
Law  of  the  State  (1859)  ;  Lectures  on  the  Praijer- 
Book  (1804)  ;  and  a  Sermon  on  Unity,  with  an 
Essays  on  Religious  Societies    (1868). 

MASSINGER.  mas'sin-jcr,  Philip  (\r,H3- 
1040 1.  An  En^^lish  dramatist,  son  of  Arthur 
Massinger,  a  retainer  of  Henry  Herbert,  second 
Earl  of  Pembroke.  The  elder  Massinger  was  edu- 
cated at  Saint  Alban  Hall,  Oxford :  was  after- 
wards a  fellow  of  Jlerton  College,  and  member  of 
Parliament.  Philip  entered  Saint  Alban  Hall  in 
1002,  but  he  left  without  a  degree  in  1606, 
the  year  in  which  his  father  probably  died.  Jlas- 
singer  went  to  London,  probably  not  before 
1610.  and  began  writing  for  the  stage.  The  ex- 
tent of  his  work  has  not  yet  been  definitely  de- 
termined, for  he  collaborated  on  a  large  scale. 
He  seems  to  have  written  single-handed  ahovit 
fifteen  plays,  and  in  conjunction  with  others  fully 
twenty-five.  His  most  common  collaborator  was 
Fletcher;  and  many  of  the  plays  they  wrote  to- 
gether must  he  sifted  from  those  that  have  long 
passed  under  the  name  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 


Massinger  studied  his  art  well,  and  thus  ad- 
justed his  plays  to  tlie  stage  jierhaps  lietter  than 
any  of  his  contemiioraries.  His  best-known 
comedy,  A  Xew  Way  to  Pay  Old  Vcbts  (first  per- 
formed between  1622  and  1626),  kept  the  stage 
well  on  into  the  nineteenth  century.  Sir  Giles 
Overreach,  the  leading  character  in  the  play,  is 
without  much  doubt  a  portrait  of  a  notorious 
extortioner  of  the  time  named  Sir  Giles  Monipes- 
son.  Indeed,  political  satire  is  one  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  Massingor's  plays,  particularly  of 
licliere  as  You-  List,  The  Emperor  of  the  East, 
The  Maid  of  Honour,  and  The  Bondman.  In  the 
last  play  (performed  late  in  1623  or  early  in 
1624),  the  object  of  attack  is  Buckingham.  Good 
examples  of  Massinger's  power  are  The  Virgin 
Martyr  (partly  Dekker's)  and  Barnarelt  (partly 
Fletcher's).  Through  his  life  he  kept  up  friend- 
ly relations  with  the  Herberts.  From  Philip,  the 
fourth  Earl  of  Pembroke,  he  received,  it  is  said, 
a  pension  of  £30  or  more.  He  died  at  Southwark, 
in  March.  1640,  and  was  buried  in  the  Church- 
yard of  Saint  Saviour's.  There  is  no  satisfac- 
tory edition  of  Massinger.  The  best  is  by  Wil- 
liam Giflord  (4  vols.,  1805;  second  ed.  1816;  re- 
printed by  Cunningham,  1867).  Consult  also: 
Dramatic  Works  of  Massinger  and  Ford,  ed.  by 
H.  Coleridge  (London,  1840;  revised  1883); 
Selected  Plays,  ed.  by  Symons,  for  "Mermaid 
Series"  (London,  1887-89)";  and  for  Massinger's 
share  in  plays  ascribed  to  Beaumont  and  Fletch- 
er, Transactions  of  Xew  Shalccspeare  Society 
(London,  1880-86)  ;  also  Fleay  in  the  last-named 
publication    (ib.,   1874). 

MASSMANN",  miis'man,  Hans  Ferdinand 
(1797-1874).  A  German  philologist,  well  known 
for  his  studies  in  Old  German  language  and  lit- 
erature. Born  in  Berlin,  he  studied  there,  and, 
after  serving  in  the  War  of  Liberation,  in  .Jena, 
where  his  radical  ideas  and  'demagogic'  sym- 
pathies brought  him  into  difficulties  with  the  au- 
thorities. In  1826  he  became  a  teacher  at  the 
Eoyal  Gymnastic  Institute  at  Munich,  and  after- 
wards was  chosen  professor  of  Old  German  at 
the  university.  At  Berlin,  whither  he  had  gone 
in  1842  to  introduce  gymnastics  in  the  Prussian 
service,  he  received  another  chair  in  Teutonic 
philology.  Massmann's  writings  include  editions 
of  Deutsche  Gedichte  des  12.  Jahrhunderts  (1837- 
42)  ;  Kaiserehronik  (1849-53)  ;  of  the  works  of 
the  Gothic  Bishop  mfilas  ( 1855-.56) ,  and  of  Taci- 
tus's  Germania  (1847)  ;  and  Oeschichte  des  mit- 
telalterlichen  Schachspiels  (1839)  and  Littera- 
ttiv  der  Totentdnze  (1840). 

MASSON,  ma'soN',  Antoine  (1636-1700).  A 
French  engraver,  born  at  Loury,  near  Orleans. 
He  learned  designing  as  an  armorer's  apprentice, 
and  had  no  other  teaching.  Afterwards  he  en- 
tered the  Academy,  and  was  the  master  of  Pierre 
Drevet.  His  most  celebrated  portraits  are  those 
of  the  "Cadet  a  la  Perle,"  Gaspard  Charrier,  and 
Dupuis.  "The  Pilgrims  of  Emniaus"  after  Ti- 
tian, known  as  "The  Tablecloth"  from  the  ex- 
treme care  with  which  he  has  rendered  the  tex- 
ture of  linen,  Is  his  most  famous  subject. 

MAS'SON,  David  (1822  —  ).  A  Scottish  au- 
thor, born  at  Aberdeen.  December  2,  1822.  He 
was  educated  at  Jlarischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  at  the  L'niversity  of  Edinliurgh.  At  nine- 
teen he  became  editor  of  a  Scotch  provincial 
paper.  In  1847  he  settled  in  London.  He  was 
editor   of   Macmillan's   Magazine   from    1858    to 


MASSON. 


170 


MAST. 


I860.  In  1852  he  succeeded  C'loiij;li  in  tlie  chair 
■of  English  literature  at  University  College ;  and 
in  IStio  retired  to  accept  the  professorship  of 
rhetoric  and  English  literature  in  the  University 
of  Jylinhurgh.  In  1893  he  became  Histo- 
riographer Koyal  for  Scotland.  Masson  is  wide- 
ly known  for  his  studies  in  Milton,  comprising 
an  exhaustive  account  of  the  life  and  times  of 
the  poet  (()  vols..  18.")il-80:  1st  vol.  enlarged  18S1  ; 
inde.x,  1894)  ;  and  at  least  four  editions  of  his 
poems:  the  Camliridge  edition  (3  vols.,  1874).  re- 
vised as  the  Cabinet  edition  (1890)  ;  the  Golden 
Treasury  edition  (2  vols..  1874),  the  Globe  edi- 
tion (1  vol.,  1877),  an  intermediate  between  the 
Cambridge  and  the  (Jolden  Treasuiy  (3  vols., 
1882).  The  same  careful  scholarship  is  dis- 
played in  lives  of  Drumniond  of  Hawtliornden 
( 1873)  and  De  Quincey  ( 1878  ) ,  and  in  an  edition 
of  De  (,)uincey's  W(irks'(  14  vols..  18S9-91).  Among 
Jlasson's  other  writings  are:  I-^snai/s.  Biof/raplii- 
cal  and  Crilical  (18.50:  reprint,  with  additions, 
1874-7())  ;  ISiitish  SorcUsts  (18.59)  ;  Recent  Brit- 
ish I'hilosophu  (1805)  ;  Edinburgh  Sketches  and 
Memories  (  1892) . 

MASSON,  mii'sox',  Loris  Francois  Rod- 
RKiii-:  (  l.s.i:! — ).  A  Canadian  statesman,  born 
in  Terrebonne.  ti)uebec.  In  1859  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  and  he  sat  in  tlie  Canadian  Parlia- 
ment for  Terrebonne  from  lS(i7  to  1882.  From 
1878  to  1880  he  was  Minister  of  Militia  and 
Defense,  in  1880  was  ])resident  of  tlie  council,  and 
from  1.SS4  to  1887  was  Uie\itenant-Governor  of 
Quebec  Province.  In  1882  and  again  in  1892  he 
was  summoned  to  the  Senate.  He  was  mayor 
of  Terrebonne,  ami  ]iublished  Lcs  bourgeois  de  la 
coiiiixjiiiiir  ilu   \(jri:l-Ouest    (1889). 

MASSO'RAH.     See  M.\.sora. 

MASSOWAH,  nu'is-sou'a.  or  MASSAWA. 
The  chief  town  and  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Italian  colony  of  Eritrea  l(|.v.).  It  is  situated 
parth'  on  the  mainland,  partly  on  two  small  isl- 
ands on  the  west  shore  of  the  Red  Sea.  350  miles 
northwest  of  the  Strait  of  Hab-el-Mamleb  (Maj): 
Africa,  .1  3).  It  is  a  fortilied  military  station, 
and  its  commercial  importance  is  very  consider- 
able o%\ing  to  its  being  the  natural  port  for  the 
northern  part  of  Abyssinia.  The  town  in  it- 
self is  of  little  conseipience.  The  climate  is  e.\- 
oessively  hot.  The  coninterce  is  chietly  with 
Arabia,  Bombay,  and  the  interior  of  Abyssinia, 
the  chief  exports  being  ivory,  cofVee,  tobacco,  wax, 
and  ostrich  feathers.  Massowah  has  steamship 
connection  with  Egypt.  Italy,  and  Austria-Hun- 
gary, and  is  the  terminus  of  a  tnilitary  railway 
into  the  interior.  The  population  is  about  8000. 
of  which  about  (100  ;u'C  Europeans,  the  rest  be- 
ing nearly  all  Mohammedans  of  various  African 
and  .\siatic  races.  Massowah  f<irmerly  belonged 
to  Egypt  and  was  taken  by  Italy  in   1885. 

MASSYS,  masN'.  MATSYS,  m;U-sTs'.  MES- 
SYS,  mi's-si-',  or  METSYS,  met-sis'.  Qiintkx 
(c. I4(!0-1530) .  .\  liililical.  genre,  and  portrait 
painter  of  the  Flemish  school.  His  birthjilace 
is  disputed,  being  variously  ascribed  to  Antwerp 
and  Lonvain:  he  died  at  the  fornuT  place  in 
1530.  According  to  tradition  lie  was  a  locksmith 
by  trade,  but  upon  his  marriage  in  1480  to  a  paint- 
er's daughter,  he  changed  his  vocation.  He  stud- 
ied luider  a  local  master,  ami  in  1491  was  on- 
rolled  in  the  Guild  of  Saint  I.uke  at  .\ntwerp. 
Mnssys  is  important  as  being  the  earliest  lepre- 
.sontativc  of  the  new  era.   in  which  the   human 


figure  first  comes  into  marked  prominence  in 
painting.  Heretofore  the  luunan  figure  had  only 
held  a  place  equal  in  importance  to  landscape 
and  architecture,  but  ilassys  subordinates  these 
and  gives  his  actors  preeminence,  endowing  them 
with  individuality,  character,  and  dramatic  ex- 
pression. His  figures  are  well  modeled,  although 
they  are  sometimes  lean  and  angular,  and  his 
composition  is  not  always  harmonious. 

One  of  his  greatest  surviving  wiu-ks  is  the 
altar-piece  for  the  Church  of  Saint  Peter  at 
Louvain,  now  in  the  Brussels  Jluseum.  completed 
in  1509.  The  subject  of  the  centre  panel  is  the 
Holy  Family;  the  figures  are  nobly  and  solidly 
represented,  but  without  dramatic  expression. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  scenes  from  the  "Life  of 
the  Virgin"  on  the  wings  of  tlie  altar  are  strong- 
ly dramatic.  His  masterpiece  is  the  great 
triptych  in  the  Antwerp  .Miiseiiiii,  representing 
the  •'•Burial  of  Christ,"  Hanked  by  the  -Martyr- 
dom of  the  Two  Johns."  The  action  of  this 
work  is  intense,  and  the  color,  though  gor- 
geous, is  well  harmonized.  His  other  works  in- 
clude an  "Enthroned  \"irgin."  Berlin  (iallery; 
•'The  Virgin  in  (ilory,"  Hermitage.  Saint  IVters- 
burg;  and  two  half-lengtli  devotional  figures  of 
••Christ"  and  the  ••Virgin"  at  .\iitwerp,  of  wliich 
there  are  copies  in  tlie  National  (iallery. 

Massys  is  also  well  known  as  the  originator 
of  a  class  of  genre  pictures — character  studies 
of  burghers  of  Antwerp,  representing  money- 
changers or  misers,  in  couples  or  grou])s,  Beated 
at  tables.  An  important  example  is  in  the 
Louvre,  dated  1514.  His  few  surviving  ]i(utraits 
are  strong  and  realistic,  and  show  a  skillful  ren- 
dition of  character.  Genuine  exani])Ies  are  those 
of  -Egidius  at  Longford  Castle;  of  .lean  Caron- 
delet  III  the  Pinakothek.  Munich:  and  a  mutilated 
portrait  of  a  young  man  in  the  Berlin  .Museum. 

MAST  (AS.  nirrfif.  OIIG.  must.  Ger.  M<isl; 
probalily  connected  ultimately  with  Lat.  mnlus, 
]iole).  The  upriglit  spar  on  which  sail  is  set. 
In  large  ships  masts  are  in  several  lengths.  In 
fore-and-aft  rigged  vessels  the  mast  is  c'oiiinionly 
in  two  parts  called  the  lower  mast  and  the  top- 
ma.st ;  in  large  square-rigged  vessels  the  masts  are 
in  three  sections,  the  lower  mast,  topmast,  and 
topgallantmast.  That  part  of  the  topgallant- 
mast  above  the  eyes  of  the  topgallant  rigging  and 
below  the  royal  rigging  is  called  the  rovalmast; 
if  skysails  are  carried  the  part  of  the  topgallant- 
mast  above  the  eyes  of  the  royal  rigging  is  called 
the  skysailmast  or  skysail  pole. 

Large  lower  masts  are  either  of  iron  or  steel 
or  built  up  of  many  timbers  whose  edges  niii't 
in  radial  planes.  These  timbers  are  bolted  to- 
gether and  further  held  by  circular  bands  of 
iron  or  steel.  They  are  joined  to  the  limbers 
above  and  below  by  scarfs  and  the  scarfs  'break 
joints'  (i.e.  no  two  scarfs  are  abreast  each  other 
horizontally) . 

The  parts  of  a  mast  are  the  head,  hmuids, 
boily,  partners,  and  heel.  The  head  is  the  tipper 
])art;  the  hounds  are  the  enlarged  parts  just  be- 
low the  eyes  of  the  rigging:  the  body  is  the  part 
between  the  hounds  and  the  cleek ;  the  partners 
the  portion  which  pas.ses  through  a  deck;  and 
the  heel  is  the  lower  end.  Lower  masts  alone 
have  p;irtncrs  (since  the  upper  masts  do  not 
pass  tliiiiiigh  decks)  ami  they  have  tenons  at 
the  heel  which  fit  in  the  mast  step  on  the  keelson. 
They  are  held  in  position  bv  wedges  at  the  part- 
ners   and    by    the    rigging.      Of   the   latter,   the 


MAST. 


171 


MASTER  AND  SERVANT. 


shrouds  lead  from  tlie  iiiasllipad  just  above  the 
liouuds  to  each  side  uf  Ihi'  sliip.  whcri'  they  spread 
out  fauwise  and  sustaiu  the  nuist  ayainst  thwart- 
ship  pressure;  the  stajs  lead  from  tlie  masthead 
forward  alonfj  the  centre  line  of  the  ship,  fur- 
nishing strength  in  that  direction;  wliile  the 
backstays,  also  descending  from  the  mastliead, 
extend  to  the  sides  of  the  ship  abaft  the  shrouds 
to  resist  the  forward  pull  of  the  sails.  L'pper 
masts  have  similar  rigging,  but  the  lower  ends 
are  secured  differently.  The  heel  passes  through 
a  hole  in  a  heavy  iron-bound  wooden  block 
ealled  a  cap,  which  is  secured  to  the  head  of 
the  lower  mast,  and  extends  downward  to  the 
trestletrces,  between  which  it  passes  and  to  which 
it  is  secured  by  a  heavy  piece  of  wood  or  iron 
called  a  Kd  passing  through  tlie  mast  and  trestle- 
trees  or  simply  resting  on  the  latter,  tlie  heel 
extending  beyond  the  fid  hole  far  enough  to  he 
held  from  horizontal  movement  by  a  framed  hole 
between  the  trestletrces.  On  tlie  head  of  the 
uppermost  mast  there  is  usually  placed  a  small 
disk  of  wood  called  the  truck,  which  has  sheaves 
or  holes  for  signal   halliards. 

Upper  masts  and  the  lower  masts  of  schooners 
and  of  other  fore-and-aft  rigged  craft  are  (when 
the  masts  of  the  latter  are  not  of  iron)  almost 
invariably  of  one  stick,  the  sliding  of  yards  and 
of  the  hoops  of  fore-and-aft  sails  being  interfered 
with  if  Iiands  are  used.  When  masts  are  large 
and  made  of  a  single  stick  they  form  no  incon- 
siderable item  in  the  equipment  of  a  ship,  for 
they  must  be  straight,  free  from  blemishes, 
cracks,  deep-seated  knots,  etc.  They  are  usually 
of  pine,  spruce,  or  fir,  which  woods  combine  light- 
ness with  strength  in  addition  to  other  desirable 
qualities. 

As  regards  position  in  a  ship  masts  are  vari- 
ously named.  In  two-masted  vessels  the  forward 
is  called  the  foremast,  the  after  one  the  main- 
mast. In  three-masted  ships  the  forward  one  is 
the  foremast,  the  middle  one  the  mainmast,  the 
after  one  the  mizzen  or  mizzenmast.  W'lien  there 
are  four  masts,  all  large,  they  are  called  the 
foremast,  forward  mainmast,  after  mainmast,  and 
mizzen:  if  the  after  mast  is  small,  they  are 
called  the  foremast,  mainmast,  mizzen,  and  Jig- 
ger. When  the  masts  exceed  four  in  number 
there  is  no  fixed  rule  for  naming.  See  Ship; 
Siiipnrii.Dixn,  etc. 

MAS'TABA.     An   Arabic  word   of  uncertain 

derivation,  meaning  a  bench,  applied  by  Jtarietto 
to  Kg^-])tian  tombs  of  a  type  which  |>revailcd 
under  the  Memphite  dynasties  of  the  ancient 
Empire.  Many  hundreds  of  these  tombs  ex- 
ist in  the  great  necropolis  lietween  Abu  Roash 
and  Dashur,  especially  at  Gizeli  and  Saqqara, 
They  are  oblong,  bench-like  structures  witli  flat 
roofs  of  stone  and  walls  of  sun-dried  brick  or  of 
stone,  having  a  slight  inclination  or  hatter  in- 
ward. They  \-ary  in  size  from  Ut  by  2.5  feet  to 
84  by  172  feet,  and  are  earefully  oriented,  with 
the  long  axis  set  north  and  south.  Upon  this 
axis  an  opening  in  the  roof  marks  the  mouth  of 
the  burial  shaft,  which  leads  to  the  mummy 
chamber,  cut  in  the  rock  at  a  depth  of  some  40 
feet.  The  mastaba  itself  is  sometimes  solid, 
sometimes  ehambered.  The  solid  mastaba  has 
upon  its  eastern  face  a  reetang\ilar  recess,  con- 
taining an  inscribed  stele.  In  the  chambered 
mastaba  a  doorway  set  in  a  recess,  which  in  the 
more  important  examples  forms  a  spacious  vesti- 
bule or  porch  fronted  by  twin  piers,  gives  access 
Vol,  XIII.— 12. 


to  the  chamber  uy  ■i-hapel.'  This  is  often  richly 
adorned  with  mural  paintings,  designed  for  the 
delectation  of  the  /.((,  or  disembodied  'double'  of 
the  deceased,  and  invariably  possesses  on  its 
western  wall  an  inscribed  stele  and  a  sculptured 
door,  through  which  the  ka  might  eventually 
pass  to  the  land  of  the  Sun  of  Night,  From  this 
chamber  also  small  openings  lead  to  the  scrdubs 
or  secret  chambers  containing  the  ka-statues, 
by  means  of  which  the  leu  was  supposed  to  re- 
tain his  or  her  identity  while  confined  in  the 
limbo  of  the  tomb.  Sometimes  these  openings 
are  wanting,  the  scrdubs  being  hermetically 
sealed.  The  chapel  was  open  to  any  one  to  enter. 
Consult:  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  llistoire  de  Part 
dans  I'antiqiiite,  vol.  i.  (Paris,  1882)  ;  Mariette, 
Les  mastabas  de  I'ancien  empire  (Paris,  1881- 
87);  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (London, 
1894). 

MASTER  (OF.  maistre,  Fr.  maltre,  from  Lat. 
miigister,  leader;  connected  with  muynus,  (ik. 
^^yas,  megas,  great).  The  proper  designation 
of  the  commauder  of  a  merchant  vessel.  The 
courtesy  title  of  captain  which  is  generallj'  ac- 
corded him  is  a  military  designation  properly 
belonging  to  the  naval  service  only.  The  rank 
of  master  existed  in  the  navy  and  was  the  title 
of  an  officer  next  junior  to  lieutenant.  It  was 
the  survival  of  the  term  sailing-master,  which 
in  turn  was  a  relic  of  the  days  when  ships  were 
commanded  and  fought  by  soldiers  but  navigated 
and  manoeuvred  by  the  sailing-master  and  his 
crew  of  seamen.  The  act  of  Congress  of  August, 
1882,  changed  the  title  of  master  to  that  of 
lieutenant    (junior   grade). 

MASTER  AND  SERVANT.  In  its  broadest 
sense,  persons  in  such  a  relation  that  one  is  em- 
ployed to  work  for  and  represent  the  other, 
ilodern  law,  however,  distinguishes  the  employee 
who  is  engaged  to  represent  his  employer  in  busi- 
ness transactions  involving  the  making  of  con- 
tracts on  the  employer's  behalf  from  otlicrs.  and 
designates  him  as  agent  (q.v.).  This  article  will 
be  confined  to  the  law  of  master  and  servant  in 
its  narrow  sense — to  the  rules  governing  the 
relation  of  persons  where  one  is  employed  to 
render  service  for  the  other  but  not  to  bind  him 
by  contract. 

Formerly  servants  were  classified  as  voluntary 
and  involuntary,  the  latter  class  incliuling  slaves 
and  apprentices  (q.v.).  Only  voluntary  ser- 
vants will  be  here  considered.  Emiinenl  leiral 
writers  hold  that  some  of  the  rules  governing 
master  and  servant  to-day  "can  only  be  ex- 
plained by  going  back  to  the  time  when  servants 
were  slaves."  For  example,  it  is  said  the  genesis 
of  the  master's  extraordinary  liability  for  acts 
of  his  servant  which  he  has  neither  commanded 
nor  approved  is  found  in  the  right  of  the  ancient 
master  to  surrender  the  slave  who  has  injured 
another.  This  and  similar  views,  however,  have 
not  been  sufTiciently  established. 

The  modern  servant  becomes  such  as  the  result 
of  an  agreement  with  the  master  which  either 
party  may  break  at  will,  subject  only  to  the  usual 
consequence  that  the  party  in  the  wrong  is  liable 
to  pay  damage  for  the  breach.  If  the  contract 
is  not  to  be  performed  within  a  year  after  it  is 
made,  it  is  required  by  the  Statute  of  Frauds 
(q.v.)  to  be  in  writing.  If,  however,  it  be  for 
an  indefinite  period,  which  mav  end  within  a 
year  after  the  agreement  is  entered  into,  no  writ- 


MASTER  AND  SERVANT. 


172 


MASTER  AND  SERVANT. 


ing  is  necessary.  Thus  a  contract  of  service,  to 
continue  during  the  life  of  either  party  thereto, 
may  l)e  made  orally,  since  it  may  teniiiiiate  witli- 
in  a  \ear  after  it  is  made.  And  cveii  when  an 
oral  agreement  is  made  for  a  term  longer  than 
a  year,  if  the  master  receive  and  accept  services 
renderc<l  by  the  servant  and  then  refuse  to  go  on 
and  complete  the  contract,  the  latter  may  re- 
cover, in  an  action  upon  an  implied  contract, 
technically  called  a  (/uuntuiii  mcniil,  the  value 
of  the  labor  he  has  thus  performed.  When  the 
services  continue  for  a  year,  and  after  its  expira- 
tion the  servant  remains  in  the  same  emiiloyment 
without  any  further  expressed  agreement,  a  re- 
newal of  the  contract  for  another  year  and  upon 
the  same  terms  is  presumed  by  law.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  special  contract  as  to  the  time  of  service, 
it  is  sometimes  difticult  to  determine  whether  the 
hiring  is  for  a  year  or  for  a  shorter  period,  such 
as  .a  month,  week,  etc.  The  common  instance  of 
the  hiring  of  farm  hands,  in  which  ea<Ji  of  the 
interested  parties  had  a  right,  in  the  alisencc  of 
any  contract  stipulations,  to  assume  that  the 
services  would  continue  through  the  four  sea- 
sons, gave  rise  to  the  presumption,  which  came 
to  be  applied  to  most  contracts  of  hiring  in  Eng- 
land, that  if  no  time  were  specilied  an  agreement 
was  meant  to  last  for  one  .year.  But  this  pre- 
sumption is  casilv  overcome  by  slight  evidence 
of  facts  and  circumstances  which  indicate  a  con- 
traiy  intention.  Thus  the  period  for  which  the 
wages  are  to  be  paid,  as  by  the  quarter,  month. 
week,  etc.,  will  frequentlv  lie  decisive  in  proving 
the  hiring  to  be  for  a  vear,  a  month,  a  week,  etc. 
And  it  ma.v  be  laid  down  as  the  general  rule 
in  the  United  States  that  where  the  contract  is 
silent  as  to  the  term  of  service  and  there  is  no 
well-defined  usage  in  the  particular  cnmmunit.v 
on  the  sul).jeet.  the  hiring  is  terminable  by  the 
will  of  either  party. 

After  the  relation  has  been  duly  con.stituted, 
we  have  to  consider  ( 1 )  the  mutual  duties  and 
liabilities  of  the  parties,  and  (2)  their  liabilities 
to  third  parties  and  rights  against  them. 

( 1 )  !^IuTUAI,  Duties  and  Liabilities,  The 
servant  is  bound  to  have  competent  skill  for  the 
service  which  he  undertakes,  to  exercise  due 
diligence  in  his  work,  to  ohcv  all  lawful  orders 
of  his  master  concerning  the  labor  for  which  he 
was  engaged,  to  conduct  himself  respectfullv,  and 
not  to  leave  liis  employment  during  the  time  for 
which  the  contract  was  made.  If  he  leave  the 
master  without  just  cause  during  the  stipulated 
time,  he  cannot  recover  \inpaid  wages  for  the 
services  already  rendered.  And  if  he  be  right- 
fuU.v  discharged  he  forfeits  his  wages  for  the 
period  during  which  he  has  served  without  pay- 
ment. I!ut  if  he  be  prevented  by  sickness  from 
completing  his  part  of  the  contract,  he  may  re- 
cover for  the  value  of  the  services  which  be  has 
rendered.  If  his  unjustifiable  breaidi  of  contract 
results  in  damage  to  his  emjilovcr  he  is  liable 
therefor.  In  some  eases  servants  may  he  en- 
joined by  the  courts  from  breaking  tlieir  con- 
tracts of  service.  (Sec  Consimkacy  and  Strikf:.) 
Some  of  the  grounds  on  which  a  servant  may  be 
lawfuU.v  discharged  before  the  expiration  of  his 
term  are  gross  immorality,  willful  djiolicdience 
of  orders,  habitual  negligence,  and  glaring  in- 
competence to  perform  his  duties.  If  during  his 
term  he  be  discharged  unjustly  and  without  an.v 
such  cause,  he  mav  either  treat  the  contract  as 
rescinded,  an<l  sue  for  the  value  of  the  seri-iccs 


already  rendered;  or  he  may  sue  for  the  breach 
of  the  contract  and  in  that  action  recover  both 
the  value  of  the  services  ahead.v  rendered  and 
the  compensation  for  the  damages  sustained  by 
him  because  of  his  wrongful  discharge.  But  it 
is  always  his  duty,  during  the  residue  of  the 
term  for  whicii  he  was  employed,  to  seek  for 
other  employment  of  a  similar  character  in  the 
same  locality,  in  order  to  reduce  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  damages  recoverable  against  his  master. 
If  he  do  not  thus  seek  and  accept  such  similar 
employment  as  he  may  be  able  to  obtain,  the 
master  may  show  that  fact,  in  mitigation  of 
damages,  in  the  action  brought  by  the  scnant  for 
the  breach  of  the  contract.  If,  after  the  con- 
tract is  made,  the  master  neglect  or  refuse  to 
furnish  work  pursuant  thereto,  the  .servant  may 
recover  as  damages  the  entire  amount  of  the 
stipulated  wages,  if  he  have  dulv  held  himself 
in  readiness  to  perform  and  been  unable  bj'  rea- 
sonable elfort  to  obtain  other  emidovment  of  a 
similar  character.  If  he  sue.  however,  before  the 
expiration  of  the  stipulated  time  and  recover 
damages  up  to  the  time  of  trial,  he  will  be  there- 
by barred  or  precluded  from  maintaining  any 
further  action  for  subsequently  securing  dam- 
ages. This  results  from  the  principle  that  a 
contract  for  work  and  services  is  entiie,  and  its 
breach  gives  only  one  right  of  action.  When  a 
servant  becomes  sick,  the  ma.ster  is  generally 
imder  no  obligation  to  supply  him  with  medical 
attendance;  but  an  inijilied  contract  to  pav  for 
tlie  services  of  a  physician  who  is  called  in  is 
frequentlv  fastened  upon  the  master  from  the 
fact  that  he  has  the  phvsician  called  and  other- 
wise acts  as  if  he  were  assuming  the  obligation. 
If  a  master  furnishes  medical  attendance  gra- 
tuitously, he  is  not  liable  to  the  servant  for  the 
])hysician's  negligence,  provided  he  used  reason- 
able care  in  selecting  him. 

While,  as  a  rule,  the  servant  takes  upon  him- 
self all  the  ordinary  risks  incident  to  the  employ- 
ment, still  the  master  is  \inder  a  legal  oliligation 
to  use  reasonable  and  ordinary  care  to  supplv  the 
servant  with  safe  inachincrv  and  appliances  with 
which  to  work  :  and  if,  because  of  the  master's 
failure  to  perform  the  dutv  properly,  the  servant 
be  injured,  without  anv  contributor.v  negligence 
on  his  own  part,  he  ma.v  recover,  in  an  action 
against  his  master,  compensation  for  the  dam- 
ages thus  sustained.  If  the  sen-ant  be  employed 
upon  work  involving  special  risks,  of  which  he 
cannot  be  presumed  to  be  cognizant,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  master  to  inform  him  of  such  risks,  or  the 
master  will  be  ihargealdc  with  negligence.  Where 
the  labor  is  in  connection  with  specially  danger- 
ous maehincrv — such,  for  example,  as  that  used 
by  railroad  companies — the  courts  require  the 
master  to  have  the  same  verj'  carefuU.v  inspected, 
to  see,  as  far  as  is  reasonably  possible,  that  it 
is  safe;  but  even  in  such  cases  thev  do  not  go 
to  the  extent  of  making  the  master  an  insurer 
of  the  servant's  safety  in  the  use  of  such  nuv 
cbincrv.  If  a  servant  be  aware  of  the  dangernus 
character  of  the  place  in  which,  or  maehincrv  or 
tools  with  which,  he  is  requested  bv  tlic  master 
to  work,  and  continue  in  his  employment  without 
objection  on  that  ground,  he  cannot  recover  dam- 
ages from  the  master  for  an  injurv  which  results 
from  any  such  cause.  But  it  sometimes  happens 
that  when  the  servant  complains  of  the  defects 
in  the  implements  with  which  he  is  required  to 
labor,   he  is  in<luced  to  c<aitinuc  at   his  work  by 


MASTER  AND  SERVANT. 


173 


MASTER  IN  CHANCERY. 


piuiiiisi's  from  llie  master  tliut  siicli  defects  will 
be  speedily  remedied.  If,  while  euntinuing  to 
work  for  a  reasonably  short  time  in  reliance 
upon  such  a  promise,  he  be  injured  because  of 
such  defect,  without  any  negligence  on  liis  part, 
he  can  still  recover  from  the  master  compensa- 
tion for  the  resulting  damages.  But  when  he 
allows  an  xuircasonably  long  time  to  elap.se  after- 
receiving  such  promise,  during  whieli  he  con- 
tinues to  labor  with  tlie  defective  appliances,  he 
cannot  recover  for  injuries  resulting  from  the 
unremedied  defects  after  such  a  lapse  of  time, 
unless  a  statute  gives  him  a  right  of  recovery. 
If  the  master  willfully  injure  the  servant,  or  by 
his  personal  neglect  or  wrongful  act  cause  him 
injury  in  other  ways  than  through  defective 
machinery,  place  of  labor,  or  implements  of  toil, 
he  is  liable  to  such  servant  in  damages.  In 
entering  upon  his  emplo.yment  the  servant  also 
voluntarily  takes  the  risk  of  injury  which  may 
result  from  the  negligence  or  wrongful  acts  of  his 
fe'dow  servants  (q.v.),  except  in  cases  coming 
within  the  provisions  of  modern  statutes  relating 
to  employers'  liability  (q.v.). 

Although  it  is  customai'y  for  the  master  to 
give  a  testimonial  of  character  to  an  honest  ser- 
vant at  the  termination  of  his  employment,  he  is 
not  legally  bound  to  do  this,  in  the  absence  of  a 
contract  or  a  well-defined  usage  therefor. 

(2)  Their  Rights  Against  Third  Parties 
AND  Liabilities  to  Tiiem.  The  master  is  en- 
titled to  the  services  of  his  servant,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  contract  of  hiring.  He  may,  there- 
fore, justify  an  assault  necessarily  made  in  de- 
fense of  his  servant  and  may  have  an  action  for 
damages  against  any  one  who  wrongfully  beats 
or  injures  the  servant  so  that  his  services  are 
lost  or  impaired.  So  if  any  one  entice  away  the 
servant  and  thereby  cause  loss  to  the  master,  the 
latter  may  recover  in  an  action  the  damages  tor 
the  injury  thus  sustained.  If  a  female  servant 
be  seduced,  her  master  may  sue  for  consequent 
loss  of  services. 

For  his  acts  of  negligence  or  positive  wrong 
which  result  in  injury  to  others,  a  servant  is, 
of  course,  personally  liable.  But  since  he  is  so 
often  pecuniarily  irresponsible,  the  question  most 
frequently  litigated  is  that  of  the  extent  of  his 
master's  liability  for  such  acts.  The  general 
statement  of  the  rule  is  that  the  master  is  liable 
for  the  wrongful  acts  or  torts  of  his  servant 
which  are  within  the  scope  of  his  employment 
and  which  cause  injury  to  third  persons.  Even 
though  the  act  of  the  servant  be  a  willful  wrong, 
yet  when  it  is  done  in  connection  with  the  mas- 
ter's business  or  in  furtlieranee  thereof,  it  may 
make  the  latter  liable  for  injur^^  thereby  occa- 
sioned to  third  parties.  But  when  the  servant 
leaves  and  loses  sight  of  his  master's  business, 
and  wantonly  does  a  wrongf\il  act,  he  alone  is 
liable  for  consequent  injur.v  to  otlicrs.  \\'hen  a 
servant  creates  a  nuisance  upon  his  master's 
premises,  whereby  injury  is  caused  to  adjoining 
property,  and  when  a  servant  prevents  his  mas- 
ter from  performing  a  contract  by  which  the  lat- 
ter is  bound,  the  master  is  liable,  even  though  the 
act  of  the  servant  were  willful  and  malicious.  So 
a  carrier  of  passengers  is  bound  to  protect  them 
from  injury  resulting  from  the  violence  or  in- 
sults of  his  own  servants,  and  Avill  be  liable  if 
while  passengers  the.v  be  thus  injured. 

In  some  eases  it  is  difficult  to  determine  who 
is  the  responsible  master   for  a   particular  ser- 


vant. For  example,  A  is  injured  by  the  mis- 
conduct of  a.  servant  who  is  selected  and  paid  by 
B,  but  who  at  the  time  of  doing  tlie  injury  is 
engaged  about  the  business  of  C.  Is  B  or  0 
answerable  for  his  misconduct?  According  to 
the  weight  of  authority,  the  answer  depends  upon 
who  had  the  riglit  to  control  the  servant  while 
doing  the  act  complained  of.  If  C  had  that 
right,  he  is  the  master  who  is  responsible  to  A; 
otherwise  B  is  answerable. 

Many  important  statutory  changes  in  the  law 
of  master  and  servant  have  been  made  in  recent 
years.  Some  of  these  are  referred  to  in  the  arti- 
cles on  Combination;  Conspiracy;  Employers' 
Liability  ;  Fellow  Servants  ;  Labor  Legisla- 
tion; and  Strikes  and  Lockouts.  Others  have 
for  their  objects  the  prevention  of  the  employ- 
ment of  young  children  in  certain  lines  of  work; 
.securing  the  payment  of  wages  in  money;  limit- 
ing the  hours  of  labor  which  masters  nia,v  require 
of  their  servants;  and  the  like.  Consult:  Holmes, 
The  Common  Law  (Boston,  1881)  ;  Kent,  Commen- 
taries on  American  Law  (Boston,  1890)  ;  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law  (Boston, 
1899)  ;  Harvard  Law  Reiyiew,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  315, 
383,  441  (Cambridge,  1894)  ;  Iluffcut,  Agency, 
Including  the  Laic  of  Master  and  Hcrvant  (Bos- 
ton, 1901)  ;  Reinhard,  Ar/cncy,  Including  Master 
and  Servant  (Indianapolis.  I'MYl)  ;  Dressier,  Em- 
ployers'  Liahility  (Saint  Paul,  I90"2)  ;  Smith,  A 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Master  and  Servant  (Lon- 
don, 1902). 

MASTER-AT-ARMS.  A  petty  officer  in  the 
navy  who  forms  one  of  the  police  of  a  ship.  In 
the  United  States  Navy  there  are  four  grades  of 
masters-at-arms — chief  master-at-arms,  and  mas- 
ters-at-arms of  the  first,  second,  and  third  class. 
Large  ships  have  one  chief  and  several  of  the 
lower  ratings.  In  small  ships  a  first  or  second 
class  master-at-arms  is  the  chief  of  the  ship's 
police. 

MASTER  BUIXDER,  The.  A  drama  by 
Ibsen  (1893).  The  original  title  is  Master- 
Builder  Solness,  who  makes  his  way  up  from 
poverty.  But  the  price  of  his  success  is  the  ruin 
of  others  and  dreary  disappointment  for  him- 
self, culminating  in  his  fall  from  a  tower  of  his 
own  building. 

MASTER  HUMPHREY'S  CLOCK.  Tales 
by  Cliarles  Dickens  which  ap|ieaved  in  a  weekl.v 
of  this  name  in  1840  and  1841.  "Old  Curiosity 
Shop"  and  "Barnaby  Eudge,"  purporting  to  have 
been  narrated  by  Master  Humphrey,  were  the 
stories.  The  title  was  finally  drop))ed  and  the 
two  novels  were  published   separatel.y. 

MASTER  IN  CHANCERY.  An  officer  of  a 
chancery  or  equity  court,  appointed  to  assist  the 
chancellor  or  judge.  His  duties,  in  general,  are  not 
prescribed  by  statute.  It  is  a  common  practice  to 
refer  causes  to  a  master  for  hearing,  particularly 
causes  involving  intricate  accounts  and  requiring 
computations.  A  master  is  often  appointed  to 
examine  witnesses,  to  take  depositions,  to  inquire 
into  and  report  the  facts  of  a  ease  to  a  chancellor 
or  judge  of  the  court,  to  make  settlements  under 
deeds,  to  discharge  special  acts  imder  the  direc- 
tion and  in  behalf  of  the  court,  etc.  Masters  in 
chancery  were  formerly  clerks  in  ehaneery.  twelve 
in  number,  with  the  master  of  the  rolls  at  their 
head.  Thev  were  at  first  called  prcceptores,  and 
were  not  called  masters  till  the  time  of  Edward 


MASTEB  IN  CHANCERY. 


174 


MASTERS. 


III.  Tlie  otlice  has  been  abolished  in  England, 
where  the  duties  fornierlj-  belonging  to  masters 
are  discharged  by  judges  or  registrars.  .In  most 
of  the  United  States  the  olUce  still  exists,  the 
oflicer  being  sometimes  called  a  master  and  some- 
times eonimissioner  (q.v. ),  as  is  the  case  in  the 
Federal  courts,  with  the  duties  already  described 
annexed  to  it,  suliject  to  statutory  modification 
in  the  various  Stales. 

MASTER  OF  ARTS.  A  degree  conferred  by 
colleges  and  universities.  In  those  of  the  United 
Htates  and  Great  Britain  this  title  follows  that 
of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  In  the  United  States  a  cor- 
responding master's  degree  follows  a  bachelor's 
degi'ee  in  science,  i)hilosoi)hy,  or  other  baccalaure- 
ate designations.  The  master's  degree  is  the 
highest  in  the  faculty  of  arts,  but  inferior  to 
that  of  bachelors  of  divinity  and  the  doctorate  of 
philcjsophy.  In  the  early  universities  the  mas- 
tership or  licentiate,  as  it  was  then  called,  was 
the  one  degree  conferred,  the  baccalaureate  then 
being  a  mere  preliminary  degree,  and  the  doc- 
torate being  either  a  synonymous  term  or  one 
used  to  indicate  the  ceremonial  and  official  aspect 
of  the  licentiate.  In  the  universities  of  Ger- 
many the  terms  mastershij)  and  doctorate  are 
yet  sometimes  used  as  synonymous,  though  the 
latter  term  alone  is  in  general  use.  In  the  Brit- 
ish universities  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  is 
the  highest  degree  commonly  conferred.  A  mas- 
ter there  becomes  a  regent  shortly  after  obtain- 
ing his  degree,  and  thereby  obtains  the  privilege 
of  voting  in  Congregation  or  Convocation  at  Ox- 
ford and  in  the  Senate  at  Cambridge,  and  in  the 
Scotch  universities  of  becoming  a  member  of  the 
General  Council.  In  the  United  States  the  de- 
gree carries  no  such  privilege,  but  simply  indi- 
cates the  completion  of  one  year's  study  beyond 
the  baccalaureate  course.  See  B.\chelor's  De- 
cree; Decree;  1'.\i\ersity. 

MASTER  OF  COURT.  The  title  given  in 
England  to  the  chief  officers  of  the  courts  under 
the  judges,  their  duty  being  to  attend  the  sit- 
tings of  the  courts,  during  term  and  make  minutes 
of  their  proceedings.  They  also  tax  all  the  bills 
of  costs  of  the  parties  arising  out  of  the  suits 
and  matters  before  the  courts.  They  are  ap- 
pointed l)y  the  cliicf  judge  <if  the  court,  and  hold 
their  offices  for  life  or  during  guod  behavior. 

MASTER  OF  THE  BUCKHOUNDS.  In 
Great  I'.rifnin,  an  officer  in  the  ilastcr  of  the 
Horse's  department  of  the  royal  household,  who, 
in  conjunction  with  the  hereditary  lord  falconer, 
has  the  control  of  all  matters  relating  to  the 
royal  hunts.  .\  salary  of  £loOO  is  attached  to 
the  office,  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  consider- 
able political  importance.  The  Master  of  the 
Buckhounds  goes  out  of  office  on  a  change  of 
Alinistry. 

MASTER  OF  THE  HORSE.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain, an  cill'icer  of  llic  Cnurl  who  lias  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  royal  stables,  ami  of  all  horses 
and  breeds  of  horses  belonging  to  the  sovereign. 
He  has  the  privilege  of  making  use  of  the  roval 
horses,  pages,  and  servants,  and  rides  next  to  the 
sovereign  on  all  state  occasions.  The  Master  of 
the  Horse  is  appointed  during  pleasure,  by  letters 
patent;  but  his  tenure  of  office  depends  on  the 
existence  of  the  political  party  in  power.  The 
office  was  an  important  post  under  the  Bviiantine 
emperors,  where  tlie  lount  of  the  royal  stables, 
the    comes    slahuli    or    Constable.  •  exercised    far 


greater  powers  than  are  conveyed  by  the  mere 
title.  In  ancient  Rome,  when,  in  times  of  crisis, 
recourse  was  had  to  tlie  creation  of  a  dictator,  the 
latter  appointed  a  master  of  the  horse  as  his 
chief  lieutenant,  corresponding  to  the  modern 
chief    of    stair. 

MASTER  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD.  In 
(jrcal  Britain,  an  officer  in  the  Lord  Steward's 
department  of  the  ro.val  household,  whose  specific 
duties  consist  in  superintending  the  selection, 
qualification,  and  conduct  of  the  household  ser- 
vants. He  is  under  the  treasurer,  and  with  the 
controller  examines  the  accounts  of  the  depart- 
ment. The  appointment  is  during  pleasure  of 
the  sovereign,  and  is  not  dependent  upon  any 
jjolitical  party. 

MASTER  OF  THE  REVELS.  An  official  of 
the  Englisli  (.'ourt  {  Mdi/istn-  joconim  rcrcllorum 
et  iiiascoruiti ) ,  who  had  charge  of  the  ro.val  fes- 
tivities. The  office  came  into  prominence  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.,  tliough  established  at  an 
earlier  date. 

MASTER  OF  THE  ROLLS.  The  president 
of  tlie  chancery  division  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  in  England,  and  in  rank  next  to  the  Lord 
Chief  Justice  of  England  and  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor. He  is  the  keeper  of  the  rolls  of  all  pat- 
ents and  grants  that  pass  under  the  Great  Seal, 
and  of  all  records  of  the  Court  of  Chancery.  He 
was  originallv  an  officer  of  the  Court,  and  was 
formerly  the  chief  of  the  masters  in  chancery.  He 
is  the  only  superior  juilge  in  England  who  can 
now  be  elected  to  represent  a  constituency  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  Slaster  of  the  Rolls  had 
originally  the  custody  of  the  rolls  or  records; 
in  the  course  of  time  this  charge  became  merely 
nominal,  the  custod.v  having  vested  in  officers 
not  in  his  appointment  or  control,  an  anomaly 
which  was  remedied  bv  1  and  2  Vict.,  c.  94, 
which  restored  the  custody  to  him  with  extensive 
powers. 

MASTER  PLUMBERS,  Xational  Associa- 
tion OF.  .\n  organization  of  the  leading  master 
jdumbers  of  the  United  States,  founded  in  New 
York  in  ISS.'?  and  having  for  its  object  the  pro- 
motion and  enforccniciit  of  sanitary  legislation, 
both  municipal  and  State,  and  the  education 
of  the  community  to  a  realization  of  the  benefits 
of  hygienic  condititms  in  the  home.  It  is  also 
the  exponent  of  trade  protection  in  the  sale  of 
sanitary  requirements.  An  annual  convention 
of  delegates  from  the  local  associations  is  held 
each  year  in  some  im])ortant  city,  at  which 
papers  tending  to  inculcate  the  necessity  of  the 
adoption  of  sanitary  measures,  and  their  en- 
forcement, when  necessary,  by  means  of  munici- 
pal ordinances,  arc  presenled  and  discussed.  .\t 
the  second  convention,  held  in  Baltiiiiore  in  1884, 
a  code  of  trade  requirements,  known  as  the 
Baltimore  Resolutions,  was  passed,  which  has 
become  the  basis  of  fixed  trade  relations  between 
the  manufacturing  and  operating  branches  of 
the  plumbing  trade.  The  headquarters  of  the 
a.ssociation  is  located  each  year  in  the  particular 
city  in  which  the  business  of  the  newly  elected 
president,  who  must  be  a  master  plumber,  is  car- 
ried on.  The  membership  is  about  0000,  dis- 
tributed among  the  leading  cities  of  the  Union. 

MASTERS,  Maxwet.t,  TYT.nEN-  (LS.IS-l.  .\n 
English  biilanist.  bom  at  Canterbury,  England. 
He  was  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 


MASTERS. 


175 


MASTODON. 


from  1865  to  1SG8  was  lecturer  on  botanj'  at 
Saint  George's  Hospital.  In  lS(i5  lie  became  the 
principal  editor  of  tlie  Oar<l(  iicr's  Chronicle. 
Among  his  publications  are  Vemttihle  Terutoloijij 
(180U),  I'lant  Life,  and  liutuny  for  Beginners, 
all  of  which  have  been  translated  into  foreign 
languages. 

MASTER-SINGERS.     See  Meistersinger. 

MASTERWORT  (translation  of  Neo-Lat. 
lini"  niluriii,  fciii.  sg.  of  l.at.  imperutoriiis,  im- 
perial). Ptucedanum  Ostriithinni.  A  perennial 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Umbel  1  if cnT,  from 
one  foot  to  two  feet  high,  witli  broad  bi-ternate 
leaves,  large  flat  umbels  of  whitish  flowers,  and 
flat,  orbicular,  broadlj-  margined  fruit.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  north  of  Europe  and  has  probably 
been  introduced  in  a  few  localities  in  America. 
It  was  formerly  much  cultivated  as  a  pot-herb, 
and  was  held  in  great  repute  as  a  stomachio, 
sudorific,  diuretic,  etc. ;  its  virtues  being  reclc- 
oned  so  many  and  great  that  it  was  called  diri- 
num  rcnicdiiiin.  It  still  retains  a  place  in  the 
medical  practice  of  some  countries  of  Europe, 
although  probably  it  is  nothing  more  than  an 
aromatic  stinuilant.  The  root  has  a  pungent 
taste,  causes  a  flow  of  saliva  and  a  sensation  of 
warmth  in  the  mouth,  and  is  said  to  aft'ord  relief 
to  toothache.  Some  recent  monographers  have 
separated  this  and  its  related  species  from  Peu- 
cedanum,  grouping  them  in  the  genus  Impera- 
toria. 

MASTIC  (Fr.  mastic,  from  Lat.  mastiche, 
from  Gk.  ij.aarix'n.  mastiche,  mastic,  from  najTii'ai', 
iiKislizcin,  to  chew ;  so  called  because  used  as  chew- 
ing-gum in  the  East).  A  species  of  gum  resin 
yii-kleil  l>y  the  mastic  or  lentick  tree  (I'istacia 
LcntiKctis.  I'istaciu  Atlantiraj .  and  other  species 
of  the  natural  order  Anacardiaeeje.  It  oozes  from 
cuts  made  in  tlie  bark,  and  hardens  on  the  stem  in 
small,  round,  tear-like  straw-colored  lumps,  or,  if 
not  collected  in  time,  it  falls  to  the  ground; 
in  the  latter  state  it  acquires  some  impurities, 
and  is  consequently  less  valuable.  Its  chief  use 
is  in  making  the  almost  colorless  varnish  for 
varnishing  prints,  maps,  drawings,  etc.  It  is 
also  used  by  dentists  for  stopping  hollow  teeth, 
and  was  formerly  employed  in  medicine  as  a  mild 
stimulant.  Small  quantities  are  exported  chiefly 
from  the  Morocco  coast.  Init  some  is  occasionally 
shipped  from  the  south  of  Europe.  The  name 
mastic  is  also  given  to  oleaginous  cements,  com- 
posed of  about  seven  parts  of  litharge  and  ninety- 
three  of  burned  clay,  reduced  to  fine  powder, 
made  into  a  paste  with  linseed  oil.  See  Sideb- 
oxYI.o^''. 

MASTIFF  (OP.  mestif.  Fr.  mctif.  of  mixed 
bree<l.  mongrel,  from  Lat.  'IhiXhs.  p.p.  of  mtsrcre, 
Gk.  filayeiv,  misrieiii,  fuyvmai,  miqnynai,  to  mix. 
Skt.  miHrn.  mixed.  (X'hinch  Slav,  mvsiti,  Welsh 
mjisgu.  Gael,  measij,  OHG.  miskan.  Ger.  mischrn, 
AS.  tniscian,  Eng.  mix).  A  large  dog  of  the 
hound  group,  kept  since  ancient  times  to  guard 
property,  and  moi-e  recently  as  a  pet.   See  Holxd. 

MASTIFF  BAT.  One  of  a  group  of  tropical 
Anrericaii  Iiats  (genus  JIolossus).  characterized 
by  mastifl'-like  faces,  general  muscularity,  and 
long,  thick  tails  free  from  the  membrane.  They 
are  better  able  than  most  other  bats  to  scramble 
about  on  their  feet.  They  assemble  in  large  com- 
panies in  hollow  trees,  caverns,  and  old  houses, 
and  sometimes  constitute  a  nuisance  by  taking 


possession  of  roofs  and  garrets.  One  species 
{ilolossus  periotis)  measures  two  feet  across  the 
outstretched  wings.  Consult;  Gosse,  A  yatural- 
ist's  tiojourn  in  Jamaica  (London,  1851)  ;  Bates, 
The  Saturalist  on  the  River  Amazon  (ib.,  1892). 

MASTIGOPH'ORA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  iia(rTi.yo(p6pos,  mastigophoros,  whip-bearing, 
from  judffTif,  mustix,  wliip  +  (pipeiv,  phercin,  to 
bear).  A  class  of  Protozoa  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  one  or  more  flagella.  or  lash-like  ap- 
pandages.  Some  (Euglena)  approach  the  plants, 
and  were  formerly  placed  with  them ;  others 
closely  resemble  Ehizopoda.  The  group  is  di- 
vided'into  four  orders:  (1)  Flagellata  (q.v.)  ; 
(2)  Choanoflagellata :  (3)  Dinollagellata;  (4) 
Cystoflagellata.     Compare  NoCTlLftw. 


CHOANOFLAGELLATA  MASTIOOPHORA. 

1,  Monosig-a;  2,  Salpingoeca:  3,  Pnlyeca;  4,  Proterospon- 
(^ia;  2  h,  illustrates  lougitudiual  flssiou;  2  c,  the  production 
of  p:eriiis  (flafxellula?);  c,  collar;  e.  vac.  cnntractUe  vucuole; 
tl,  liagellum;  7,  lorica;  nu,  nucleus.    (After  Kent.) 

The  Choanoflagellata,  or  collared  monads,  are 
mostly  fixed  and  remarkable  for  their  'collar,' 
a  vase-like  prolongation  of  the  protoplasm  of  the 
body.  In  this  respect  they  resemlile  the  collared 
digestive  cells  lining  the  digestive  sacs  (am- 
pull.T)  of  sponges.  These  forms  are  fixed  or 
stalked,  and  tend  to  grow  in  colonies,  so  as  to 
suggest  the  derivation  of  the  sponges  from  some 
such  forms.  They  have  but  a  single  flagellum, 
but  no  trace  of  a  mouth  or  gullet.  They  multiply 
by  longitudinal  fission,  or  produce  numerous 
young  ( tlagelluhp) . 

The  third  order.  Dinoflagellata,  move  by  means 
of  two  flagella,  and  are  remarkable  for  having 
the  body  often  protected  by  a  very  beautiful  and 
elaborate  shell  formed  of  cellulose  in  plates, 
which  is  provided  with  three  long  processes  or 
horns.  They  are  mostly  marine.  Some  are 
phosphorescent,  while  certain  species  occasionally 
abound  in  such  enormous  numbers  as  to  color 
the  -sea-water  deep  brown  or  red.  See  article 
Red  \V.\ter. 

Of  the  Cystoflagellata,  which  have  two  flagella, 
one  is  modified  into  a  large  long  tentacle,  the 
other  minute  and  situated  within  the  gullet. 
Xoetiluca  (q.v.)  is  the  type. 

MASTODON  (Xeo-Lat..  from  Gk.  p.a.aTbi, 
mastos,  breast  +  dSovs,  odoiis.  tooth).  The  name 
for  a  genus  of  extinct  elephants.  This  genus  is 
that  most  remote  from  the  family  type  (Elephas) 
and  nearest  the  Dinothcrium  type,  by  reason 
mainly  of  the  structure  of  its  molar  teeth,  which 
are  provided  with  but  few  transverse  ridges — not 
more  than  five — that  have  a  /\-form  in  cross- 
section  (occasionally  broken  into  isolated  conical 
tubercles),  and  are  separated  by  little  or  no 
cement:  (Compare  Ma.mmoth.)  Another  dental 
dilTcrcneo  of  the  mastodon  from  nearly  all  other 


MASTODON. 


176 


MASULIPATAM. 


Elephantida?  is  its  possession  of  milk  molars, 
which  in  some  instances  persist  through  life,  the 
permanent  dentition  in  such  cases  being  a  mix- 
ture of  milk  and  permanent  teeth.  Tusks  (in- 
cisors)  sonietinies  occur  in  botli  jaws. 

Mastodons  began  to  exist  in  the  Miocene  Age 
and  became  extinct  in  the  Pleistocene.  Tliej' 
were  scattered  all  over  the  globe,  and  more  than 
thirty  species  have  been  distinguished  by  paleon- 
tologists, the  latest  descril)ed  (1901)  being  a 
small  and  i)rimitive  type  discovered  in  Egypt. 
This  seems  to  confirm  the  prevailing  opinion  that 
the  group  originated  in  the  Old  \\  orld  and  spread 
to  America  by  way  of  Siberia.  Two  or  more 
species  belong  to  South  America  (Patagonia), 
where  no  other  elephant  has  thus  far  been  found. 
It  is  probable  that  several  species  lived  in  North 
America,  but  the  one  best  known  and  commonly 
in  mind  when  the  term  is  used  is  Mastodon 
Americaniis.  This  species  seems  to  have  ranged 
over  all  the  United  States  and  Southern  Canada, 
and  to  have  been  numerous,  for  its  teeth  and 
bones,  in  a  more  or  less  perfect  condition,  are 
repeatedly  found.  A  dozen  or  more  mounted 
skeletons  are  on  exhibition  in  museimis  in  New 

York.  Chicago, 
Pittsburg,  C  a  m  - 
bridge,  Mass.,  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  and 
elsewhere.  Careful 
comparison  and 
study  of  these  and 
other  specimens 
show  that  this 
mastodon  at  least 
must  have  had  the 
general  form  and 
appearance  of  a 
modem  elephant, 
with  a  somewhat 
heavier  body  and 
flatter  fore  hca  d 
than  that  of  tlie 
mammoth  or  Indian 
elephant;  nor  did 
its  height  exceed 
theirs  on  the  aver- 
age— if  anything  it 
was  less.  The  tusks,  too,  were  of  similar  length 
(nine  feet,  measured  along  the  outer  curve,  indi- 
cating an  old  and  hirge  male),  and  they  hail  a 
cliaracteristic  tendency  to  curl  upward,  sometimes 
almost  completing  a  circle.  It  is  probable  that  the 
animal,  at  any  rate  in  the  more  northerly  parts  of 
its  range,  was  warmly  clothed,  like  the  mammoth, 
although  there  is  not  much  direct  evidence  of  it 
Iwyond  the  discovery,  many  years  ago,  of  a  large 
mass  of  woolly  brown  hair  buried  in  a  bog  in  Ul- 
ster County,  N.  Y.,  in  ap])arent  connection  with 
ma.stodon  remains.  Several  of  the  most  com- 
plete skeletons  known  have  been  obtained  from 
that  region,  where  animals  had  become  mired  in 
swampy  valleys.  The  disappearance  of  this  nu- 
merous and  widespread  species  is  as  incompre- 
hensible as  in  the  ease  of  the  mammoth  and  the 
South  American  horse.  That  it  existed  until 
recent  conditions  were  established  is  plain.  The 
fnod-remains  in  its  stomach  have  been  repeatedly 
analyzed,  and  found  to  consist  of  herbage,  hark, 
and  leaves  of  the  same  kinds  as  now  grow  in 
the  place  where  its  bones  lay.  Workmen  who 
came  upon  nnd  broke  ma.stodon  bones  in  an  Illi- 
nois peat  bog  (see  American  Xaturalist,  Januarj-, 


TEETH   OF   ELEPHANTS. 

Comparison  of  tooth-structure 
of  probosfidt-ans,  shown  by  ver- 
tical cross-sfctions  of  molars;  ji, 
mastodo'n;  /*.  L'lffthns  insifrnis,  a 
fossil  species  intermediate  i)P- 
twoen  mastodons  and  true  ele- 
])liants;  c,  Afrl<'aa  elephant:  d, 
mammoth.  Tills  series  e.Yhtbit8 
pri)^fres8  from  simplicity  to  com- 
plexit.v. 


1882)  greased  their  boots  with  the  marrow  fat. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  competent  judges  that  rem- 
nants of  the  herds  survived  the  advent  of  man- 
kind into  North  America ;  but  the  evidence  is 
not  indubitable,  in  spite  of  many  positive  state- 
ments on  record  as  to  arrowheads  Ijing  among 
mastodon  bones.  Nevertlieless,  American  geolo- 
gists think  it  highly  probable  that  the  mastodon 
and  man  were  briefly  contemporary  in  North 
America. 

Bibliography.  Warren,  The  Mastodon  Gigan- 
teun  of  North  America  (Boston,  1855);  Mac- 
Lean,  Mastodon,  Mammoth,  and  Man — to  be  read 
with  caution  (Cincinnati.  1878)  ;  Scott,  "Ameri- 
can Elephant  ityths,"  iicrihncr's  Magazine  (New 
York,  1877)  ;  Lucas,  Animals  of  the  Past  (New 
York,   1901). 

MAS'TODONSAUTIUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  »ias- 
lodon,  mastodon  +  Gk.  o-oOpot,  sauros,  lizard). 
The  largest  known  labyrinthodont  batrachian, 
found  fossil  in  Triassic  rocks  of  Wiirlteuiberg, 
England,  and  India.  The  body  attained  a  length 
of  nearly  10  feet,  and  the  skull  alone  had  a  length 
of  about  four  feet.    See  Stegocephalia. 

MASTJ.     A  Japanese  salmon. 

MASXJDI,  ma-soo'de  (Ar.  Abu  al-Hasax 
'Ali  ai.-Mas'ud1  (  ?-c.95G) .  One  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Arabian  geographers  and  historians.  He 
was  born  in  Bagdad,  descended  from  a  distin- 
guished family,  one  of  who.se  members,  Masod, 
was  a  companion  of  Mohammed  on  his  flight  to 
Medina.  Masudi  early  devoted  himself  to  pro- 
found studies,  to  which  he  added  by  prolonged 
travels  in  Spain,  Kussia.  and  throughout  the 
East.  After  traveling  through  Persia  and  Kir- 
man  he  came  in  904  to  India.  He  next  traveled 
to  Multan  and  Mansura,  thence  to  Ceylon,  and 
proceeded  east  as  far  as  China.  To  the  north 
lie  went  to  the  Caspian  district,  and  in  921  we 
find  him  in  Palestine.  In  9I.'i  he  was  at  Antioch 
and  two  years  later  in  Damascus.  The  rest  of 
his  life  he  spent  in  Syria  and  Egj'pt,  dying  at 
Eostat  about  95G.  He  was  a  geographer,  philos- 
opher, student  of  religions,  familiar  with  .Juda- 
ism and  Christianity,  and  a  historian  acquainted 
with  the  ancient  and  modern  history  of  the 
East  and  West.  His  Kitdh  Akbi'ir  al-ZnmOn 
contained  a  universal  history  in  30  volumes; 
his  KitCib  al-Aufinl.  a  short  chronological  ac- 
count of  the  world's  history.  JIasudi  com- 
bined these  two  in  a  more  popular  work 
called  Muruj  al-Dhahab  (Meadows  of  Gold), 
in  which  he  gives  a  general  view  of  the 
political,  religious,  and  social  history  of  the 
most  important  Asiatic  and  European  countries, 
as  well  as  of  their  geography  (ed.  Hulak.  ISlifi, 
Cairo,  1886;  with  Erench  trans,  bv  De  Jleynard 
and  De  Courteille,  9  vols..  Paris.  l'8r>r-77:  vol.  i. 
in  English  by  .\.  Sprenger.  London,  1841).  A 
still  more  general  work  on  history  and  geography 
was  his  hildh  itl-Tduhfh  (ed.  De  Ooeje.  JjCydcn, 
1804;  partially  trans,  by  De  Sacy  in  Xolicra  et 
Fxtrails.  vol.  viii.  and  in  vol.  ix.  of  the  Erench 
trans,  of  the  \frndnir.<!) .  Another  work,  also 
called  Akhhiir  iilZnmrin.  is  fnlscly  ascribed  to 
him.  Consult:  Carra  de  Vaux,  h'nhri'gr  dis  mrr- 
rrillr.i  (Paris,  1898)  ;  Brockelmann,  Geschichte 
drr  nrnhisrhrn  I.iltrratur,  i.  (Weinnir,   1899). 

MASULIPATAM,  mA  srnT'l,'.p:i-tam'.  Tlic 
capital  of  tlie  District  of  Kistna.  Aladms.  British 
India,  21.5  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Madras,  on 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  (Map:  India,'  D  5).     Its  for- 


MASULIPATAM. 


177 


MATAGALPA. 


mer  brisk  export  trade  in  cotton  manufactures  is 
in  a  state  of  decline  and  at  present  tlie  city  is  of 
little  industrial  impoVtance.  Masulipatain  was 
visited  by  a  very  severe  storm  in  18ti4,  during 
wliiob  it  is  estimated  nearly  30,000  persons  were 
killed.  Population,  in  1891,  38,800;  in  1900, 
59,507. 

MA'T  (Egyptian  ilu'ct.  truth).  An  Egyp- 
tian deity,  tlie  goddess  of  truth  and  justice.  Slie 
is  usually  represented  as  a  woman  wearing  upon 
her  head  an  ostrich  feather,  and  occasionally  her 
«yes  are  bandaged  to  indicate  that  she  judges 
without  res[]ect  of  persons.  She  is  always  pres- 
ent at  the  judgment  of  the  dead  (q.v. ),  and  it  is 
her  symbol,  the  feather,  against  which  the  heart 
of  the  deceased  is  weighed.  At  all  periods  the 
kings  of  Eg}-pt  professed  themselves  zealous  wor- 
shipers of  the  goddess;  judges  especially  were 
her  priests  and  wore  her  image  when  on  the 
bench.  Ma't  was  the  daughter  of  the  sun-god 
Ke;  by  the  Greeks  she  was  identified  with 
Themis.  Consult  Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians  (New  York,  1897). 

MATABELELAND,  mat'a-be'le-land.  A  dis- 
trict in  British  South  Africa,  extending  about 
200  miles  north  of  the  Limpopo  River,  which 
separates  it  from  the  Transvaal  Colony  (Map: 
Africa,  H  7).  It  now  constitutes  the  southeast- 
ern part  of  Rhodesia  (q.v.).  In  1888  the 
Matabcle  came  within  the  British  sphere  of  in- 
fluence by  a  treaty  signed  by  their  chief,  Loben- 
gula.  The  following  year  they  were  brought  un- 
der the  administration  of  the  British  South 
Africa  Company  (see  Rhodesia),  against  whom 
they  declared  war  in  1893.  They  were  subdued 
after  a  spirited  campaign,  during  which  Lobcn- 
gula  died.  In  1896,  soon  after  the  Jameson  raid, 
there  was  another  revolt,  after  which  the  natives 
were  allowed  a  share  in  the  government,  the 
country  being  divided  into  districts,  each  with  a 
native  commissioner,  who  was  responsible  for 
the  good  conduct  of  his  people  and  subject  to 
the  general  commissioner  residing  at  the  capital, 
Buluwayo  (q.v.).  The  population  of  Matabele- 
land  was  in  1000  estimated  at  155,000.  The 
capital  is  Buluwayo,  which  is  connected  by  rail 
with  Cape  Town. 

The  ilatabele,  or  Matabili,  are  a  Zulu  people 
of  Bantu  stock  driven  out  of  the  Transvaal  by 
the  Boers  into  South  Zambezia,  thenceforth 
known  as  Matabeleland.  The  celebrated  chief 
X'msilikatzi  in  1838  led  the  exodus  and  after 
crossing  the  Limpopo  established  his  seat  of 
government  at  Buluwayo.  His  successor  (1870) 
was  the  chief  Lobengula.  The  Zulu  military 
organization  copied  from  Europeans  enabled  the 
Slatabele,  previovis  to  British  domination,  to 
harass  and  almost  destroy  the  surrounding  Ma- 
shonas  and  other  peoples  and  rendered  much  of 
the  territory  beyond  the  Limpopo  a  wilderness. 

The  ilatabele  are  herdsmen  and  to  their  cattle 
they  attach  the  highest  importance,  but  they 
also  raise  great  crops  of  maize,  tobacco,  and 
other  agricultural  products.  Their  houses  are 
thatched,  circular  in  plan,  and  have  conical  roofs. 
The  villages  have  no  particular  arrangement. 
The  women  brew  beer  and  grind  maize  as  their 
principal  duties.  The  men  are  brave  hunters  and 
are  accustomed  to  attack  the  lion  with  their  as- 
sagais. They  smelt  iron  and  work  it  into  spears, 
battle-axes,  hoes,  etc.  Rude  pottery  is  made  and 
cloth  from  bark.     They  are  polygamists.     Con- 


trary to  the  custom  of  most  African  tribes,  they 
do  not  kill  twins.  Ancestor  worstiip  is  the  most 
prominent  feature  of  their  religion.  Consult: 
iMontague,  The  Interior  of  Central  Africa  (Lon- 
don, 188U)  ;  Wills  and  Collingridge,  The  Down- 
fall of  Lobengula  (London,  1894)  ;  Norris,  Mata- 
beleland  (London,  1895). 

MATACHINES,  ma'ta-che'nas  (from  Sp. 
malachiii,  clown  performer,  masked  dancer).  An 
itinerant  Mexican  dance  society,  popular  along 
the  Rio  Grande,  which  goes  about  from  town  to 
town  toward  the  close  of  the  Lenten  season  giv- 
ing a  crude  dramatic  performance  founded  on  the 
story  of  Montezuma,  the  Aztec  Emperor.  The 
performers,  male  and  female,  are  in  pseudo- 
Indian  costume,  with  especially  resplendent  head- 
dresses, and  carry  Indian  rattles  with  which 
they  keep  time  to  the  songs.  The  principal  char- 
acters are  El  Monarca,  "the  monarch'  (i.e.  Monte- 
zuma) ;  Malinche,  the  Aztec  girl  who  became  the 
interpreter  and  mistress  of  Cortez ;  El  Toro,  'the 
bull,'  a  clown  and  general  disturber,  enveloped 
in  a  shaggy  buffalo  skin  with  the  horns  above 
his  head:  Aguelo,  'the  grandfather';  Aguela, 
'the  grandmother' ;  and  the  chorus  dancers  and 
musicians. 

The  presentation  is  ba.sed  on  the  Aztec  tradi- 
tion which  represents  Montezuma,  'the  sorrowful 
lord,'  as  of  a  gloomy  and  sullen  disposition,  quick 
to  offense  and  slow  to  appeasement.  In  a  fit  of 
anger  he  has  left  his  people,  who  seek  him  long 
in  sorrow.  They  find  him  at  last,  but  he  refuses 
to  be  conciliated,  not  even  raising  his  head  to 
notice  the  messengers  who  urge  him  to  return  to 
his  throne.  After  several  rebuffs  of  this  kind, 
Malinche  is  sent  for,  and  by  her  w'inning  address 
and  graceful  dancing  provokes  first  his  notice  and 
then  his  smile,  with  the  result  that  the  monarch 
finally  rises  from  his  place,  and,  taking  her  hand, 
escoi'ts  her  to  the  throne  between  the  files  of 
dancers,  who  cross  wands  above  their  heads  as 
the  two  pass  and  then  fall  in  behind  in  procession 
to  the  music  of  an  Aztec  song  and  accompani- 
ment. In  the  last  act  El  Toro,  who  is  held  re- 
sponsible for  most  of  the  trouble,  is  slain  amid 
general  rejoicing,  when  the  floor  is  cleared  for 
a  dance  in  which  all  the  audience  take  part. 
Somewhat  similar  Indian-Spanish  dramas  are 
found  in  Central  and  Southern  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America. 

MATACO,  ma-tii'ko.  A  group  of  tribes  con- 
stituting a  distinct  stockj  ranging  along  the 
Vermejo  River  in  the  Chaco  region  of  Northern 
Argentina.  They  are  pastoral  hunters,  subsist- 
ing entirely  by  hunting  and  fishing  and  the  prod- 
uct of  their  horses  and  cattle.  They  fish  with 
nets  and  arrows.  The.y  dress  in  skins,  and  live 
in  small  brush  huts,  but  are  apt  in  the  use  of 
tools.  They  are  rather  under  medium  size,  with 
hair  frequently  wavy.  Tliey  are  sometimes 
called  Matagiuiyo,  a  name  properly  belonging  to 
another  tribe  of  Guaycuran  stock  living  some- 
what farllicr  to  the  north. 

MAT'ADOR,  Sp.  pron.  mii'ta-Dor'.    See  Bull- 

ElGIIT. 

MATAGALPA,  mii'ta-giil'pa.  A  town  of 
Nicaragua,  capital  of  tlie  Department  of  Mata- 
galpa.  It  is  situated  on  a  plateau  in  the  north 
central  part  of  the  country,  and  is  tfie  centre 
of  a  rich  agricultural  district  producing  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  coffee  (  Map  :  Central  America,  E  4) . 
A   railroad   is   projected   which   will   connect  it 


MATAGALPA. 


178 


MATARO. 


•nith  Xamagua,  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  and 
with  the  PaciUc  Coast.  It  is  the  scat  of  a  United 
!?tates  consular  agent.  Population,  about  10,000, 
largely  native  Indians. 

MATAGUAYO,  mii'ta-gvva'yo.  An  Indian 
stuck  of  South  America.     See  JSXataco. 

MATAJA,  nia-tii'ya,  Victor  (1857—).  An 
Austrian  political  economist,  born  in  Vienna. 
He  studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  city, 
where  he  lectured  from  1.SS4  to  ISSK)  on  politicjil 
economy.  In  lMil2  he  licld  a  similar  post  at  the 
L'ni\crsity  of  InnshrucU.  and  in  the  sami'yearhe 
became  councilor  in  the  Ministry  and  head  of  the 
Department  of  .Statistics  at  Vienna.  Since  IS'.IT 
lie  has  been  professor  in  the  Iniversity  of  Vienna. 
He  published:  Dcr  Vnlernehmergemnn  (1884) 
and  Dnn  Kecht  dcs  Schadcrwrsatzes  vom  Utaiid- 
puiill  ilrr  "S III ioimliikonomie  (1888). 

MATAMATA,  mii'ta-nui'ta  (Soxtth  American 
name).  A  larf;e  and  sin<niliir  turtle  {('hch/s 
funhriata)  of  Guiana  and  Northern  Brazil,  typi- 
cal of  the  family  Clielidida'.  (See  Turtle.)  "  In 
old  age  it  is;j,5  Ui  40  inches  long  when  the  neck 
is  outstretclied ;  its  rather  flat  shell  is  covered 
with  large  roughly  conical  shield-plalcs  in  three 
fore-and-aft  rows,  with  a  nuirgin  of  small  rough 
plates.  The  plastron  is  weak  and  narrow.  The 
neck  is  very  long;  the  head  is  small  and  pointed, 
with  the  eyes  small  and  close  together;  the  ear 
Haps  large;  and  the  nose  produced  into  a  long 
soft  tube  at  the  end  of  which  open  minute  nos- 
trils. The  jaws  are  very  weak,  and  partly  cov- 
ered with  smooth  skin,  so  tliat  prey  (frogs, 
fishes,  and  the  like)  probably  are  sucked  into  the 
widely  distensible  throat,  rather  than  seized. 
The  most  remarkable  thing  about  the  creature, 
however,  is  the  fact  that  its  head  and  throat  are 
covered  with  fringes  of  outgrowths  of  skin,  in 
rows  from  its  face  to  its  shoulders.  These  float 
about  like  weeds  as  it  lies  quietly  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  conceal  its  true  character 
so  well  that  the  small  animals  come  within  reach 
unsuspectingly.  Not  nuich  is  known  of  its  life- 
history  or  habi(s.     See  TlRTl.E. 

MATAMOROS,  mii'ta-mo'rfts.  A  town  of 
Mexico  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Rio  (iiande, 
23  miles  from  its  mouth  and  opposite  Browns- 
ville, Texas  (Map:  Jlexico,  K  .5).  Its  port 
is  Bagdad  (q.v. ).  and  it  is  the  seat  of  a 
I'nited  States  consul.  It  carries  on  a  large 
trade  with  the  I'nited  States,  being  situated  on 
the  frontier.  Population,  1.3.000.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  specie,  hiiles,  wool,  and  horses;  the 
chief  imports,  manufactured  goods  from  (Jreat 
Britain  and  the  I'nited  States.  At  the  outl)reak 
of  the  war  hctwccn  the  United  States  and  Mex- 
ico, the  M<'xican  forces  were  for  some  time  con- 
centrated here,  hut  after  the  battle  of  Resaca  de 
la  Palnia  (q.v.)  the  city  was  evacuated,  and  on 
May  18,  1846.  the  Americans  under  General  Tay- 
lor took  possession. 

MATAMOROS,  M,\ri.\no  (c. 1770-1814) .  A 
McxicMu  patrint.  Very  little  is  known  of  his 
early  life  or  education,  lie  was  first  heard  of  as 
a  priest  at  a  small  village  called  .lantelolco,  in 
the  District  of  Cuernavaca.  but  in  1811.  aroused 
by  the  constant  insults  and  atrocities  of  the 
Spanish  troops,  he  joined  the  army  of  insurgents 
under  command  of  the  patriot  .Morelos.  By  him 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  took  a 
most  im|>ortant  |>art  in  the  battles  of  Cuautla 
(1812)  and  Oajaca  (1812),  and  most  notably  at 


the  victory  of  San  Agustin  del  Palmar  (1813), 
which  was  due  almost  entirely  to  his  military 
genius.  Had  his  nominal  superiors  relied  implic- 
itly on  Matamoros's  judgment,  the  issue  of  the 
revolution  might  have  been  reversed;  but  in  tlie 
rash  attack  on  Valladolid  the  Jlexican  forces 
were  routed  and  Matamoros  was  captured  and 
shot.  His  name  has  been  bestowed  on  the  im- 
portant town  of  Matamoros.  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  U])on  many  smaller  towns  and  districts  of 
the  country.  By  the  historians  of  the  time  he  is 
considered  one  of  the  most  skillful  of  the  revolu- 
tionary leaders. 

MATAN'ZAS.  A  province  of  Cuba,  occupy- 
ing the  west-central  part  of  the  island,  aiid 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Florida  Strait,  on 
the  east  and  south  by  the  Province  of  Santa 
Clara,  and  on  the  west  by  .a  short  coastline  on 
the  Ensenada  de  la  Broa  and  the  Province  of  La 
Habana  (Map:  Cuba,  D  4).  Its  area  is  3700 
square  miles.  A  line  of  highlands  reaching  a 
height  of  1300  feet  runs  along  the  north  coast, 
but  the  province  as  a  whole  is  low,  merging 
toward  the  south  into  the  large  swamps  of 
Za])ata.  ilatanzas  is  the  best  sugar-producing 
province  of  the  Republic,  and  the  dcvelo])ment 
of  its  resources  is  facilitated  by  a  considerable 
network  of  railroads.  But  little  tobacco  is  raised 
in  this  province.  Commerce  is  extensive,  and  the 
capital.  Matanzas  (q.v.),  is  the  second  commer- 
cial city  of  the  island.  The  population  of  the 
province  in  1887  was  259.578,  and  in  1899,  202,- 
214. 

MATANZAS.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
ilalnnzas.  Cuba,  and  the  third  city  in  size  in  the 
island  (Map:  Cuba,  D  3).  It  is  "situated  at  the 
head  of  a  small  inlet  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
island.  44  miles  cast  of  Havana.  The  city  is 
divided  into  three  parts  by  the  little  rivers  San 
.luan  and  Yumuri,  and  (he  most  thickly  popu- 
lated district  is  built  on  the  low  and  niar-hy 
ground  between  the  rivers;  the  northern  part, 
called  \"ers:illes.  however,  stands  in  a  high  and 
healthful  locality  toward  the  0|)en  sea.  The 
streets  arc  all  straight  and  regular,  and  there 
are  several  banilsome  ixiscas  and  ])lazas.  The 
most  notable  buildings  are  the  Ksteban  Theatre, 
the  lyceum.  the  Spanish  casino,  and  the  Govern- 
ment building,  ilany  of  the  streets  are  unpavcd, 
and  the  city  has  a  defective  water  supply  and 
sewer  system;  its  sanitary  condition,  however, 
has  improved  considerably  since  the  w:ir  of  ISIIS. 
The  harbor  is  large  and  well  sheltered,  but  dilli- 
cult  to  enter  owing  to  shallows.  Next  to  Havana 
Matanzas  is  the  principal  commercial  and  rail- 
road centre  of  the  Republic,  the  chief  exports 
being  sugar,  rum,  and  cigars.  The  priiicipal  in- 
dustrial establishments  are  sugar  refineries,,  rum 
distilleries,  and  car  aii<l  machine  shoos.  The  city 
of  Matanzas  is  surrounded  on  the  land  side  by 
rocky  hills  and  mountains;  aiul  tliri'C  miles  east 
of  the  city  arc  the  grand  caves  of  Bcllamar.  The 
population  in  18!I0  was  3(1.374.  Matanzas  was 
first  settled  in  1093.  Its  port  was  long  the 
refuge  of  pirates.  The  present  town  is  almost  en- 
tirely of  modern  development. 

MAT  APAN',  Cape.     See  Cape  Matapax. 

MATARO.  mii'(:Vro'.  A  town  of  Xortlieastern 
Sp;iin.  in  the  Province  of  Barcelona,  situated  on 
the  Mcditirranean  coast  18  miles  northeast  of 
Barcelona  (Map:  Spain.  G  2).  It  is  surrounded 
by  vineyards  and  gardens,  and  has  several  hand- 


MATARO. 


179 


MATCHES. 


some  promenades,  a  seminary,  a  school  of  arts, 
and  tlio  celebrated  Colegio  de  Valldemia.  It  is 
an  importaut  industrial  centre,  and  manufac- 
tures cotton  and  woolen  textiles,  sail  cloth, 
starch,  soap,  glass,  chemicals,  and  pigments,  espe- 
cially white  lead.  There  is  also  some  shipbuild- 
ing, but  the  commerce  is  insignificant.  The  rail- 
road between  ilataro  and  Barcelona  was  the 
earliest  road  built  in  .Spain.  Population,  in 
1SS7,   18,425;    in   1900,   18,705. 

MATCHES  (OF.  mesche,  Fr.  medic,  It. 
ininiii.  niatdi,  from  JML.  mixa,  Lat.  myxus.  wick, 
from  Gk.  fiv^a.inyxa,  lamp-nozzle).  Specially  pre- 
pared pieces  of  infiammable  material  designed 
to  enable  the  user  to  obtain  fire  readily.  At 
present  the  name  match,  or  friction  match,  is 
usually  applied  to  a  splinter  of  wood,  tipped  with 
sonic  combustible  material  w'hieh  will  ignite  on 
being  rubbed  against  either  a  specially  prepared, 
or  any  rough  surface.  One  of  the  first  forms  of 
this  useful  article  w'as  the  hrimstonc  match,  made 
by  cutting  dry  pine  wood  into  thin  strips  about 
six  inches  long,  pointing  the  ends,  and  dipping 
the  latter  into  melted  sulpliur;  thus  prejjared, 
the  sulphur  points  instantly  ignited  when  applied 
to  a  spark  obtained  by  striking  fire  into  tin- 
der friim  a  flint  and  steel.  Early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  was  invented  the  in- 
stanluiicoiis  light  box,  which  consisted  of  a 
small  tin  box  containing  a  bottle  in  which  was 
placed  some  sulphuric  acid,  with  sutlicient  fibrous 
asbestos  to  soak  it  uj).  and  a  supply  of  properly 
prepared  matches.  The  latter  were  s]dints  of 
wood  which  had  been  dipped  first  into  melted 
sulphur  and  afterwards  into  a  paste  composed  of 
chlorate  of  potash,  powdered  loaf  sugar,  pow- 
dered ^nim  arable,  and  a  little  vermilion  as  col- 
oring matter.  By  dipping  these  prepared  points 
into  the  sulphuric  acid  the  matches  were  in- 
stantly ignited.  The  chief  disadvantages  of  this 
device  were  the  danger  of  using  a  material  so 
destructive  as  sulphuric  acid,  together  with  its 
fireat  power  of  absorbing  moisture,  which  soon 
rendered  it  inert. 

In  1827  the  lucifcr  match,  the  first  true  fric- 
tion match,  was  invented.  The  inflammable 
mixture  was  a  compound  of  chlorate'  of  potash 
and  suljihuret  of  antimony  with  enough  of  pow- 
dered gum  to  render  it  adhesive  when  mixed 
with  water  and  applied  to  the  end  of  the  match, 
which  had  previously  been  dipped  in  melted' 
brimstone.  These  matches  were  ignited  by  the 
friction  caused  by  drawing  them  through  a  piece 
of  bent  sandpaper. 

The  if,mition  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  by 
friction  was  discovered  by  Godfrey  Haukwitz  in 
1080.  and  it  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  be- 
fore this  discovery  was  applied  to  matches.  It 
is  stated  that  in  '  18r!.3  phosphorus  friction 
matches  were  made  at  Vienna.  About  the  same 
time  .John  Walker,  of  England,  who  invented 
the  original  friction  match,  sidistituted  phos- 
phorus for  the  former  mixture.  In  1836  the 
first  improved  friction  matches  were  made  in  the 
United  States  by  Alonzo  Phillips  of  Springfield, 
Mass.  The  body  of  these  matches  is  usually  of 
wood,  but  some,  called  rcxtas.  are  of  very  thin 
wax-taper  strips.  The  composition  consists  of 
phosphorus  and  nitre,  or  phospliorus,  sulphur, 
and  chlorate  of  potash,  mixed  with  melted  gum 
or  glue,  and  colored  with  vermilion,  umber,  soot, 
or  other  coloring  material. 


To  obviate  the  danger  of  fire  incurred  by  using 
matches  so  readily  ignitible  as  the  ordinary  luci- 
fer  match,  safety  matclics  were  put  upon  the 
market  in  1855.  Their  inventor  was  a  Swede 
luimed  Lundstrom.  The  safety  match  differs 
from  the  ordinary  match  in  having  the  phos- 
phorus omitted  from  the  composition  applied  to 
the  match  and  combined  instead  with  sand  to 
form  a  friction  surface  on  the  match-box,  wdiere 
the  matches  must  be  rubbed  in  order  to  be 
lighted. 

The  constant  handling  of  ordinary  phosphorus 
is  a  very  unhealthful  occupation,  the  emanation 
of  phosphoric  acid  giving  rise  to  necrosis,  or 
mortification  of  the  bones.  In  the  early  days  of 
the  industry  the  manufacture  of  matches  was 
largely  carried  on,  in  European  countries,  in 
cellars,  and  deaths  from  necrosis  were  so  com- 
mon that  Government  intervention  was  neces- 
sarj'  to  drive  the  manufacturers  into  more  sani- 
tary quarters.  In  the  modern  match  factory, 
better  surroundings,  the  increased  use  of  me- 
chanical appliances,  and  the  smaller  amount  of 
phosphorus  used  have  greatly  decreased  the  danger 
incurred  by  match-makers.  It  might,  however, 
be  entirely  removed  were  the  more  expensive  red 
or  amorphous  phosphate  alone  used. 

In  Great  Britain,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Ger- 
many the  match-making  industry  has  assumed 
enormous  proportions.  In  France  the  making 
of  matches  is  a  Government  monopoly.  In 
the  United  States  the  match  industry  is  practi- 
cally controlled  by  a  single  corporation,  the 
Diamond  jMatch  Company,  and  much  ingenious 
and  automatic  machinery  is  used  in  its  factories. 
The  first  step  in  the  manufacture  is  to  prepare 
the  splints  from  blocks  of  pine  from  which  all 
knots  and  cross-grained  portions  have  been  re- 
moved. This  wood  comes  in  the  form  of  planks 
two  inches  thick  and  is  thoroughly  dried.  It  is 
then  sawed  into  lengths  of  from  1'%  to  2% 
inches,  or  the  length  of  an  ordinary  match.  A 
machine  now  receives  these  blocks  and  they  are 
cut  by  knives  or  dies  into  thin  strips,  each  one 
containing  splints  for  44  matches.  Each  set  of 
splints  as  they  are  cut  from  the  block  are  placed 
in  cast  iron  plates  which  are  formed  into  an 
endless  chain.  The  machine  makes  from  175 
to  250  revolutions  a  minute,  and,  as  has  been 
said,  at  each  revolution  44  matches  are  cut  and 
set.  After  the  splints  have  been  cut  and  set 
in  the  plates  they  are  carried  over  a  drying 
or  heating  block,  where  they  are  heated  in  order 
that  the  melted  paraffin  will  not  become  cold 
on  the  exterior  of  the  stick,  but  will  saturate 
the  end  thoroughly.  The  paraffin  and  the  com- 
position which  forms  the  head  of  the  match 
are  placed  in  proper  receptacles,  which  are 
automatically  replenished  without  stopping  the 
machine.  Through  these  the  splints  pass  and 
at  the  composition  rollers  the  head  of  the  match 
is  received.  As  the  chain  carries  the  bundles 
of  paraffin  along  the  matches  are  cooled  and 
dried  by  blasts  of  air.  and  finally  they  are  auto- 
matically removed  and  packed  in  appropriate 
boxes.  The  boxes,  too,  are  fed  into  the  machine 
automatically,  and  after  receiving  their  contents 
are  discharged  on  a  rotating  table  where  they  re- 
ceive their  covers  at  the  hands  of  girls,  two  to 
four  being  employed  at  each  table,  .\ftpr  the 
chain  has  discharged  its  matches  into  boxes  it  is 
ready  for  .a  fresh  set  of  splints,  and  the  operation 
proceeds  continuously. 


MATCHES. 


180 


MATEKA. 


In  England  and  parts  of  Continental  Europe 
match-boxes  arc  made  by  band  by  laborers  as  a 
household  industiy.  In  America  the  niakinfr 
of  boxes  is  effected  by  machinery  and  is  a  part 
of  the  match-making  establishment.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  2,0011.000  match-boxes  are  used  per 
day  in  the  United  States,  and  that  five  matches 
per  capita  are  consumed  daily  in  tliis  country. 

The  following  figures  show  the  value  of 
matches  exported  from  and  imported  into  the 
United  States  for  ten  years: 


TEAE 

Imported 

Exporteil 

1891                       

$93,180 
94,368 
135,250 
156,495 
203,890 
1,57.486 
207.671 
135.611 
128.873 
156,705 

$73,220 

1892 

73.066 

1893                

67.974 

1894 

66.614 

1895 

94.799 

1896                    ■  

90.315 

1897 

70.988 

1898               ..             

78.548 

1899 

103.693 

1900 

95,422 

MATE  (ODutch  maet,  Dutch  maat,  Ger.  Maat, 
companion).  A  naval  officer  who  is  classed  with 
warrant  officers,  but  junior  to  them,  and  who 
lioUls  an  appointment  instead  of  a  warrant.  Wlien 
servin<r  on  a  seagoing  shij)  mates  mess  with  the 
junior  ollicers.  There  are  but  six  mates  now  on 
the  active  list  of  the  navy,  four  of  whom  have 
been  appointed  since  1870.  In  the  merchant  ser- 
vice mates  are  the  officers  of  a  ship  subordinate 
to  the  master.  Large  vessels  have  a  first,  second, 
third,  and  sometimes  a  fourth  mate;  smaller 
ships  have  one  or  two  less.  The  first  or  chief 
mate  performs  the  duties  of  executive  for  the 
master.  In  port  he  superintends  and  directs 
the  stowage  and  discharge  of  cargo  and  has  gen- 
eral care  of  the  sliip.  At  sea  he  assists  the 
master  in  navigating  and  keeps  the  log;  in  most 
ships  he  has  couuiiand  of  the  port  watch.  His 
qualifications  are  superior  to  tliose  required  of 
the  other  mates,  and  he  is  usually,  like  the  mas- 
ter, appointed  by  the  owners  and  may  be  dis- 
•charged  by  them  only,  except  in  unusual  cir- 
cumstances. In  case  of  the  death  or  disal)ility 
of  the  master  he  succeeds  to  the  command.  The 
«econ<l  mate  commands  the  siarboard  watcli  at 
sea.  He  is  not  usually  required  to  have  a  tlior- 
ough  knowledge  of  navigation,  but  should  be  a 
thorough  seaman  capable  of  directing  the  men 
in  any  kind  of  seamen's  work.  The  third  and 
fourth  mates  (when  there  are  such)  have  duties 
similar  to  those  of  a  second  mate.  Very  large 
steamers,  such  as  the  great  transatlantic  liners, 
have  more  than  four  mates  or  officers  of  this 
status. 

MAT£,  or  Paraci'AY  Tea  (abbreviation  of 
Sp.  riirba  de  maU-,  calabash-herb).  A  substitute 
for  tea,  extensively  used  in  South  America,  and 
almost  universally  through  Brazil.  It  consists 
of  the  leaves  and  green  slioots  of  certain  species 
of  holly  (q.v,).  m<ue  especially  Ilex  Paraguen- 
sis,  dried  and  roughly  ground.  The  true  mate 
is  a  large  shrub  or  small  tree  with  smooth  leaves 
and  axillary  umbels  of  small  (lowers.  The  leaves 
of  a  number  of  other  species  of  Ilex  are  mixed 
with  mate,  and  sometimes  it  is  adulterated  with 
leaves  of  plants  in  no  way  related  to  it.  The 
term  matf.  which  has  by  usage  become  attached 
to  this  material,  belongs  originally  to  the  vessels 
in  which  it  was  infused  for  drinking;  these  were 
usually    made    of    gourds    or    calabashes,    often 


trained  into  curious  forms  during  their  growth. 
Into  the  hollow  vessels  thus  formed  a  small 
quantity  of  the  material  is  put,  and  lioiling  water 
is  added.  Each  person  who  is  to  partake  of  the 
beverage  is  provided  with  a  small  tube  about 
eight  inches  long  with  a  bulb-like  strainer  at 
one  end  made  either  of  fine  basketwork  or  of 
perforated  metal  to  prevent  the  fine  particles 
from  being  drawn  up  into  the  mouth,  and  when 
his  turn  comes  he  dips  in  his  tube  (bombilla), 
sucks  up  a  small  ]iortion  of  the  infusion,  and 
passes  the  mate-bowl  on  to  the  next  person.  It 
is  extremely  unpleasant  to  Europeans  at  the  high 
temperature  at  wliich  it  is  usually  drunk.  The 
effect  of  mate  is  nuuh  the  same  as  tea,  stimulat- 
ing and  restorative,  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
large  proportion  of  caffein.  The  collection  and 
preparation  of  mate  is  a  large  industrial  occu- 
pation in  Paraguay  and  Brazil,  ujiward  of 
5.000.000  pounds  of  mate  being  annually  ex- 
ported from  Paraguay  to  other  parts  of  South 
America,  but  it  is  not  yet  an  important  article  of 
export  to  other  quarters  of  the  world.  See  Plate 
of  Beveraoe  Plants. 

MATEHUALA,  ma'ta-wii'lii.  A  town  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  State  of  Xuevo  Leon,  Mexico 
(ilap:  Jlexico,  .J  G).  It  has  wide  and  straight 
streets  and  several  plazas,  one  containing  a  gar- 
den and  a  statue  of  Neptune.  Tliere  are  silver 
mines  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the  town  has  sev- 
eral silver-smelting  establishments.  Population, 
in  1895.  8300. 

MATEJKO,  ma-ta'kA,  Jax  Aloysius  (1838- 
'.13 ) .  A  Polish  painter,  born  at  Cracow.  He 
studied  at  the  art  school  in  his  native  town, 
then  went  to  Munich,  and  afterwards  studied 
at  the  Vienna  Academy.  In  1873  he  was  appoint- 
ed director  of  the  Cracow  Art  School.  He  was 
awarded  a  first-class  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion of  18C7,  and  a  medal  of  honor  in  1878.  His 
principal  works  are  large  jiaintings  of  incidents 
in  Polish  history,  and  include  an  "E])isode  from 
the  Diet  at  Warsaw"  (18G7,  Vienna  Museum); 
"The  Union  of  Lublin,  l.")(ilV'  (187;));  "Werny- 
hora  Prophesying  the  Future  of  Poland;"  "Al- 
breeht  von  Brandeid)\irg  Doing  Homage  to  King 
Sigismund  I."  (  1882.  National  Museum.  Cra- 
cow) :  "John  Sobieski  Kaising  the  Siege  of 
Vienna"  (X'atican.  Rome)  ;  "Declaration  of  the 
Polish  Constitution"  (18!)2).  These  are  notable 
not  only  for  color  and  C(im|)osition.  but  for  the 
arcluvological  knowledge  <lis|dayed  in  tlieir  de- 
tail. He  also  painte<l  excellent  portraits  and 
]mblished  Ihii'irii  ir  Police  (18(10).  a  work  repre- 
senting the  costumes  of  the  Polish  nation  from 
1222  to  170.1.  Many  of  the  best  present-day 
Poli^li  jiainters  were  pupils  of  Matejko. 

MATERA,  mi^-ta'ra.  A  city  of  the  Province 
of  Pcitenza.  Italy,  situated  between  lovely  val- 
leys, 34  miles  west-northwest  of  Taranto  (Map: 
Italy,  L  7),  It  is  irregiilarly  built  on  steep 
slopes,  the  roofs  of  the  houses  of  tlic  lower  streets 
being  on  a  level  with  the  niadlieds  of  the  upper 
.streets.  The  |)rincipal  buildings  are  an  episcopal 
palace,  a  cathedral,  and  a  college.  Matcra  has 
manufactures  of  leather  and  arms,  and  a  trade 
in  oil  and  agricultural  produce.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  famous  troglodyte  caverns  of  Monte  Sen- 
glioso,  still  >ised  as  dwelling  places  by  some  nf 
tlie  lower  classes.  Matcra  is  tlie  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop.    Population,  in  liKll.  of  conunune.  17.237. 


MATERIALISM. 


181 


MATERIALISM. 


MATERIALISM  (from  mulirln!,  from  Lat. 
malcridlis,  rolatiiij,'  to  matter,  from  mutcria, 
matter).  Usually,  detined  as  the  philosophical 
view  which  resolves  all  existence  into  matter  or 
into  an  attribute  or  merely  an  effect  of  matter. 
It  makes  matter  the  central  ultimate  reality, 
and  makes  everything  else,  consciousness  in- 
cluded, a  derivative  appearance,  which  is  then 
sonielimes  treated  as  illusory.  When  conscious- 
ness is  treated  as  illusory,  materialism  is  sui- 
cidal, for  the  simple  reason  that  materialism  can 
have  meaning  only  for  a  conscious  being,  and  if 
consciousness  is  treated  as  a  vain  show  ma- 
terialism can  consistently  be  regarded  only  as 
one  of  the  varieties  in  the  show.  But  such  an 
attitude  toward  consciousness  is  not  to  be  con- 
sistently maintained  (see  Knowledge,  Theory 
of)  ;  hence  the  only  forms  of  materialism  we 
need  here  consider  are  those  that  regard  con- 
sciousness as  an  effect  or  as  an  attribute  of 
matter,  which,  following  Kiilpe,  we  shall  call  the 
causal  and  the  attriliutive  forms  of  materialism. 
The  attributive  form  assumes  that  substance  is 
')  what  the  etymology'  of  the  word  would  suggest — 
namely,  a  permanent  unchanging  entity  which  fur- 
nishes tlie  support  for  various  appearances;  these 
appearances,  as  referable  to  the  substance,  are 
called  its  attributes.  Materialism  of  this  type 
regards  this  substance  as  an  extended,  impene- 
trable, movable  entity,  which  in  some  way  has 
'inhering'  in  it  or  resting  upon  it  or  referable  to 
it  the  attribute  of  consciousness,  which  may  be 
treated  as  either  a  separable  or  an  inseparable 
mark.  This  method  of  dealing  with  the  relation 
of  matter  and  consciousness  is  charmingly  simple, 
but  it  is  the  simplicity  of  uncritical  thought. 
It  must  be  discarded  along  with  the  notion  of 
substance  (q.v. )  interpreted  as  substrata.  Sub- 
stance is,  properly  speaking,  nothing  but  the 
luiitary  complex  of  qualities  called  attributes. 
Instead  of  being  sim])le,  substance  has  a  com- 
plexity measurable  only  by  the  number  of  attri- 
butes it  possesses.  Not  that  it  is  a  mere  com- 
pound; it  is  unitary  in  the  sense  that  all  the 
!  attributes  organize  themselves  simiiltaneously  or 
'  successive!}'  into  a  single  differentiable  object. 
I  Now,  if  any  substance  has  consciousness  as  an 
[  attribiite,  that  substance  is  by  that  token  a  con- 
I  scions  substance,  and  to  call  it  merely  material 
I  is  to  be  blind  to  the  fact  that  materiality  is  as 
I  much  an  attribute  as  color  or  duration.  At- 
■  tributive  materialism  does  not  deny  the  existence 
of  consciousness. 
Causal  materialism  is  true  or  false  according 
I  to  the  interpretation  put  upon  cause;  but  even 
I  when  that  interpretation  is  true  materialism  is 
I  only  a  half  truth,  for  in  that  case  matter  is  as 
dependent  on  mind  as  mind  is  on  matter.  If  by 
cause  is  meant  anything  but  the  invariable  con- 
dition of  an  event,  causal  materialism  is  false, 
for  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  there  is  any 
such  cause.  (See  Cavs.\lity. )  But  if  by  cause 
is  meant  an  invariable  condition,  then  all  experi- 
ence warrants  us  in  saying  that  a  certain  organi- 
zation of  matter  is  cause  of  consciousness.  Such 
a  statement,  however,  says  nothing  about  the 
nature  of  consciousness  except  that  it  requires,  as 
a  condition  of  its  appearance  at  a  certain  time, 
that  there  should  be  in  existence  at  that  time 
some  sort  of  nervous  organization.  If  one  pro- 
ceeds to  say  that  the  physic,i"l  world  is  not  in  its 
turn  dependent  on  the  psychical,  that  statement 
must  be   challenged.      If  "the   statement   merelv 


means  that  some  form  uf  physical  existence  pre- 
ceded in  time  any  ascertainable  form  of  con- 
sciousness, no  valid  objection  can  be  raised;  but 
if  it  means  that  the  physical  can  be  conceived 
to  exist  out  of  all  relation  to  the  psychical,  then 
the  assertion  is  questionable.  For  every  judg- 
ment is  passed  upon  reality  as  it  appears  to  the 
judging  consciousness.  Reality  apart  from  a 
judging  consciousness  is  eo  ipso  unknowable.  But 
this  impossibility  of  the  knowledge  apart  from 
consciousness  is  not  the  impossibility  of  an  exist- 
ence antedating  consciousness.  Relation  to  con- 
sciousness there  must  be  in  any  conceivable  real- 
ity; but  the  relation  need  not  be  one  of  simul- 
taneity. It  is  indubitable  that  we  can  know 
things  which  do  not  exist  at  the  time  we  know 
them.  But  if  there  can  be  knowledge  of  things 
which  antedate  the  knower,  there  is  nothing  im- 
possible in  the  supposition  that  knowable,  if  not 
known,  objects  Avere  themselves  the  causes  of  the 
succeeding  knowledge.  But  if  they  were  causes 
of  the  succeeding  knowledge,  then  the  succeeding 
knowledge  is  a  determining  elemejit  in  the  sys- 
tem of  which  the  cause  is  likewise  a  determining 
element.  In  other  words,  effect  conditions  cause 
as  truly  as  cause  conditions  effect.  This  is  not  to 
say  that  the  effect  is  the  cause  of  its  cause,  for 
cause  means  indispensable  antecedent,  and  that 
is  what  the  effect,  as  effect,  is  not.  But  it  is 
indispensable  nevertheless.  For  instance,  if  the 
universe  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  interposi- 
tion of  an  opaque  body  between  a  luminous  body 
and  an  eye  means  an  eclipse  of  the  luminous 
body,  the  absence  of  such  an  eclipse  carries  with 
it  the  absence  of  such  an  interposition.  This 
same  principle  would  make  consciousness,  which 
is  the  result  of  physical  conditions,  it.self  an  in- 
dispensable element  in  the  universe,  in  which 
its  causes  existed.  One  cannot  conceive  the  ex- 
istence of  the  physical  cause  without  conceiving 
the  existence  of  the  psychic  effect.  In  other 
words,  even  if  it  were  possible  to  imagine  con- 
sciousness absolutely  absent  from  the  universe, 
we  could  not  think  away  consciousness  from 
its  place  in  the  universe  without  so  completely 
disrupting  and  disintegrating  the  unit}'  of  the 
system  of  reality  we  know  that  it  would  be 
utterly  unsafe  to  say  whether  matter  would  be 
left  unchanged  by  the  removal. 

Now  the  materialist  who  makes  consciousness 
an  effect  of  matter,  but  not  itself  an  indispen- 
sable element  in  the  universe,  fails  to  see  this 
logical  interrelation  of'  effect  and  cause,  A 
materialist  who  recognizes  this  interdependence 
ceases  thereby  to  be  a  materialist,  for  now  in 
his  theory  matter  is  as  much  conditioned  by  mind 
as  mind  is  by  matter.  Neither  is  independent, 
although  one  may  be  prior.  The  materialist  looks 
at  the  priority  and  overlooks  the  interdepen- 
dence. One  consequence  of  overlooking  this  inter- 
dependence is  the  assumption  that  the  laws  of 
matter  are  the  only  natural  laws.  Consciousness 
is  regarded  as  running  its  course  in  accordance 
with  mechanical  principles.  Hence  will  is  of  no 
determining  value.  It  is  this  corollary  from 
materialism  that  has  made  the  doctrine  so  dis- 
tasteful to  the  ordinary  thinker.  For  this  corol- 
lary means  the  denial  of  moral  responsibility. 
But  the  results  of  the  renewed  study  of  psychol- 
ogy' within  recent  years  have  made  it  quite  im- 
possible to  assert  that  the  laws  of  consciousness 
are  meclMnical  laws. 

Materialism    is    an   old    view;    all    the    Ionic 


MATERIALISM. 


182 


MATHEMATICS. 


philosophers  (see  Ioxian  School)  were  by  im- 
plication materialists;  Demoeritus,  Leucippus, 
Epicurus,  and  Lucretius  (see  articles  on  them) 
worked  out  a  quite  elaborate  materialistic  sys- 
tem. There  is  a  materialistic  vein  running 
through  the  thought  of  many  of  the  Italian 
philosophers  of  the  Renaissance.  Gassendi,  like- 
wise, makes  consciousness,  at  least  in  the  form 
of  feeling,  an  inseparable  attribute  of  matter. 
The  eighteenth  century  was  especially  marked 
by  its  materialistic  philosophy.  Priestley  in  Eng- 
land and  La  ilattrie,  Diderot,  and  llolliach  in 
France  were  outspoken  in  their  materialism  of 
the  attributive  kind.  The  latter  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  and  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  were  characterized  by  a  strong 
anti-materialistic  reaction,  to  be  followed  again 
in  the  middle  of  the  latter  century  by  a  strong 
outburst  of  materialistic  thought.  Carl  Vogt, 
Jacob  Jloleschotl.  Louis  Biichncr.  and  Heinrich 
Czolbe  carried  on  a  vigorous  propagandism  in 
favor  of  materialism,  but  the  results  of  the 
scientific  study  of  psychology  were  too  patent, 
and  the  nineteenth  century  went  out  with  a 
strong  dislike  for  the  view  that  made  nuitter 
tlie  one  essential  reality. 

For  an  e.\cellent  history  of  materialism,  see 
F.  A.  Lange,  Ocschichte  des  Matcriulisinun  (Iser- 
lohn,  1866;  5th  ed.  1806;  Eng.  trans,  by  K.  C. 
Thomas.  London.  1870-81).  The  best  work  to 
commend  to  the  reader  who  wishes  to  know 
what  recent  materialism  has  to  say  for  itself 
is  BUchner,  Kraft  iind  Stoff  (Frankfort,  1857; 
Eng.  trans.,  Force  and  Matter,  4th  ed.,  London, 
1884). 

MATERIALS,  Stbength  of.     See  Strength 

OF  M.VTEKIALS. 

MATE'RIA  MED'ICA  (Lat.,  medical  ma- 
terial). That  dciiartriicnt  of  the  .science  of  medi- 
cine which  treats  of  the  materials  employed  for 
the  alleviation  and  cure  of  disease:  (1)  Their 
physical  properties;  (2)  various  modes  of  prep- 
aration; (3)  chemical  composition  and  rela- 
tions, including  the  tests  for  purity,  and  the 
means  of  detecting  prtibable  adulterations;  (4) 
physiological  action  on  man  and  animals  in 
large  and  small  doses;  (5)  therapeutic  actions 
ami  uses,  and  the  average  doses  in  which  they 
shimld  be  prescribed;  and  (6)  the  oHicial  prep- 
arations containing  the  substances  in  question, 
and  their  uses.  Strict  classification  of  drugs 
into  groups  according  to  their  physiological  ac- 
tion is  impossible,  as  their  action  is  so-complex 
that  one  wouhl  often  be  found  in  several  classes. 
It  is,  however,  eustomarv  to  group  them  accord- 
ing to  their  most  marked  or  inq)ortant  charac- 
teristic for  convenience  of  descrii)tion  and  ease 
in  recalling  those  having  a  common  action.  See 
TiiKRArKirrrs ;   Pharmacopiicia. 

MATERIEL,  ma'tA'rf'61'  (Lat.  malerialiti.  re- 
lating to  matter).  This  term  in  its  military 
sense  includes  evcrj-thing  in  the  military  or  naval 
services  used  by,  or  necessary  to,  the  i)ersonnel ; 
such  as  nnns,  ammunition,  baggage,  provisions, 
stores,  tools,  horses,  wagons,  tents,  etc. 

MATERNA,  matcr'na,  .-\^fAI.IE  (1847—) .  .\n 
.■\nsiiiiiii  iipciu  singer,  born  in  Saint  Georgen, 
Styria.  She  maile  her  first  stage  appearance  in 
fJralz.  1861,  and  in  the  same  year  married  Karl 
Frieilricli.  n  well  known  actor,  and  with  him 
was  engaged  at  the  ( 'arlTlieater.  Vienna.  Tier 
il.'liul   ;is  a  prima-donna  occurred  in   HUM,  when 


she  sang  at  the  Imperial  Opera  as  Selika  in 
L'Africahw.  In  1876  she  created  the  part  of 
Briinnhilde  in  \Vagner"s  Xibelungen  trilogj-  at 
Bayreuth.  She  became  one  of  the  greatest  so- 
pranos of  the  early  Wagnerian  opera,  and  a 
great  favorite  in  the  United  States. 

MAT  GRASS.     S,v  Aiimoi-hila;  Nardus. 

MATHEMATICAL  SOCIETY,  Tuf.  Ameri- 
can. An  association  for  the  advancement  of  niatlie- 
matical  science.  It  was  reorganized  in  .July, 
1804,  luider  its  present  name.  The  society  has 
a  meniborsliip  of  about  400.  A  meeting  is  held  an- 
nually at  Columbia  University,  and  .section  meet- 
ings take  place  at  Chicago  and  San  Francisco. 
It  publishes  two  periodicals,  the  liulliliii  of  the 
American  MalluiiKitical  l^ocicty,  and  the  Truns- 
actiiiii.i  of    llic  A)iiirirnn    Mnlhrmalirol   Society. 

MATHEMATICAL  SOCIETY,  The  Lonuo.\. 
An  association  founded  in  I8lj.")  by  a  number  of 
English  mathematicians,  and  incorporated  in 
1804.  It  was  instituted  for  the  promotion  of 
mathematical  knowledge.  The  society  owns  an 
excellent  library  of  books  and  periodicals  on  sci- 
entific subjects.  The  socict,v  began  in  186.")  tin- 
publication  of  the  Procccdin<is  of  the  I.iindun 
Mathematical  Society,  and  has  now  thirty-five 
volumes  of  essays  upon  advanced  mathematical 
to])ics, 

MATHEMATICS  (Lat.  mathematica,  from 
Ok.  iitttliifiariKij,  iiKillicmalikt;  mathenmtics,  from 
ItuBiifi-a,  madhiina,  learning,  science,  from  imv- 
davvtv,  manlhanein,  to  learn).  The  technical 
meaning  of  the  word  is  due  to  the  Pj-thagorcans, 
who  distinguished  four  branches:  "There  are 
four  degrees  of  mathematics:  arithmetic,  music, 
geometry,  spherics."  In  modern  times  attempts 
have  frequently  been  made  to  frame  a  satisfac- 
tory definition  of  the  scope  of  the  science.  Des- 
cartes asserts  that  "all  sciences  which  have  for 
their  object  the  search  after  order  and  measure 
belong  to  mathematics."  D'Alembert  in  the 
Enc;iclo]>cdie  defines  it  as  the  science  which  con- 
siders the  properties  of  magnitude  in  so  far  as 
this  is  ealeulalde  or  measurable.  Comte,  in  his 
Philosophic  poxitive,  s])eaks  of  it  as  the  sciiiicc 
which  proposes  to  determine  certain  magnitudes 
from  certain  others  from  the  exact  relations  that 
exist  between  them.  Sagnet  has  proposed  the 
following:  "Mathematics  have  for  their  object 
the  study  of  exact  and  necessary  relations  con- 
cerning the  magnitude,  the  form,  and  the  relative 
position  of  various  objects,  nutterial  or  imma- 
terial, which  a]ipeal  to  our  senses."  With  re- 
gard to  these  definitions  it  may  be  observed  that 
they  are  all  based  on  concepts  such  as  'magni- 
tude.' 'order,'  'measure.'  that  are  themselves  ex- 
tremely ditlicult  to  define. 

lIisTouY.  Mathematics  as  a  science  makes  its 
first  definite  appearance  among  the  Egyptians. 
There  are  evidences  of  its  antiquit.v  among  the 
Chinese.  Hindus,  and  Babylonians,  but  tlie 
earliest  written  records  of  considerable  mathe- 
matical progress  are  found  in  Iv.'vpt,  and  give 
nn  interesting  view  of  the  stale  of  the  science  as 
earlv  as  the  latter  part  of  the  third  millenniuni 
before  Christ.  .\i  that  time  arithmetic  was  suf- 
ficientl.v  developed  to  include  a  fair  niimerical 
system,  a  cumbersome  but  elaborate  treatment  of 
conmion  fractions,  and  some  work  in  finite  series. 
.\  limited  and  imperfect  system  of  mensuration 
was  known,  a  be<.'inning  was  made  in  algeliraic 
.symbolism,  and  the  simple  equation   was  solved. 


MATHEMATICS. 


183 


MATHEMATICS. 


Of  llio  several  niatheniatical  i)a[>yri  tliat  have 
come  lo  lislit  in  recent  years,  the  most  elaborate 
is  lliat  transcribed  by  Ahmes  about  B.C.  1700, 
from  one  written  probably  some  six  or  eight  cen- 
turies earlier.  Mathematics  in  Kgypt,  however, 
made  but  slight  progress  beyond  tliis  point  until 
the  tireek  ascendency  in  Alexandria.  The  Haby- 
lonians  were  the  next  to  show  signs  of  niatlie- 
matiral  power,  particularly  in  the  application 
of  arithmetic  and  geometry  to  astronomy.  To 
them  is  due  the  development  of  the  sexagesimal 
system  of  fractions  still  connnonly  used  in  angle 
and  lime  measurements.  The  extensive  trade  of 
the  I'hienicians  also  developed  a  commercial 
arithmetic  among  them  and  their  neighbors,  but 
it  did  not  lead  to  any  general  scicntitic  progress. 

The  real  beginning  of  mathematics  as  a  stead- 
ilv  ])rogressing  science  is  to  be  found  in  Greece, 
and  in  particular  in  the  establishing  of  the 
Ionian  school  of  Thalcs  about  n.c.  000.  Geometry 
as  a  science  here  makes  its  appearance.  Tlie 
next  great  step  in  the  progress  of  mathematics 
was  taken  by  Pythagoras  in  founding  bis  famous 
school  at  Croton,  in  Southern  Italy.  Under  his 
inlhience  a  considerable  j)art  of  elementary  geom- 
etry became  developed,  and  a  beginning  was  made 
in  creating  a  theory  of  numbers.  (See  XuM- 
UEi;.  I  Considerable  (jrogress  had  been  made  in 
geometry  before  the  third  epoch-making  step  was 
taken,  tlie  founding  of  the  Athenian  school  aliout 
B.C.  420.  Hippocrates  of  Chios  began  the  move- 
ment that  made  Athens  the  mathematical  centre 
for  the  next  century  and  a  half.  It  was  Plato, 
however,  who  brought  the  school  to  the  zenith 
of  its  fame.  Although  he  was  not,  strictly  S]ieak- 
ing,  a  mathematician,  his  ideas  concerning  the 
methods  of  establishing  truths  in  philosophy  and 
science  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  progress 
of  mathematics.  The  third  century  B.C.  saw  the 
rise  of  the  great  Alexandrian  school,  where 
Euclid  taught,  and  Archimedes,  ApoUonius,  and 
Eratosthenes  studied,  \^'ith  that  century  closes 
the  Hellenic  ascendency  in  mathematics  and 
philo.sophy,  and  thenceforth  we  find  scientific 
progress  sporadic  and  short-lived.  By  the  second 
century  of  our  era  progress  had  jiractically 
ceased.  Hero  and  Ptolemy  were  the  greatest 
of  the  later  Greek  writers  on  applied  geometry. 
The  only  new  movement  in  mathematics  made  by 
the  post-Christian  Greeks  was  that  of  Diophan- 
tus,  whose  work  on  equations  is  the  first  of  any 
pretensions  ever  compo.sed.  The  Romans  did 
almost  nothing  in  mathematics  except  in  a  pure- 
ly mercantile  way,  their  only  contribution  being 
to  the  practical  work  of  surveying.  Among  the 
later  Romans  the  name  of  the  philosoplier 
Boetliius  stands  out  witli  some  prominence  for 
his  text-book  work  in  elementary  mathematics, 
but  he  displayed  no  originality.  The  same  must 
be  said  for  such  mediaeval  writers  as  Alcuin, 
Gerbert   ( see  Sylve.ster  ) ,  and  Bede. 

Meanwhile  mathematics  had  obtained  a  foot- 
hold in  the  East.  The  first  definite  trace  of  real- 
ly satisfactory  work  among  the  Oriental  peoples 
is  that  of  Aryabhatta  early  in  the  sixth  century 
(.\.i). ).  Aryaidiatta  possessed  considerable  know- 
leilge  of  the  theory  of  numbers,  of  algebra,  and 
of  the  first  principles  of  trigonometry.  The  next 
Hin<lu  mathematician  of  great  prominence  was 
Braluuagupta.  who  lived  in  the  seventh  century, 
anil  whose  work  on  arithmetic  and  algebra  and 
on  the  mensuration  of  solids  is  a  distinct  ad- 
vance on  that  of  his  predecessors.     The  list  of 


prominent  Hindu  mathematicians  closes  with 
Bhaskara  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  whose  work 
a  fairly  well  developed  algebraic  symbolism, is 
found.  It  was  among  the  Hindus,  too,  that  our 
present  numeral  system  was  born,  being  by  them 
transmitted,  through  the  Arabs,  to  Euro]ie.  (See 
XuMEi{.\LS.)  One  of  the  most  interesting  peri-  • 
ods  in  the  development  of  mathematics  is  that 
of  the  Arab  ascendency,  and  in  particular  that 
of  the  founding  of  the  great  school  at  Bagdad. 
In  this  school  one  of  the  first  teachers  was  Al- 
kliow'arazmi,  who  gave  the  name  to  algebra  in 
the  ninth  century.  He  was  followed  by  several 
writers  of  prominence,  but  it  is  rather  by  their 
preservation  of  Greek  and  Hindu  learning  than 
by  their  own  originality  that  they  are  note- 
w'orthy.  Among  the  last  of  the  Persian  and 
Arab  writers  was  the  poet  Omar  Khayyam, 
whose  work  in  algebra  showed  considerable  power. 
The  work  of  the  Arabs  in  Sjiaiu  was  rather  that 
of  teaching  than  of  contributing  to  scientific 
advance. 

The  first  of  the  European  writers  to  contribute 
in  any  large  way  to  the  advance  of  mathematics 
was  Leonardo  of  Pisa,  at  the  opening  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  His  Lihcr  Ahlmci  placed  before 
Italian  scholars  the  Hindu  number  system  (al- 
ready slightly  known),  and  the  mathematical 
knowledge  of  "the  world  at  that  titne.  The  period 
of  the  Renaissance  was  one  of  great  activity  in 
mathematics.  This  activity  was  inaugurated  in 
Austria  by  Regiomontanus  and  Peuerbach.  and  in 
Germany  "by  Widmann.  In  Italy,  Paccioli  was 
the  first  to  publish,  in  1404.  any  printed  work 
of  much  importance  on  mathcnuitics,  although 
several  minor  works  had  already  appeared,  nota- 
bly one  on  arithmetic  printed  at  Treviso  in 
1478,  and  two  printed  at  Baml)erg  in  1482-83. 
During  the  sixteenth  century  the  Italian  alge- 
braists, notably  Tartaglia,  Ferro,  Cardan,  Fer- 
rari, and  Bombelli,  solved  completely  the  cubic 
and  biquadratic  equations,  and  Vieta.  in  France, 
so  improved  the  symbolism  of  algebra  and  so 
generalized  the  use"  of  letters  as  to  put  algebra 
upon  substantially  the  present  foundation.  It 
ncM>ded  only  the  symbolism  sugge.sted  by  Descartes 
and  a  few  of  his  contemporaries  to  bring  ele- 
mentary algebra,  about  1050,  to  the  form  fa- 
miliar "to  students  at  the  present  day. 

About  the  time  that  elementary  algebra  was 
becoming  crystallized,  a  revival  of  interest  in 
geometry  took  place.  On  the  side  of  pure  ge- 
ometry this  was  led  by  Kepler.  Desargues.  and 
Pascal,  while  to  Descartes  is  due  the  invention 
of  the  method  of  analytic  geometry.  At  the 
same  period  Fermat  laid  the  foundatiim  for  the 
modern  theory  of  numbers,  and  the  new  theory 
of  logarithms  (q.v.)  became  generally  known. 
The  greatest  progress  in  the  seventeenth  century 
is,  how-ever,  represented  by  the  invention  of  tlic 
fluxional  calculus  by  Newton,  and  of  the  differ- 
ential calculus  by  "Leibnitz.  These  disciplines, 
essentially  the  same  and  so  considered  at  present, 
revolutionized  mathematics  and  its  applications. 

The  period  of  the  development  of  elementary 
mathematics  closes  with  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  eighteenth  century  was  devoted  largely  to 
the  investigations  of  the  foundations  of  the  new- 
analysis,  to  a  consideration  of  its  applications, 
to  the  study  of  infinite  series  (see  Series),  and 
to  the  understanding  of  the  nature  of  complex 
numbers  (q.v.).  The  thirteenth  century  saw  the 
development  of  the   so-called  modern   mathemat- 


MATHEMATICS. 


184 


MATHER. 


ics,   including  subjects  discussed  in  the  articles 

on     SUBSTITITIOXS;      QlATEKXlO.N'S;      SURFACES; 

Curve;  Complex  Number:  Determinants; 
Functions;  and  the  more  general  articles  on 
Algebra,  Geometry,  Trigonometry,  Number, 
and  Calculus. 

Classification.  No  entirely  satisfactory 
classification  of  uiathematics  is  possible.  The 
various  braiubes  are  so  interrelated  that  exact 
lines  of  separation  cannot  be  drawn,  a  fact  of 
api)arent  and  great  advantage  to  the  science. 
The  most  recent  attempt  at  classification  is  that 
made  in  the  Enc-yklopadie  der  mathciiiatischen 
^Vissc>l.1ch(lf)c)l.  The  following  scheme  covers 
the  principal  subjects  discussed: 

I.  pure  mathematics. 

A.  Ai-ithmeiic  and  Algebra. 

(a)  Arithmetic   (q.v.). 

(1)  Fundamental    operations    with    pure    numbers. 

See  NuMBKR  :  Arithmeth*. 

(2)  The     conil)inati>r.v     tliei)iy.     IrolnilinK      combl- 

n.Ttioiis,  permutations,  determin.int8.     See  Per- 

]lIlfl-.\rioN8  AND  ('kMBINATIONS. 

(3)  Irrationals  ami  the  eDUverjiency  question.     See 

Number;  Irrational  Number. 

(4)  romidex  numbers  (<!. v.). 

(5)  Menttenlehre,  literally  the  "multitude    theory'; 

OS  ol  a  multitude  (unlimited  number)  ot  points. 

(6)  Finite  discrete  groups.    See  Sudstitutios. 

(b)  Algebra   (q.v.). 

(1)  Fundamental  concepts,  including  rational  func- 

tions.   See  Function. 

(2)  Theory  of  invariants.    See  Forms. 

(3)  Theory  of  equations.    See  Equation. 

(c)  Theory  of  numbers.     See  Number. 

(d)  Theory  of  probabilities.    See  Probability. 

B.  Analysis. 

(a)  Analysis  of  real  quantities. 

(1)  nitfi'H'ntial  and  iiiteKral  calculus.     SeeCALCCLUS. 
(■2)  Diff'M-i'iiIial  equations.     See  EtiUATION. 
(.'))  Cdiitiiiuous  transformation  groups.     See  Substi- 
tution. 

(4)  Infinite  series. 

(6)  Calculus  of  variations. 

(b)  Analysis  of  complex  quantities. 

(1)  Oeneral  theory  of  functions.    See  Function. 

(2)  S|iei.ial  kinds  of  functions,  elliptic,  Abellan,  auto- 

morphii*.  etc. 

(3)  Funetional  equations  and  operations. 

C.  Geometry    (q.v.). 

(a)  Pure  geometry.     See  Geometry. 

(1)  (ienerril  iirlnclples  and  elementary  geometry. 

(2)  Positional  geometry. 

(3)  rrojcctive  geometry.     See  Geometry;    Projec- 

tion. 

(4)  Descriptive  geometry.    See  Oeomktrv. 

(b)  Algebra  and  analysis  as  applied  to  geom- 

etry.   See  Analytic  Geometry. 

(11  Codrdlnateey stems.    See  Coordinates. 

(2)  Conies. 

(3)  Algebraic  curves  and  surfaces. 

(4)  Space  of  n  dimensions.    .See  Geometry. 

(c)  DilTeiential     geometry,     including    tran- 

sc-endent  curves  and  surfaces. 

II.    APPLIED  mathematics. 

A.  ilcchnnics  (q.v.).  including  kinematics,  ki- 
netics, statics,  the  vector  analysis  (see  Qua- 
ternions), hydrodynamics,  and  the  theory 
of  ehisticity. 

li.  Physirs  (q.v.),  including  thernuxlynamics, 
molecular  physics,  electricity,  optics. 

C.  Geodesy  and  Gcophy.iirs.  including  naviga- 
tion, geodetic  mensuration,  cartograpliy, 
magnetism. 

£).  Astronomy. 


Bibliography.  Select  special  bibliograpliies 
may  be  found  in  most  of  tlie  articles  on  mallie- 
matical  topics.  Following  are  some  of  the  best- 
known  general  works  on  the  history  of  mathe- 
matics: Cantor,  ^'ortesungcn  iiber  Gcschiehle 
der  Malhematik  (Leipzig,  1880-02)  :  Fink,  His- 
tory of  Mtithcmatics  (Chicago,  1000),  form- 
ing a  brief  compendium  of  Cantor's  work; 
Ball,  A  Short  Account  of  the  History  of  Mathe- 
matics (London,  1001);  Smith,  "History  of 
Modern  Mathematics,"  in  Merriman  and  Wood- 
ward's Higher  Mathematics  (New  York,  1890); 
Suter,  Geschichte  der  mathenialischcn  Wis- 
senschaftoi  (Zurich,  1873-75)  ;  Hankel,  Ziir 
Geschichte  der  Mathematik  im  Altertum  vnd 
Mittelaltcr  (Leipzig,  1874)  ;  Zeuthen,  Die 
Lchre  ron  den  Kegrlschnitten  im  Altrrtuni  (Co- 
penhagen, 1880)  :  Zeuthen,  Vorlesuniicn.  iiber  die 
Geschiclite  der  Matheiiialilc  (Copenhagen,  Ger. 
trans,  in  1895)  ;  Giinther.  Geschichte  dcs  mathe- 
matischen  Unterrichts  im  deutschen  Mittclalter 
bis  zum  Jahre  132o  (Berlin.  1887)  ;  Cajori,  A 
History  of  ^  Mathematics  (New  York.  1894)  ; 
Cajori,  A  History  of  Elementary  Mathematics 
(New  York,  180G)  ;  Ahhandlungen  zur  Ge- 
schichte der  Mathematik  (Leipzig.  1877  et  seq.). 
The  Bihliotheea  Mathematica  (Leipzig),  edited 
by  Enestriim,  is  devoted  to  the  liistory  of  the 
subject.  For  the  general  bibliograpliy  of  the  i 
science,  consult  the  elaborate  Encyhloimdie  der 
maihematischen  ^yissen^cllaften,  the  publication 
of  which  was  begun  at  Leipzig  in  1808.  Com- 
plete records  of  the  recent  publications  touch- 
ing niatliematical  subjects  may  be  found  in  the 
Jahrhiich  iiber  die  Fortschritte  der  Mathematik 
(Berlin,  since  1871 ) . 

MATHER,  mfiTii'er.  Cotton  (1663-1728).  A. 
colonial  divine  and  author,  eldest  son  of  Increase 
Mather  (q.v.)  and  Jlaria.  daugliter  of  John 
Cotton  (q.v.).  He  was  bom  in  Boston.  Febni- 
ary  12.  Ul(i3.  He  was  very  [ireciHious  anil  w.is 
unfortunately  overestimated  and  praised,  with 
the  result  that  he  became  morbidly  self-con- 
scious. An  omnivorous  reader  from  tlie  first, 
he  entered  Harvard  at  eleven,  and  graduated  in 
1678  at  fifteen.  At  sixteen  he  studied  medicine, 
despairing  of  being  al)le  to  enter  the  ministry  on 
account  of  a  propensity  to  stammering.  This  he 
conquered  by  methods  of  deliberate  speedi.  and 
at  seventeen  prcnchcd  his  first  seriiuni  and  be- 
came an  assistant  to  liis  father,  lie  dsik  his 
master's  degree  in  1681.  refused  a  call  to  New 
Haven,  and  became  associate  pastor  ^yith  liis 
fatlier  in  the  North  Church  of  Boston,  'in  1686 
he  marrieil:  two  years  later  his  father's  mis- 
sion to  Enghrnd  left  liim  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  in  sole  charge  of  the  North  Church,  and 
probably  the  most  important  man  in  liostim.  lie 
was  widely  celebrated  as  a  scholar  and  was  the 
olivious  leader  of  the  conservative  element 
among  tlie  Puritans  of  the  day.  He  had  also 
liegun  to  lake  a  great  interest  in  tlie  subject  of 
witchcraft,  his  Memonililc  I'rorideners  /{elating 
In  Witchcraft  and  Possessions  appearing  in  168!). 
During  the  witchcraft  epidemic  at  Sah'iii  in 
1602  he  became  an  infatuated  investigator  of 
suspected  cases,  a  constant  adviser  of  the  mag- 
istrates, and  wrote  his  11"o)irfrr.i  of  the  Inrisitile 
World  (1603)  to  confute  all  doubters.  In  1603 
Mather  planned  his  great  ecclesiastical  history 
of  New  Enghind.  the  Mnynalin.  which  was 
finished  in    1607,  and   finally  appeared  in   1702. 


MATHEB. 


185 


IIATHEB. 


Meanwhile  he  was  overworkeil  aiul  in  an  iin- 
balanceil  condition  of  mind,  partly  in  consequence 
of  attacks  made  upon  liini  for  his  activity  in  the 
witchcraft  crisis,  lie  was  also  much  worried 
by  his  father's  troubles  as  president  of  Har- 
vard, and  later  wa.s  disappointed  in  not  him- 
self receivini;  the  position.  He  had  family 
troubles,  and  was  furthermore  doomed  to  see 
more  liberal  forms  of  religious  thought  prevailing 
around  him.  Nevertheless  he  continued  to  be  a 
prominent  and  useful  citizen,  waging  war  on 
intemperance  and  other  forms  of  immorality. 
In  1703  he  married  again.  In  1707  a  final 
breach  with  (Jovernor  Dudley  greatly  lessened 
his  public  influence.  A  few  years  later  he  was 
made  a  D.D.  by  the  University  of  Glasgow,  but 
tributes  to  his  merits  as  divine,  scholar,  and  au- 
thor could  not  compensate  for  domestic  unhap- 
piness  caused  by  various  deaths  and  by  the 
dissolute  conduct  of  one  of  his  sons.  His  second 
wife  dying  in  171.3,  he  took  another  two  years 
laier  and  suffered  greatly  in  consequence  of  her 
derangement.  In  1721  by  his  bold  stand  in  favor 
of  inoculation  for  smallpox  he  aroused  almost 
a  panic  of  oi>position  to  himself.  Then  came  his 
father's  death,  a  final  disappointment  with  re- 
gard to  the  presidencv  of  Harvard,  and  his  own 
death,  February  13,  1728. 

Cotton  Mather  was  a  man  of  extraordinary 
learning,  combined  with  pedantry,  a  stanch  up- 
hidder  of  antiquity,  especially  in  matters  of 
theology  and  Clnireh  polity,  a  marvelously  vo- 
luminous writei-,  an  active  politician,  and,  wlien 
not  misled  by  excitement,  a  public-spirited  citi- 
zen. His  connection  with  the  persecution  of  the 
witches  has  given  him  a  sinister  reputation, 
which  no  efforts  of  biographers  have  been  able 
to  efface:  but  it  is  at  least  certain  that  he  is  bet- 
ter remembered  than  any  other  of  the  early 
colonial  ilivines.  Few  persons  can  now  find  time 
to  read  his  numerous  books,  but  no  student  of 
the  period  during  which  he  lived  should  speak 
of  him  without  gratitude.  His  Mayimlia  is  full 
of  errors,  yet  gives  the  very  'form  and  pres- 
ence' of  its  age,  and  represents  labors  truly 
heroic.  The  most  important  of  his  works  are: 
Poem  to  the  Memory  of  Urian  Oakes  {1G82); 
Wonders  of  the  Invisible  World  (1693;  re- 
printed in  "Library  of  Old  Authors,"  18G2)  ; 
Magnolia  Cliristi  Americana  (1702;  reprinted  in 
two  volumes,  1820  and  1853);  Bonifacius.  etc., 
or,  as  it  is  better  known.  Essays  to  Do  Good 
(1710;  Glasgow,  1838)  :  and  Parentator  (Bos- 
ton, 1724),  a  curious  and  interesting  life  of  his 
father.  Increase.  For  his  life  and  writings  con- 
sult the  biography  by  his  son.  Samuel  ^Mather 
(Boston,  172(1)  :  Pond'.  The  Mather  Family  (Bos- 
ton, 1844)  :  Wendell.  Cotton  Mather  (New  York, 
ISni);  Jlarvin,  Life  and  Times  of  Cotton 
Mather  (Boston,  1802);  also  Sibley,  Harvard 
(iraduates,  vol.  iii.  (Cambridge,  188.5)  ;  Tyler, 
History  of  American  Literature,  vol.  ii.  (New 
York,  I8S1);  Wendell,  Literary  History  of 
America  (New  York.  inOO). — Cotton  father's 
son,  Samuel  (17008.5).  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1723.  seiTcd  as  minister  of  the  North  Church, 
Boston,  until  1742,  and  then,  in  consequence  of 
differences  concerning  revivals,  a  separate  church 
was  formed  for  him  in  North  Bennett  Street. 
He  published  among  other  works  a  Life  of  Cot- 
ion  Mather  (1729);  An  Apolofiy  for  the  Lib- 
ertie  of  the  Churches  in  New  England  (1738); 
and  America  Known  to  the  Ancients   (1773). 


MATHEB,  Incbe.\.se  (1039-1723).  A  colo- 
nial divine,  youngest  son  of  Richard  Mather 
(q.y. ).  He  was  born  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  June 
21,  1C39.  A  precocious  boy,  he  entered  Harvard 
at  twelve  and  graduated  at  seventeen.  On  his 
nineteenth  birthday  he  preached  an  able  sermon 
from  his  father's  pulpit.  Shortly  afterwards, 
at  the  request  of  his  brothers,  Samuel  and  Na- 
thaniel, he  went  to  Dublin,  where,  at  Trinity 
College,  he  took  his  M.A.  Then  he  preached  in 
Devonshire  and  fiuernse_y  with  success,  but  re- 
turned to  Massachusetts  in  lOGl.  For  some  time 
he  divided  his  services  between  his  father's 
church  at  Dorchester  and  the  new  North  Church 
at  Boston,  but  in  1664  lie  threw  in  his  lot  with 
the  latter. 

In  1081,  on  the  death  of  Urian  Oakes  (q.v.), 
ilather  was  appointed  his  successor  as  president 
of  Harvard,  and  began  his  duties,  but  his  church 
would  not  let  him  go.  In  1085,  after  the  death, 
of  'President  John  Rogers,  he  was  enabled  to  ac- 
cept the  post  on  the  condition  that  he  should 
still  reside  in  Boston,  He  held  it  until  1701, 
the  college  growing  under  his  care,  but  suffering, 
from  various  intrigues.  As  a  result  of  these 
intrigues  Mather  wa.s  finally  forced  to  reside  at 
Cambridge,  and  .soon  after  gave  up  the  post,, 
which  had  been  rendered  most  uncomfortable  to 
him.  Meanwhile  he  had  made  himself  useful  tO' 
the  colony  by  resisting  the  attempts  of  Charles. 
II.  to  seize  the  charter  of  Massachusetts,  had 
patriotically  opposed  the  tyranny  of  James  II., 
and  in  1088  had  gone  to  England  as  agent  for 
his  fellow  citizens.  He  could  not  secure  from 
William  111.  the  restoration  of  the  old  charter, 
but  he  obtained  a  new  and  fairly  satisfactory 
one,  and  gained  the  favor  both  of  the  King  and 
of  the  people  of  the  colony.  Fortunately  for 
him,  he  was  absent  in  England  during  the  worst 
of  the  witchcraft  delusion,  and  thus  is  not 
amenable  to  some  of  the  censure  that  has  been 
passed  upon  him  as  a  fomenter  of  the  popular 
excitement.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  after 
this  excitement  wore  off,  the  hold  of  Mather  and 
his  son  Cotton  upon  the  clerg\'  and  people  of 
the  colony  was  greatly  Aveakened.  He  main- 
tained his  personal  vigor  to  a  considerable 
extent,  until  his  death,  August  23.  1723. 
Chief  among  his  works  are  A  Brief  History  of 
the  War  with  the  Indians  in  Xeiv  England 
(1676:  edited  by  Drake.  1862);  A  Relation  of 
Troubles  of  New  England  from  the  Indians 
(1677;  edited  by  Drake,  1804);  Cometograph- 
ia,  or  a  Discourse  Concerning  Comets  (1683); 
and  best  known  and  most  interesting  probably. 
An-  Essay  for  the  Recording  of  Illustrious  Provi- 
dences (1684;  reprinted  in  the  "Libraiy  of  Old 
Authors,"  1856).  The  last-named  bcxik  is  usu- 
ally known  as  Remarkable  Providences,  and  is  a 
mine  for  those  interested  in  seventeenth  century 
superstitions.  His  Cases  of  Conscience  Concern- 
ing Witchcraft  (IGO.'i;  reprinted  with  Cotton 
Mather's  Wonders  of  the  Invisible  World  in  the 
"Library  of  Old  Authors,"  1862),  is  interesting 
and  important.  For  Increase  ilather's  life,  eon- 
suit:  Cotton  blather's  biography  of  him  en- 
titled Parentator  (Boston,  1724);  Pond,  The- 
Mather  Family  (Boston,  1844)  ;  Wendell,  Cot- 
ton  Mather  (New  York,  1891);  and  Marvin, 
Life  and  Times  of  Cotton  Mather  (Boston,  1892). 
Consult,  also:  'Tyler,  History  of  American  Lit- 
erature., vol.  ii.  (New  York.'  1881);  and  Wil- 
liston  Walker,  Ten  New  England  Leaders  (New 


MATHEB. 


186 


MATHEW. 


York.  lltOl).  For  a  list  of  his  voluminous  writ- 
ings, consult  .Sibley,  Harvurd  (Inidiiiilcs,  vol.  i. 
(Cambridge,  l«7.i)". 

MATHER,  KiciiARD  ( l.iOO-lGG!)).  A  colonial 
Uivine  and  I'oiinder  of  the  famous  Jlather  family 
in  New  England.  Ue  was  born  in  Lowton,  Lan- 
cashire, of  a  family  of  Puritan  yeomen.  He 
began  giving  religious  teaehing  when  a  mere 
boy,  then  passed  through  Brasenose  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  about  Ifilil  was  ordained  and  put  in 
i'liarge  of  the  church  at  Toxteth.  near  I..iver- 
pool.  In  Ui;J5  ho  emigrated  to  Jlassachusetts. 
As  he  was  noted  for  his  learning  and  his  power- 
ful preaching,  there  was  rivalry  among  the  New 
Englanil  churches  to  secure  liim.  He  finally 
settled  at  Dorchester  in  lG3(i,  and  remained  there 
as  pastor  until  his  death.  April  22,  1GC9.  He 
■wrote  public  letters  on  matters  of  Church  gov- 
ernment, helped  to  compile  the  JSai/  I'sntin  Book 
(q.v. ).  and  had  a  leading  share  in  framing  the 
Cambridge  Platform  (1G48).  (See  ( 'o.NGiiECA- 
TIOXALISM.)  Ue  transmitted  his  ])0wers.  espe- 
cially his  love  of  reading  and  writing  books,  to 
liis  six  sons  by  his  first  wife,  Katharine  Holt: 
his  second  marriage  with  the  widow  of  the  fa- 
mous John  Cotton  (q.v.)  proved  childless.  Four 
of  these  sons  became  somewhat  famous  as  preach- 
ers and  authors.  Of  these  the  best  known  is  the 
youngest.  Increase  ^Mather  (q.v.). — The  eldest. 
Samiei.  (1G2G-71).  began  ))reaching  in  Boston, 
soon  removed  to  England,  where  he  was  very 
popular,  and,  after  the  ejection  of  the  Non- 
conformists in  1GG2,  became  a  leading  clergjnian 
of  Dublin. — The  third  son.  Nathaniel  ( lG;il-!t7), 
also  attained  reputation  in  England  as  a  preach- 
er and  religions  writer,  and  succeeded  his  brother 
.Samuel  in  Dublin. — The  fifth  son.  Ei.eazer 
(1G37-G9),  was  the  first  minister  at  Northamp- 
ton. Mass.  For  sketches  of  Ricliard  Mather,  eon- 
suit:  Increase  Mather.  Jjifc  and  Dcnili  of  Rich- 
ard Miiliur  (Cambridge.  Mass..  1G70)  :  Cotton 
Mather.  I'nrrntntor  (Boston.  1724);  Wendell, 
Cotton  Mather  (New  York,  1891):  and  Tyler, 
Ilisloni  of  American  Literature,  vol.  ii.  (New 
York.  ISSI). 

MATHER,  William  Williams  (1804,59). 
All  Aincrir:in  geologist,  born  at  Brooklyn.  Conn. 
He  graduated  in  1828  at  West  Point,  where  he 
■was  assistant  professor  of  chemistry  from  1829 
to  18,3.5.  He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1836 
and  Ix'canic  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Louisiana,  from  which  posili(m  he  re- 
tired in  a  few  months  to  superinten<l  the  geologi- 
cal survey  of  the  first  district  of  New  York 
State,  including  the  counties  bordering  upon 
the  Hudson  Biver.  While  engaged  in  these  re- 
searches (183G-44)  he  was  State  geologist  for 
Ohio  (1837-40)  and  Kentucky  (1838-39).  and 
professor  of  natural  science,  vice-president  and 
acting  jiresident  at  the  Ohio  I'niversity  at 
Athens  (1842-50).  By  cxiicriments  made  at 
Athens  (184;")).  he  discovered  that  bromine, 
which  at  that  time  was  selling  at  $1()  an  ounce, 
could  be  obtained  at  a  comparatively  small  price 
from  the  bitter  waters  of  the  salt  works  near 
that  place.  Mather  edited  the  Wr.ilcrn  Ariririil- 
lurnlixl ,  and  was  the  author  of  the  "Oeolog>'  of 
the  First  Geological  District."  in  Xatiiral  /7is- 
/'.,■//  of  Xrir   Yorl:    (1843). 

MATHERS,  ni.'iTiiV-rs,  Helen  Buckinoiia-M. 
See  Reeves,  Mrs.  Henry. 


MATHESON,  mi'itliV-son.  George  (1842—). 
A  Scotch  minister  and  author,  born  in  Glasgow. 
He  lost  his  eyesight  in  his  youth,  but  entered 
the  I'niversity  of  Edinburgh  and  graduated  with 
honors.  His  first  charge  was  at  Innellan.  Argyl- 
shire  (18GS-8G)  ;  afterwards  he  became  minister 
at  Saint  Bernard's.  Edinl)urgli  (188G-99).  He 
was  author  of  the  hymn  "O  Love  that  Wilt  Not 
Let  Me  Go."  His  ]iublieations  include:  Aids  to 
the  Htudy  of  German  Theology  (1874)  ;  Natural 
Elements  of  Revealed  Theology  (1881);  Confu- 
cianism and  My  Aspirations  (1882):  Can  the  ' 
Old  Faith  Lire  with  the  Seie?  (1885):  Distinc- 
tive Messages  of  the  Old  Religion  (1893);  and 
Bihlc  nrfniilion  of  Religion    (1898). 

MATHEW,  in:'ilh'fi.  Tiieobalo.  commonly 
known  as  Father  JIatiiew  (1790-1850).  A 
total  abstinence  orator.  He  was  born  at  Thomas- 
town,  a  few  miles  east  of  Tipperary  Castle,  in 
Ireland,  October  10.  1790.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  while  ilathew  was  still  very  young,  the 
kindness  of  the  Llandaft'  family  enableil  the  boy 
to  enter  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of  Kilkenny, 
whence  he  was  transferred,  as  a  candidate  for 
the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood,  to  the  College  of  ^ 
Maynooth  in  1807.  He  left  that  college,  however, 
in  the  next  year.  He  relinquished  the  secular  ' 
priesthood  for  that  of  the  religious  Order  of  the  i 
Capuchins,  in  which  he  took  priest's  orders  in 
1814.  and  was  sent  to  the  church  of  his  Order  in 
the  city  of  Cork.  His  singularly  eharilaldc  and 
benevolent  disposition  won  for  him  the  universal 
love  and  respect  alike  of  rich  and  poor.  He 
established  a  religious  brotherhood  similar  to 
that  of  Saint  Yineent  de  Paul,  and  he  founded 
schools  for  children  of  both  sexes.  But  the  great 
work  of  Father  Mathew's  life  is  the  marvelous 
reformation  which  he  effected  in  the  habits  of  his 
fellow-countrymen,  and  which  has  won  for  him 
the  title  of  'Apostle  of  Temperance.'  In  1838  he 
established  an  as.soeiation  on  the  principle  of  total 
abstinence,  at  first  confined  to  the  city  of  Cork, 
but  afterwards  extemling  to  the  county  and  ad- 
jacent districts  of  Limerick  and  Kerry.  The 
success  which  attended  this  first  local  eli'ort  led 
to  the  suggestion  that  Father  ^fathew  himself 
should  ie|)air  to  the  several  great  centres  of 
population,  especially  in  the  south.  Thence  he 
gradually  extended  the  tield  of  his  labors  to 
Dublin,  to  the  north,  and  even  to  Liverpool. 
^Manchester,  London.  Glasgow,  and  the  other 
chief  seats  of  the  Irish  po|uilation.  even  in  the 
New  World.  His  association  included  a  large 
proportion  of  the  adult  population  of  Ireland, 
without  distinction  of  rank,  creed,  or  sex;  ;inil 
so  complete  was  the  revolution  in  the  habits  of 
the  Irish  jieoplc  that  very  many  distilleries  and 
breweries  I'cased  from  working.  Mathew's  iiuiiii- 
ficent  charities,  the  expenses  connected  with  his 
total-abstinence  association,  and  perhajis  his  own 
improvident  and  unworldly  habits,  iiividved  him 
in  pecuniary  ombarra-isments  and  embillercd  his 
last  years.  A  pension  of  £300.  granted  by  (he 
Crown,  was  supplemented  by  |)rivate  subsi'rip- 
tion.  and  rclieveil  him  of  his  liabilities.  In  1848 
he  had  an  attack  of  paralysis  from  which  he 
never  fully  recovered.  From  1849  to  1851  he  was 
in  America  and  founded  numerous  total  absti- 
nence societies.  He  died  at  Queenstown.  Trelandi 
December  8.  185fi.  Consult  his  Life,  by  F.  1. 
Mathcw  (London,  1890). 


MATHEWS. 


187 


MATILDA. 


MATHEWS,  miith'uz.  Charles  (177C-1835). 
An  Knglish  comedian,  born  in  London  on  June 
28,  1771).  He  was  the  son  of  a  bookseller,  who 
intended  his  son  to  follow  the  same  vocation; 
but  his  early  inclination  for  the  stage  overcame 
parental  counsel,  and  he  made  his  appearance 
as  an  amateur,  in  the  part  of  ]{ichard  III.,  at 
the  Kiihmond  Theatre  in  1793.  As  a  professional 
comedian  he  a])])eared  in  the  Theatre  Koyal, 
Dublin,  the  following  year.  His  first  engagement 
in  London  was  at  the  Haymarket.  in  1803;  later 
he  transferred  his  services  to  Drurj'  Lane.  In 
181S  he  first  introduced  in  London  one  of  his 
entertainments,  known  as  'At  Homes,'  such  as 
he  repeated  for  a  number  of  sidjsequent  seasons 
with  immense  success.  In  the  course  of  his 
career  he  twice  visited  America,  in  1822  and 
1834,  and  his  last  appearance  upon  the  stage 
was  made  at  Xew  York  in  February,  1835.  He 
had  licen  since  1828  a  joint  proprietor  of  the 
Adelphi  Theatre  of  London.  His  death  occurred 
at  Plymouth  on  June  28,  1835. 

Mathews  was  a  wonderful  master  of  im- 
personation and  mimicry.  The  variety  of  his 
facial  expression  was  so  extraordinary  that  he 
could  alter  liis  curious  features  in  an  instant 
and  deceive  even  his  friends  as  to  his  identity,  a 
peculiarity  of  whicli  many  quaint  stories  are 
told.  He  was  extremely  sensitive,  and  the  fine- 
ness of  his  taste  and  character,  as  well  as  his 
■wit,  made  him  a  welcome  companion  of  the 
most  distinguished  people.  Consult  the  Memoirs 
of  Charles  ilatheirs.  Comedian,  by  Mrs.  Math- 
ews (London,  1838-39)  ;  Anecdotes  of  Actors, 
by  the  same  (London,  1844)  ;  Matthews  and 
Hutton,  Actors  and  Actresses  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  vol.  li.  (New  York, 
1880):   Baker,  Our  Old  Actors   (London,  1881). 

MATHEWS,  Chables  James  (1803-78).  An 
English  actor  and  playwright,  son  of  Charles 
Mathews,  born  in  Liverpool,  December  20,  1803. 
He  was  educated  at  Merchant  Taylors'  School, 
and  at  a  school  at  Clapham,  kept  by  Richardson 
the  lexicographer.  In  1S19  he  began  study  with 
Pugin.  the  architect.  With  Pugin  he  went  to 
Paris,  whcse  comedians  increased  a  lurking  dis- 
position of  his  to  appear  on  the  stage.  He  did 
so  as  an  amateur  in  April.  1S22,  playing  the 
part  of  Dorival  in  Lr  roniedirn  d'hjtaini>es,  at 
the  Lyceum  Theatre.  He  afterward  designed  and 
sujierintended  the  building  of  cottages,  inns,  and 
bridges.  In  1835  he  gave  up  his  profession  and 
turned  to  the  stage.  Though  a  brilliant  actor  in 
light  ])ieces,  he  met  with  many  reverses  as 
manager.  During  his  long  career  on  the  stage 
he  played  more  than  two  hundred  roles  in 
dramas  written  by  himself  and  others.  Among  his 
most  famous  parts  were  Charles  Coldstream  in 
t'sed  I'ji,  Lavater  in  Cool  as  a  Cnriiniljrr.  and 
Puff  in  the  Critic.  Besides  performing  at  the 
principal  London  theatres,  Mathews  made  tours 
through  Canada,  the  L^nited  States,  and  Aus- 
tralia. He  died  at  ifanchester,  England.  .Tune 
24.  1878.  For  his  Life,  with  selections  from  his 
correspondence,  consult  Charles  Dickens  (Lon- 
don, IS79). 

MATHEWS,  LrciA  Elizabeth.    See  Vestris, 

Mahamk. 

MATHEWS,  William  (1818—).    An  Ameri- 
can niithor.  born  at  Waterville,  Me.     He  grad- 
uated at  Waterville  College    (Colby  University) 
j     in   1835,  studied   law  at  Harvard   and   was   ad- 
VOL.  xui.— 13. 


mitted  to  the  bar.  In  1841  he  established  The 
M'atervillonian,  afterwards  called  The  Yankee 
Blade,  w'hich  united  with  the  Boston  Portfolio 
in  1850.  He  was  also  in  newspajier  work  in 
Chicago  from  1859  until  1802,  when  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  in 
the  L'niversity  of  Chicago,  a  position  he  resigned 
in  1875.  His  publications  include:  (letting  On  in 
the  World  (1872);  The  Crcut  Conversrrs,  and 
Other  Essays  (1874);  Words — Their  Vse  and 
Abuse  (1870)  ;  and  Hours  with  Men  and  Books  ' 
(1877). 

MATHEWS,.  William  Smytiie  Babcock 
(1837  — ).  An  American  musician  and  writer  on 
music.  He  was  born  in  Loudon.  JN".  H.,  and 
was  educated  entirely  under  native  teachers.  He 
began  his  professional  career  at  Macon,  Ga., 
where  he  was  engaged  in  teaching  from '1800  to 
1803.  Later  he  took  up  similar  work  in  Xorth 
Carolina,  and  at  JIarion.  Ala.  His  first  po- 
sition in  Chicago,  with  which  city  he  became 
most  particularly  identified,  was  as  organist  of 
Centenary  JI.  E.  Church,  which  ajjpointment  he 
held  from  1807  to  1893,  meanwhile  acting  as 
correspondent  for  Dtcight's  Journal  of  Music 
(1800-72),  and  as  editor  of  the  Musical  Inde- 
pendent from  1808  to  1872.  He  first  became  an 
influence  in  the  musical  life  of  Chicago  through 
his  musical  criticisms  in  the  daily  press.  In 
1891  he  founded  Music,  which  ho  ])urposed  to  be 
exclusively  devoted  to  students  of  music.  His 
publications  include  his  Popular  Histvrit  of 
Music  (1889)  ;  Outlines  of  Musical  Form  (1807)  ; 
Hoio  to  Understand  Music  (2  vols.,  1880  and 
1888,  respectively)  ;  One  Hundred  Years  of  Music 
in  America  (1889)  ;  Music,  Its  Ideals<  and  Meth- 
ods (1897)  ;  in  collaboration  with  L.  0.  Emerson, 
the  Emerson  Organ  Method  (1870):  and  with 
William  ila'son.  Pianoforte  Technics  (1870); 
with  Emil  Liebling,  a  Pronouncing  Dictionary 
of  Musical  Tcrntif  (1890). 

MATHIAS,  ma-thl'os,  Thomas  James 
(c.  1754-1835).  An  English  author.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which 
he  became  a  fellcw,  and  was  appointed  treasurer 
of  the  household"  to  Queen  Charlotte.  This 
office  he  resigned  in  1818  and  passed  the  later 
part  of  his  life  at  Naples.  During  his  long  resi- 
dence in  Italy  he  became  thonnighly  acquainted 
with  its  language  and  literature,  and  Avrote  Ital- 
ian verses  with  considerable  fluency.  But  his 
principal  service  to  Italian  literature  was  his 
edition  of  Tiraboschi's  standard  work.  The  Uis- 
torg  of  Italian  Poetrg  (1805).  His  best  work  is 
The  Pursuits'  of  Literature,  a  poem  whicli  was 
published  anonymously  between  1794  and  1797. 
The  chief  interest  of  the  Pursuits  lies  in  its 
satirical  critical  notes,  which  made  a  sensation  at 
the  time. 


MATICO,  ma-te'ko 


■^P- 


from  South   .\meri- 


can  name).  Piper  angustifolium  or  .-irlanthe 
elongata.  A  shrub  of  the  natural  order  Pipera- 
ceae.  a  native  of  Peru,  where  it  is  known  as 
soldiers'  herb,  because  its  hairy  leaves  are  used 
as  a  styptic.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  a 
species  of  Eupatorium   (q.v.). 

MATICO.  A  South  American  armadillo 
(q.v.)    (Tnlgpeutes  convrus) ,  allied  (o  the  apar. 

MATIL'DA  (1102-07).  Daughter  of  Henry 
L.  King  of  England,  and  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  V..  often   known  as  the   Empress   Maud. 


MATILDA. 


188 


MATBIARCHATE. 


After  her  husband's  death  in  1125  she  returned 
to  Enghmd.  and  in  112G  her  father  conipelle.l 
the  barons  of  t!ie  realm  to  swear  tliat  they  would 
aecept  her  as  his  heir.  In  1128  slie  was  niar- 
ricd  to  (ieoll'rev  Plantagenet.  son  of  the  Count 
of  .\njou.  In  1133  she  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who 
was  to  ascend  the  throne  of  En<;land  as  Henry 
II.  Wlien  Henry  I.  died  in  1135,  Matikla  im- 
mediately ehiimed  all  his  possessions,  but  was 
opposed  bv  lier  cousin  Stephen  of  Blois.  In  Nor- 
mandy she  was  successful,  but  in  Enj,dand  Ste- 
phen "  was  generally  accepted  as  King,  though 
Matilda  was  loval'lv  supported  by  her  half- 
brother  Robert  of  Gloucester.  In  1141  she  was 
for  a  time  victorious;  Stephen  was  captured 
and  even  his  brother  Henry.  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter anil  I'apal  legate,  submitted  to  her  rule.  But 
the  nobles  of  England  found  her  too  haughty, 
and  rose  against  her  authority,  and  her  cause 
was  hopelessly  lost  until  Hcniy  was  old  enough 
to  participate  in  the  contest.  After  Henry  II. 
came  to  the  throne  she  used  her  influence  with 
the  King  for  the  preservation  of  peace  in  the 
Kin"(loni.  and  sought  to  be  mediator  between 
him'and  15eekct  (q.v.).  Consult  Round,  ilcoflrey 
lie  Mdiidri-iUc:  .1  ><tudy  of  the  Anarchy  (Lon- 
don.  1882). 

MATILDA    (104G-1115).      Countess   of   Tus- 
canv   noted  through  her  close  connection  with  the 
Papacv    during    its    struggle    with    the    Emperor 
Henry'  IV.     She  was  a  daughter  of  Boniface  111., 
Count  of  Tuscany,  and  Beatrice  of  Lorraine.     In 
1070   she  married  bv  procuration  Godfrey    (sur- 
named  //  dohho.  i.r.  "the  Hunchback").   Duke  of 
Lorraine.      Her  husband   did    not   Join   her   until 
lull,  and  died  in  1070.     After  this  Matilda  made 
hei^elf  consjjicuous  by  the   zeal   with   whiih   she 
espoused  the  cause  of  Gregory  VII..  and  it  was  at 
her   castle   of   Canossa   that    Henry    IV.    in    1077 
made  his  humiliating  submission  to  the  Pope.    In 
108!t.   though    forty-three  years'of   age,   she  con- 
tracted  a    nominal    marriage   with   the   eighteen- 
year-old    Guelph.    the    son    of    (iuelph.    Duke    of 
Bavaria,  in  order  to  gain  additional  support  for 
Gregory's  successor.  Urban  IL,  but  the  marriage 
was  dissolved  in  1005.    When  she  died   (.July  24, 
11 15).    the    Pajjacy    claimed    her    extensive    ter- 
ritories,  comprising   Tuscany,    Bn'scia,    Modena, 
Reggio.  Mantua,  and  Ferrara.  on  the  ground  that 
in  1077  she  hail  made  the  Cluinh  her  heir.     This 
produced  a  new  conflict  between  Papacy  and  Em- 
pire, Avhich  lasted  until  the  thirteenth  century. 
In   the  course  of   this   contest   the  cities   rose   to 
great    power    and    asserted    their    independence. 
Consult:  Tosti.  La  coiilen.tn  Matilda  rd  i  romani 
pniiti/ici  (2d  cd.,  Rome.  ISSfi)  :  Overmann,  tir.-ifin 
Mathildi:     vo»     Tttscirii.    Ihrr    Hr.iit::U)i<iin.    (Je- 
schichte    ihrcs    (lutes    ioh    lll.j-1320    und    ihre 
Reyesten  (Innsbruck,  1895). 

MATILE,  niAtel'.  C.eoroe  ArofSTE  (1807- 
81  I.  .\  Swiss-.Vnieriean  jurist,  born  at  La  Chaux- 
de  Konds  ( N'euehatel ) .  He  was  educated  for 
the  bar  at  the  tiennan  univer-^iliis  of  Berlin  and 
Heidelberg,  and  still  later  studied  in  Paris.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  (IS.tS)  at  Xeuehittel, 
and  eight  years  afterwards  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  liiw  at  the  university  there,  and  judge 
of  the  Supremo  Court.  He  came  to  .Vnierica  in 
1840,  and  in  1856  was  made  professor  of  history 
nl  Princeton.  In  1858  he  removed  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  ns  professor  of  French 
literature.      From    180.3   until   his  death  he  wag 


connected  with  the  State  Uciiartmenl  in  Wash- 
ington. His  works  include:  Points  do  coutume 
(1838)  :  Auluili-  da  droit  rumuin  dc  la  coutume 
de  ISouryoijnc  ct  de  la  Caroline  dans  la  princi- 
liautc  de  .\cuchutcl  (1838)  ;  Musce  historique  de 
Seuchatel  (1841-59);  Monuments  de  I'histoire 
de  yeuchiitcl  (1844-48);  Uistoire  de  la  scigncu- 
rie  (Ic  \alangin   (1852). 

MATIN,  mii'tiiN'  (OF.  mastin,  matin,  from 
ML.  "mansuetinus,  from  mansuetare,  to  tame, 
from  mansuetus,  p.p.  of  mansuescerc,  to  tame, 
from  mad  MS,  hand  +  suescere,  to  become  accus- 
tomed, inchoative  of  suere,  to  be  accustomed). 
A  large  kind  of  dog,  now  almost  peculiarly 
French,  but  allied  to  the  Great  Dane.  It  has 
rough  hair,  a  rather  flat  forehead,  a  rather 
pointed  muzzle;  the  ears  erect,  but  bent  down 
at  the  tijjs.  It  is  generally  of  a  whitish  color, 
clouded  with  brown.  It  is  flerce,  but  not  very 
courageous.     Com]iare  HouxD. 

MATINS.     See  C.\NO.MCAL  HoUBS;  Bbeviary. 

MATLOCK.  A  town  of  Derbyshire,  England, 
situated  amid  beautiful  scenery,  1.^  miles  north  of 
Derby.  It  is  noted  for  its  hot  mineral  springs 
and  baths  and  stalactite  caves.  Population,  in 
I'JOl,  5980. 


MA'TKIAR'CHATE    (from   Lat.  mater,  Gk. 
nvrrip.     invti'r,    muther    +     dpx*s>     urchos.    ruler, 
from   ipxfi-y,  urchcin,  to  rule).     Any  social  group, 
as  a  family,  a  clan,  or  a  tribe,  ruled  by  a  woman 
or  by  woiiien.     The  term   has  been   used   in  eth- 
uologv    since    the    publication    in    1805   of    Bach- 
ofen's"  Das  Mutterrccht,  in  which  it  was  shown 
that    in    all    races    there    exist    survivals    of    a 
metronvmic     period     when     children     took     the 
mother's  name,  instead  of  the  father's  name,  and 
when  propertv  also  der-cendcd  in  the  female  line. 
Such   a  system   is   still   in   full   force   among  the 
North  Aiiierican  Indians,  and  has  been  c;ireiu!ly 
descrilied   by   Morgan   in   his  Lcaijuc  of   the  Iro- 
i/uois  in  1849.   As  ;iii  existing  system  it  may  even 
now  lie  observed  among  the  Damaras  of  South 
Africa,  the  Congo  tribes  of  West  Africa,  the  ill- 
land  negroes,   the   Kasias  of  Bengal,   the  Tahiti- 
ans   and   Tongans   of    Polynesia,   and   the    Hovas 
of    Madagascar.      This    system,    however,    is    in 
fact  only  metronymic,  and  everywhere  falls  short 
of   being   matriarchal.     There   is   no    proof   that 
mankind   lias   jiassed  through  a  stage  of  elan  or 
tribal   rule   by   women,   although    in   his   aceouiit 
of  the   lioqui'>is   Long   House   Morg:in   i>resents  a 
picture  of  a  rigorous  control  of  domestic  allairs 
bv  a  matron.    Moreover,  in  the  Iroipiois  clan  a 
position  of  importance  and  respect  was  accorded 
to   women.      They   voted   in   the   council    of   the 
clan,  on  equal  terms  with  men.     In  various  .\fri- 
can  and   Polvnesian  tribes  women   have  held  the 
most  exalteii   po>ition.  that  of  queen  of  a   tribal 
confeileracv.     This,  however,  was  no  such  •matri- 
archy' as  was  at  one  time  imagined  by  ethnolo- 
gists disposed  to  believe  that  a   ])atri:uclial  sys- 
tem had  been  preceded  by  one  in  which  woman's 
relative  importance  was  as  great  as  that  of  man 
at  a  later  time  became.     More  complete   investi- 
gations   have    shown     that     under    melnmyinic 
organization   it  is  not  the  wife  and   mollicr  who 
exercises   an    authority   over   children   wliidi   the 
husband  does  not   possess.     The  authority  really 
lies   in   the   hands   of   the  woman's   nearest    male 
kinsmen,  that  is.  her  brothers,  or  her  m.aternal 
uncles.     These   male  kinsmen  even  exercise  an- 


MATBIARCHATE. 


189 


MATTER. 


tbority  over  husbands  wlio  have  come  to  live 
among  them.  Consult:  Westermarck,  The  His- 
tory of  Uumun  Marriage  (New  York,  1894)  ; 
Li'tourneau.  The  Evolution  uf  Marriage  (ib., 
181(1);  Bac-hofen,  Das  Mutterrecht  (Stuttgart, 
1801)  ;  Dargun,  Mutterrecht  und  Rauhehc  (Bres- 
lau,   1883). 

MATRICULATION  (from  ML.  matrieulare, 
to  enroll,  frniii  Lat.  malricula,  register,  diminu- 
tive of  iniilri.r,  roll,  origin,  womb,  from  mater, 
mother).  A  term  denoting  in  a  general  sense 
enrollment  or  admission  to  membership  in  any 
body  or  society,  specifically  in  a  college  or  uni- 
versity. 

MATRIMONIO  SEGRETO,  ma'tre-mo'ne-6 
sft-gra'tcj,  1l  (It.,  llie  secret  marriage).  An 
opera  bouli'e  in  two  acts  with  music  by  Cinia- 
rosa  and  words  by  Bertali,  produced  in  Vienna 
m  1792.  It  was  written  in  imitation  of  Des- 
faucheret's  Mariage  secret. 

MATRIX     (in     mathematics).      See     Deter- 

MI.X.VNT.S. 

MA'TRONA'LIA  (Lat.,  neu.  pi.  of  matrona- 
lis,  relating  to  a  matron).  A  festival  of  Juno 
celebrated  at  Rome  by  the  married  women  and 
maidens  of  the  city  on  the  first  of  ilarch.  It 
typified  the  sacredness  of  married  life  and  com- 
memorated the  dedication  of  the  temple  of  .Juno 
on  the  Esquiline,  to  which  in  the  festival  the 
matrons  marched  in  procession  with  oflferings  for 
the  goddess. 

MATSXJKATA,  milt'soo-ka'ta,  Masayoshi, 
Count  (  lS:i.5 — ).  A  Japanese  statesman,  born  in 
Satsuma,  the  .son  of  a  samurai.  After  the  revo- 
lution lie  became  head  of  one  of  the  new  prefec- 
tures and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  tax 
reform  of  1875.  He  became  Jlinister  of  Com- 
merce in  1880,  of  Finance  in  1881,  imperial 
Count  in  1884,  and  Cabinet  president  with  the 
portfolio  of  Finance  in  1891.  He  retired  in  1893, 
but  in  189ti  formed  a  new  Cabinet,  became  Minis- 
ter of  Finance,  introduced  the  gold  standard, 
which  put  Japanese  credit  on  a  firm  basis,  and 
retired  in  December.  1897.  because  of  opposition 
to  his  prof^'rannne  of  ta.xation. 

MATSUMAI,  ma-tsoo'mi,  or  MATSUMAYE. 
A  .seaport  of  .lapan.     See  Fukuyama. 

MATSXJMOTO,  mii'tsoo-mo'to.  A  town  of 
.Japan  in  the  District  of  Nagano,  situated  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  tlie  island  of  Ni])pon.  100  miles 
northwest  of  Tokio  (Jlap:  .Tapan,  E  .5).  It  lies 
in  a  wide  fertile  plain  surrounded  by  mountains, 
and  contains  a  picturesque  remnant  of  an  old 
liaimio  castle.  It  manufactures  silks,  baskets, 
and  preserved  fruits.    Population,  in  1898,  31,324. 

MATSUSHI'MA.  A  small  village  on  the 
Bay  of  Sendai.  on  the  east  coast  of  northern 
Hondo.  .Japan,  off  which,  in  a  shallow  lagoon,  lies 
a  group  of  SOS  tiny  islets  and  rocks  (also  called 
Malsi'ishima,  or  'Pine  Islands'),  ranging  in  height 
from  30  to  300  feet,  rising  steeply  out  of  the 
water  and  covered  with  pines  and  stunted  brush- 
wood, forming  a  beautiful  natural  garden.  It  is 
one  of  the  'three  natural  wonders'  of  the  coast; 
the  other  two  are  found  at  Miyadzu  and  Miya- 
jima    (qq.v.), 

MATSTJYAMA,  ma'tsoo-yil'ma.  A  town  of 
Japan,  capital  of  the  District  of  Ehinie  and  of 
the  former  Province  of  lyo.  It  is  situated  in  the 
western  part  of  the  island  of  Shikoku,  5  miles 
from  its  port,  Mitsu,  with  which  it  is  connected 


bj-  a  railroad  (Map:  Japan,  C  7).  It  is  chiefly 
noted  for  its  large  feudal  castle,  formerly  the 
seat  of  a  daimio,  which  was  one  of  the  few  pre- 
served as  specimens  by  the  Imperial  Covernmcnt 
when  feudalism  was  abolished.  Population,  in 
1898,  35,545. 

MATSXJYE,  ma-tsoo'yft,  or  Mat.sue.  A  town 
of  Japan,  capital  of  the  District  of  Shiniane  and 
formerly  of  the  Province  of  Idzumo.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  a  small  inlet  of  the  Sea  of  .Japan,  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  great  southwestern  peninsula 
of  the  island  of  Nippon,  140  miles  northwest  of 
Kioto  (Map:  Japan,  (;  (>).  It  is  a  clean,  pros- 
perous city,  with  numerous  temples,  and  is  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  the  polishing 
of  agates.     Population,  in   1898,  34,651. 

MAT'TATHI'AS  (Hcb.  Mittithyuh,  Gift  of 
Yalnveh).  A  priest,  father  of  .Judas  Maccabieus. 
See  JIaccabees. 

MAT'TAWA,  or  MATTAWAN.  A  town  in 
Nipissing  District,  Ontario.  Canada,  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  Ontario.  EI). 
It  is  an  important  distributing  point  for  lumber- 
ing di.stricts,  and  a  favorite  rendezvous  for 
moose-hunting  parties,  sportsmen,  and  anglers. 
Population,  in  1891,  1438;  in  1901,  1400. 

MATTAWA  RIVER.  A  tributary  of  the 
Ottawa  River,  Canada.  It  has  its  source  in 
Trout  Lake,  near  Lake  Nipissing,  and  after  an 
eastward  course  of  fifty  miles  flows  into  the 
Ottawa  River  at  ]\Iattawa  Town  ( Jlap :  Ontario, 
E  1 ) .  Prior  to  the  railway  era  it  was  an  im- 
portant trading  route  from  upper  Ottawa  to  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  is  now  much  resorted  to  for  the 
fine  angling  it  affords. 

MATTEAWAN,  mat'te-a-won'.  A  village  in 
Dutchess  County.  N.  Y.,  15  miles  south  of  Pough- 
keepsie;  on  Fislikill  Creek,  and  on  the  New- 
burg,  Dutchess  and  Connecticut,  and  the  New 
Y'ork,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroads  (Map: 
New  Y'ork,  G  4).  It  has  the  State  Hospital  for 
the  Criminal  Insane,  Highland  Hospital,  New 
Hospital,  and  the  Howland  Circulating  Library, 
with  about  7000  volumes.  The  village  possesses 
water  power  for  manufacturing,  and  its  indus- 
tries are  represented  by  wool  and  straw  hat 
shops,  machine  shops,  silk  mills,  novelty  works, 
etc.  Matteawan  was  founded  in  1814.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890.  4278:  in  1900,  5807. 

MATTE  COPPER.  See  Copper,  section  on 
MrtiiUuriiii. 

MATTEI,  ma-ta'e,  TiTO  (1841  —  ).  An  Ital- 
ian pianist,  born  at  Campobasso.  He  studied 
in  Naples  under  several  masters,  including  Thal- 
berg.  Conti,  and  Ruta.  Afterwards  he  played 
in  Paris  and  London,  and  made  several  success- 
ful tours.  His  compositions  include  the  operas 
Maria  di  Gand  (1877)  and  The  Grand  Duke 
(1888),  The  Spider  and  the  Fly  (1893),  and 
many  songs,  besides  considerable  instrumental 
music. 

MATTEO  DI  BASSI,  mattaV.  de  biis's*.  An 
Observantine  Franciscan,  founder  of  the  Order 
of  tlie  Capuchins    (q.v.). 

MATTER  (OF.  matiere,  matere.  matire.  Fr. 
maticrr,  from  Lat.  materia,  matter;  connected 
with  Skt.  ma,  to  measure,  build).  A  concept  of 
physical  science.  The  essential  nature  of  matter 
is  generally  considered  to  be  unknowable.  Broad- 
ly, the  material  world  is  discriminated  from 
the  world  of  mind,  although  it  is  conceded  that 


MATTER. 


190 


MATTER. 


all  our  knowledge  of  the  former  comes  to  U3 
through  sensation.  In  so  far  as  matter  is  con- 
ceived as  the  basis  of  the  reality  of  the  physical 
world,  the  term  designates  the  object-matter  of 
all  physical  science.  It  is  defined  in  physical 
treatises  wholly  by  its  properties. 

PROPERTIES  OF   IIATTEB. 

From  the  standpoint  of  physics,  the  properties 
of  matter  may  be  classified  as  inertia,  weight, 
and  various  cliaracteristics  of  size,  shape,  and 
molecular  connections.  When  one  changes  tlie 
niotion  of  a  piece  of  matter  in  any  way  one  is 
conscious  of  a  definite  sensation,  the  intensity  of 
which  depends  upon  two  things — the  suddemiess 
of  the  change  and  the  (|Uantity  of  the  matter, 
using  this  word  "quantity"  in  a  general  sense. 
This  sensation,  being  assciciatcd  willi  matter,  is 
said  to  be  due  to  a  definite  property  of  matter, 
which  is  called  its  "inertia"  (f|.v.).  .\gain,  if  a 
portion  of  matter  is  held  in  the  hand  and  so  kept 
from  falling  toward  the  earth,  there  is  a  definite 
sensation  which  is  attributed  to  a  property  of 
matter  called  'weight.'  It  can  be  shown  that  if 
our  senses  were  delicate  enough  they  would  ex- 
perience a  similar  sensation  when  any  two  pieces 
of  matter,  e.g.  two  bullets,  were  held  a  small 
distance  apart.     See  Gr.wit.vtio.v. 

There  are  a  great  man.v  properties  common  to 
all  kinds  of  matter,  but  to  dillerent  degrees; 
while  other  properties  are  eonlincd  to  certaiij 
forms  of  matter,  e.g.  solids  or  liquids  or  gases. 
A  solid  has  a  definite  shape  and  size  of  its  own, 
which  can.  however,  be  changed  by  the  applica- 
tion of  certain  forces.  Some  solids,  e.g.  copper, 
have  (luililili/  (q.v. )  and  can  be  drawn  out  into 
wires;  some  have  maUrnhiHly  (q.v.),  and  can  be 
hammered  out  into  thin  sheets;  .some  have 
porosity  (q.v.),  and  allow  various  other  portions 
of  matter  to  pass  through  them;  some  are 
'glazed'  and  are  nearly  im|M'rvious  to  other  por- 
ti<ins  of  matter;  some  are  hard,  others  soft; 
some  are  brittle,  others  tough;  some  are  plastic, 
like  putty,  etc. 

A  li(/iiitl  is  such  a  form  of  matter  that  if  left 
to  itself  in  air  (or  in  any  gas  or  other  liquid 
with  which  it  docs  not  mix  I  it  forms  a  spherical 
drop,  or,  if  contained  in  a  hollow  solid  here  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  it  takes  the  shape  of 
the  vessel,  keeping  a  constant  volume.  A  liquid 
has  then  certain  molecular  properties  in  its  sur- 
face which  makes  it  contract  as  far  as  possible. 
See  Capillarity. 

.•\  fins  is  such  a  form  of  matter  that,  heing 
contained  within  any  closed  vessel,  it  distributes 
itself  uniformly  throughout  the  space  open  to  it; 
thus  having  neither  a  shape  nor  a  size  of  its 
o»vii.  (See  flA.SEs.  Cenerai.  Properties  of.) 
Gases  and  liquids  are  called  /liiiils  because 
they  can  flow;  they  yield  to  any  force,  however 
snutll,  which  is  acting  in  s\ich  a  direction  as  to 
make  one  layer  move  over  the  other.  ( See 
IlvhROSTATir.s.)  Some  bodies  behave  as  liquids 
to  feeble  but  long-eoiitinucd  forces,  but  as  solids 
to  intense  and  sudden  forces;  shoemaker's  wax 
will  flow  .so  as  to  fill  a  tumbler  if  time  is  given, 
but  it  may  lie  broken  by  n  sudden  blow,  just  like 
a  picee  of  glass. 

.\ll  forms  of  matter  arc  divisible  into  smaller 
parts.  (See  following  paragraphs  on  Thmrint  of 
Matter.)  They  are  aNo  more  or  less  'idastic'; 
that  is,  if  the  shape  or  size  of  a  solid  is  deformed 
slightly  by  a  small  force,  or  if  the  volume  of  a 


fluid  is  so  changed,  they  will  return  to  their 
previous  conditions  more  or  less  perfectly  when 
the  deforming  force  is  removed:  tliis  jiroves  the 
existence  of  internal  molecular  forces  of  restitu- 
tion. (See  Elasticity.)  Whenever  the  shape 
of  a  solid  is  changod^not  the  shajie  of  the 
whole  solid  necessaiily,  but  the  shape  of  the 
little  cubical  jiortions  out  of  which  the  body  niay 
be  imagined  constructed — there  is  always  to  some 
degree  a  slipping  of  the  layers  of  matter  over  each 
other,  and  corresponding  internal  or  molecular 
friction.  Similarly  if  currents  are  produced  in 
lluids,  there  is  more  or  less  friction  between  the 
layers,  which  is  attributed  to  a  property  called 
riscositi/  (q.v.).  In  the  case  of  liquids  there  is 
a  superficial  viscosity  also,  which  is  made  mani- 
fest when  a  body  tloating  in  the  surface  is  moved. 

A  properly  common  to  all  forms  of  matter  is 
that  of  "diUusion";  if  two  portions  of  dili'erent 
kinds  of  matter  arc  brought  closely  togetlier — 'iu 
contact" — it  is  believed  that  there  is  always  a 
liassage  across  the  bounding  surface  of  molecules 
of  the  two  kinds  of  matter.  Sometimes  this  pas- 
sage can  Ix!  actually  observed,  e.g.  in  the  case  of 
any  two  ga.ses,  two  such  liquids  as  water  and 
alcohol,  two  such  .solids  as  lead  and  gold. 

Since  matter  as  such  has  so  many  properties: 
inertia,  weight,  size,  elasticity,  etc.,  two  portions 
of  matter  may  have  some  properties  in  connnon 
and  not  others.  Therefoie  if  two  portions  of 
matter  arc  to  be  defined  as  equal,  or  to  have  ci|ual 
quantities,  it  is  necessary  to  select  some  basis 
of  comparison.  By  definition,  two  portions  of 
matter  are  said  to  have  equal  quantities — or 
equal  "masses' — if  they  have  the  same  inertia; 
the  experimental  test  being  imagined  somewhat 
as  follows:  Subject  one  body  to  the  propulsive 
action  of  a  couqircssed  spring,  measuix'  its  veloc- 
ity along  a  smooth  horizontal  table;  compress 
the  same  spring  to  the  same  amount  as  before, 
allow  it  by  its  expansion  to  set  in  motion  a 
second  body,  and  measure  its  velocity;  if  these 
two  velocities  are  the  same,  the  two  bodies  have 
the  same  inertia. 

Xewton,  and  later  Bessel,  proved  tluit  the  ac- 
celeration of  a  falling  body  toward  the  earth  at 
any  one  place  on  the  earth's  surface  is  a  constant 
for  all  kinds  and  amounts  of  matter.  (Sec 
tJRAViTATlo.N.)  tall  it  (/.  The  weight  of  a  body 
of  mass  III  is  j<i;/,"  and  so  if  two  bodies  have  the 
same  mass,  as  defined  above,  they  also  have  the 
same  weight,  and  conversely.  Consequently  the 
mass  of  a  body  is  always  in  practice  mc;isnred 
by  comparing  its  weight  with  that  of  .a  coml)ina- 
tion  of  standards.  A  standard  body  is  chosen, 
a  gram;  other  bodies  of  the  same  mass  are 
made;  others  whose  masses  are  fractions  or  null- 
tiplcs  of  that  of  the  standard;  etc.  Such  a  set 
of  bodies  is  called  a  'set  of  weights.' 

It  is  believed  that  matter  as  such  is  indc- 
struetil)le;  that  is.  however  it  changes  its  form 
or  whatever  reactions  it  undergoes,  a  |Mirtion  of 
matter  preserves  its  mass  unaltered.  Tliis  idea, 
which  is  entirely  in  accorii  with  all  experiments 
and  observations,  is  called  the  principle  of  the 
conservation  of  matter.  It  is  perfectly  possible 
that  the  irrifihl  of  a  body  changes  as  its  tempera- 
ture, or  one  of  its  other  properties,  is  altered, 
but  there  is  no  experimental  evidence  in  favor  of 
such  an  idea.  For  full  discussion  of  proi>ertieS 
of  matter,  the  render  niav  consult  Tait,  Proper- 
ties of  Matter  (F.dinburgh.  1S8.5). 


MATTEB. 


191 


MATTERHORN. 


THEOBIES    OF    MATTER. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  to  account 
for  the  properties  of  matter;  somo  deny  an  ob- 
jective ri'ality  to  matter,  others  alliriii  it.  Jl  is 
possible  to  show  that  all  observed  phenomena 
in  nature  may  be  predicted  from  certain  general 
mathematical  equations,  the  quantities  in  which 
are  not  necessarily  connected  with  the  percep- 
tions of  man;  and  that  our  mode  of  interpreting 
these  quantities  in  terms  of  matter  is  not  the 
only  possible  one.  Again,  there  was  a  theory 
of  matter,  due  to  Boscovich,  in  which  all  actions 
of  matter,  as  revealed  l)y  our  senses,  are  attrib- 
uted to  'force-centres,'  which  act  on  each  other 
acconling  to  ditl'erent  laws  for  different  dis- 
tances.   This  theory  fails  to  explain  inertia. 

.Ml  theories  which  allirm  the  objective  reality 
of  matter  consider  any  portion  of  it  as  made  up 
of  "molecules'  and  'atoms,'  meaning  by  molecule 
the  smallest  portion  of  the  given  kind  of  matter 
which  retains  the  properties  of  the  whole  (e.g.  a 
molecule  of  copper,  of  water),  and  by  atom 
one  of  the  fragments  of  a  molecule  which  at  the 
present  time  with  our  present  knowledge  we  can- 
not break  up  into  smaller  parts.  There  are 
many  theories  of  this  kind,  which  differ  in  the 
way  they  regard  molecules  and  atoms;  but  they 
all  agree  in  one  respect,  they  consider  both  the 
molecules  and  atoms  to  be  in  motion.  On  the 
idea  that  molecules  are  in  motion  it  is  possible 
to  e.\plain  the  main  differences  between  solids, 
liquids,  and  gases  and  the  principal  features  of 
diil'usion,  osmosis,  evaporation,  dissociation, 
heat-conduction,  fluid  pressure,  viscosity,  etc., 
and  in  particular  to  deduce  the  most  important 
properties  of  a  gas.  Such  theories  as  this  are 
called  'kinetic  theories.'  On  any  kinetic  theory 
the  molecules  of  a  gas  are  conceived  to  be  in 
motion  in  paths  long  compared  with  their  own 
size,  the  average  length  of  jiath  being  called  the 
'mean  free  path.'  It  is  possible  by  identifying 
certain  actual  physical  quantities,  such  as  pres- 
sure, viscosity,  diffusion,  with  these  quantities  as 
predicted  by  mathematical  treatment  of  the 
simple  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  to  arrive  at  an 
idea  as  to  the  order  of  magnitude  of  the  num- 
ber of  molecules  in  one  cubic  centimeter,  and  the 
length  of  the  mean  free  path  at  different  pres- 
sures, etc.  The  approximate  number  of  mole- 
cules in  1  cubic  centimeter  at  atmospheric  pres- 
sure is  0  X  10'%  the  mean  distance  apart  of  two 
molecules  is  about  2.tj  X  10-'  centimeters,  the 
mean  free  path  is  about  1  X  10"°  centimeters,  and 
the  volume  actually  filled  by  the  molecules  in  1 
cubic  centimeter  is  ji^is^  cubic  centimeter.  If 
the  pressure  is  diminished,  these  quantities  all 
change. 

If  the  pressure  is  reduced  to  .001  centimeter  of 
mercury,  the  mean  free  jiath  becomes  about  1 
centimeter.  A  space  so  exhausted  of  matter  as 
this  has  special  physical  properties  and  is  called 
a  't'rookes's  vacuum'  or  the  'fourth  state  of 
matter.' 

In  a  liquid  the  molecules  are  supposed  to  be 
moving  about,  having  encounters  with  each 
other,  rebounding,  etc.,  yet  having  practically  no 
free  path. 

In  a  solid  the  molecules  are  supposed  to  be 
held  more  or  less  in  fixed  positions,  about  which 
they  may  vibrate,  thus  forming  an  elastic  con- 
figuration which  can  be  strained  or  even  perma- 
nentlv  deformed. 


In  the  cases  of  all  three — gases,  liquids,  and 
solids — while  the  molecules  are  moving  about, 
the  atoms  in  the  molecule  are  supposed  to  be 
making  innnenscly  rapid  vibrations,  which  pro- 
duce the  ether  waves  manifested  by  thermal, 
luminous,  and  chemical  effects  when  ttu'V  are  ab- 
sorbed. (See  Rabiatiox.)  These  kinetic  ideas 
of  molecules  and  atoms  can  be  used  to  form  a 
concrete  picture  of  nearly  all  the  phenomena 
and  properties  of  matter. 

The  question  remains,  What  is  the  'atom'? 
One  idea  was  that  an  atom  is  a  perfectly  elastic 
sphere,  which  is  obviously  incompatible  with 
facts;  but  the  theor.v  which  at  present  is  under 
discussion  and  not  disproved  is  that  atoms  are 
vortices  (q.v.)  in  a  perfect  fluid.  The  simplest 
type  of  vortex  is  like  a  smoke-ring;  but  there 
are  many  more  complicated  forms,  which  can  be 
shown  to  be  stable,  A  vortex  once  formed  in  a 
perfect  fluid  will  maintain  its  identitj'  as  it 
moves  about,  not  being  a  wave-motion  passing 
through  the  fluid,  but  always  consisting  of  the 
same  portion  of  the  fluid;  vortices  are  elastic; 
they  can  'combine,'  or  come  together,  and  form  a 
single  system.  Thus,  if  atoms  are  simply  vor- 
tices of  ether  moving  freely  through  the  ether, 
many  of  the  properties  of  matter  may  be  ex- 
plained. A  still  more  recent  theory  of  matter  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  an  electric  charge  iu 
motion  has  an  inertia  quite  apart  from  that  of 
the  matter  which  carries  the  cliarge.  Consult  a 
series  of  papers,  "Electrons,"  by  Sir  Oliver  Lodge, 
in  the  Electrician  (London,  I90'2-03). 

BiBLioGBAPiiY.  Jleyer,  The  Kinetic  Theory  of 
(loses  (Breslau,  1877,  Eng.  trans..  London, 
1899)  ;  Holman,  Matter,  Energy,  Force,  anil 
^York  (Xew  York,  1898)  ;  Ris't'een,  Molecules 
and  the  Molecular  Theory  (Boston,  1895)  ;  Jlax- 
well.  Matter  and  Motion  (id  ed..  New  York, 
1892)  ;  Tait,  Propei-ties  of  Matter  (3d  ed..  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1894)  ;  Poynting  and  Thom- 
son, Properties  of  Matter  (London  and  Philadel- 
phia, 1901)  ;  Lehmann,  Molekiilar  Phi/sik  (Leip- 
zig, 1888-89);  Maxwell.  Theory  of  Heat  (Lon- 
don, 1897);  Kelvin,  Popular  Lectures  and  Ad- 
dresses, vol.  i.  (New  York,  1891)  ;  Kindiall.  The 
Physical  Properties  of  Gases   (Boston,  1890). 

MATTER,  niA'tar',  Jacques  (179I-I864).  A 
French  philosopher,  born  in  Alsace.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Strassburg,  Giittingen.  and  Paris,  and  in 
18'20  was  appointed  professor  of  history  and 
director  of  the  College  of  Strassburg.  In  1832 
Guizot  made  him  inspector-general  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris.  In  1845  he  was  chosen  inspec- 
tor of  the  French  public  libraries.  He  I'ctired 
in  184(5  to  Strassbuig  to  become  a  professor  in 
the  Protestant  theological  seminary  there.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  great  nundier  of  standard 
works,  among  which  are:  Histoirr  unircrselle 
de  I'cglise  chrctienne  (1829-32);  Dp  rinfluence 
des  ma^urs  sur  les  lois  et  des  lois  sur  les  nujeurs 
(1832),  crowned  by  the  Academy;  De  I'ctat 
moral,  politiqtie  et  litterdraire  de  VAllemaijne 
(1874);  and  La  philosophic  de  la  religion 
(1857). 

MAT'TERHORN  (Fr.  Mont  Cerrin,  It. 
Monte  I'erriiui).  The  grandest  mountain  mass 
of  the  Alps,  located  near  Zermatt  in  Switzer- 
land, between  the  Canton  of  Valais  and  the  Val 
d'Aosta  in  Italv,  in  the  Pennine  group  (Jlap: 
Switzerland.  B  3).  Its  height  is  14,780  feet,  but 
that  fact  alone  gives  little  idea  of  the  sublimity 


MATTERHORN. 


192 


MATTHEW. 


of  its  abrupt  ii>t'  above  lUv  yicat  range  of  which 
it  is  the  ^eiilinel  peak.  The  vast  ghieiers  around 
it  have  their  upjwr  sources  in  snuvvs  at  the  foot 
of  this  niiglily  crag,  which  rises  on  its  northerly 
face  in  a  slieer  precipice  nearly  4000  feet  above 
them.  Previous  to  1805  it  was  deenied  impos- 
sible of  ascent,  but  it.s  ascent  is  now  made  less 
perilous  by  a  hut  built  at  a  height  of  12..'vJ()  feet, 
and  by  the  familiarity  of  the  guides  with  the 
most  dangerous  points,  and  tlie  means  to  sur- 
mount tliem.  Consult:  Tyndall.  Iloiii:i  uf  Exer- 
cise ill  the  M/is  (London,  1S71):  Whymper, 
4(Cra»i()/(.v  AiHuiHixt  the  Alps   (ib..  1871). 

MATTESON,  mat'trson,  Tompkin.s  H.\bri- 
SON  (lSi;i-84).  An  American  portrait  and  genre 
painter,  born  in  Peterborough,  X.  Y.  His  works 
are  usually  of  subjects  taken  from  early  Ameri- 
can history.  They  include  "Spirit  of  "TO,"  bought 
bv  the  AiiiericanArt  I'nion:  "Kirst  Sabbath  of 
the  Pilgrims:"  "At  the  Stile"  (I8G9)  ;  and  "Fod- 
deriii-  l';ittlc"    (  1809). 

MATTEUCCI,  mat'tft-v'ch*,  Carlo  (1811- 
08).  An  Italian  scientist,  born  at  Forli.  Ro- 
nuigna.  He  studied  the  physical  sciences, 
and  through  the  inlluence  of  Humboldt  was 
made  professor  of  physics  in  the  University 
of  Pisa.  He  devoted  himself  especially  to  the 
investigations  of  the  physiological  elt'ects  of 
electricity,  and  published  his  results  in  French, 
English,  and  Italian  journals  of  science.  He  also 
wrote:  Lezioiii  di  fisirit  (4tli  ed.  18.51)  :  Lczioiii 
sui  fcnomcni  fisicochiiiiiei  dei  corpi  vivciiti  (2d 
ed.  184C)  ;  and  Coiirs  special  siir  I'iiidiictioii,  le 
magnetismc  de  rotntion.  etc.  (1854).  In  1848 
he  was  made  Senator  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany, and  in  18C2  he  held  for  a  few  months  the 
jmrtfolio  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  Rattazzi 
.Ministry. 

MATTHAEI,  mat-ta'e,  Cubi.stiax  Fbikdrich 
(I744ISII1.  A  (Jernuin  classical  pliilologist, 
born  at  (jrijst,  Thuringia.  and  educated  at  the 
I'niversity  of  Ix'ipzig.  From  1774  to  1784  he 
\vn.s  professor  of  classical  literature  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Moscow.  In  1789  he  was  made  ])ro- 
fessor  of  Ori'ek  at  the  I'niversity  of  Wittenberg. 
He  published  many  vahialih'  nianuscrijits  from 
the  -Moscow  Library,  a  codex  of  Homeric  hymns, 
and  edited  I'liitarchi  Lihelliis  dr  Siipcrstitionc 
rl  Driiiiislhrnis  Onitio  Fiiiirbris  in  Lnudcm 
Athrnimsium  <yiii  pro  Patrin  I'ugnando  Crrsi 
Sunt  lid  ('iKTioneam.  He  also  edited,  among 
other  works;  (Irriiorii  Thessalunirnsis  A'.  Orii- 
lioncs  (1770).  and  .Yoriim  Testoinentum  XII. 
Tomis  ni.illni  tiiin  flrircc  rt  Latinc   (1788). 

MATTHESON,  miit'tft-sAn,  Joiianx  (1081- 
1704).  .\  (lirnian  composer  and  writer  on  music, 
born  at  Hamburg.  In  1('>97  he  entered  upon  his 
career  as  a  singer,  and  two  years  later  sang  one 
of  the  rftles  ami  also  conducted  at  the  harpsi- 
chord his  first  oix-ra.  /)iV  I'lii/iidrn.  From  170:i 
dates  his  aequamtancc  with  Handel.  In  1700 
he  obtained  the  post  of  secretary  to  the  F.nglish 
Legation.  In  1715  he  was  appointed  miisiral 
director  and  canon  at  the  Haudiurg  f'athedral. 
and  while  there  did  much  toward  developing 
the  then  unknown  form  of  clmri'h  cantata,  and 
made  the  innovation  of  introducing  female  sing- 
ers into  his  choir.  In  1719  he  also  bei'amc  Court 
chapel  master  to  the  Hiike  of  Hidstein.  From 
1728,  when  deafness  caiised  him  to  resign  the 
post  of  nuisical  director  at  the  catbeflral, 
to    his    death,    he    devoted    himself    largely    to 


writing.  His  compositions  are  unimportant,  but 
he  made  many  excellent  translations  of  Eng- 
lish works  on  politics  and  jurisprudence.  A 
man  of  wide  culture,  his  historical  works  are 
remarkable  for  their  catholicitj"  of  view.  Most 
notable  are:  Das  neti-emffnete  Orclieslcr,  oder 
yriindliche  Anleituiig  (1713);  Critica  Miisica 
(1722);  Das  forschende  Orcheeter  (1721);  De 
Eriiditiuiie  Mtisica  (1732)  ;  and  Die  neueste  Un- 
tcrsiichuiiij  der  liinyspiele  (1744). 

MATTHEW  (Lat.  Matthwus,  from  Gk.  Mar- 
Oaios,  .Uatthaios,  from  Heb.  Matlitliyiili,  Gift  of 
Yahweh).  The  Evangelist,  identical  with  the 
publican  whom  ilark  and  Luke  calle<l  Levi.  He 
was  the  son  of  .\l])ha'us.  The  Hebrew  name 
JIatthew.  probably  meaning  'the  gift  of  .Jehovah,' 
was  perhaps  a  surname  analogous  to  Ce|)has  as 
added  to  Simon.  He  was  early  called  to  be  a 
disciple  and  was  afterwards  numbered  anmng 
the  twelve  Apostles.  He  was  a  publican,  living 
at  or  near  Capernaum,  probably  one  of  the 
subordinate  class  who  were  charged  with  collect- 
ing the  taxes  in  a  limited  district.  Having  left 
all  to  follow  Jesus,  lie  also  made  Him  a  feast 
in  his  house,  at  which  a  great  multitude  of  pub- 
licans were  present  as  invited  guests  (Matt.  ix. 
9-13,  and  parallels).  After  the  record  of  his 
choice  as  one  of  the  Apostles,  given  by  three 
Evangelists — of  whom  only  JIatthew  sjieaks  of 
himself  as  the  publican — no  mention  is  made  of 
him  in  the  Xew  Testament,  except  in  the  group 
named  in  Acts  i.  13.  .\  tradition  as  old  as  the 
beginning  of  the  .second  century  says  that  the 
Twelve  continued  in  .Jerusalem  about  twelve 
years  after  the  ascension.  The  statement  of  Eu- 
sebius,  made  long  afterwards,  that  he  preached 
to  his  own  nation  before  he  went  to  foreign 
countries,  accords  with  this.  Among  the  coun- 
tries mentioned  by  other  writers  are  Ethiopia, 
Persia,  Macedonia.  Jledia,  and  Parthia.  .Several 
of  the  earlier  writers  agree  in  numl>ering  him 
among  the  few  Apostles  wlio  did  not  sutler  mar- 
tyrdom, though  a  later  tradition  allirnis  that  he, 
too,  sealed  his  testimony  with  his  blood.  For 
his  relation  to  the  Gospel  of  ilatthew  and  for 
bibliography,  see  Mattuew,  Gospel  of. 

MATTHEW,  Gospel  of.  The  first  of  the 
four  Gospels  in  the  Xew  Testament.  After  a 
preliminary  narrative  containing  an  account  of 
the  divine  announcement  to  Joseph  of  the  coming 
birth  of  .Icsiis.  the  visit  of  the  Magi  after  that 
birth,  the  flight  of  .Joseph  and  his  family  into 
Egypt,  Herod's  massacre  of  the  children,  and 
Joseph's  return  (ehs.  i.,  ii.).  a  brief  resume 
is  given  of  the  ministry  of  .John  the  iiaptist, 
leading  up  to  .Tesus'  baptism  by  .lobn  anil  His 
temptatiim  in  the  wilderness  (iii.-iv.  111.  The 
narrative  proper  then  l>egins  with  .Jesus'  with- 
drawal to  Galilee  and  His  active  entrance  upon 
His  work.  The  record  of  this  work  is  diviiled  into 
three  i)rincipal  parts:  (a)  His  ministry  in  (ialiliH? 
(iv.  12-xv.  20)  ;  (b)  His  ministry  in  the  rcginns 
north  and  east  of  Galilee  (xv.  21-xvii.  20)  :  (e) 
His  ministry  in  .Jerusalem  (xxi.-xxv.).  These 
parts  cover  practically  the  same  events  as  the 
main  portions  of  Mark  and  Luke,  but  the  evcids 
themselves  are  arranged  in  a  way  peculiar  to  this 
(Jospcl.  Tlie  chronological  order  is  apparently 
al)andoned  for  the  topical  order.  As  a  result, 
after  a  short  introductory  passage  (iv.  12-25) 
there  is  presented  a  group  of  discourses,  treating 
of   the   Slessianic    Kingdom — the    composite   ad- 


MATTHEW. 


193 


MATTHEW. 


dress  known  as  tlie  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (v.  1- 
vii.  20).  This  is  followed  by  a  group  of  miracles, 
evidently  intended  to  be  typical  of  Messianic 
time>  (viii.  1-ix.  34).  This  in  turn  is  followed 
bv  another  group  of  discourses,  though  of  broader 
compass  than  tlie  former  ( i.\.  35-.xiii.  58).  Then 
comes  anotlier  smaller  group  of  miraeles  repre- 
sentative of  Messianic  conditions  (xiv.  13-30)  and 
another  smaller  group  of  discourses  of  a  more 
distinctly  judgment  character  (xv.  1-20).  This 
same  arrangement  is  carried  out  in  the  second 
main  portion  of  the  narrative — the  ministry  in 
the  northern  region — the  groups,  however,  being 
all  of  them  small.  Fir.st  are  two  miracles,  the 
leading  one  evidently  intended  to  represent  the 
future  mission  to  tlie  Gentiles  (xv.  21-39).  Then 
follow  two  discourses,  the  main  one  having  to 
do  with  Jesus'  coming  passion  (xvi.).  Finally 
there  are  two  more  miracles,  the  principal  one  of 
which  apparently  represents  the  ilessianie  glory 
which  is  to  be  (x^-ii.  1-21).  There  then  follows 
a  passage  of  considerable  length,  the  object  of 
which  seemingly  is  to  form  a;  transition  to  the 
closing  main  portion  of  the  narrative.  In  this 
also  a  tendency  to  the  same  grouping  order  is 
seen  ( xvii.  22-xx. ) .  Then  is  given  the  final 
Jerusalem  ministry  (xxi.-xxv. ).  In  this,  how- 
ever, apart  from  the  introductory  passage,  con- 
taining a  record  of  the  triumphal  entry  into  the 
city,  the  cleaning  of  the  temple,  and  a  general 
summan'  statement  regarding  healings  accom- 
plished during  that  day.  the  whole  narrative  is 
concerned  witli  tlie  discourses  and  discussions  of 
Tuesday  of  Passion  Week,  the  one  exception 
being  the  account  of  the  withering  of  (he  fig  tree. 
The  Gospel  closes  with  the  record  of  the  Pass- 
over meal,  the  agony  in  Gethsemane,  the  be- 
trayal, arrest,  trial,  crucifixion,  and  resurrection 
(xxvi.-xxviii.) . 

From  this  arrangement  of  his  material  it  is 
quite  clear  that  the  Evangelist  had  before  him- 
self the  didactic  purpose  of  representing  Jesus 
Christ  to  his  readers  as  the  Jewish  Messiah.  This 
is  confirmed  bv  the  ])ro]ilietic  setting  in  which 
the  narrative  is  placed.  The  birth  of  Jesus,  the 
events  of  His  life,  the  circumstances  snrroundin,g 
His  death,  are  not  simply  connected  with  Old 
Testament  predictions.  Ijut  connected  with  them 
as  being  the  necessary'  outcome  of  a  divinely  pre- 
arranged plan,  making  Him  the  consummation  of 
tlieo<'ratie  history  and  the  fulfillment  of  the- 
ocratic prediction — though  not  answering  to  the 
national  Messianic  hopes,  but  rather  standing 
cut  against  them  and  disclosing  the  falseness  of 
the  .tudaism  of  that  time.  As  a  consequence, 
while  the  first  chapters  are  marked  by  the  ante- 
typal  idea,  the  last  chapters  are  marked  by  the 
idea  of  judgment  upon  the  false  views  of  the 
people. 

There  would  seem  to  be  no  room  for  doubt  that 
the  author  of  the  Gospel  was  a  -Tew.  The  narra- 
tive discloses  a  distinctively  Jewish  cast,  not 
merely  in  the  above  Jewish  presentation  of 
Jesus,  but  in  many  specific  Jewish  details  which 
this  representation  involves.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  quite  as  clear  that,  though  a  Jew,  the  author 
was  not  in  any  way  a  narrow-minded  one.  He 
recognizes  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  into  the 
Kingdom,  and  is  in  perfect  accord  with  it.  He 
unites  with  the  third  Gospel  in  reciting  the  Bap- 
tist's rebuke  of  the  .Jerusalem  .Jews  (ch.  iii.)  ; 
while  he  is  alone  in  giving  .Jesus'  denunciation 
of   the    Pharisees    and    Scribes    (ch.    xxiii.)     and 


Jesus'  commission  to  go  out  into  all  the  world 
and  make  disciples  of  all  nations  (ch.  x.xviii. ). 
From  these  facts  it  would  seem  to  follow  that 
the  Gospel  was  intended  for  Jewish  Christian 
readers.  Where  these  readers  were  situated  is 
not  so  apparent,  though  the  tendency  on  the  au- 
thor's part  to  explain  Judean  customs  and  be- 
liefs (xxii.  23;  xxvii.  15)  and  to  interpret  He- 
brew and  Aramaic  words  ( i.  23;  xxvii.  33.  46) 
would  go  to  show  that  they  were  not  jiersonally 
familiar  with  Palestine  and  the  Jewish  life 
within  that  land.  In  confirmation  of  this  is  the 
fact,  generally  accepted  to-daj-,  that  the  Gospel 
is  a  piece  of  first-hand  Greek  composition  and  not 
a  translation  from  a  Hebrew  original.  The 
place  of  writing  is  impossible  to  determine, 
though  Palestine  seems  most  probable.  The  date 
is  a  matter  of  much  discussion  and  cannot  be 
decided  with  any  certainty.  At  the  same  time 
the  placing  of  it  by  the  Tubingen  School  in  the 
second  century  is  now  abandoned  and  the  ques- 
tion is  mainly  concerned  with  the  dividing  line 
of  A.D.  70 — the  date  of  the  destruction  of  .Jeru- 
salem. For  either  side  of  this  line  definite 
reasons  may  be  urged,  the  general  .Jewish  tone 
of  the  Gospel — especially  its  Jewish-Christian 
didactic,  if  not  apologetic  cast — suiting  the  sit- 
uation cither  before  or  after  this  event. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  Apostle  Matthew 
there  is  nothing  in  the  above  conclusions  which 
would  render  impossible  an  authorship  of  the 
Gospel  by  him.  But  when  we  come  to  external 
evidence,  we  find  a  well-supported  tradition, 
which  can  be  traced  back  to  Papias  (c.lOO  A.D.), 
a  reputed  disciple  of  the  Apostle  .John,  to  the 
effect  that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew  (Aramaic). 
(.See  Eusebius.  Hist.  Kccles.,  iii.  30.)  The  terra, 
however,  which  Papias  uses  to  designate  this 
writing.  Logia,  is  subject  to  considerable  debate. 
It  is  used  in  many  clifferent  meanings,  so  that 
there  is  serious  doid)t  as  to  whether  it  can  be 
identified  with  the  general  term  Euangelion, 
used  to  designate  the  Ciospels  which  we  have. 
As  a  result  the  following  questions  present  them- 
selves: (1)  What  was  the  nature  of  this  tradi- 
tional Hebrew  writing  of  JIatthew  ?  Was  it  a 
collection  of  sayings  of  Jesus,  with  more  or  less 
narrative  additions,  or  was  it  a  full  narrative 
Gospel,  approximating,  at  least,  such  as  we  have 
in  the  New  Testament?  (2)  What  was  the  ori- 
gin of  our  canonical  Matthew?  W'as  it  a  second 
Gospel  writing  by  Matthew,  more  or  less  de- 
veloped out  of  this  first  one  of  his,  or  was  it?  an 
independent  Gos])el  writing  by  a  later  non-Apos- 
tolic hand  elaborated  friun  the  original  Matthew 
writing;  or  is  it  not.  after  all,  to  be  considered 
a  first-hand  Greek  composition,  but  a  transla- 
tion from  this  Hebrew  writing  which  Matthew 
originally  produced?  Advocates  are  found  for 
the  view  implied  in  eacli  of  these  questions, 
though  the  general  attitude  of  criticism  to-day 
may  be  considered  as  favor.able  to  the  fcdlowing 
position:  (1)  Papias's- /,o,(7iV(  was  a  collection  of 
■Sayings  of  .Jesus,'  originally  written  in  Aramaic 
by  '  the  Apostle  Matthew."  but  eomiiig  finally 
through  outside  translation  into  the  (heck  form 
in  which  it  was  used  by  Matthew  and  Luke.  (2) 
The  canonical  Matthew  is  an  original  Greek 
writing  by  a  later  non-Apostolic  hand,  more  or 
less  developed  from  the  Matthew  Logia,  and 
composed  not  far  from  .\.d.  "0. 

I.ITER.\TURE.  Besides  the  usual  New  Testa- 
ment   Introductions    and    the    introductory   por- 


MATTHEW. 


194 


MATTHIAS. 


tions  of  tlip  more  recent  lonimentaries  on  Mat- 
tliew,  foiisull  the  following  special  works: 
Wcstiott.  Intruduvtion  to  the  Study  of  the  Gos- 
pels (Nc-w  York.  1806)  ;  Palmer.  The  Gospel 
Problems  and  Their  Solution  (London.  ISD'J)  ; 
Badliam,  Formation  of  the  Gospels  (London, 
18i)l);  Carpenter.  The  First  Three  Gospels 
(London.  IS'.IO)  ;  Resell,  Die  Loijia  Jrsu  (Leip- 
zig, 18!"S)  :  Dalman.  Die  lVo»7f  Jesu  (Eng. 
trans.,  Edinburgli.  1902)  ;  J.  A.  Robinson.  The 
Study  of  the  Gospels  (London.  1!102)  ;  Wright, 
Composition  of  the  Four  Gospels  (London, 
18!l(M. 

MATTHEW  OF  WESTMINSTEB.  An 
imaginary  name  by  which  the  supposed  author 
of  the  Florcs  llistoriarum  was  designated.  Lu- 
ard  demonstrated  that  no  such  person  ever  ex- 
isted, and  tliat  the  Flares  was  the  work  of  sev- 
eral dill'ercnt  authors.  Consult  Luard's  preface 
to  his  edition  of  tlie  Flores,  in  3  vols.  (London, 
ISim).  in  tlie  ■•Riills  Scries." 

MATTHEW  PARIS,  or  ^Matthew  of  Pabis. 
An  r.ngli^h  ihr(jnicler.  See  Parls,  :M.\tthew. 
MATTHEWS,  math'uz,  En.MlND  Orville 
(lS.it) — ).  .\n  American  naval  otliccr.  bom  at 
Baltimore.  Ho  graduated  at  the  Naval  .\cademy 
in  IS.5.5.  and  in  lS(il,  on  board  tlie  Wubnsli,  assist- 
ed in  tlie  capture  of  the  Confederate  forts  at  Hat- 
teras  Inlet.  He  was  appointed  lieutenantcom- 
mander  in  18ti2.  connnamled  the  Sonoma  of  the 
South  .\tlantie  Squadron  in  18046.').  and  from 
ISC)")  to  ISO!)  was  on  duty  at  the  Naval  Academy. 
In  lS7n  he  was  promoted  to  be  commander,  and 
from  1S7S  to  1881  was  inspector  of  ordnance  at 
the  lirooklyn  Navy  Yard.  In  ISSl  he  was  ap- 
pointed captain,  in  1804  commodore,  and  in  1898 
rear  admiral,  and.  having  been  retired  in  the 
latter  year,  was  appointed  president  of  the  E.\- 
aminiiig  Hnnnl. 

MATTHEWS  (.Tamks)  Bkandee  (18.52—). 
An  -American  author  and  educator,  born  in  New- 
Orleans.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College 
in  1871  and  from  the  Columbia  Law  School  in 
187.3.  In  1802  he  was  made  a  professor  in  Co- 
lumbia, and  soon  won  eminence  in  America  as  a 
critic  of  dramatic  literature.  His  writings  con- 
sist mainly  of  essays  on  the  theatre,  of  comedies, 
and  of  sliiirt  stories,  yet  .iHirrirdiiisHis  and  liriti- 
cismn  (1802)  might  "be  dassitied  as  a  linguistic 
study.  .-Xs  their  titles  imply.  Aspects  of  Fiction 
(1800;  revised  in  1002)  and  .In  Introduction  to 
the'Stndi/  of  American  Literature  (1800)  enter 
upon  otiier  fields.  His  Father's  Son  (ISO.'j),  a 
novel,  deals  with  a  New  York  broker's  influence 
on  his  son.  Sketches  of  New  York  life,  called 
\iiincltes  of  Manhattan,  appeared  in  1894:  .S7h<Z- 
ies  in  l.oral  Color  appeaicil  in  1808.  and  .4. 
Confident  Tomorrow  in  1900.  Matthcws's  drs- 
mnlic  critieisiii,  which  is  French  in  tone,  includes 
French  Dramatists  of  the  Xinrteenth  Century 
(1881:  revised  in  1801  and  1901)  and  Studies 
of  the  Slafie  (1894),  to  which  may  be  added  The 
ThralrcH  of  Paris  (ISSO).  His  comedies, 
which  are  literarj-  rather  than  practically 
dramatic,  include  'l/</rf/rn/'.i  I.orers  (1884), 
In  the  Vesliliule  Limited  (1892).  and  T7ic  De- 
risinii  of  the  Court  (ISilS).  More  recent  works 
are  The  Action  and  the  Word  (1900)  ;  The  His- 
lorical  \orrl  and  Other  Fssays  (1001)  :  Parts  of 
Uprcch.  Fssnys  on  Knfilish  .(1901):  The  Philos- 
ophy of  Ihf  Short-Story  (1901);  and.  in  col- 
laboration   with    Laurenrc    llutton.    .tenors    and 


Actresses  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
i  1000) .  A  uniform  edition  of  Matthews's  critical 
works  was  Ijegun  in  1003. 

MATTHEWS,  Sta>-ij:y  (1824-89).  An 
American  jurist,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  He 
graduated  at  Kenyon  College  in  1840.  practiced 
law  in  Cincinnati,  and  was  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  in  1851-53.  He  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1855,  served  in  the  Civil  War  aa 
lieutenant-colonel  and  colonel  of  Ohio  regiments, 
and  was  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Cinein-  ^ 
nati  in  1803-04.  (r)n  the  resignation  of  .John 
Sherman  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States. 
Senate  as  a  Republican,  and  served  in  1877-79. 
He  was  appointed  by  President  Garfield  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in 
1881. 

MATTHEWS,    Wasiii.xgtox    (1843—).     An 
American  ethnologist,   bom  at  Killiney   in  Ire- 
land.    He  graduated   from  the  medical   depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Iowa  in  1804;  entered 
the    United    States    Army   as    assistant    surgeon, 
and   retired   in    1805   with  the   rank   of  surgeon. 
He  nuide  ethnological  and  philological  studies  of 
North    .American    Indian    trilies,    and    publislied: 
Dictionary    of     the    Lanyuaye    of    the    Ilidatsa 
(1873);    Xavajo    Sihersmiths     (1883):    .Yarn;o       ^ 
Hforrrs    (1884);    The   Mountain    Chant,   a   -Ya-      i 
vajo    Ceremonii     (1887)  ;    and    Navajo    Legends      i 
(1807). 

MATTHI'AS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  MarWas.  a 
shorter  form  of  MaTraSias,  Maltathias,  horn 
Heb.  Mattilhyfih,  Gift  of  Yahwch).  The  dis- 
ciple chosen  bv  lot  to  succeed  .ludas  Iscariot  as. 
one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (Acts  i.  15-20).  This 
is  the  onlv  reference  to  him  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Later  tradition  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles., 
i.  12;  ii.  1)  made  him  one  of  the  seventy  (Luke 
X.  1).  He  figures  ])rominently  in  Apocryi)hal 
literature:  a  Gospel  of  ilatthias  and  the  Atts  of 
Andrew  and  Jlatthias  deal  with  his  doctrine  and 
his  work  among  the  Ethiopian  cannibals. 

MATTHIAS  (1557-1010).  Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror from  1012  to  1010.  He  was  biu-n  February 
24.  1557.  a  younger  son  of  Maximilian  II.  In 
1557  a  Catholic  party  in  the  Belgijin  Netherlands 
offered  him  the  governorship,  which  he  accepted. 
He  found  his  autliority.  however,  hemmed  in  at  all 
points,  and  resigned  in  1581.  In  1503  his  1)rothcr, 
the  Emperor  Rudolph  II..  appointed  him  Gov- 
ernor of  the  .Archduchy  of  .Austria.  Matthias  ex- 
erted himself  to  suppress  Protestantism,  in  which 
he  had  the  assistance  of  the  celebrated  prelate 
Khlcsl  (<i.v.).  In  consequence  of  the  incapacity 
of  Rudol[)h.  whose  oppressive  acts  had  excited 
.a  formidable  insurrection  in  Hungary.  Matthias 
was  fcirmally  declared  by  the  .Austrian  princes 
head  of  their  house  in  IfiOO.  He  thereui)on  came 
to  terms  with  the  Hungarian  Protestants,  con- 
eluding  with  them  the  Treaty  of  Vienna.  Two 
vcars  later  he  extorted  from  Rudolph,  liy  the 
Treaty  of  Lieben,  .lune  25.  1008.  the  cession  of 
.Austria.  Hungary,  and  Moravia,  and  in  1011  the 
crown  of  Bohemia,  of  which  Rudolph  had  been 
depriveil  liy  his  subjects,  was  transferred  to  Mat- 
thias. Rudolph  died  without  issue  in  1012.  and 
Matthias  was  at  once  chosen  his  successor  in  tlie 
G<>rman  Empire.  A  confederation  of  Protestant 
States,  known  as  the  I'nion.  had  been  established 
in  1008.  and  a  Roman  Catholic  League  had  been 
organized   in   1C09.     Matthias  attcmpleil   unsuc- 


MATTHIAS. 


193 


MATTISON. 


ccssfully  to  bring  the  latter,  which  was  iiniier 
Bavarian  leadership,  under  Austrian  influence. 
In  1017  Matthias,  who  was  without  heirs,  was 
compelled  to  have  his  cousin,  Ferdinand  of  Styria, 
crowned  King  of  Bohemia,  and  the  next  year 
King  of  Hungary.  The  Bohemians  revolted 
against  Ferdinand,  enraged  by  the  severity  of  his 
religious  persecutions;  the  insurrection  at 
Prague,  in  lOlS,  gave  the  signal  for  the  outbreak 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (q.v.),  and  the  last 
days  of  JIatthias  w:ere  embittered  by  the  failure 
of  all  his  efl'orts  to  restore  peace.  He  died  March 
20,  Hi  19.     See  Austria-Hungary. 

MATTHIAS,  Gospel  of.  See  Apocrypha, 
heading  .Ycir   Tcstaiiif  iit. 

MATTHIAS  I.,  CORVrNUS  (1443-90). 
King  of  Hungary  from  1458  to  1490.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  .I;lnos  Hunyady  (q.v.),  and  was 
elected  King  of  Hungary  in  14o8,  in  spite  of 
the  opposition  of  some  of  the  great  nobles,  who 
offered  the  crown  to  the  Emperor  Frederick  III. 
The  boy  King  fought  successfully  against  the 
Emperor,  who  sold  his  claims  to  the  crown  in 
1403.  Matthias  had  in  the  meantime  to  contend 
against  the  Turks,  at  that  time  under  the  rule 
of  Sultan  Jlohammed  II.  In  a  war  of  several 
years'  duration  the  Hungarian  arms  asserted 
themselves  successfully  against  the  forces  of  the 
conqueror  of  Constantinople.  After  some  hostili- 
ties with  Stephen.  Waywode  of  Moldavia,  Mat- 
thias engaged  ( 1468)  in  a  w^ar  against  his  father- 
in-law,  George  Podiebrad,  King  of  Bohemia, 
which  occupied  him  for  some  years,  and  was 
followed  by  a  war  with  Poland,  after  which  he 
again  turned  his  arms  with  success  against  the 
Turks.  Matthias  reached  the  height  of  his  power 
when  in  1485,  in  a  war  Avith  the  Emperor  Freder- 
ick III.,  he  made  himself  master  of  Vienna,  the 
Hapsburg  capital.  There  he  died  five  years  later. 
Matthias  Corvinus  was  a  great  patron  of  arts  and 
letters,  and  adorned  his  capital  with  the  works  of 
renowned  sculptors,  in  addition  to  a  library  said 
to  contain  50,000  volumes.  He  sent  a  large  stafi' 
of  literary  men  to  Italy  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing copies  of  valuable  manuscripts.  He  also 
adorned  his  Court  by  the  presence  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  Italy  and  German}',  and  himself 
was  an  author  of  no  mean  ability.  At  the  same 
time  the  affairs  of  the  Government  were  not  neg- 
lected. The  finances  were  brought  into  a  flour- 
ishing condition,  industry  and  commerce  were 
prninntcd  by  wise  legislation,  the  army  was  reor- 
ganized, and  justice  was  strictly  administered. 
Consult  Fischer,  Konig  Mathiiis  Cori-inus  uiul 
seine  Ilihiiiitlicl-    (Leipzig,  1878). 

MATTHISSON,  miit'te-son,  Friedrich  vox 
(1701-1831).  A  German  lyric  poet,  horn  at 
Hohcndndeleben,  .January  23,  1701 :  he  died  at 
Wiirlitz,  JIarch  12.  1831.  Trained  for  the  minis- 
try at  Halle,  he  supported  himself  by  teaching  till 
appointed  (1794)  reader  to  the  Princess  of  An- 
halt-Dessau.  with  whom  he  traveled  in  Switzer- 
land, Tyrol,  and  Italy.  On  her  death  (1811)  he 
was  attached  to  the  Court  of  Wiirttcmberg,  and 
resided  for  some  time  in  Italy.  His  prose  is 
mediocre,  his  verse  meloilious  and  gracef\il.  espe- 
cially in  rural  description,  but  never  strong. 
Matthisson's  fichriften.  as  finally  revised  by  the 
author,  came  out  in  8  vols.  (Zurich,  182.5-29). 
Vol.  ix.    (1833)    contains  a  biography  by  Diiring. 

MATTING  (from  mat.  AS.  mraitn.  from  Lat. 
matta,  mat).    A  general  name  for  various  coarse 


woven  or  plaited  fibrous  materials  for  covering 
the  floors  of  rooms,  passages,  lobbies,  etc.,  for 
door-mats,  for  hanging  as  screens,  for  packing 
furniture,  or  for  packing  heavj'  merchandise. 
Matting  is  extensively  manufactured  from  straw, 
bulrushes,  grasses  of  several  kinds,  and  the 
leaves  of  various  palms,  and  forms  an  iuii)ortant 
article  of  commerce.  Flocn-matting,  now  so  ex- 
tensively employed  as  a  cheap,  cool,  and  cleanly 
substitute  for  carpeting,  is  woven  from  two  en- 
tirely different  materials:  Straw,  made  from  a 
species  of  reed,  or  grass  having  culms  6  feet 
high,  and  the  fibrous  husk  of  the  eocoanut  palm, 
called  coi'r.  (See  Coir.)  Most  of  the  straw  mat- 
ting comes  from  China  or  Japan;  the  Bungo 
matting  is  made  from  a  coarse  straw,  and  the 
Bingo  matting  from  a  finer  material,  which  is 
easier  to  manipulate,  but  not  so  durable  as  the 
coarse  straw.  The  loom  employed  is  a  most  simple 
hand-machine,  consisting  mcre'ly  of  an  upright 
bamboo  framework,  with  cylindrical  cross-pieces 
above  and  below,  over  which  the  warp  runs,  the 
woof  being  woven  in  without  a  shuttle.  The  warp 
threads  are  of  hemp,  oiled  to  make  them  smooth. 
The  straw-  is  woven  while  still  wet  and  is  then 
dried  in  the  sun  or  over  slow  fires.  Matting 
is  either  made  in  sections  of  two  to  five  yards, 
which  are  afterwards  neatly  Joined  together  into 
a  roll  of  40  yards,  or  the  fabric  is  all  woven 
in  one  piece,  in  which  case  it  is  likely  to  be  loose 
in  texture.  To  remedy  this  the  matting  is  loos- 
ened and  pulled  down  closer  by  coolies,  while  it 
is  drying  over  a  box  containing  a  charcoal  fire. 

The  yarn  from  which  cocoa  matting  is  woven 
is  sometimes  spun  by  machinery,  but  it  is  said 
that  the  hand-spun  yarn  is  both  cheajier  and 
better.  The  yarn  is  "twisted  by  being  rolled  in 
a  peculiar  manner  in  the  hands,  the  work  being 
done  b}'  natives  during  the  rainy  season.  The 
yarn  is  first  bleached  and  then  sorted  into  colors. 
The  process  of  weaving  is  an  arduous  one.  and 
the  looms  are  peculiarly  constructed  for  the 
purpose  and  very  strong.  The  value  of  the  straw 
matting  imported  into  the  United  States  an- 
nually from  China,  Japan,  and  India  for  ten 
vears  is  as  follows:  1891,  $1,489,093:  1892, 
$1,037,473;  1893,  $1,065,100:  1894,  $1,874,977; 
1895,  $1638.038:  1890,  $2,777,417:  1897.  $3,922.- 
003;  1898,  $1,437,171;  1899,  $2,051,690;  1900. 
$2,074,911.  Consult  History  and  Miiniifuclure  of 
FJoor  Coverings  (New  York,  1898). 

MATTIPI,  miit-te'pe  (South  American  name) , 
or  Frog-Sxake.  A  colubrine  serpent  ( Xenodon 
sevcrus)  of  Xortheastern  South  America,  related 
to  the  hognose,  and  one  of  many  similar  species 
of  the  opisthoglyph  subfamily  Xenodontinie.  The 
snakes  of  this  group  are  poisonous,  although  the 
enlarged  posterior  teeth  which  serve  as  "fangs' 
are  solid,  and  have  no  grooves  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  poison  from  distinct  ventmi-glands.  They 
are  slow  to  bite,  however,  and  little  worse  results 
in  a  healthy  man  than  local  and  temporary  pain, 
swelling,   and   soreuess. 

MAT'TISON,  HiR.\M  (1811-08).  A  clergy- 
man of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  was 
born  at  Norway,  Herkimer  County.  N.  Y.  He 
filled  pastorates  at  Watertown  and  Rome,  N.  Y., 
and  in  1852  removed  to  New  York  City,  wdiere  he 
was  pastor  of  John  Street  Church,  and  after- 
wards of  Trinity  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
Thirty-fourth  Street,  which  he  organized.  He 
labored  with  great  earnestness  to  persuade  the 


MATTISON. 


19G 


MATY. 


General  Conference  in  1860  to  take  action  against 
all  siave-liolding  in  the  C'huroh ;  but,  failing  in 
this,  he  wuhiliew  from  tliu  .MctliodUl  Kpiseupal 
Churth,  November  1,  1801,  and  lietanie  pastor  of 
Saint  .Jolin's  Independent  Jletliodist  Chiireli, 
New  York  City.  He  returned  in  ISIi.o  to  the 
denomination  that  he  had  left,  and  was  appointed 
to  Trinity  Methodist  Episcopal  Cliurch  in  .Jersey 
City.  The  last  year  of  his  life  he  was  district 
secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian 
Union.  His  books  and  contributions  to  the 
periodical  i)ress.  both  in  jjrose  and  verse,  were 
numerous,  including  among  others:  Traclx  for 
the  Times  (1843)  ;  an  improved  edition  of  Bur- 
rill's  Geography  of  the  lleaeeiis  (18.50)  ;  Hpirit- 
Rapping  Unveiled  (1854);  Sacred  Melodies 
(185'J);  Impending  Crisis  (1859);  Immortality 
of  the  iioitl  (1860);  Resurrection  of  the  Body 
(I860):  Defense  of  American  Methodism 
(1800);  Popular  Amusements  (1807).  He  was 
widely  known  for  his  vigorous  opposition  to 
political  Romanism.  Consult  his  Life,  by  Van- 
sanl   (New  York.  1870). 

MATTO  GROSSO,  miit'to  grds'so.  A  western 
State  of  r.r^izil,  hounded  by  the  States  of  Ama- 
zonas  and  Tar;!  on  the  north.  Ooyaz  on  the  east, 
Sao  Paulo,  Paranii,  and  the  Republic  of  Para- 
guay on  the  south,  and  Bolivia  on  the  west.  Hs 
area  is  estimated  at  5:3-2,550  square  miles.  JIatto 
Grosso  is  the  second  in  size  among  the  States  of 
IJrazil  and  one  of  the  least  populated.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  it  is  still  imcxplored,  and 
little  is  known  about  its  natural  resources.  The 
soutlieni  half  of  the  State  forms  part  of  the 
great  Brazilian  plateau,  which  falls  in  several 
escarpments  toward  the  low  fnrest  regions  in  the 
north,  and  is  cut  by  deep  valleys  along  the  rivers. 
The  rivers  "of  Matto  Grosso  rise  in  the  centre  of 
the  State  and  flow  in  every  direction.  The  chief 
of  tliese  are  the  Xingu.  which  flows  northward 
and  falls  into  the  estuary  of  the  Amazon :  the 
Tapajos,  the  Araguay.l.  tlie  Paraguay,  and  nu- 
merous affluents  of  the  Madeira,  and  the  Paranfl. 
Owing  to  the  vast  area  of  the  State,  the  climate 
shows  considerable  variation.  The  low,  swampy 
depressions  along  the  rivers  have  an  extremely 
hot  and  luiheallhful  cliniiite,  while  in  the  elevated 
plateaus  it  is  more  moderate,  and  the  cool  winds 
from  the  pampas  sometimes  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture even  to  the  freezing  point.  Agricultural 
land  is  found  mainly  in  the  valleys,  while  the 
plateaus  afTiird  good  grazing.  The  agricultural 
production  of  the  State  is  insignificant.  Matf-, 
rubber,  vanilla,  and  .sarsaparilhi  are  mostly  gath- 
ered by  the  abnrigines.  The  gold  and  diamond 
mines  of  the  State,  once  extensively  expbiited,  are 
now  abandoned.  It  is  generally  believed,  how- 
ever, that  the  mineral  deposits  of  Matto  firosso 
are  still  very  valuable.  The  civilized  population 
of  the  State  was  in  ISflO  only  02.827,  many  of 
whom  were  of  mixed  race,  and  it  is  estimat<'d 
that  there  are  still  aViout  25.000  uncivilized  In- 
dians belonging  to  various  tribes.  The  com- 
mercial centre  of  the  State  is  Corumbrt.  on  the 
Paraguay,  and  the  capital  is  Cuyabfl  (q.v.), 

MATTOON'.  A  city  in  Coles  County.  111..  56 
mile-,  we, I  .)f  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  on  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  T.ouis,  the  Illinois 
Central,  and  the  Peoria,  Decatur  and  Kvansvillc 
railninds  (Map:  Illinois,  D  4).  There  are  a 
public  lil)rarv  and  reading-room,  and  the  Old 
Folks'  Home  of  the  I.  O.  O.  F.     The  city  is  the 


centre  of  a  broom-corn  district,  and  carries  on 
a  considerable  trade  in  broom-corn,  grain,  live 
stock,  and  fruit.  Among  the  industrial  plants 
are  the  repair  shops  of  the  Big  Four  and  Illinois 
Central  railroads,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
broom  factories,  brick  and  tile  works,  carriage 
and  wagon  shops,  ttouring  mills,  grain  elevators, 
and  hay  press.  Settled  and  incorporated  in  1855, 
Mattoon  is  governed  under  a  revised  charter  of 
1807,  providing  for  a  mayor,  elected  biennially, 
and  a  unicameral  council  which  confirms  the 
executive's  nominations  to  the  majority  of  admin- 
istrative ollices.  Tlie  city  owns  and  operates  the 
electric  light  plant.  Population,  in  1890,  6833; 
in  1900.  9022. 

MATUBIN,  mjl'too-ren'.  A  town  of  \ene- 
zuela,  in  the  State  of  Bermudez  (Map:  Venezuela, 
E  2).  It  is  situated  on  a  savanna  west  of  the 
Orinoco  delta,  and  40  miles  inland  from  the  (iulf 
of  Paria.  It  is  connected  by  a  highway  with  the 
port  of  Cuman;!,  and  is  the  conuncrcial  centre  of 
the  plains  west  of  the  delta.  Its  trade  is  chiefly 
in  cattle  and  hides.  Population,  about  10.000. 
The  town  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  State 
of  the  same  name  which  was  united  with  Ber- 
mudez. 

MATURIN,  mat'u-rin,  Charles  Robebt 
(1782-1824).  An  Irish  romancer  and  novelist, 
born  in  Dublin,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College. 
Maturin  took  orders  in  the  Anglican  Church, 
became  curate  of  Saint  Peter's,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  an  eloquent  preacher.  He  died  October 
30.  1824.  His  ncjvcls  comprise:  The  Fatal  Ue- 
venqe  (18071  :  The  Wild  Irish  Boy  (1808)  ;  The 
Milesian.  Chief  (1812);  IVoHien  (1818);  Mel- 
molh  the  Wanderer  (1820);  and  Alhigen.ses 
(1824).  In  those  novels  he  essayed  by  turn  both 
the  description  of  manners  and  the  supernatural 
romance  of  the  Radclill'e  school.  JIaturin  wrote 
plays,  of  which  Bertram,  produced  by  Kean  at 
Driiry  Lane,  May  9,  1816,  ran  for  twenty-two 
nights.  The  others  cither  failed  or  were  less 
successful.  Consult  Mehnoth,  edited  with  me- 
moir and  bibliography   (London,  1892). 

MATY,  ma't.\  Matthew  (1718-76).  An  F.ng- 
li^h  writer  and  lil)rarian.  born  at  Montfort,  near 
Utrecht,  Holland.  May  17,  1718.  His  father  wa.s 
a  Protestant  refugee  from  Provence,  who  h;id  .set- 
tled at  Montfort  as  minister  of  the  Walloon 
church  there.  Matthew  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Ueydcn,  where  he  graduated  Ph.D. 
and  ^I.D.  in  17-40.  The  next  year  he  came  to 
London  and  began  practice  as  a  physician,  but 
he  devoted  much  time  to  literature.  In  17,50  he 
started  the  Journal  Brilanniqur  (suspended 
1750),  a  bimonthly  printed  at  The  Hague,  It 
gave  in  French  an  account  of  English  literary 
news.  This  periodical  brought  Maty  numerous 
aeqmiintances  anmng  men  of  letters.  In  1751  he 
was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he 
became  secretary  in  1765.  After  serving  as  an 
uniler-librarian  of  the  British  Museiun,  he  was 
appointed  princijial  librarian  in  1772.  He  died 
.July  2,  1776.  Maty  helped  Gibbon  bring  out  the 
Easay  on  the  Shiily  of  Literature,  contributed  to 
the  I'hilosojihical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, and  published  several  independent  books. 
His  last  work  was  the  Memoirs  nf  the  Karl  of 
Chester firhl,  completed  by  his  son-in-law,  .Tusta- 
mond,  and  published  with  Cliestcrfield's  Mis- 
cellaneous Works  (1777), 


MATZNER. 


197 


MAULE. 


MATZNER,  mgts'ner,  Ediard  Adolf  Ferdi- 
nand (1805-92).  A  Gi-rmau  philologist,  born  at 
Rostock,  and  educated  there,  at  (ireifswald.  and 
Heidelberg.  He  taught  in  gymnasia  at  Berlin 
and  Bromberg  and  in  the  famous  Luisenschule  in 
Berlin  (1838-02).  His  earlier  laViors  included 
editions  of  Lyeurgus  (1830),  Antiphon  (1838), 
and  Dinarcluis  (1842);  but  he  is  better  known 
for  liis  contributions  to  Englisli  and  Romance 
pliilology.  He  wrote:  Syntax  dcr  neujranzosiscJien 
tSpniche  (1843-45);  Altfranzbsisclie  Lieder 
(1853);  Fraiizosische  Oraminalik  (185G;  3d  ed. 
1884)  ;  a  very  valuable  Englische  (J rammatik 
(1860-65;  3d  ed.  1880-85);  and  Altenglische 
Simichprohcn  (1867-G9;  witli  a  partial  vocabu- 
lary, to  M,    1872). 

MATZOON'.  Milk  in  wliieli  lactic  acid  fer- 
nic-ntation  lias  been  alkiwed  to  proceed  only  to  a 
certain  point,  differing  in  this  way  from  sour 
milk.  It  is  often  tolerated  by  irrital)le  stomachs 
which  will  not  retain  milk,  or  other  fermented 
milk  foods,  as  koumiss  or  kefir.  It  may  be  pre- 
pared by  boiling  milk  and  letting  it  cool  to  100° 
F.  A  small  amount  of  previously  prepared  mat- 
zoon  is  then  added  and  the  mixture  kept  in  a 
warm  room  for  twelve  hours;  it  is  then  placed 
on  ice. 

MAUBEUGE,  mo'bezh'.  A  fortified  town  of 
France,  in  tlie  Department  of  Nord,  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  Sambre.  It  is  well  built  and 
important  from  a  military  point  of  view.  It 
has  manufactures  of  iron  bars,  hardware,  and 
marble.  The  town  has  an  arsenal,  several  old 
convents,  a  museum,  and  a  public  library.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  20,826. 

MAUCH,  mouK,  Karl  (1837-75).  A  German 
traveler  and  African  exploiter,  born  at  Stetten, 
Wiirttemberg.  He  went  to  South  Africa  in  1863, 
traveled  through  the  Transvaal,  anil  made  an  ex- 
cellent map  of  it;  discovered  valuable  gold  fields 
in  1867,  explored  the  diamond  fields  in  1870  and 
1871,  and  in  the  latter  year  discovered  the  ruined 
city  of  Zimbabwe,  in  Mashonaland,  which  he 
identified  with  biblical  Ophir.  He  wrote  llcisrn 
im  Iiuicrn  ron  Siidafrika,  1SG5-72  (1874),  and 
contributions  to  Petermanns  Mitteilunqen.  Con- 
sult the  biogra])hy  by  :Mager   (Stuttgart,  1895). 

MAUCH  CHUNK,  nijik  chunk.  A  borough 
and  the  county-seat  of  Carbon  County.  Pa..  46 
miles  west  by  north  of  Easton,  on  the  Lehigh 
Eiver,  the  Lehigh  Canal,  and  the  Lehigh  Valley 
and  Central  of  New  Jersey  railroads  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  F  3).  This  town  marks  the  pas- 
sage of  the  river  through  precipitous  mmintains, 
and  forms  the  eastern  extremity  of  a  highly  pro- 
ductive anthracite  region.  Its  elevated  situation 
on  the  side  of  the  mountain,  from  the  Indian 
name  of  which  it  Is  named,  and  its  picturesque 
surroundings,  with  a  healthful  climate,  cause  it 
to  be  nuich  frequented  as  a  summer  resort. 
\ine  miles  west  by  south  of  the  village  are  the 
Summit  Hill  coal  mines,  which  are  celebrated  as 
among  the  richest  in  the  State.  Another  feature 
of  interest  here  is  a  burning  mine.  The  coal  was 
fonncrly  carried  by  means  of  a  gravity  railroad, 
called  tlie  'Switchback,'  to  llauch  Chunk,  the  cars 
returning  by  a  similar  road  to  the  mines.  This 
road  is  now  used  for  tourists  and  exciirsions  only, 
and  the  coal  is  transported  through  a  tunnel. 
Mount  Pisgah  and  Mount  .TefTerson,  both  ascended 
by  the  road  mentioned,  Prospect  Rock,  and  Flag- 


staff Peak,  are  points  from  whicli  can  be  gained 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  Leliigh  Valley.  Glen 
Onoko  is  another  attractive  place  of  resort,  two 
miles  distant.  The  borough  has  a  public  library, 
the  Dimmick  Memorial  Liiirarv.  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building.  Its  business  interests  lie  in  a  very 
extensive  coal  trade,  and  there  are  also  foundries 
and  machine  shops.  The  government  is  admin- 
istered by  a  mayor,  elected  every  three  years, 
and  a  imicameral  council.  Mauch  Chunk  waa 
founded  in  1818  by  the  Lehigh  Coal  and  Naviga- 
tion Company,  and  rapidly  became  a  coal-mining 
centre.  In  1850  it  was  incorporated  as  a  bor- 
ough.    Population,  in  1890,  4101;  in  1900,  4029. 

MAUCHLINE,  mas'lin.  A  town  in  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  on  the  Ayr,  surrounded  by  a  pic- 
turesque country,  and  famous  in  connection  with 
Robert  Burns,  wlio,  during  fourteen  years,  lived 
at  the  farm  of  Jlossgiel,  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
to  the  north  (Map:  Scotland,  D  4).  The  scenes 
of  some  of  his  most  admired  lyrics  are  in  the 
neighborhood ;  the  cottage  of  'Poosie  Nancy,'  the- 
atre of  the  'Jolly  Beggars,'  and  Mauchline  Kirk, 
the  scene  of  the  'Holy  Fair,'  are  in  the  town. 
Population,  in  1901,  of  civil  parish,  2572. 

MAUD  MULLER.  A  poem  by  John  G.  Whit- 
tier  which  appeared  in  the  Sational  Era,  Decem- 
ber, 1854.  The  ballad  tells  the  unrealized  ro- 
mance of  a  beautiful  rustic  maiden  and  an  am- 
bitious judge. 

MAUDSLEY,  madz'li,  Henry  (1835—).  An 
English  alienist  and  psychologist,  born  at  Gigles- 
wick,  Yorkshire,  February  6,  1835.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  London,  where  he  graduated 
in  medicine  in  1857.  From  1859  to  1862  he  was 
in  service  as  a  physician  at  the  insane  asylum, 
Manchester,  and  from  1S69  to  1879  was  professor 
of  medical  jurisprudence  at  University  College, 
London,  and  consulting  physician  to  the  West 
London  Hospital.  He  was  made  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  1869,  and  chosen 
Gulstonian  lecturer  to  that  body  in  1870.  He 
edited  the  Joiinud  of  iloifal  Science  from  1863 
to  1878.  Edinburgh  gave  him  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  in  1884.  His  best  known  works  are: 
Phijsiology  and  Pailwloiji/  of  the  Mind  (1867); 
Lectures' on  Body  and  Mind  (1870)  ;  Responsibil- 
ity in  Mental  Disease,  in  the  "International 
Scientific  Series"  (1874)  ;  The  Patholofiy  of  Mind 
(1882)  :  The  Physiology  of  Mind  (1883)  ;  Body 
and  Will  (1883);  Natural  Causes^  and  Super- 
natural Seemings    (1880). 

MAUI,  ma'oo-f.  One  of  the  Hawaiian  Isl- 
ands   ( q.v ) . 

MAULDE  LA  CLAVIERE,  mflld  la  kla'- 
vyar'.  ilARiE  Alphoxse  Renk  he  (1848 — ).  A 
French  historian,  born  at  Nibelle,  Loii-et.  He 
studied  law  and  entered  upon  an  administrative 
career,  but  after  holding  a  nundjer  of  offices  re- 
signed and  devoted  himself  to  historical  work. 
Among  his  publications  are:  Jeanne  de  France, 
duchesse  d'Orleans  et  de  Berry,  ^'/fl.}--' 505  (1883)  ; 
muiX  Histoire  de  Louis  XII.   (1890). 

MAUXE,  mou'la.  A  river  of  Chile,  rising  in 
the  Andes.  After  flowing  140  miles  in  a  westerly 
direction  it  empties  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  about 
100  miles  north  of  Concepcion.  and  near  Consti- 
tucion  (Map:  Cliile.  C  11).  It  is  navigable  for 
52  miles  for  small  craft.  It  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  territory  of  the  Araucanians. 


MAULE. 


198 


MAUNDY   THURSDAY. 


MAULE.  A  maritime  province  of  Chile, 
bounded  by  the  Province  of  Talea  on  tlie  north, 
Linares  and  Xuble  on  tlie  east,  C'oneepeidn  on 
tlie  south,  and  the  Tacific  on  the  west  (Map: 
Chile,  C  11).  Area,  29.31  square  miles.  A  large 
pint  ion  of  the  surface  is  ocoupied  by  the  Coast 
Kan;.'!',  which  is  well  wooded  and  ri-cs  to  an  alti- 
tude of  nearly  3000  feet.  The  chief  occujjations 
arc  stock-raising  and  agriculture.  A  branch 
railway  line  from  Parral  runs  through  the  prov- 
ince and  terminates  at  the  port  of  Chanco  on  the 
coast.  Population,  in  1895,  119,791.  The  chief 
pcut  is  Constitucion.  The  capital  is  Cauquenes, 
situated  on  the  railway  line  and  having  a  popula- 
thiii  (if  S.-)74. 

MAULMAIN,  mnl-mrin'.  or  MOULMEIN. 
A  seaport  town,  capital  of  the  Amherst  district 
and  of  tlie  Tcnasscrim  division  of  Lower  Burma, 
at  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Salwin,  Oyaing,  and 
Attaran.  on  the  Gulf  of  .Marlaban.  an  arm 
of  tlie  Hay  of  Bengal  (Map:  Bunna,  C  ;i).  The 
town  lies  "between  tlie  left  li:ink  of  the  river  Sal- 
will  and  a  fine  range  of  densely  wooded  hills 
which,  at  a  distance  of  from  one  to  six  miles, 
runs  parallel  with  the  river.  Jlaulniain  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  healthful  towns  of 
India;  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  78° — 
the  highest  mean  for  any  month  being  8.3°  in 
April,  and  the  lowest  75°  in  .January.  The  prin- 
cipal street  extends  for  four  miles  along  the 
river,  and  other  streets  shaded  with  acacia  and 
jack  trees  branch  oil'  from  it  toward  the  hills,  on 
which  arc  the  pretty  residences  of  Europeans  and 
wealthy  Burmese  and  numerous  pagodas  w'ith 
gilded  spires.  The  hills  command  an  extensive 
view  of  beautiful  and  varied  scenery.  Martaban 
lies  (in  the  opposite  river  bank  to  the  north. 
Mauliiiain  is  divided  into  five  districts  under  the 
siiperinlendence  of  a  (jonnij.  or  native  head  of  po- 
lice. The  native  houses,  built  of  bamboo  and 
thatched  with  palm  leaves,  are  raised  on  piles 
10  or  12  feet  from  the  ground.  The  principal 
buildings,  besides  several  (lagodas,  include  a 
public  lilirary,  a  general  hos[iital.  and  substantial 
barracks.  There  are  several  educational  and  char- 
itable institutions,  missionary  establishments,  and 
churches.  X'essels  of  10  feet  draught  reach  the 
wharves  and  jetties  at  all  states  of  the  tide;  at 
s]>ring  tiile,  when  the  rise  ami  fall  is  from  20  to 
2.3  feet,  the  town  is  accessilile  to  vessels  of  the 
largest  tonnage.  A  considerable  export  and  im- 
port trade  is  carried  on,  chielly  with  Calcutta, 
Madras,  Rangoon,  and  Penang.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  timber,  rice,  cotton,  horns,  hides,  ivory, 
wax.  gums,  drugs,  lead,  and  copper:  the  imports 
are  chielly  cotton  and  woolen  piece  goods,  hard- 
ware, provisions,  general  merch;Midise.  and — 
omitting  timber,  which  is  obtained  from  the 
nei'.'hboring  teak  forests — all  the  materials  re- 
quired for  ••liipbiiililing,  which  is  an  iiiipurtant 
industry.  Tlie  I'nitcd  States  is  represented  by  n 
consular  agent.  The  town  dates  fmm  the  British 
occupation  of  Tenasserim  in  lS2fi.  The  hetero- 
peneous  and  polyglot  population  in  1891  num- 
bered 55.785;  in  1901.  5S.44fi,  consisting  besides 
Burmese,  of  Hindus,  Malays,  KuropeanH.  Eura- 
sians, Chinese,  .\rmenians,  and  .Jews. 

MAUMEE,  mfl-me'.  .\  river  formed  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  by  the  junction  of  the  Saint  .Toseph 
and  the  Saint  Mary's  rivers,  flowinir  northeast 
flirnugb  the  northwestern  part  of  Ohio.  Its  length 
is    LW    miles,    and    it    empties    through    Maiimeo 


Bay  into  Lake  Erie  at  its  western  extremity 
(Map:  Ohio,  C  3).  The  city  of  Toledo  stretches 
along  its  banks  for  four  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  the  river  is  navigable  for  12  miles  to  the 
Maumee  Rapids,  above  which  its  course  is  fol- 
lowed as  far  as  Defiance  by  the  Miami  and  Erie 
Canal,  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  the  Oliio 
River.  Maumee  Bay  is  for  the  most  part  shallow, 
but  its  channel  has  been  deepened,  straightened, 
and  marked  by  lighthouses. 

MAUN  A  KEA,  ma'oo-na  ktVd  (Hawaiian, 
Avliile  iiiountain).  The  highest  mountain  in 
Polynesia.  It  is  an  extinct  volcano  occupying 
the  northern  and  north-central  portions  of  Ha- 
waii, and  its  height  is  13.805  feet  (.Map:  Ha- 
waii, F  4).  During  most  of  the  year  snow  lies 
on  its  peaks,  which  are  composed  of  gravel  and 
reddish  scoria.  Its  sides,  are  covered  with  for- 
ests, where  wild  cattle  range  and  are  hunted  for 
their  horns,  hides,  and  tallow. 

MAUNA  LOA,  lO'a  (Hawaiian,  great  moun- 
tain). Tlie  largest  volcano  in  tlie  world  (though 
not  the  loftiest),  occupying  much  of  the  central 
and  southern  portion  of  Hawaii  (Map:  Hawaii, 
F  4).  It  is  13,700  feet  in  height,  and  slopes 
gradually  from  the  sea  to  the  summit  near 
the  centre  of  the  island,  where  the  group  of 
craters  forms  an  immense  caldron  a  mile  and  a 
half  in  diameter  and  1000  feet  deep.  It  exceeds 
by  far  any  other  volcano  in  the  amount  of  lava 
discharged:  tlie  last  great  eruptinn  (1880-81) 
sent  a  stream  down  the  eastern  slope  50  miles 
long  and  in  some  places  3  miles  wide.  The  crater 
is  in  almost  continuous  activity  and  large  erup- 
tions have  been  frequent  during  the  |)ast  century. 
On  the  eastern  slope  is  the  large  ci-ater  of  Kil- 
auea,    (q.v. ). 

MAUNDER,  niiin'dfr,  Sa.mvel  (1785-1849). 
An  English  compiler,  born  in  Devonshire.  His 
first  literary  work  was  in  connection  witli  the 
C«((>c/ii.sws  "(1837-49).  imblished  liy  his  brother- 
in-law  and  partner,  William  Pinnock,  with  whom 
he  was  associated  also  in  the  Litcidiii  (l(i:illc 
of  London.  Among  his  numerous  compilations 
are:  Tlw  Little  lAxicon  (1825);  Trciiaiirji  of 
Kiiowlahjc  (1830);  liinfjraphind  Traisiiry 
(1838)  ;  .S'oioid'/'C  mid  L'itrrnrij  Trcasiiri/i  1841)  ; 
Treasuri/  of  Histon/  (1844);  Treasur;/  of  A'o/- 
iiral  Ilistor:/  (1848)  ;  and  the  Treasunf  of  Oeog- 
rnphji  (1850) — most  of  which  passed  through 
many  editions. 

MAUNDEVILLE.  miin'dc-vil.  Sir  .John.  See 
Manocmm.h.  Tin:  Thavki.s  of  Sir  .Toiin. 

MAUNDRELL,miin'drrI.HEMn-(l(!(>5.1701). 
An  ICiiglish  tr:iv(der.  He  graduated  from  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  and  was  curate  of  Bromley, 
Kent,  from  1089  to  1095.  In  tlie  latter  year  he 
was  appointed  cha)ilain  to  tlie  English  factory 
at  .'\leppo,  Syria,  lie  published  in  1703  .4  Jntir- 
ni'ti  from  Atippo  to  Jrntsntrm.  a  valuable  work 
often  reprinted,  and  translated  into  French,  Ger- 
man, and  Dutch. 

MAUNDY  THURSDAY.  Tlie  Thursday 
preeediii!,'  (iood  Friday,  also  called  Holy  Thurs- 
day. Tile  origin  of  the  name  is  in  doubt.  It  is 
referred  to  the  Latin  ilirs  maiirlat'i,  tlie  day  of 
the  mandate:  "A  new  commandment  give  1 
unto  vou.  that  ye  love  one  another"  (Saint  .John 
xiii.  34)  :  to  the  old  ntniidr.  a  hand  basket,  from 
which  food  was  distributed  to  the  poor  on  the  day 
before  Hood    Friday:    anil  to  the  phrase  Arcipite 


MAUNDY   THURSDAY. 


199 


MAUPEBTUIS. 


et  manducate,  'take  and  eat,'  occurring  in  the 
Epistle  for  tlie  day  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  (I.  Cor.  xi.  24). 

MAUPASSANT,  nio'pa'.sax',  Henbi  RENf; 
AntKRT  (-irv  UE  (1850-03).  A  French  novelist, 
one  of  tlie  greatest  modern  writers  of  sliort 
stories.  Maupassant,  after  serving  in  the  Xavy 
Department  as  clerk,  and  as  soldier  in  the  Ger- 
niau  War,  was  slowly  initiated  liy  Flaubert,  who 
was  an  old  friend  of  Madame  de  Maupassant, 
into  the  craft  of  story-telling.  Restraint  ripened 
Ids  genius,  and  his  first  story,  lioule  de  suif,  pub- 
lished in  Les  soirees  dc  Midtui  in  18S0,  revealed 
a  finished  master  of  the  naturalistic  seliool.  In 
tlie  same  year  he  published  some  striking  but 
.sensual  poems,  Des  vers  (IS.SO),  and  a  drama, 
llisloire  du  rieux  temps,  but  he  saw  clearly 
that  his  career  was  elsewhere.  He  confirmed  the 
promise  of  Boiile  de  siiif  in  about  two  hundred 
tales  gathered  under  the  titles:  La  maison 
Tellier  {ISSl)  ;  Mile.  Fifi  (1883)  ;  Co>ites  de  la 
lU'easse  (  1883)  ;  Vlair  de  lune  (1883)  ;  Les  sa'iirs 
Kondoli  (1884)  ;  Yvette  (1884)  ;  Conies  du  jour 
et  de  la  nuit  (1885)  ;  Contcs  et  nourelles  (1885)  ; 
Le  Ilorlii  I  1887)  ;  La  petite  Roque  (1888)  ;  La 
main  i/auclie  (1889);  Le  pire  Milon  (180'.l),and 
others,  among  them  /y'ifrH/i/f  fteaw^e  (1890).  Be- 
sides these  he  wrote  si.\  novels,  Une  vie  (1883)  ; 
Hel-Aini  (1885);  Mont-Oriol  (1887);  Pierre  et 
Jean  (1888)  :  Fort  eomme  la  mort  (1889)  ;  A'oire 
ea-ur  (1890);  and  several  volumes  of  traveler's 
impressions,  Au  soleil  (1884)  ;  Sur  I'eau  (1888)  ; 
La  rie  errante  ( 1890) .  Traces  of  insanity  appear 
at  times  in  all  the  work  from  18S7  onward.  The 
cimdition  is  most  strongly  marked  in  the  longer 
novels.  It  caused  a  practical  suspension  of  his 
literary  work  in  1890.  In  1802  Maupassant  be- 
came wholly  insane.  July  6,  1893,  he  died  in  an 
asylum  at  Passy.  His  whole  work  is  a  melan- 
choly yet  fascinating  study  in  imaginative 
psychology*.  He  begins  as  a  playful  satyr,  yet 
wdth  an  aristocratic  assumption  of  superiority 
to  his  fellow  men  that  masked  a  pessimism  as 
deep  as  Flaubert's.  Year  by  year  he  loses  the 
sensuous  exuberance  of  youth,  more  and  more 
he  is.  as  it  were,  hypnotized  by  the  ghastly  fas- 
cinations of  death,  as  were  Villon.  Gauticr,  and 
Baudelaire.  The  moral  gloom  deepens,  the  moral 
inirest  grows.  The  robust  animalism  of  Vne  vie 
becomes  a  melancholy  moral  anatomy  in  Notre 
eocur.  In  losing  its  sensuality  it  had  become 
morbid  and  morally  uncertain  even  in  Pierre  et 
Jcnn,  artistically  Maupassant's  best  novel.  The 
shorter  stories,  because  requiring  less  sustained 
effort,  show  this  less  clearly.  To  the  very  end 
Maupassant  did  work  of  a  character  similar  to 
his  early  work;  but  from  Le  Uorln  onward  there 
are  stories  that  could  not  be  attributed  to  the  ear- 
lier period.  As  a  whole  and  in  average  excellence 
these  stories  are  in  style  and  art  the  best  in 
France.  There  are  stories  of  his  native  Nor- 
mandy, tales  of  selfishness  and  meanness,  chiefly 
tragic,  occasionally  comic,  more  often  grim  in 
their  irony;  there  are  stories,  usually  cynical, 
of  Parisian  foibles,  of  life  in  strange  lands,  of 
h\mting,  inedical  incident,  of  love,  crime,  hor- 
ror, misery,  all  carefvdly  elahorated  and  in- 
credibly deft  in  the  rapid  portraiture  of  a  scene 
or  character.  All  is  sharply  individualized  and 
the  point  of  view  is  the  absence  of  any  moral 
law.  Characteristic  of  Maupassant's  good  hu- 
mor and  better  nature  are  J,e  papa  dr  l^imon. 
Les  idces  du  colonel,  Jliss  Harriet,  Mademoiselle 


Pcrle,  and  Clochette;  typical  of  his  whimsical 
and  satirical  irony  are  Le  paruplifie,  Denis, 
Decore,  Aux  hois;  bitterly  satirical  are  L'licri- 
tage.  La  partie  de  campagne,  Pain  maudit,  Mai- 
son Tcllier,  Hautot  pvrc  el  fils,  and  nuisl  excpiis- 
ite  of  all  this  gro\ip,  i'velte;  more  intensely 
misanthropic  are  tales  of  sordid  brutality  or 
wanton  cruelty  sueli  as  En  mer,  L'oncle  Jules.  Le 
diable.  Coco,  L'ane,  La  fille  de  ferme,  or  Aes 
sabots,  and  it  is  to  the  wanton  side  of  war  that  he 
directs  attention  in  La  mere  sauvage  and  Saint- 
Antoine.  Finally  there  are  at  least  forty  stories 
that  are  pathologic  in  their  pessimism.  Nause- 
ated liorror  of  life  and  haunting  terror  of  death 
are  whispered  in  the  stories  of  1884  and  recur 
witli  growing  frequenc}"  and  inten.sity,  as  will 
appear  from  consecutive  reading  of  Petit  soldat, 
Koliliide,  I'n  fou,  Liii,  La  petite  Roque,  Le  Horia, 
and  Qui  sail. 

MAUPEOU,  mcVpm/.  Rene  Nicolas  Charles 
AVGUSTix  UE  (  1714-!i2).  A  Freneli  politician  and 
chancellor,  born  in  Paris.  He  was  made  coun- 
cilor of  Parliament,  first  president  (1703).  and 
finally  succeeded  his  father.  Ren^  Charles  de 
Maupeou,  as  Chancellor  of  France  in  1708.  He 
upheld  the  King  in  his  plan  to  override  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris,  ami  si<led  with  Madame  du 
Barry  against  the  Duke  of  Choiseul.  After  the 
Duke's  exile  in  1770  he,  the  Duke  of  Aiguillon, 
and  the  Comptroller-General,  Alilje  Terray,  formed 
a  triumvirate  to  suppress  the  power  of  Parliament. 
The  'Jlaupeou  Parliament'  as  it  was  called,  wdiich 
was  then  formed,  became  very  unpopular,  and 
Beaumarchais  attacked  it.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
King,  the  Chancellor  wrote  an  account  of  his 
high-handed  disruption  of  the  Parliament,  under 
the  title  Code  des  parlements  ou  Collection  d'edits 
.  .  .  depuis  decemhre  1110,  jusqu'a  dfcemhre 
nil   (1772). 

MAUPERTUIS,  mo'par'twe',  Pierre  Louis 
!Moi!EAr  riE  (1098-1759).  A  French  mathemati- 
cian and  astronomer,  born  at  Saint-ilalo.  His 
education  was  begun  under  a  tutor,  and  in  1714 
he  went  to  Paris  to  the  College  of  La  Marcbe. 
In  1718  he  joined  the  army  and  soon  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant.  Having  acquired  a  taste  for 
mathematics,  he  resigned  five  years  later  and 
became  adjoint  geometre  in  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Paris,  and  in  1725  assoeie.  For 
the  next  seven  years  he  devoted  liimself  to 
the  investigation  of  certain  geometric  problems, 
publishing  his  results  in  a  series  of  memoirs.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  Frenchmen  to  master  the 
teachings  of  Newton.  He  went  to  England  in 
1728  and  was  admitted  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  The  next  year  he  returned  to  Basel  and 
studied  the  integral  calculus  with  Bernoulli.  In 
1736  he  conducted  the  expedition  for  measuring 
a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  Lapland.  The  re- 
sults of  this  work  confirmed  Newton's  theory  of 
the  flattening  of  the  earth  at  the  poles.  It  was 
on  his  return  that  he  became  acquainted  with 
Voltaire  and  Samuel  Ki'inig.  In  1740  Frederick 
tlie  Great  called  him  to  Prussia,  and  he  accom- 
panied the  King  in  the  campaign  in  Silesia.  Hav- 
ing been  taken  prisoner  by  the  Austrians  at 
]\rollwitz,  JIaupertuis  was  set  free  by  Maria 
Theresa  and  returned  to  Paris.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1743.  but 
the  next  year  he  was  again  called  to  Prussia  and 
in  1740  became  president  of  the  Academy  at  Ber- 
lin.    In   1750  Konig  came  there  as  professor  of 


MAUPERTUIS.  200 

philosophy,  and  he  and,  Maupcrtuis  were  soon 
quarreling  over  the  question  ot  the  discovery  of 
inlinitesinial  calculus  and  of  certain  laws  of 
which  Maupcrtuis  claimed  to  be  the  author. 
Voltaire  sided  with  Kiinig  and  satirized  Mauper- 
tuis  severely.  Frederick  interposed  in  belialf 
of  Maupcrtuis,  but  to  no  avail.  The  hitter, 
broken  in  health  and  spirit,  returned  to  France, 
and  in  IToS  went  to  Basel,  where  he  died  in 
a  short  time.  Some  of  his  chief  works  are: 
Hur  la  figure  de  la  terre  (1738)  ;  Discours  sur 
la  parallaxe  de  la  lune  (1741);  Discouis  sur 
la  figure  des  astres  (1742)  ;  Letlre  sur  la  comete 
de  n.'i2  (1742)  ;  .4s<roiio»iie  nautique  (1745  and 
1756)  ;  Essai  de  cosmoloyie  ( 1750)  ;  Maupcrliana 
ou  ccrits  divers  (Leyden,  1753).  His  collected 
works,  in  four  vohunes,  were  publislied  in  Paris 
in  1752  and  again  in  Lyons  in  1708.  under  the 
title.  CEuvrcs  computes  dc  M.  de  Mauperiuis. 
Consult:  Ue  la  Baumelle,  I  ie  de  Maupertuis 
(Paris.  185G)  :  Damiron,  Mcmoires  sur  Mauper- 
tui.i    I  P:iri-,   1S5S). 

MAXJPRAT,  mAprii'.  A  novel  by  George 
Sand  (1836).  A  drama  in  six  acts  was  made 
from  the  story  by  the  author  and  presented  at  the 
Odeon  in  1853. 

MAUBEL,  m.Vrel',  Victor  (1848—).  A 
French  barytone  singer,  born  in  Marseilles.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  the  Marseilles  and  Paris  conserva- 
tories, and  made  his  first  ajipcarance  at  the 
CIpcra  Htnise  in  Paris.  .Afterwaid-i  lie  went  to 
Italy,  and  sang  at  the  8eala  in  Milan.  A  tour 
thrnugli  Kuriipe  and  in  America  followed,  and 
in  187!l  he  returned  to  Paris  and  sang  in  Ham- 
let, Aida,  Faust,  and  other  operas  with  much 
success.  In  another  visit  to  Paris  after  this  date 
he  attempted  to  revive  Italian  opera  in  company 
with  the  brothers  (\)rti.  but  without  success. 
His  fine  voice,  and  talent  as  an  actor,  caused  him 
to  be  chosen  by  Verdi  to  create  the  rrdes  of  lago 
in  Otrllo  andFalstaff  in  l-'alstaff.  In  1885  he 
began  an  extended  tour,  appearing  in  Italy.  Xorth 
and  .South  .\merica.  and  in  1803  and  1894  sang 
Verdi's  famous  roles  in  Paris  at  the  express  de- 
sire of  the  composer.  In  1808  he  appeared  at 
the  Berlin  Opera  House.  His  best-known  writ- 
ings are  L'art  du  chant  and  Oix  atis  de  carriire. 

MATJRENBRECHER,  niou'rrn-brc'K-cr.  WiL- 
IIEI.M  (  18.iS!i2  I .  A  (ii-rman  historian,  born  in 
Bonn.  He  studied  there,  in  Berlin,  and  in 
Munich,  his  great  teachers  l)eing  Ranke  and  Von 
Sybel,  with  whom  he  was  associated  on  his  Tlis- 
torisrhe  Zeitsrhriff.  At  Bonn  he  became  docent 
in  1862.  He  spent  a  year  at  Simanca.  Spain,  in 
historical  research,  and  after  his  return  to  Oer- 
many  was  appointed  professor  at  Dorpat 
(1867).  at  Konigsberg  (1860).  at  Bonn  (1877), 
and  at  Tx-ipzig  (1884).  From  1881  to  1802  he 
edited  the  flistnrischcs  Tasrhenhurh.  He  wrote 
England  im  Reformationszeitaltrr  (1866):  Stu- 
dien  und  Ski:zen  zur  Cleschichle  drr  Rrforma- 
linnszeit  (1874);  Die  Katholische  Reformation 
(1880)  ;  Gesrhichtr  drr  deulsehrn  Kiinigsir^ihlen 
rom  10.  his  /.?.  .Jnhrhiindert  (1880)  ;  and  Clriind- 
vng  den  drutsrhen  Rridix  (1S02).  Consult  Wolf, 
ir.  Mnurrnhrrrhrr  (Berlin,  1803). 

MAUREPAS.  mA'rrpft'.  .Tean-  FBf;n*Hic 
Pllf:i.lPPF.MX.  Count  (1701-81).  Minister  of 
State  in  the  reigns  of  l.ouis  XV.  and  XVI.  of 
France.  He  was  bom  .July  0.  1701.  at  Versailles. 
The  office  of  ^linister  of  State  had  been  held  by 
his  father,  who  on  resigning  in  1715  was  able  to 


MAURETANIA. 

transfer  it  to  his  son.  It  fell  to  JIaurepas  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  but  was  administered  dur- 
ing his  minority  by  the  Marquis  de  \illiere,  his 
future  father-in-law.  Maurepas  became  Minister 
of  Marine  in  1725,  and  Secretary  of  State  in 
1738.  He  made  some  attempts  toward  restoring 
the  eflicieucy  of  the  navy  by  establishing  naval 
academics  and  introducing  scientitic  methods  of 
instruction.  A  satirical  couplet  against  Madame 
de  Pompadour  brought  about  his  disgrace  in 
1740,  and  he  was  e.xiled  from  Court  until  the 
death  of  Louis  X\^.  When  Louis  XVI.  came  to 
the  throne  in  1774,  Maurepas  was  recalled.  With- 
out striking  ability  of  his  own,  he  displayed 
great  wisdom  in  the  selection  of  the  meml)ers 
of  his  council.  Vcrgennes  being  made  Minister 
for  Foreign  Affairs.  Turgot  Comptroller-General, 
and  Malesherbes  Minister  of  the  Koyal  House- 
hold. He  supported  \'crgennes  in  tlie  alliance 
with  the  United  States  and  in  the  declaration  of 
war  against  England.  He  belonged  in  spirit 
nevertheless  to  the  old  regime,  and  in  alarm  at 
Turgot's  wide-reaching  plans  of  reform  brought 
about  that  Minister's  downfall  in  1776,  his  place 
being  taken  by  Xccker,  who  in  turn  was  dis- 
missed in  Jlay,  1781.  He  held  his  place  as  chief 
Minister  of  the  Crown  until  his  death,  whicti  tiKik 
place  at  Versailles,  November  21,  1781.  Memoirs  ' 
of  a  curious  nature  were  published  under  his 
name  (4  vols.,  Paris.  1700-02).  but  were  really 
largely  the  work  of  his  secretarj'.  The  Bib- 
Uotht'ijue  yatioiiale.  however,  contains  a  volu- 
minous collection  of  French  elian.mns  made  by 
him. 

MAtTRER,  mou'rcr.  Georg  Lidwio  von 
(  17',i(l  1S72  I .  A  (icrman  statesman  and  jurist, 
born  near  Diirkheim  in  Bavaria.  He  was  educated 
at  llciilelberg,  and  studied  jurisprudence  in  Paris. 
In  1826  his  flrschiehte  des  altgcrinanisrhrn  Oe- 
riehlsicrfitlircns  was  crowned  by  the  .\cademy  of 
^lunich.  and  lie  was  appointed  professor  of  juris- 
prudence in  the  university.  From  1832  to  18.34, 
during  the  minority  of  King  Otho.  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Regency  at  Athens, 
where  his  energj-  and  ability  accomplished  a  com- 
plete reorganization  of  civil  i)roce(lure.  In  1847 
he  was  Bavarian  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and 
.Tusticc.  The  most  valuable,  perhaps,  of  his  va- 
rious works  on  history  and  jurisprudence  are: 
Das  griechische  Yolk  ror  und  nach  dem  Freiheits- 
kamjife  (1836)  and  Ocsehirhte  der  Dorfverfas- 
sung  in  Drutschland  (1865-66). 

MAURER.  KoNRAD  voN  (1823-1002).  A 
German  jurist,  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
born  at  Frankenthal,  Bavaria.  st\idicd  at  Munich, 
Leipzig,  and  lierlin.  and  in  1847  was  apjioint- 
ed  professor  of  jurisprudence  at  Municli.  He 
made  an  especial  study  of  Icelandic  language, 
literature,  and  history.  In  connection  with  these 
subjects,  he  published:  Die  Entstehung  drs  is- 
Uindisehen  Staatcs  und  .ici iter  Verfassung  (  1852)  ; 
Die  Uckehrung  des  nonregischen  Slammes  zum 
Christentum  (1855-56)  :  Island  von  seiner  er.<!trn 
Entdeckung  his  zum  Vntrrgang  r/#\s  Frr  istaatt a 
(1874):  Zur  politisrhrn  Clesehichle  Islands 
(18801.  He  also  edited  riull-Thorls-Saga  (18.58), 
and  a  collection  of  legends  entitled  Isliindischc 
Volks.<tagrn  der  Cirgrnivart    (1860). 

MATJ'RETA'NIA  (Lat..  Ok.  Mo.yinrn/o.  Mnu- 
rousia.  froni  ftninnr,  mnur'is.  black).  The  an- 
cient name  of  the  most  northwestern  part  of 
Africa.      It   was   so   called    from    the   Mauri    or 


MAURETANIA. 


201 


MAUKICE. 


Mauru^ii,  a  general  designation  for  tlie  numer- 
ous trilies  it  contained.  At  the  time  of  its  great- 
est expansion  it  included  the  present  Morocco  and 
more  than  two-tliirds  of  Algeria,  extending  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Ampsaga  River  (Wady-el- 
Kebir).  Among  the  kings  of  Mauretania  were 
Bocchus  I.,  tlie  father-in-law  of  Jugurlha,  Boc- 
chus  II..  who  espoused  the  cause  of  Ciesar 
against  the  Pompeians,  and  Juha,  the  son  of  the 
Ponipeian  partisan  Juba  I.  of  Xumidia.  Under 
the  Emperor  Claudius  it  was  made  a  Roman  prov- 
ince and  divided  into  Mauretania  C'jesarensis  and 
Mauretania  Tingitana,  separated  by  the  Mulucha 
(Muluya)  River.  The  country  was  noted  for  its 
extraordinary  fertility,  and  its  upland  plains, 
stretching  from  the  Atlas  Mountains  to  the  sea, 
supplied  Italy  with  grain.  From  the  hands  of  the 
Romans  it  passed  in  succession  to  the  Vandals, 
the  Byzantines,  and  the  Arabs.  See  Bahbaby 
.States. 

MAURICE,  ma'ris,  Flavus  Tiberius  Mau- 
BICIIS  (c.53!I-Ij02)  .  Byzantine  Emperor  from 
582  to  602.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient 
Roman  family.  During  the  reigns  of  Justin  II. 
and  Tiberius  II.,  Maurice  was  in  the  mili- 
tary service,  and  in  578  was  appointed  by  the 
latter  Emperor  to  the  command  of  the  army 
sent  against  the  Persians.  In  582  he  obtained 
the  rare  honor  of  a  triumph  at  Constantinople, 
became  son-in-law  of  Tiberius,  and  in  August  of 
the  same  year  succeeded  him  on  the  throne. 
Immediately  after  his  accession,  the  Persians 
invaded  the  Byzantine  territories;  a  fierce  con- 
test of  nine  years'  duration  ensued,  which,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  internal  convulsions  that  distracted 
Persia,  resulted  in  favor  of  the  Byzantines.  The 
King  of  Persia.  Kliosru  II.,  driven  from  his 
throne,  fled  to  the  Byzantines,  an  army  was  im- 
mediately assembled,  and  in  591  Khosru  was  re- 
stored to  his  throne,  giving  up  to  JIaurice  the 
fortresses  of  Daras,  ilartyropolis,  and  Persar- 
menia.  In  500  the  Avars  demanded  ransom 
money  for  12,000  soldiers  whom  they  held  as  pris- 
oners. The  Emperor  refused  to  ransom  them,  and 
they  were  consequently  put  to  death.  This  ex- 
cited a  deep  resentment  in  the  army,  and  in  G02, 
when  the  Emperor  ordered  his  troops  to  take 
up  their  winter  quarters  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Danube,  they  broke  out  Into  open  revolt, 
proclaimed  Phocas  Emperor,  and  marched  upon 
Constantinople.  ilaurice  with  all  his  family 
and  many  of  his  friends  was  put  to  death  on 
November  27,  002.  Consult:  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Fall.  ch.  xlv.,  ed.  by  Bury  (London.  1890-1900)  ; 
Bury,  LnUr  Roman  Empire   (London,  1889). 

MAURICE,  Prince  of  Orange  and  Count  of 
Nassau,  commonlv  stvled  Maurice  of  Nassau 
(1507-1625).  Stiidthdlder  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  his 
age.  He  was  the  son  of  William  the  Silent, 
founder  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  and  was  born  at 
Dillenburg.  in  Nassau,  in  1507.  After  the  assas- 
sination of  his  father  in  1584.  the  provinces  of 
Holland  and  Zealand,  and  later  Utrecht,  elected 
him  their  Stadthnlder.  A  great  portion  of  the 
Netherlands  was  ^till  in  the  hands  of  the  Span- 
iards; and  though  during  the  first  part  of  his  ad- 
ministration he  was  unsuccessful,  later  Maurice 
rapidly  wrested  cities  and  fortresses  from  the 
enemy.  In  1591  Zutphen,  Deventer,  Nimeguen, 
and  other  places  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch ; 
in  1593  Gertruydenberg,  and  in  1594  the  Province 


of  Groningen.  In  1597,  with  the  help  of  some 
English  auxiliaries,  Maurice  defeated  the  Span- 
iards at  Turnhout  in  Brabant,  and  in  1000  won 
a  splendid  victory  at  Nieuwport.  In  1(>04,  how- 
ever, Ostend,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  sur- 
rendered to  the  Spaniards.  Finally  in  1009 
Spain  agreed  to  a  truce  of  twelve  years,  which 
meant  the  practical  achievement  of  their  inde- 
pendence by  the  Dutch.  In  1021  the  struggle  was 
renewed.  Maurice  from  political  motives  was  the 
bitter  enemy  of  Barneveldt  (q.v.),  whose  death 
he  caused. 

MAURICE,  Duke  and  Elector  of  Saxony 
( 1521-53  ) .  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Duke  Henry 
the  Pious  of  tlie  Albertine  line.  He  was  born  at 
Freiburg,  March  21,  1521,  married  in  1541  Agnes, 
daughter  of  the  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  and 
later  in  the  same  year  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
Duchy  of  Saxony.  He  was  early  involved  in  dis- 
putes with  his  cousin,  the  Elector  John  Frederick 
of  the  Ernestine  line.  Though  a  Protestant,  he  did 
not  join  the  Sclimalkaldic  League,  and  was  finally 
won  over  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who,  pre- 
paring to  crush  German  Protestantism  by  force 
of  arms,  promised  him  (June  19,  154G)  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  Ernestine  line  and  the  electoral 
dignity  as  soon  as  John  Frederick,  who  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  League,  should  be 
dispossessed.  He  invaded  electoral  Sa.xony,  but 
Avas  driven  from  it  and  from  his  own  domains 
and  only  saved  by  the  timely  assistance  of  the 
Emperor  and  the  Duke  of  Alva,  who  at  the  battle 
of  Miililberg  (1547)  annihilated  the  army  of  the 
Schmalkaldie  League  and  took  John  Frederick 
prisoner.  Maurice  now  became  ruler  of  the 
whole  of  Saxony,  with  the  electoral  dignity. 
The  imprisonment  of  Philip  of  Hesse,  whom 
MauriCQ  had  prevailed  upon  to  submit  to  the  Em- 
peror, was  the  first  cause  of  estrangement  between 
Charles  and  Maurice.  The  attempts  of  the  Em- 
peror to  increase  his  own  preponderance,  and.  so 
to  say,  the  influence  of  Spain  in  Germany,  supplied 
another;  a  further  source  of  trouble  was  the  re- 
fusal of  the  Emperor  to  hand  over  to  ^laurice  the 
episcopal  territories  of  ^Magdeburg  and  Halber- 
stadt,  the  prospect  of  whose  possession  had  been 
held  out  to  him  ;  in  addition  Maurice  was  alarmed 
for  the  safety  of  Protestantism.  Although  the 
new  Elector  zealously  supported  the  Augsburg 
Interim  of  1548,  he  gradually  came  to  see  that 
his  close  alliance  with  the  Emperor  was  alien- 
ating from  him  the  affections  of  his  Protes- 
tant subjects.  He  accordingly  abandoned  the 
cause'  of  the  Emperor  with  as  little  scruple  as 
he  had  formerly  sacrificed  the  interests  of  his 
relatives  and  co-religionists,  and  arranged  an 
alliance  against  Charles  V.,  comprising  a  num- 
ber of  German  princes  and  Henry  II.  of  France, 
to  whom  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Ver^ 
dun  were  promised  as  a  reward  for  his  assist- 
ance. In  March,  1552,  Maurice  suddenly  ap- 
peared with  an  army  in  South  Germany  and 
compelled  the  Emperor,  who  was  then  at  Inns 
bruck.  to  take  refuge  in  flight,  leaving  to  his 
brother  Ferdinand  the  conduct  of  negotiations. 
Finally,  at  a  convocation  of  the  electors  and 
princes  of  the  Empire  at  Passau,  the  terms  of  a 
treaty  of  peace  were  arranged,  in  which  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Lutheran  States  should  be  free  to 
maintain  their  mode  of  worship.  In  the  sununer 
of  1553  Maurice  took  the  field  against  Albert, 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg-Culmbach,  who  had  re- 
fused to  accede  to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Pas- 


MAUKICE. 


202 


MAURITIUS. 


sau,  and  was  raiding  tlie  Rhine  bishoprics  and 
Franconia,  when  lit'  was  fatally  wounded  in  the 
battle  at  Sievcrshaiisen.  July  i)th,  dying  July 
11th.  Although  but  thirty-two  years  of  age,  he 
had  establislu'il  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  ablest 
diplomats,  administrators,  and  generals  of  his 
time;  but  he  united  with  a  most  agreeable  per- 
sonality a  dissinuilation  and  bad  faith  wliicli  lost 
him  the  eontidenee  of  both  parties. 

Consult:  Issleib,  "Moritz  von  Sach.sen  als  pro- 
testantischer  FUrst,"'  a  short  study  in  Sammluiiff 
gemeinrcrslii  11(11  idler  if issiiischdf 1 1 icher  Vorlriigc 
(Haml)urg,  18118)  :  Langcnn.  Morit::.  He>::oii  unci 
Churfiirat  zti  Sachseii  (Leii)zig,  1841):  Prutz, 
"iloritz  von  Sachsen."  in  Der  ncue  Plutarch, 
vol.  i.\.  (Leipzig,  1882).  See  Reformation; 
Saxoxv. 

MAURICE,  Saixt.   See  Legion,  Tueban. 

MAURICE,  (.John)  Fredebic  Denison 
( lS(l.")-7:i  I .  An  English  autlior  and  divine,  born 
at  Xonnanston.the  son  of  a  Unitarian  clergyman. 
He  studied  at  Cambridge  and  became  engaged  in 
literary  work  in  London.  Intluenced  by  Coleridge 
and  others,  he  decided  to  become  a  clergyman 
in  the  Established  Church.  He  went  to  Oxford 
and  took  his  M.A.  degree,  and  was  ordained  in 
1831.  His  first  position  was  the  curacy  of 
Bubbenhall.  In  1830  he  became  chaplain  of 
Grey's  Hospital,  London;  iji  1840  professor  of 
history  and  English  literature  at  King's  Cidlege, 
and  in  lS(4ti  of  divinity  in  tills  school,  losing  these 
last  positions  in  1S.5:J  because  of  his  supposedly 
radical  religious  views.  He  was  cha])lain  of 
Lincoln's  Inn,  1846-GO;  incumbent  of  Saint 
Peter's,  Vere  Street.  London,  1800-60;  profes- 
sor of  moral  philosophy  at  Cambridge  from 
1800  until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  London, 
April  1,  1S72.  At  the  time  of  his  death  there 
was  jirobably  no  clergyman  in  England  more 
deeply  revered  and  loved  by  the  people,  ami 
within  the  Cliurch  he  liad  become  the  head  of  the 
'Broad  Church  Party,'  and  had  a  large  follow- 
ing among  the  younger  men.  He  founded  the 
Working  Men's  College  in  London  in  1854  and 
became  its  principal.  He  wrote  one  novel, 
F.ustncr  Conu-aii  (1834).  Other  works  are:  The 
Kinffdom  of  Christ  (1838);  Itvliflions  of  the 
World  (1847)  :  Moral  and  Melujihi/sical  Philoxo- 
phy  (lS;)0-57);  I'rojihrls  and  Kiiif/s  of  the  Old 
Testament  (18:53)  ;  Vnitii  of  the  Neie  Testament 
(18.54)  ;  Kcclcsiaslieal  Uistorij  of  the  I'ir.il  and 
fiecond  Centuries  (18.54):  Patriarehs  and  Lau- 
givers  of  the  Old  Testament  (18:5;5)  ;  Epistle  of 
Haint  John  (18:57);  The  Word  Eternal  (1803); 
Co>i.scicHCr  (1808)  ;  ^oeial  Moraliti/  (1800).  Con- 
sult his  Life,  'chiefly  told  in  his  own  letters'  by 
bis  ~iin.   Frederic  Maurice    (London,   1884), 

MAURICE,  TiioMA.s  (17:54-1824).  An  Eng- 
lish scludar  and  historian,  born  at  Hertford,  lie 
was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Parr,  in  an  academy  at  Stan- 
more,  and  afterwarils  entered  Saint  .Tohri's  Col- 
lege. Oxford,  but  the  next  year  removed  to  I'ni- 
versity  College,  at  which  he  graduated  in  1773. 
Appointed  curate  of  Woodford  in  Essex,  he  re- 
signed in  178.5  for  a  jiastorate  at  Epping.  In 
1708  he  was  apjiointed  by  Earl  Spencer  Vicar  of 
Wornileighton  in  Warwickshire,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  appointed  keeper  of  manuscripts  in  the 
British  Jlusenni.  In  1800  he  received  the  pen- 
sion left  vacant  by  the  death  of  the  poet  Cowper, 
and  in  1804  was  pre-ienled  by  the  Lord  Chancel- 
lor to  the  vicarage  of  Cudham  in  Kent.     He  was 


a  learned  Orientalist,  and  published  a  volvmiinous 
work  on  Indian  Antiquities  (1703-1800).  In 
addition,  he  wrote  Historti  of  Hindustan  (170.5- 
08)  and  a  Modern  Hisfor'u  of  niiidustan  (1802- 
10). 

MAURICE  OF  SAXONY.  A  French  sol- 
dier generally  known  as  Marshal  Saxe.  See 
Saxe.  i\l-\riiUE.  Count  of. 

MAURICIUS,  ma-rlsh'i-us,  Flavius  Tibe- 
itii's.     A   liyzantine  Emperor.     See  M.\URICE. 

MAU'RITA'NIA.     See  Mauretania. 

MAURITIA,  nin-risli'i-u  (Xeo-Lat.,  so  called 
in  honor  of  I'riiue  Maurice  of  Xassau).  A  genus 
of  jialnis,  having  male  llowers  and  female  or 
hermaphrodite  llowers  on  distinct  trees,  ini]ierfect 
spathes,  and  fan-shaped  leaves.  They  are  all 
natives  of  the  hottest  parts  of  America.  Some  of 
them,  like  Maiiritia  rinifera,  the  buriti  palm 
(q.v. ),  have  lofty  c>oIuninar  smooth  stems; 
others  are  slender,  and  armed  with  strong  conical 
spines.  The  Miriti  jialm  {Mauritia  flej-uosa) 
grows  to  the  height  of  100  feet,  or  even  1:50  feet 
in  river  deltas;  it  has  very  large  leaves  on  long 
stalks.  The  stem  and  leaf-stalks  are  utilized  for 
various  purposes.  The  fibre  from  the  young 
leaves  is  extensively  used  for  cordage  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  hammocks.  Sago  is  olitained 
from  the  stems.  A  beverage  is  made  from  the 
fruit,  as  from  that  of  the  buriti  palm  and  sev- 
eral other  species. 

MAURITIUS,  mn-rish'I-us  (named  in  honor 
of  .M:iiiiiie  of  Xassau).  formerly  Ii.E  UE  1'ra.nce. 
A  liritir-h  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  550  miles 
cast  of  Madagascar,  between  longitudes  57°  and 
58°  E.,  and  latitudes  10°  and  20°  S,  (Map:  .\f- 
rica,  K  7).  Its  area  is  705  sipiare  miles.  The 
coasts  are  low  except  at  three  points  where  the 
mountains  reach  them.  The  surface  rises  in 
the  interior  to  a  plateau,  surmounted  by  three 
groups  of  mountains  with  other  outlying  eleva- 
tions. Extinct  craters  testify  to  the  volcanic 
origin  of  the  island,  which,  however,  is  friiitred 
witli  coral  reefs.  The  highest  jieaks  are  Pitoii 
de  la  Rivifere  Xoire  (2711  feet)  and  Ponce 
(2050  feet).  The  coasts,  although  well  indented, 
are  difficult  of  access  on  account  of  the  numerous 
coral  reefs  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  The 
rivers  are  short  and  unlit  for  navigation.  The 
climate  is  considerably  tenipeied  by  the  moun- 
tainous character  of  the  island.  The  only  good 
harbor  is  Port  Louis,  on  the  northwest  coast, 
which  is  sheltered  by  coral  reefs.  There  is  about 
10°  dilTercnce  between  the  temperature  in  the 
interior  and  th;it  of  the  coast  regions.  The  mean 
annual  tem|ierature  at  Port  Louis,  the  cajiital 
and  largest  town,  is  about  70°  F.  The  island  lias 
sutlered  considerably  from  hurricanes  and  fever 
epidemics.  The  present  tlora  is  almost  entirely 
foreign,  although  some  of  the  plants  were  intro- 
duced so  long  ago  that  they  have  come  to  be  con- 
sidered indigenmis.  The  fauna  of  Mauritius,  never 
very  extensive,  has  been  still  more  impoverished 
by  the  almost  total  ilestniction  of  (he  once  mag- 
nificent forests,  which  liav<'  been  replaced  with 
plantations.  Most  of  the  domestic  animals  are  of 
foreign  origin.  Among  the  extinct  species  may 
be  mentioned  the  dodo  (q.v.)  and  several  other 
birds  whose  inability  to  fly  was  the  cause  of 
their  early  extermination.  Mauritius  has  a  fer: 
tile  although  somewhat  stony  soil,  adapted  for 
the    cultivation    of    the    chief    tropical    products. 


MAURITIUS. 


203 


MAURY. 


Cane  sugar  1ms  been  the  staple  of  the  island  for 
a  very  long  period,  and  it  is  niainl\'  by  the  sugar 
crop  that  the  ecunoiiiie  condition  of  the  islan<l 
is  determined.  Formerly  nearly  all  the  e.xport 
sugar  went  to  Europe,  but  this  outlet  has  been 
largely  closed  in  recent  years  by  the  com])etition 
of  Eni'opean  beet  sugar.  If  the  East  Indian 
markets  had  not  been  opened  in  the  last  decade  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  sugar  industry  would 
have  been  ruined.  Other  products  of  minor  im- 
portance are  cereals,  cotton,  pepper,  indigo,  drugs, 
and  tea.  The  commerce  of  JIauritius  is  cliietly 
with  Great  Britain  and  the  British  colonies.  The 
annual  value  of  the  total  commerce  during  1805- 
90  tluctuated  lietween  44.000,000  rupees  and  51,- 
000.000  rupees,  the  exports  usuall^y  exceeding  the 
imports  bv  several  million  rupees.  Of  exports  to 
the  value 'of  24,745,000  rupees  for  1899,  over  23,- 
000.000  rupees  represented  sugar,  and  the  rest 
rum.  vanilla,  aloe  fibre,  and  cocoanuts.  The  chief 
imports  are  cotton  goods,  provisions,  coal, 
machinery,  and  fertilizers.  The  chief  article  of 
«xport  from  Mauritius  to  the  United  States  is 
sugar.  Port  Louis  is  connected  by  steamship 
lines  with  JIadagascar.  Eeunion,  and  British 
India.  It  is  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  colony 
that  nearly  all  vessels  between  Europe  and  India 
via  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  touch  at  Port  Louis. 
The  colony  has  railroad  lines  along  the  west 
and  north  coasts  and  crossing  the  island  from 
cast  to  westj  with  a  total  length  of  105  miles. 

Together  with  the  Rodrigues,  Cargados,  Cha- 
gos,  and  Oil  Islands,  etc.,  Mauritius  forms  a 
Crown  colony  of  Great  Britain,  which  is  ad- 
n:inistered  by  a  Governor,  assisted  by  an  execu- 
tive council  of  five  members  and  a  legislative 
council  of  twenty-seven,  including  ten  members 
elected  on  a  property  qualification.  The  repre- 
sentative form  of  government  was  introduced  in 
1SS5.  Primary  education  is  mostly  provided  by 
tlic  Government.  The  population  of  Mauritius, 
according  to  the  census  of  1891,  was  371,655; 
according  to  that  of  1901,  378,195,  consisting 
chielly  of  African  races  and  some  Chinese.  The 
European  population  is  mostly  French.  Port 
Louis   iipv.)    had  a  ]iopulation  of  52,740  in  1901. 

.Mauritius  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in 
l.jO.")  and  remained  in  their  possession  until 
1598,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Dutch,  who  gave 
it  its  present  name.  Aside  from  erecting  a  fort 
at  (irand  Port,  one  of  the  smaller  trading  ports, 
the  Dutch  did  no  more  for  the  settlement  of  the 
island  than  their  predecessors,  and  finally  aban- 
doned it  in  1710.  The  island  was  soon  taken 
over  by  the  Frcncli  and  under  their  rule  began 
to  develop,  especially  during  the  second  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  During  the  war  between 
France  and  England  at  the  beginning  oi  the  nine- 
teenth century,  the  island  was  captured  by  Eng- 
land and  was  formally  ceded  by  France  in  1814. 
Consult:  Martin,  TItc  British  I'osscusions  in  Af- 
licd.  vol.  iv.  (London,  1834);  Unienville.  .S7«- 
tixtiijiir  dc  Vile  Mriurice  et  ses  deprndanres 
(Mauritius,  1880)  ;  Epinay,  ifoLsfif/HCDirii/s  pour 
svnir  a  riiintoirc  dc  I'ilr  dc  Fmiicc  (.Mauritius, 
1890)  ;  Uccotlcr,  Vcoyidphic  dc  Maurice  ct  dc  scs 
dcpcndnnces  (Mauritius,  1891);  Chalmers,  A 
Hixtor:/  nf  Ciirrcncii  in  the  British  Cnlonies  (Lon- 
don. ISO."!)  ;  .\ndeVson.  The  finf/ar  Industri/  of 
Mnnritiiis  (London,  1899)  ;  Keller,  Madnfiuficar. 
Vnuritins.  and  Other  East  African  I.ilntid/t  (Lon- 
don, 1900)  :  The  Mniiritius  Almiinnc  (Mauritius, 
anmial)  ;  Annvnl  Colonial  Reports  (London)  ; 
Vol.  XIII. -h. 


Tlie  Mauritius  Ciril  List    (Port   Louis,  semi-an- 
nual ) . 

MAURITIUS  AND  LAZARUS,  Ordf.e  of. 
An  Italian  order  of  merit  with  five  classes, 
originally  an  ecclesiastical  order  founded  by 
Amadeus  VIII.  of  Savoy  in  1434.  It  was  sup- 
pressed in  1802,  restored  by  Victor  Emmanuel  of 
Sardinia  in  1810,  and  reconstituted  by  Victor 
EmmaiuKd  II.  in  ISOS. 

MAUROCORDATOS.     See  Mavrocobdatos. 

MAUROMICHALIS,   mav'ra-md-KJi'les.     See 

M.WKO.MIl  IIALIS. 

MAURUS,  ma'rus,  Sain't  (494?-584).  He 
was  liorn  in  Rome  about  494.  He  was  of  a  noble 
family,  and  was  placed  by  liis  father,  Eutychius, 
under  the  tutelage  of  Saint  Benedict,  under 
whom  he  became  a  model  of  virtue.  Benedict 
sent  him  to  Gaul,  where  he  founded  the  monas- 
tery of  Glanfeuil.  or  Saint-Maur-sur-Loire,  in 
543,  over  which  he  presided  for  forty  years.  He 
died  in  584,  and  his  day  is  January  15th.  The 
Congregation  of  Saint-Maur  has  done  a  great 
work  in  reforming  the  monastic  orders  and  in 
ecclesiastical  literature. 

MAU'RUS,  R.\ba'n'US.  A  German  theolo- 
gian.    See  RABANU.S  Maubus. 

MAURY,  ma're.  D.\.bxey  Herxdon  (1822- 
190(1).  An  American  soldier  and  author,  born 
at  I'redericksburg.  Va.  He  studied  law  for  a 
time  at  the  L'niversity  of  Virginia,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  I84G,  served  in  the  Jlexican  War, 
and  was  brevetted  first  lieutenant  for  gallantry 
at  Cerro  Gordo.  From  1847  to  1850  he  was 
assistant  professor  of  geography  and  ethics,  and 
from  1850  to  1852  of  infantry  tactics  at  West 
Point.  He  then  served  in  the  West,  and  was 
superintendent  of  cavalry  instruction  at  Carlisle 
Barracks  in  1858.  While  serving  as  assistant 
adjutant-general  in  New  Mexico  in  1801,  he  was 
discharged  from  the  army  and  entered  the  Con- 
federate service  as  colonel.  After  the  battle  of 
Pea  Ridge  he  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier- 
general  and  opposed  Grant  during  the  Van  Dorn 
raid.  He  also  met  Sherman  in  his  attack  on 
Vicksburg  in  1862.  Later  he  was  promoted  to  be 
major-general,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  Tennessee.  At  the  end  of  the 
war  he  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the 
Gulf,  and  surrendered  on  May  24,  1805.  He  or- 
ganized the  Southern  Historical  Society.  From 
1880  to  1889  he  served  as  Jlinister  to  Colom- 
bia. His  writings  include:  .Skirmish  Drill  for 
Mounted  Troops  (1859);  Recollections  of  a 
^irffinian  in  the  Memcan,  Indian,  and  Civil 
^Vars    (1894). 

MAURY,  m.Vrd',  Jean  Siffbein  (174G-1817). 
A  French  prelate,  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  born 
at  Valreas,  in  the  Department  of  Vaucluse, 
France.  He  studied  for  the  priesthood  at  Avi- 
gnon, and  went  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  twenty 
as  ahhf  precepteur.  He  soon  made  himself  known 
as  an  eloquent  panegyrist,  became  a  favorite 
preacher  at  the  Court  and  was  appointed  to  the 
abbey  of  Frenade.  He  was  elected  also  to  a  .seat 
in  the  French  .\cademy.  In  1789  he  was  chosen 
deputy  of  the  clergy  to  the  States-General,  where 
he  was  prominent  in  defense  of  the  Church  and 
royalty;  and  with  great  vigor,  skill,  and  elo- 
qvience  opposed  the  revolutionary  measures  until 
the  flight  of  Louis  XVI..  matching  himself  fre- 
quently and  successfully  against  Mirabeau.    At 


MATJBY. 


204 


mausoleum:. 


the  dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  he 
left  Kianoe  in  IT'.U.  and  at  the  invitation  of  Pius 
VI.  look  up  his  residence  in  Rome,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  honor.  In  17114  he  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Nicira  in  imrlibiix.  nuncio  to  the 
Diet  at  Frankfort.  Cardinal,  and  Bishop  of  ^Monte- 
fiascone.  On  the  invasion  of  Italy  l>y  tlie  Frencli  in 
1798  he  tied  in  disguise  to  Venice,  and  thence  to 
Saint  Peterslnirg.  Returning  in  17!l!l,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Count  of  Provence,  afterwards 
Louis  XVI 11.,  his  ambassador  to  the  Holy  See. 
liecoming  reconciled  to  Xapoleon,  he  returned  to 
France  in  1806.  In  1810  he  was  appointed 
Archliishop  of  Paris,  and  his  refusal  to  abdicate 
this  oflice  at  the  command  of  Pius  VII.  cost  him 
a  short  imprisonment  at  Home  after  the  Restora- 
tion. Maury  publislied  a  treatise  entitled  Essai 
sur  Vrlijqui/iur  (le  la  cliairc  (1810). 

MATJBY,  mou're,  Juan  ilAnfA  (1772-1845). 
A  Spanish  jioet,  born  at  Malaga.  He  studied 
abroad,  both  in  France  and  England,  and  oil  his 
return  to  Spain  took  part  in  the  War  of  the 
French  Occupation.  He  was  a  supporter  of 
.loseph  Bonaparte,  and  was  afterwards  exiled 
and  died  in  Paris.  His  works  include:  La 
agresion  briuinica  (1800);  L'Esixtf/ne  poctiquc 
(1826-27):  and  Esvcro  y  Ahitrtlora.  a  poem  in 
twelve  cantos.  His  complete  works  were  pub- 
lished as  the   Poesias  caslellaiuiti    (1845). 

MAURY,  niA're',  Louis  Ferdinand  Alfred 
(I817-!>2).  A  French  scholar  and  arcluecdogist, 
born  at  ileaux.  Seine-et-Marne.  In  1860  he  was 
made  librarian  at  the  Tuileries.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  history  and  morality  at  the  College 
of  France  in  1862,  and  was  general  director  of 
the  archives  from  1868  until  1888,  when  he  re- 
tired. He  assisted  Xapoleon  III.  in  his  Ilistoirc 
de  Jules  Cesar,  and  ]iul)lislied  himself  Essai  sill- 
ies leflcndrs  jiiiuses  du  iiioi/cn  age  (184.'5)  ;  Les 
ffes  du  mojien  dye.  reeherches  sur  Icur  origine 
(1843):  Hisloire  des  religions  de  la  Grice  an- 
tique (1857-5H):  and  Croyances  et  Ugendes  de 
I'antiquite    (1863). 

MAU'RY.  .Matthew  Fontaine  (1806-73). 
.\n  .\nierican  naval  ollicer  and  hydrographer.  born 
in  Spottsylvania  County.  Va.  He  studied  at  the 
Harpeth  .Academy  in  Tennessee  until  1823,  when 
he  was  appointed  midshipnuin  in  the  navy  and 
the  next  year  was  an  ollicer  on  the  ^'ineetnles 
during  her  voyage  aroiind  the  world.  In  1830 
he  sustained  a  fracture  of  the  leg  which  made 
him  a  crip]d<'  for  life.  This  accident  led  to  his 
being  appointed  to  the  Xaval  Observatory  and 
Ilydrographic  Ollice  in  Washington,  where  he 
made  a  study  of  old  ships'  logs,  the  result  of 
which  was  a  series  of  Wind  and  Current  Charts 
that  were  of  incalcnlalde  benefit  to  navigators. 
Here  also  lie  ]ire]iared  his  Pliysieal  Oeograidig  of 
the  Sea  and  Us  Meteorologij  (1855)."  In  1853 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander,  but 
nt  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  olTered  his 
services  to  the  Confederacy.  In  1862  he  went 
on  a  mission  to  Kiirope,  where  he  remained  until 
the  conelusinii  of  peace,  when  he  went  to  Mexico 
and  was  appointed  commissioner  of  emigration  by 
the  Fmiieror  Maximilian.  Upon  the  overthrow 
of  the  Imperial  rC'ginie,  Maury  returned  to  the 
United  Stales  and  became  jirofessor  of  physics 
nt  the  Virginia  Military  Institute.  .Among  his 
publications  not  previouslv  mentioned  are  I^el- 
ters  on  the  Ama'im  and  the  .itianlie  Slnprs  of 
South  Anicrira    (1853)    and  Lames  for  Steamers 


Crossing  the  Atlantic  (1854).  Consult  Corbin, 
Life  of  Mattheic  Fontaine  Maury  (London, 
1888). 

MAUSER,  mou'zer,  Paul  (1838—).  A  Ger- 
man invcntnr.  He  was  born  at  Oberndorf,  Wiirt- 
temberg,  where  he  received  his  early  education. 
Together  with  his  brother,  Wilhelm  Mauser 
(1834-82),  he  secured  employment  in  the  arsenal 
factory  of  iiis  native  town.  He  appears  to  have 
been  chiefly  responsible  for  the  joint  inventions 
of  the  two  brothers.  It  was  he  who,  in  1870,  in- 
vented the  Mauser  revolver,  and  in  1882,  in  con- 
junction with  his  brother,  he  succeeded  in 
securing  the  adojjtion  by  the  Servian  Govern- 
ment of  an  improved  rille  known  as  the  'Mau- 
ser, 1882.'  He  is  principally  known,  however, 
for  his  invention  of  the  Mauser  magazine  ritle, 
and  a  magazine  revolver.  (See  Sm.\ll  .Arms.) 
His  weapon  was  distinguished  for  its  low  trajec- 
tory, and  the  projectile  which  it  fired  for  it» 
penetrative  power.  In  1808  he  was  elected  a 
mcMilicr  cif  tile  Reichstag. 

MAUSER  GUN".     A  rifle  invented  by  Mauser    \ 
( <\.Y. ) .    See  .S.MALL  Arms. 

MAU'SOLE'UM  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  /lavaoileiov, 
mausolrion.  from  ilaicuAoc,  ilausOlos) .  A  sep-  ( 
ulchral  monument  of  large  size,  containing  a 
chamber  in  which  urns  or  coffins  are  deposited. 
The  name  is  derived  fiom  the  tomb  erected  at 
Halicarnassus  to  Mausolus,  King  of  Caria,  by 
his  widow,  .Artemisia.  The  work  is  said  to 
Iiave  been  begun  by  Jlausolus  (B.C.  353),  and 
to  have  been  com]detcd  by  the  artists  after  tlie 
death  of  .Artemisia  (c.350  B.C.).  It  was  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  monuments  of  the  kind, 
and  was  esteemed  one  of  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  world.  The  architects  were  Satyrus  and 
Pythius  or  Pythis,  and  it  is  .said  that  Scopa>, 
Bryaxis,  Timotheus  (or,  according  to  Vitruvius, 
Praxiteles),  and  Leochares  were  employed  on  the 
sculpture.  It  was  described  by  Pliny,  and  is 
mentioned  by  medi.Tval  writers,  as  late  as  the 
twelfth  century,  in  a  manner  that  seems  to  im]ily 
it  was  still  uninjured.  The  upper  jiart  was  over- 
thrown, probably  liy  an  earthquake,  in  the  course 
of  the  following  two  centuries;  for  wdien  the 
Knights  of  Saint  .lohn  of  .lerusalem,  in  1402, 
took  possession  of  the  site  of  Halicarnassus,  they 
used  the  ruins  as  a  quarry  in  building  their 
castle.  The  interior  was  still  undisturbed,  for 
in  1.522,  when  rejiairing  the  cattle  and  excavating 
among  tlie  ruins  for  building  materials,  the 
knights  discovered  a  large  chamber  decm-ated 
with  colored  marbles,  reliefs,  and  columns.  These 
were  all  destroyed  to  furnish  lime.  An  inner 
chamber  contained  a  white  marble  sarcophagus. 
Fragments  of  the  frieze  were  used  to  decorate  the 
castle  walls,  and  in  1840  these  were  obtained 
by  Sir  Stratford  Canning  for  the  British  Mu- 
seum, In  1856-58  excavations  condiicled  for 
the  British  Government  by  Charles  T.  Xewton  led 
to  the  iliscovery  of  the  lost  site  and  the  reciiv- 
ery  of  many  fragments  of  arcliitecture  and  sculp- 
ture. The  foundations  and  fragments,  combined 
with  Pliny's  rather  inadi'quate  notice,  have  led 
to  several  attcnijits  to  reconstruct  the  monument, 
but  without  any  very  conclusive  result.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Mausoleum  consisted  of  a  infty 
base  or  podium,  on  which  stood  n  chamher  siir- 
roun<led  by  an  Ionic  colonnade  (the  pternn)  ; 
this  was  surmounted  by  a  pyramid  of  24  steps, 
on   the   truncated    apex   of   which    was   a   marble 


MAUSOLEUM. 


205 


MAX. 


four-liorsc  chariot.  U'liether  tlie  colossal  statues 
of  Mausolus  and  Artemisia  were  placed  in  the 
chariot  or  elsewhere  in  the  building  is  a  matter 
of  dispute.  The  reliefs  belong  to  three  friezes, 
and  represent  a  battle  of  the  Greeks  and  Ama- 
zons, the  contest  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapi- 
th;e,  and  a  chariot  race.  Their  exact  position  in 
the  building  is  uncertain,  tliough  the  first  is  prob- 
ably tlie  frieze  of  the  external  Ionic  order.  In 
addition  to  the  histories  of  Greek  sculpture,  con- 
sult: Xewton,  Historij  of  Discoveries  of  HuUcar- 
■nassus,  Cnidus,  and  liranchidw  (London,  ISG'i)  ; 
and  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  the  Levant  (ib., 
18G5)  ;  Oldfield,  in  Archwolorjia,  vols.  liv.  (180.5) 
and  Iv.  (IS'JO)  ;  Adler,  Das  Mausoleum  zu  Hali- 
karnas  (Berlin,  1000)  ;  A.  H.  Smith,  Catalogue  of 
Sculptures  in  the  British  Museum,  vol.  ii.  (Lon- 
don, 1900),  where  the  fragments  are  described 
and  sUetclies  of  the  proposed  restorations  given. 

MAU'STON.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
.Juneau  t'uunty,  Wis.,  128  miles  northwest  of 
Jlihvaukee.  on  the  Lemonweir  River,  and  on  tlie 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad 
(Slap:  Wisconsin,  C  5).  Good  water  power  is 
derived  from  the  river,  and  there  are  (louring 
mills,  machine  shops,  and  other  industrial  estab- 
lishments. Population,  in  1800,  1343;  in  1000, 
1718. 

MAUVAISES   TEBRES,   mo-vaz'    tar'.     See 

B.M)    L.VXDS. 

MAUVE,  mov  (Fr.,  mallow).  A  color  re- 
scnil)ling  the  purple  markings  of  the  petals  of 
mallow.  It  is  calleil  also  aniline  purple  and  ani- 
line violet,  and  is  not  now  in  use  among  painters. 

MAUVE,  niov,  Anton  (1838-88).  A  Dutch 
landscape  and  animal  painter,  born  at  Zaandam. 
His  family  removed  to  Haarlem  when  he  was  a 
boy,  and  JIauve  stvidied  there  imder  the  cattle 
painter  Van  Os,  but  he  was  chiefly  self-taught. 
Afterwards  he  spent  some  time  in  Oosterbeek, 
and  later  lived  at  The  Hague,  and  at  the  village 
of  Larcn.  ilauve  stands  with  Israels  and  ilaris 
in  the  front  rank  of  modern  Dutch  painters. 
He  selected  sul)jects  similar  to  those  painted  by 
Millet,  but  he  was  more  poetical,  if  less  dra- 
matic, and  lie  was  the  better  colorist  of  the 
two.  Mauve  painted  in  oil  and  water-color  with 
equal  ease,  although  his  last  water-colors  are  con- 
sidered the  best  of  his  works.  "The  Flock  of 
Sheep,"  "The  Flock  Returning,"  "Near  Laren," 
"On  the  Heath,"  and  "Evening  "  are  examples  of 
his  best  work. 

MAVERICK,  Peter  (1780-1831).  An 
American  engraver,  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  was  the  son  of  Peter  JIaverick,  etcher  and 
engraver,  from  wliom  he  learned  his  art.  He  was 
a  founder  of  the  National  Academy  of  Desi.gn 
and  one  of  the  first  engravers  of  note  in  this 
country.  His  plates  include  the  portraits  of 
Henry  Clay,  after  King  (1822)  ;  Bishop  Benja- 
min Moore,  after  Dunlap;  and  Andrew  Jackson, 
after  Waldo.  Asher  B.  Durand  (q.v.),  the  en- 
graver, was  his  pupil,  and  for  a  time  his  partner 
in   1817. 

MAVIS  (OF.  mauvis.  nialvis,  Fr.  mauvi-s, 
probably  from  Bret,  mil  fid,  milvid,  millhouid. 
Corn,  melhuet,  melhues,  lark).  The  song  thrush 
{Tnrdus  inusieiis)  of  Kurope  is  commonly  known 
in  Scotland  as  the  mavis,  and  although  tliis  name 
is  now  rather  uncommon  in  England,  where 
throstle'  and  'redwing'  are  more  often  heard,  it 
has  passed  into  literature  to  such  an  extent  as 


to  be  well  known  wherever  English  is  spoken. 
(See  Song  Thblsii.)  In  Scotland  the  mistle- 
thrush   (q.v.)   is  known  as  'big  mavis.' 

MAVROCORDATOS,  mii'vni-kor-da'tas,  Al- 
EX.\NL)EH,  Prince  (1701-1805).  A  Greek  states- 
man, born  at  Constantinople,  February  15,  1791, 
of  a  Fanariote  family  celebrated  for  the  part  it 
has  played  in  the  affairs  of  (Jrecce.  He  was 
a  scholar  and  an  ardent  patriot,  and  devoted 
himself  with  singleness  of  purpose  to  the  cause 
of  Greek  independence,  expending  the  bulk  of  his 
private  fortune  for  the  equipment  of  fleet  and 
army.  He  prepared  the  Greek  declaration  of 
independence  and  the  plan  of  a  provisional 
Government,  was  elected  president  of  the  ex- 
ecutive body  (1822),  and  undertook  the  same 
year  an  expedition  to  Epifus,  which  ended  in 
the  unsuccessful  battle  of  Peta ;  but  he  distin- 
guished himself  bv  his  bold  and  resolute  defense 
of  Mi.ssolonghi  (1822-23).  Notwithstanding  the 
opposition  of  the  party  of  Kolokotronis  and 
Demetrius  Ypsilanti  (see  Kolokotronis;  Ypsi- 
LANTI),  he  was  able  afterwards  to  render  im- 
portant services  to  his  country  in  the  heroic 
defense  of  Navarino  and  Sphacteria.  He  was 
a  steadfast  admirer  of  English  policy  and  in- 
stitutions, and  a  fierce  opponent  of  the  pro- 
Russian  Government  of  Capo  d'Istria  (q.v.). 
After  the  accession  of  King  Otho  (1832)  he  was 
at  different  times  a  Cabinet  minister  and  ambas- 
sador at  various  courts.  The  leading  feature 
of  his  policy — his  endeavor  to  promote  British 
influence — made  him  at  times  very  unpopular 
among  his  countrymen.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Crimean  War  he  became  head  of  the  Cabinet,  but 
resigned  after  remaining  in  office  for  little  more 
than  a  year.     He  died  August  18,  1865. 

MAVROMICHALIS,  miiv'r.a-me-Kii'les.  A 
Greek  princely  family  of  Maina,  in  the  Morea. 
Its  more  important  members  were:  Georgios, 
who  led  the  Mainot  revolt  of  1770;  Petros  ( 1775- 
1848),  often  called  Petro  Bey,  who  became  Bey  of 
Maina  in  1816,  led  the  revolt  of  1821  in  the 
Morea. became  presidrent  of  the  Congress  of  Astros 
in  1822,  and  as  leader  of  the  Hellenic  party  op- 
posed Capo  d'Istria  and  his  Russian  policy  and 
was  imi)risoned  in  Nauplia  ;  and  his  brother  KoN- 
.ST.^NTixos  and  son  Georgio.s.  who  had  fought 
bravely  in  the  war  of  independence  and  who  in 
1831  assassinated  Capo  d'Istria  to  avenge  the  im- 
prisonment of  Petro  Bey.  Georgios  was  executed 
and  Konstantinos  was  killed  by  the  President's 
followers.  Petros  was  set  at  liberty  by  the  new 
Administration,  and  as  a  reward  for  his  zealous 
support  of  Otho  was  made  vice-president  of  the 
Council  of  State. 

MAW-SEED  {maw,  AS.  mnria,  Icel.  magi, 
OllG.  maijo,  Ger.  Magen,  stomach  +  seed).  A 
common  name  for  poppy-seed  which  is  given  to 
cage  birds  especiallj'  when  they  are  moulting. 

MAX,  miiks,  Gabriel  (1840—).  A  German 
historical  painter,  of  the  Slunich  School.  He 
was  born  in  Prague,  the  son  of  the  sculptor 
Joseph  Max  (1803-54).  After  his  father's  death 
he  studied  four  years  at  the  Academv  of  Prague, 
three  years  in  that  of  Vienna,  and  from   1803  to 

I8G9  under  Piloty  at  Munich.  His  first  notable 
success  was  achieved  bv  "The  Christian  Mart.vr" 

(18G7),  a  maiden  bound  to  a  rude  stone  cross,  at 
wliose  feet  a  young  Roman  patrician,  returning 
at  dawn  from  revelry,  lays  down  a  garland.  His 
next  noteworthy  productions  were  "The  Melan- 


MAX. 


206 


MAXIMA  AND  MINIMA. 


choly  Kun"  (1S09,  Hanil)urc;  Gallery)  and  "The 
Anatomist"  (1S09) — both  strikingly  somhre  and 
pathetic,  and  illiistrative  of  the  painter's  mor- 
[lid  tendencies.  Patient  sutTering  is  depicted  in 
'"The  Blind  Lamp  Seller  in  the  Catacombs" 
(1871)  ;  in  "Xydia,"  the  blind  Thessalian  flower 
girl  of  Buhver's  Last  Dai/s  of  Pompeii  (1874). 
One  of  his  most  touching  pictures  is  "The 
Last  Token"  ( 1S74,  Jletropolitan  Museum,  New 
York).  The  tragic  element  is  best  represented 
by  "The  Lion's  Bride"  (187.5).  probal)Iy  his  best- 
known  work.  The  "Handkerchief  of  Saint  Ver- 
onica" I  1874)  created  a  sensation  as  a  pictorial 
phenomenon,  the  Saviour's  eyes  appearing  by 
turns  to  open  and  close.  His  spiritualistic  ten- 
dencies are  revealed  in  such  paintings  as  "Spirit 
Greeting"  (1879).  Consult:  K]pmt.  dnhrirl  Max 
Mild  seine  Werke  (Vienna,  1SS7).  and  Meissner 
in  Die  h'loisl  tinserer  Zeit    (ilunich,  1899). 

MAXENTIUS,  maks-en'shi-us.  Roman  Em- 
peror,    .'-^ec  (  (PNST.^NTI.XE  \. 

MAXENTIUS,  Ciiicu.s  of.  A  circus  on  the 
Appian  Way  near  Rome  dedicated  to  Divus 
Romulus,  son  of  Maxcntius,  who  died  in  A.i).  .'509. 
It  was  .'?oO  yai'ds  by  8(i  and  it  accommodated 
18,000  spectators.  The  barriers  and  spina  were 
.set  oblir|Ucly  to  equalize  the  distance  to  be  covered 
by  contestants  starting  in  different  positions. 

MAX'EY,  Samuel  Bell  (1825-9.5).  An 
American  soldier,  born  in  Tompkinsville.  Ky.    He 


chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  was 
created  a  knight  by  the  English  Crown  in  1901. 

MAXIM,  HUDSO.N-  (18,53—).  An  American 
invcnlor  and  engineer,  born  at  Orneville,  Me. 
He  was  educated  in  the  local  schools  and  at  the 
Wesleyan  Seminary,  Kent's  Hill,  Me.,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  chemistry,  engineer- 
ing, and  natural  science",  at  the  age  "of  twenty- 
two  formulating  a  hypothesis  of  the  compound 
nature  of  atoms.  From  1883  to  1888  he  was 
engaged  in  the  printing  and  publishing  business 
at  Pittsfiehl,  Mass.,  devising  a  process  for  print- 
ing daily  papers  in  colors.  In  1888  he  became 
interested  in  ordnance  and  explosives,  and  was 
among  the  first  to  make  smokeless  powder  in 
the  United  States.  Extending  this  business  he 
developed  the  Maxim-Schupphaus  smokeless  pow- 
der, which  was  used  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment; in  1901  he  sold  to  that  same  Government 
the  secret  of  the  high  explosive,  maximite  (q,v. ). 
Later  inventions  include  various  processes  con- 
nected with  the  electric  furnace,  a  detonating 
fuze  for  high-explosive  projectiles,  automobile 
torpedoes,  and  "stal)illite,"  a  smokeless  powder 
invented  by  Iiini  ami  di'vcloped  by  him  in  connec- 
tion with  the  K.  I.  (hi  I'niil  lie  Xcniours  Company. 

MAXIMA  AND  MINIMA  (Lat.,  neut.  pi. 
of  maximus,  greatest,  and  minimus,  least).  In 
mathematics,  the  greatest  and  the  least  values  of 
variable   ipiantities   or    magnitudes.      Strictly,   a 


graduated  at  the  United  States  Jlilitarv  Academy     maximum   is  not  necessarily   the  gi'eatest   of  all 
;„    lofi:    1   ...1  i.1 1 i-  iK_  AT_*-.     ___   TTT  _  _        +1.«    ,..^ :i.l,.    ,...),..-...    ^,(    ..    :^\,\^  .    :^    :..    ..     ..^i..„ 


in  184ti.  and  served  throughout  the  Mexican  War. 
In  1850  he  began  to  practice  law,  but  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  raised  a  Confederate 
regiment,  liecoming  its  colonel:  soon  he  was 
promoted  brigadier-general.  He  served  under 
General  Bragg,  took  part  in  the  attack  on  Buell's 
retreating  army,  and  was  at  the  first  siege  of 
Port  Hu<lsnn.  In  1803,  when  in  command  of  the 
Indian  Ti'rritory,  he  organized  an  army  of  8000, 
defeated  (ien.  Frederick  Steele,  and  captured 
his  train  of  227  wagons.  For  these  services  he 
was  promoted  major-general.  In  1874  he  was 
elected  I'nited  States  Senator,  and  in  1881 
reelected. 

MAX'IM,  Sir  Hiram  Stevens  (1840—).  An 
engineer  and  inventor,  born  in  Sangersville, 
Maine,  where  he  received  his  early  education. 
After  being  apprenticed  to  a  coach-builder,  he 
worked  in  a  machine  shop  at  Fitcbburg,  JIass., 
later  becoming  foreman  of  an  instrviment  fac- 
tory. After  this  be  worked  at  the  Novelty  Iron 
Works  and  Shipbuilding  Company  in  New  York. 
Mciinwhile  he  bad  patented  various  improve- 
ments in  steam-engines  and  had  put  on  the  mar- 
ket an  automatic  g:is  machine.  In  1878  he 
invented  an  improved  incandescent  lamp.  In 
this  field  he  made  other  important  inventions, 
some  of  which  wero  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Ex- 
position of  1881.  His  most  celebrateil  invention 
was  the  Maxim  gun  (see  Maciiixe  Gfx),  in 
which  invention  he  is  said  to  have  developed  an 
iilea  of  his  boyhood.  More  than  one-  hundred 
international  patents  relating  to  petroleum  and 
olher  motors,  and  so  on,  were  taken  out  by  liini. 
He  bought  an  estate  near  Bexley.  England,  where 
he  erected  his  laboratories  and  experimenl;>l  sta- 
tion, in  which  he  carried  on  some  elaborate 
experiments  in  aeronautics  (q.v,).  He  beenmc  a 
naturalized  citizen  of  Great  Britain  because  of 
the  alleged  unfair  treatment  of  his  inventions  by 
the  United  States  Government.     He  was  made  a 


the  possible  values  of  a  variable;  it  is  a  value 
that  is  greater  than  the  values  immediateli/  pre- 
ceding and  following  it  in  series.  Similarly,  a 
minimum,  strictly  defined,  is  a  value  that  is  less 
than  the  values  immediately  preceding  and  fol- 
lowing it.  Hence  a  function  may  have  several 
maxima  and  minima,  equal  or  unequal  among 
themselves.  Thus,  in  the  accompanying  figure, 
a,,  Oo,  U3,  are  maxinuim  values  of  the  ordinates 
of  f  [X),  and  i,,  /)„,  63,  are  minimum  values.  The 
tangent  of  the  angle  which  a  line  tangent  at  any 
point  to  the  curve  makes  with  the  X-axis  is  zero 
at  a  maximum  or  minimum  value  of  the  ordin- 
ate. This  means  that  the  difTerential  coellicient 
dy 


dx 


=:  0   (see  CALCin,us),  and  hence  the  abscis- 


sas corresponding  to  the  maxima  and  minima  are 

the  roots  of  -r-  =  0, 
dx 


Y 

A  function  of  two  ndependent  variables, 
f(x,  1/),  has  a  maximum  value  when  ftx,  y)  > 
fix  -f  h,  1/  +  A-),  for  all  small  values  of  h  and 
k,  positive  or  negative;  and  a  minimum  value 
when  fix,  y)  <  f{x  -\-  h.  y+  k) .  The  condi- 
tions for  maxima  and  minima  in  the  case  of  a 

function   u    of   two   variables   are    -^r-  =   0,   and 


8-/ 
the 


=  0.      If    A 
further    conditions 


S"  = 


for 


-^     Sx         -■ 

'"■'•  ,  and    C  = 
SxSi/ 

5--1 

a     maximum 

arc 

MAXIMA  AND  MINIMA. 


207 


MAXIMIANUS  II. 


B-  ■<  AC  and  A  •<  0,  and  for  a  minimum  B' 
<  AG  and  A  >  0.  When  B=  =  AC  or  A  =  B 
=  C  =  0,  further  investigation  is  necessary. 

A  few  of  the  important  propositions  of  ph\nc 
raa.xima  and  minima  are;  (1)  Of  all  triangles 
formed  with  the  same  two  given  sides,  that  is  the 
nia.ximum  whose  sides  contain  a  right  angle;  (2) 
of  all  isoperimetric  triangles  (those  of  equal 
perimeters)  on  the.  same  base,  the  isosceles  is 
the  ma.\imum ;  (3)  of  all  isoperimetric  triangles, 
that  which  is  equilateral  is  the  ma.ximum;  (4) 
of  all  triangles  having  the  same  base  and  area, 
tile  isosceles  has  tlie  mininmm  perimeter;  (5) 
if  a  line  of  given  length  be  bent  and  its  ends 
joined  by  a  straight  line,  the  area  of  the  figure 
inclosed  is  a  maximum  when  the  curved  line  has 
the  form  of  a  semicircle;  (0)  of  all  isoperi- 
metric plane  figures,  the  maximum  is  a  circle ; 
(7)  of  all  isoperimetric  polygons  of  a  given  num- 
ber of  sides,  the  maximum  is  regular. 

Traces  of  the  doctrine  of  ma.xima  and  minima 
are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  Apollonius  on 
conic  sections,  and  among  the  theorems  of  Zeno- 
dorus.  The  Hindus  displayed  great  ingenuity 
in  solving,  by  ordinary  algebra,  problems  of 
maxima  and  minima ;  but  thorough  investigation 
of  the  subject  requires  the  aid  of  the  calculus, 
and  Kepler,  the  Bernoulli  brothers,  Newton, 
-Maclaurin,  Euler,  and  Lagrange  distinguished 
themselves   in   this   department.      See   CALCULUS. 

MAXIM  GUN.     See  M.\chi.ne  Gun. 

MAXTMIA'NUS.  A  Latin  elegiac  poet  of 
the  sixth  century  a.d.  The  author,  whose  name 
may  be  merely  borrowed  from  a  character  in 
the  fourth  of  the  six  elegies,  deals  in  a  dramatic 
and  realistic  way  with  variations  on  the  theme 
'love  and  old  age.'  His  diction  and  metre  are  far 
above  the  average  of  the  period.  The  elegies 
were  pojiular  during  the  Jliddle  Ages  and  were 
frequently  imitated.  They  were  translated  in 
part  in  several  early  English  manuscripts  and 
entire  by  H.  \V[alUer?],  (1089),  who.  like  sev- 
eral early  editors,  ascribed  them  to  Cornelius 
Callus;  and  were  edited  by  Petschenig  (1890), 
and  by  Richard  Webster  with  commentary 
(Princeton,   1900). 

MAXIMIANUS  I.     A  Roman  Emperor.    See 

DURLETIAN. 

MAXIMIANUS  II.  A  name  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  \aierius  Maximianus  Galerius  (q.v.),  a 
Roman  emperor. 

MAX'IMIL'IAN  I.  (14.591519).  Holy  Ro- 
man Emperor  from  1493  to  1.519.  He  was  the 
son  and  successor  of  Frederick  III.,  and  was 
born  at  Wiener-Xeustadt,  near  Vienna,  JIarch 
22,  1459.  His  fir.st  wife,  whom  he  married  in 
1477,  was  Mary  of  Burgundy,  daughter  and 
sole  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold  (q.v.),  Duke 
of  Burgundy  and  sovereign  of  the  Xetherlands. 
^Maximilian  became  at  once  involved  in  war  with 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  who  laid  claim  to  Burgundy 
and  other  parts  of  Mary's  inheritance.  Max- 
imilian won  the  battle  of  Guinegate  in  1479,  but 
was  finally  compelled  in  14S2  to  conclude  the 
Treaty  of  Arras  with  Loiiis,  who  retained  Bur- 
gimdy,  Artois,  and  Franche-Comti'.  The  bulk  of 
the  Xetherlands,  the  7nost  opulent  realm  in  Eu- 
rope, remained  with  the  Hapsburgs.  In  I486 
Maximilian  was  elected  King  of  the  Romans.    In 


1488  the  Flemings  rose  against  Maximilian,  who 
was  for  a  time  held  a  jirisoner  at  Bruges.  In 
1490  he  nuide  a  successful  incursion  into  Hungary 
and  soon  after  became  master  of  the  Austrian 
crownlands.  He  again  took  up  arms  against 
France,  whose  King,  Charles  VIII.,  had  married 
Anne  of  Brittany,  in  order  to  acquire  that  great 
duchy,  after  a  matrimonial  alliance  had  been 
concluded  between  that  princess  and  Maximilian. 
B}'  the  Treaty  of  Senlis,  in  149;i,  .Maximilian 
recovered  Artois  and  Franche-Corate.  In  the 
same  year  he  succeeded  his  father  on  the  im- 
perial throne  of  Germany.  Soon  afterwards, 
Mary  of  Burgundy  having  died  in  1482,  he  mar- 
ried Bianca,  a  daughter  of  the  late  Duke  of 
Milan.  Galeazzo  Sforza,  and  thus  was  involved 
subsequently  in  the  Italian  wars.  He  joined  the 
League  of  Cambrai  against  Venice  in  1508  and 
the  Holy  League  against  France  in  1513,  and 
after  Francis  I.'s  victory  at  Mclegnano  (1515) 
was  forced  to  cede  Milan  to  the  French.  Xor  was 
Maximilian  more  successful  against  the  Swiss, 
who  in  1499  completely  separated  themselves 
from  the  German  Empire.  By  the  marriage  of 
Philip,  the  son  of  Maximilian,  with  the  Infanta 
Joan,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the 
House  of  Hapsburg,  in  1516,  ascended  the  throne 
of  Spain  in  the  person  of  Oiarles  I.  (ila.ximil- 
ian's  successor  in  the  Empire  as  Charles  V.). 
The  marriage  of  two  of  Maximilian's  gi-andchil- 
dren  with  the  son  and  daughter  of  Ladislas,  King 
iif  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  ultimately  brought 
both  these  kingdoms  to  the  Austrian  monarchy, 
ilaximilian  died  at  Wels,  in  L'pper  Austria, 
•January  12,  1519.  As  an  administrator  Max- 
imilian sought  to  strengthen  the  organization  of 
the  Empire.  The  evil  of  private  warfare  was 
partially  remedied  by  the  declaration  of  a  per- 
petual peace  for  the  Empire  at  Worms  in  1495, 
and  for  the  better  maintenance  of  the  peace  a 
division  of  the  Empire  was  made  into  circles. 
Reforms  in  the  administration  were  introduced 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Imperial  Chamber 
and  the  Aulic  Council  (qq.v.).  Maximilian  was 
an  ardent  humanist  and  a  zealous  patron  of  art 
and  learning.  He  wrote  various  works  on  the 
art  of  war,  hunting,  gardening,  etc.,  and  sketched 
the  Wctsskunifi,  an  autobiographic  poem.  His 
frank  and  generous  nature,  his  love  for  outdoor 
sports,  and  his  many  accomplishments  gained  him 
the  title  of  'Last  of  the  Knights.'  Consult: 
Heyck,   Kaiser  Maximilian  I.    (Bielefeld,    1898). 

MAXIMILIAN  II.  (1527-76).  Holy  Ro- 
man Emperor  from  1564  to  1576.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.,  and 
was  born  in  Vienna,  July  31,  1527.  He  was 
educated  in  Spain  with  his  cousin,  Philip  II. 
In  1548  he  married  his  cousin  Maria,  daughter 
of  Cliarles  V.  Xotwithstanding  the  surround- 
ings in  which  he  had  been  educated,  his  attitude 
toward  the  Reformation  was  so  libera!  that  he 
was  even  considered  by  those  about  him  to  be 
at  heart  a  heretic.  The  Protestants  of  Germany 
expected  much  from  hia  accession,  even  hoping 
that  thev  might  have  a  Protestant  Emperor 
of  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  These  hopes  re- 
mained unfulfilled.  Lack  of  decison,  dynastic 
policy,  his  personal  ambitions,  all  united  to  keep 
Maximilian  in  his  allegiance  to  the  Church.     He 


MAXIMILIAN. 


208 


MAXIMILIAN. 


was  crowned  King  of  Bohemia  and  elected  King 
of  the  Romans  in  1562,  and  was  elected  King  of 
Ilungaiy  in  1503.  In  15G4  he  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  Imperial  throne  of  (icrmany,  in 
l!i)heniia.  and  in  tlic  portion  of  Hiingarv  not 
under  the  sway  of  the  Turks  or  the  Transylva- 
nian  princes.  In  15(iG  Solyman  the  .Magnilicent 
determined  to  make  a  fresh  onshiught  upon 
the  power  of  Austria.  His  vast  army  was  ar- 
rested by  the  heroic  defenders  of  Sziget,  and  the 
great  Sultan  died  in  his  camp  before  tlie  strong- 
liold  fell.  Maximilian  displayed  great  inactivity 
in  the  face  of  tlic  impending  danger,  and  con- 
cluded a  disailvantageous  treaty  with  Solyman"s 
successor.  The  marriage  of  Maximilian's  daugh- 
ter Anne  with  I'hilip  II.,  and  tlie  hope  held  oxit 
to  hira  by  the  Pope  that  he  miglit  acquire  the 
I'olish  Kingdom,  acted  to  repress  the  Emperor's 
interest  in  tlie  Protestant  cause.  He  interceded 
witli  Philip  in  behalf  of  the  Protestants  of  the 
Low  Countries,  but  without  nuich  success.  Un- 
der his  tolerant  rule  Germany  enjoyed  a  period 
of  comparative  tranquillity,  which  was  followed 
by  one  of  religious  strife  under  his  successor, 
Rudolph  II.  Consult:  Koch.  Quellen  :ur  (le- 
scliichte  Maximilians  11.  (2  vols.,  Leipzig.  1857- 
Cl);  Hopfen,  Kaiser  ilaj-imilian  11.  und  der 
Conipromisshatholizismus  (Munich,    1895).     See 

ArSTRIA-IllXCARY. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Ferdinand  .Iosepii  (1832- 
67).  Archduke  of  Austria  and  Emperor  of  Mex- 
ico. He  was  the  second  son  of  the  Austrian  Arch- 
duke Francis  Charles,  and  a  brother  to  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria.  He  was 
liberally  educated,  became  commander  of  the 
Austrian  Xavy  in  1854.  and  later  served  with 
success  as  (lOvernor  of  Lombardy  and  Venetia. 
In  18(i2-()3  the  French  troops  of  Napoleon  III.  oc- 
cupied the  principal  parts  of  Mexico.  (See 
Mexico;  Juarez.)  An  assembly  of  notables, 
named  by  the  French  commanders,  was  convened, 
and  on  July  10,  18G3,  this  body  offered  the  crown 
to  Maximilian,  who  as  a  Hapsburg  represented 
the  dynasty  which  had  preceded  the  Bourbons 
upon  the  throne  of  Spain.  JIaximilian  annnunce<l 
that  he  would  accept  only  on  condition  that  "the 
vote  of  the  assembly  of  notables  could  be  ratified 
by  the  Mexican  people  in  a  general  election,  and 
that  the  European  nations  would  give  sufhcient 
guarantees  that  the  throne  would  be  protected 
from  dangers  which  might  threaten  it."  Tlie 
Mexican  popular  vote  was  easily  secured  by 
Marshal  Razaine.  and  Xapoleon  signed  the  Treaty 
of  Miramar.  by  whieh  he  bound  himself  to  main- 
tain the  French  army  in  Mexieo  until  the  army 
of  the  Empire  should  be  thoroughly  organized. 
On  May  20  Maximilian,  with  the  Empress  Carlot- 
ta,  daughter  of  King  Leopold  nf  Ridgium.  landed 
at  Vera  Cruz.  The  new  ruler  annonnceil  that 
his  misHion  was  "the  rejuvenation  of  Mexico." 
I'nfortunately.  he  knew  nothing  of  the  charaeter- 
isties  of  the  country'  or  of  the  people  over  whom 
he  had  come  to  rule.  .\nxious  to  ermciliate 
all  parties,  he  soon  found  himself  without  the 
eorilial  support  of  any.  Hi-;  desire  to  rule  with- 
out the  French  led  him  to  neglert  their  repre- 
sentatives, until  he  suddenly  realized  that  the 
foreign  army,  hated  equally  by  all  divisions  of 
his  subjects,  was  the  only  power  really  behind 
his  throne.  In  despair  of  accomplishing  anything 
by  conciliation,  the  Emperor  was  persuaded  to 
issue  a  decree.  October  3,  lS(i5,  declaring  that  all 
persons   bearing  arms  against   his   empire   were 


bandits,  and  if  caught  would  be  tried  by  court- 
martial  and  shot,  iiefore  the  end  of  the  month 
four  highly  esteemed  Republican  olliccrs  had  been 
executed  in  accordance  with  this  decree,  and  the 
last  hope  of  pupular  support  for  Maximilian's 
rule  had  been  destroyed.  Meantime,  the  Cnited 
States  Government,  relieved  of  its  embarrass- 
ments by  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy,  succeeded 
in  convincing  the  French  Emperor  that  his  inter- 
vention in  ilexico  would  not  be  tolerated.  In 
consequence,  on  May  31,  1860,  Maximilian  re- 
ceived dis])atelies  announcing  that  all  French 
troops  would  be  withdrawn  from  ilexico.  Maxi- 
milian would  probably  have  resigned  at  once 
had  not  the  Empress  Carlotta  dissuaded  him, 
undertaking  to  go  to  Europe  and  use  her  inllu- 
ence  with  Xapoleon  III.  She  proceeded  to  Paris, 
where  the  Emperor  at  first  refused  to  see  her, 
and  finally  brutally  asked  her  to  leave  France. 
The  Pope  gave  her  little  better  consolation,  and 
she  became  hopelessly  insane.  ( See  Carlott.\.  ) 
JIaximilian  determined  to  abdicate,  but  the 
French  commissioners  sent  by  Xapoleon  III.  were 
unable  to  agree  to  the  terms  which  he  stipulated, 
and  eventually  he  decided  to  accept  the  oiler  of 
Generals  Miramon  and  JIarquez  (qq.v,),  who 
promised  to  raise  a  force  sufficient  to  replace  the 
French  troops  and  maintain  his  empire.  Tlie 
Church  Parly  urged  the  Emperor  to  remain, 
jiromising  its  sujiport.  and  ^laximilian  estab- 
lished his  headquarters  at  Quen'taro.  There 
he  was  surrounded  by  the  Rc])ul)lican  army  in 
the  early  part  of  March.  1807.  On  May  'l4th 
plans  were  made  for  a  sortie  by  which  the  Em- 
peror might  escape  to  Mexico  City  or  to  the  coast. 
Before  such  plans  could  be  carried  out.  Colonel 
iliguel  Lo])ez.  a  constant  favorite  of  the  Emperor 
and  Empress,  and  one  who  had  received  many 
Iiroofs  of  their  g(>nerosity.  informed  the  enemy  of 
the  plan  and  arranged  to  admit  them  into  the 
Imperial  camp,  ilaximilian  and  his  generals 
were  forced  to  surrender,  and  after  a  short  con- 
finement were  tried  by  a  military  court.  The 
Emperor  was  accused  of  treason,  usurpation  of 
liublic  power,  filibustering,  trying  to  prolong  the 
civil  war.  and  of  signing  the  decree  of  Octolwr 
3,  1805,  He  was  declared  guilty  and  condemned 
to  be  shot,  together  with  Generals  Miramon  and 
Mejia.  The  execution  took  place  on  the  morn- 
ing of  June  in.  1807.  The  Emperor's  body  was 
eventually  surrendered  to  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment, and  now  rests  in  the  Imperial  vault  in 
Vienna.  Maximilian  was  a  prolific  writer,  and 
seven  volumes  of  his  |)rose  and  verse  were  pub- 
lished in  \'ienna  in  1807.  .\mong  the  best  ac- 
counts of  the  Emperor  are:  Chynoweth.  Tlir  Fall 
of  Maximilian  (London.  1872).  and  Prince  Salm- 
Salni,  l/i/  Diarii  in  Mr.rico  in  IfHiy  ( Eng.  trans., 
I/indon.  1808)!  Hall's  Life  of  Maximilian  I. 
(New  York.  18fiS)  is  especially  valuable  for  its 
account  of  the  legal  aspects  of  the  trial  and 
exectit  iiiTi. 

MAXIMILIAN  L  ( 1.-.73-1051 1 .  A  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  prnmiiicnt  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
born  in  Munich.  He  was  educated  at  the  .lesuit 
I'niversity  of  Ingolstadt.  and  in  the  internal 
administration  of  his  realm  displayed  much 
statecraft.  He  improved  the  judicial  and  execu- 
tive departments,  organized  a  militia  etiective 
for  ilefense,  maintained  a  well-disciidined  stand- 
ing army  under  the  famous  Count  of  Tilly  (q.v.), 
and  phiccrl  the  treasury  upon  a  secure  basis.  In 
the  affairs  of  the  Empire  he  was  an  active  oppo- 


MAXIMILIAN. 


209 


MAXIMITE. 


neiit  of  tlie  Protestant  cause.  W'lien  in  1U07 
tile  ban  of  the  Empire  was  pronoiineed  agr.inst 
the  free  city  of  Donauwiirth  (q.v.),  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  occupy  the  town,  which  he  forthwith 
proceeileJ  to  make  Konian  Catliolie.  As  a  re- 
sult of  his  methods,  the  Protestant  Union  was 
organized  in  1008.  He  in  turn  established  the 
Catholic  League  (1609),  with  liiniself  at  its 
head.  After  the  disturbances  in  the  Austrian 
<'slates  (1018-1'J),  he  sided  with  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  (q.v.),  and  arrangements  W"rc 
made  (  1019)  by  which  he  was  to  receive  tlie  I'p- 
pcr  Pahitinatc  and  the  electoral  dignity  of  Fred- 
erick V.  (q.v.).  His  army,  commanded  by  Tilly, 
defeateil  tliat  of  Frederick  under  Christian  cf 
Aidialt  at  the  battle  of  the  White  .Mountain  (No- 
vendier  8,  1020).  and  occupied  the  Palatinate. 
It  was  he  who,  in  opposition  to  any  extension 
of  the  imperial  power  through  Wallenstein's 
army,  ell'ected  Wallenstein's  dismissal  at  the 
Diet  of  Ratisbon  (1023).  During  the  Swedish 
period  of  the  war  he  was  driven  from  Munich 
by  the  entrance  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  into  Ba- 
varia in  1G32.  In  1037-38  he  fought  against 
the  Swedes  and  French  on  the  I'pper  Rhine, 
but  in  1047  independently  concluded  the  truce 
of  rini.  He  has  been  considered  the  most  im- 
])ortant  Gennan  statesman  of  the  time.  Con- 
sult: Wolf,  Geschichte  Maximilians  I.  und  seiner 
7.cit  (continued  by  Breyer,  4  vols.,  Munich,  1807- 
11),  and  Von  Aretin,  (leseliiclile  drs  bairischen 
ller:ogs  iind  Kurfiirsl(  n  Maximilian  I.  (vol.  i., 
Passau,  1842).  See  also  the  article  Thirty 
Ye.\rs'  ■\\'.\r. 

MAXIMILIAN  II.,  Emanuel  (1662-1720). 
An  elector  of  Bavaria,  grandson  of  Maximil- 
ian tlie  Great.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Fer- 
<linand  Maria,  in  1679;  fought  on  the  side  of 
Austria  in  the  great  struggle  against  the  Turks 
■which  began  in  1083  and  in  1085  married  JIaria 
Antonia,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  L 
Appointed  Governor  of  the  S])anish  Netlicrlands 
ill  10!I2.  he  resigned  this  thankless  jiost  after  the 
death  of  his  son.  who  had  been  named  heir  to 
the  Spanish  throne.  He  sided  with  France  in  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  Louis  XIV.  hav- 
ing promised  him  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  But 
the  defeat  of  HJichstadt  (1704)  more  than  out- 
weighed his  previous  victories ;  the  Elector  was 
forced  to  take  I'efuge  in  the  Netherlands,  and  was 
not  restored  nntil  the  Peace  of  Baden  in  1714. 
■Consult  Ruith.  Kurfiirst  Max  Emanuel  ran  Bay- 
ern  mid  die  Donaiisllidte   ( Ingolstadt,   1889). 

MAXIMILIAN  I.  (Maximili.\n  Joseph) 
( 17.")li-lS2.j) .  First  King  (originally  Elector) 
of  Bavaria.  He  succeeded  Charles  Theodore  as 
Elector  of  Bavaria  in  1799.  His  domestic  pol- 
icy was  excellent,  aiming  at  general  reform. 
He  aimed  at  dynastic  aggrandizement,  and,  as  a 
reward  for  his  support  of  Xajjoleon.  received  the 
title  of  King,  which  he  assumed  in  ISOO.  and 
important  accession  of  territory  in  Swabia  and 
Fran.Tinia.  together  with  Tyrol,  and  later  Salz- 
burg, both  of  wliich  he  had  afterwards  to  relin- 
quish. In  the  War  of  Liberation  he  reluctant- 
ly sided  with  the  Allies.  His  liberal  policy  at 
home  was  shown  by  his  grant  of  the  Constitution 
of   ISIS,  which   unified  his  scattered  domains. 

MAXIMILIAN  II.  (Maximilian  Jo.seph) 
(Isll  (14  1.  King  of  Bavaria.  He  was  the  son 
of  Louis  I.,  studied  at  Giittingen  and  Berlin, 
traveled  abroad,  and  gave  himself,  while  prince, 
to   a    quiet    life   surrounded   by    men    famous    in 


art  and  literature.  On  his  father's  abdication 
in  1848,  Maximilian  ascended  the  throne,  and 
made  concessions  to  the  liberal  spirit  of  the 
time:  but  though  he  favored  German  unity,  he 
looked  with  hostility  uimn  Prussia,  ^.nd  turned 
rather  to  Austria  as  the  leader  in  the  Inovement 
of  uiiihciUiiin. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Okder  of.  A  royal  Bava- 
rian order,  with  but  one  class,  founded  by  Maxi- 
milian II.  in  1853  for  distinction  in  science  and 
art.  It  is  intended  especially  for  German  schol- 
ars and  artists,  and  its  membersliip  is  limited  to 
100.     The  King  is  tlie  grand  master. 

MAXIMIL'IA'NA.     See  Inaja  Palm. 

MAXIMI'NUS,  Gaivs  .Julius  Vekus.  A 
Roman  Em|icror  (  a. u.  233-238) .  He  W'as  original- 
ly a  Thracian  shepherd.  Attracting  the  attention 
of  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus  by  his  im- 
mense size  and  wonderful  feats  of  strength  and 
agility,  he  was  admitted  to  the  army ;  was  rapid- 
ly advanced  for  his  bravery,  put  in  command  of  a 
new  legion  raised  in  Pannonia,  and  obtained 
great  influence  over  the  soldiers.  At  the  head  of 
this  legion  he  followed  Alexander  Severus  in  his 
campaign  against  the  Germans.  When  the  army 
was  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Rliinc,  he 
conspired  against  Alexander,  and  caused  him  to 
be  put  to  death  in  his  tent,  with  his  mother  Mam- 
m*a  (a.d.  235).  Being  proclaimed  Emperor,  he 
named  his  son  ila.ximus  Ca'sar,  and  made  him  col- 
league in  the  Empire.  He  continued  the  war 
against  the  Germans,  and  devastated  a  large 
territory  beyond  the  Rhine.  But  his  cruelty 
and  rapacity  aroused  the  indignation  of  the  peo- 
ple. For  alleged  conspiracy  against  him  he 
put  to  death  Magnus,  a  Senator,  with  4000  other 
persons,  and  for  the  Imperial  treasun,'  confis- 
cated the  municipal  property.  He  opposed  Chris- 
tianity, and  persecuted  the  bishops  who  had 
been  favored  by  Alexander.  The  provinces  of 
Africa  revolted  and  ])roclaimcd  (ioidianus.  who 
was  soon  after  acknowledged  by  the  Senate  and 
people  (March,  238).  but  died  after  a  brief 
reign  of  twenty-two  days.  Fearing  the  vengeance 
of  ilaximinus,  the  Senate  then  proclaimed  Em- 
perors Pupienus  Maximus  and  Balbinus.  and 
with  them  was  associated,  by  order  of  the  iieople. 
the  third  Gordianus.  Maximinus.  having  crossed 
the  Isonzo.  laid  siege  to  Aquileia  in  Italy,  but 
met  with  strong  resistance  from  the  garrison  and 
people.  The  soldiers  mutinied  and  killed  both 
him  and  his  son.  .Tunc  17,  238. 

MAXIMINUS  DA'ZA,  Galerius  Valerius. 
A  Roman  Em])eror  (a.d.  308-313).  When  Dio- 
cletian and  Maximian  abdicated  (a.d.  305),  Ga- 
lerius and  Constantius  Chlorus  were  made  Au- 
gusti.  and  Flavins  Severus  and  Jlaximinus  Daza 
became  Ccesars,  and  Daza  received  the  (iovern- 
ment  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  Earlv  in  308  he 
proclaimed  himself  Augustus.  He  persecuted 
the  Christians  relentlessly.  In  313  war  broke 
out  between  Daza  and  Lieinius,  the  successor  of 
Flavins  Severus.  and  ended  with  the  defeat  and 
deatli  of  the  former  in  August  of  tlie  same  year. 

MAXIMITE  (named  for  its  inventor,  Hud- 
son Maxim,  q.v.).  A  high  explosive,  used  as  a 
bursting  charge  for  armor-piercing  projectiles. 
Its  composition  is  a  secret,  which  was  acquired 
by  the  L'nited  States  Government  in  1901,  but  it 
is  known  to  be  a  picric  acid  compound  and  is 
said  to  be  50  per  cent,  more  powerful  than  ordi- 
nary dynamite.     Though  easily  detonated  by  a 


MAXIMITE. 


210 


MAXWELL. 


Buitablo  fuze,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  ex- 
plode maximite  by  shock,  ami  it  can  withstand 
not  only  discharge  from  a  <riin  but  also  the  shock 
of  impact  of  the  projectile  on  the  target,  not 
being  exploded  until  the  fuze  operate.;.  Tncon- 
fined  maximite  burns  slowly  without  explosion, 
and  its  property  of  melting  and  of  solidifying 
on  cooling  enables  projectiles  to  be  filled  with  it 
with  great  facility.  See  Explosives;  Projec- 
tiles. 

MAXIMS  (Fr.  mnxime,  from  JITj.  maxuna, 
maxim,  alibreviation  of  maxima  propositio,  chief 
premise,  fcm.  sg.  of  Lat.  maxiinus.  greatest, 
superlative  of  magtiiis.  great).  Legal.  A  term 
used  by  members  of  the  legal  profession  and 
writers  on  jurisprudence  to  denote  those  brief 
and  pithy  utterances  which  by  general  consent 
have  been  accepted  as  stating  in  condensed  though 
necessarily  imperfect  form  the  general  principles 
which  are  the  foundation  of  botb'law  and  equity. 
As  the  ultimate  foundation  of  these  general  prin- 
ciples is  the  natural  law  of  justice,  safety,  and 
public  policy,  the  basis  of  the  common  or  cus- 
tomary law  is  the  same  in  all  countries,  and  its 
general  principles  remain  substantially  un- 
changed by  statute  or  local  enactment.  Hence 
many  of  the  utterances  of  ancient  Roman  magis- 
trates and  authors  of  legal  treatises  retain  as 
much  force  and  truth  as  when  first  promulgated. 

In  very  few  instances  can  the  maxims  be  traced 
to  their  original  sources.  Many  are  derived  from 
the  Roman  law ;  man.y  are  from  Continental 
jurists  of  the  .Middle  Ages;  while  a  very  large 
number  were  eiumciated  by  early  Knglish  judges 
and  writers,  and  still  others  are  of  quite  modern 
origin.  Like  other  expressions  of  the  connuon 
law.  maxims  derive  their  force  and  authority 
in  the  first  place  through  the  truth  and  justice 
of  the  principles  which  they  enunciate,  and,  sec- 
ondly, through  the  universality  of  their  accept- 
ance'and  application  by  courts  in  the  past.  They 
are  not,  therefore,  of  absolutely  equal  and  bind- 
ing authority,  and  it  is  impossible  to  draw  a 
line  strictly  dividing  accepted  maxims  from  mere 
expressions  of  0|iinion.  The  number  of  tluise 
universally  accepted  as  having  some  authority 
in  law  is  "very  large  indeed.  Works  devoted  en- 
tirely to  the  consideration  of  the  meaning  and 
application  of  this  form  of  law  have  been  pub- 
lished by  several  authors. 

Examples  are:  caceat  emptor — let  the  buyer 
be  on  his  guard — an  important  principle  of  the 
law  of  sales,  but  not  to  be  construed  too  strictly; 
Qui  facit  per  alium,  fncit  per  sr — he  who  acts  by 
another,  acts  himself — in  whicli  may  lie  seen  the 
main  principle  of  the  law  of  agency;  .T:<jiiitiis 
sciiuitiir  Icuriii — equity  follows  the  law;  Ex  nihito 
nihil  fit — from  nothing  comes  nothing;  Fraiis  est 
cclarc  frauiirm — to  conceal  a  fraiul  is  itself  a 
fraud;  .1  I'impoxsihlc  iiiil  n'rat  iciiii — no  one  is 
bound  to  do  what  is  impossible,  the  language 
being  what  is  called  'law  French';  Vbi  jus.  ibi 
rcmcdium — where  there  is  a  right  there  is  a 
remedy;  Irinnrnitlin  Irf/ix  iirmiiirm  r.rnisat — igno- 
rance of  the  law  excuses  no  one:  I'riar  l<mpnri\ 
potior  jure — first  in  time,  first  in  right:  Id  cer- 
ium est.  iiuod  cerium  rcddi  potest — that  is  cer- 
tain which  may  be  rendered  so.  .\mong  those 
commonly  given  in  Knglish  may  be  mentioned: 
Acts  indicate  the  intention;  When  the  equities 
are  equal  the  law  shall  prevail;  Once  a  fraiid, 
always  a  fraud. 

The  difficulty  in  practically  employing  maxims 


is  twofold;  first,  in  correctly  amplifying  and  cx- 
])ounding  the  extended  meaning  sought  to  be 
eiinveyed  in  the  condensed  l'(}rni ;  and.  secondly, 
in  properly  applying  it  tu  the  adjudication  of  the 
particular  facts  of  the  case  in  question;  and  it 
is  the  work  more  especially  of  the  writer  of 
treatises  on  the  various  branches  of  law  and 
e(|uity  to  iJcrforni  the  first  duty,  while  to  the 
active  practitioners  and  to  the  judges  emergencies 
arc  constantly  presented  calling  for  the  exercise 
of  the  latter  function.  It  may  safely  be  said 
that  legal  maxims  play  a  nmch  less  im|iortant 
part  in  the  law  than  formerly.  Generally  they 
have  lost  whatever  character  tliey  may  have  pos- 
sessed in  early  times  as  precise  governing  rules 
determining  the  rights  of  jiarties  to  a  litiga- 
tion. Thej'  are  now  regarded  only  as  convenient 
forms  of  expression  denoting  important  legal 
jirinciples  which  have  many  variations*  or  modi- 
fications, and. consequently  are  not  capable  of  any 
complete  statement  or  exposition  which  at  the 
same  time  has  the  convenience  of  brevity.  Con- 
sult Broom,  Lcyal  Maxims  (Gth  ed.,  London, 
1884). 

MAX'IMUS.  The  name  of  four  Roman  em- 
perors.— il.\i!ci  s  Clodhs  PiriExrs  Maximis, 
elected  by  the  Senate  as  the  ccdleague  of  Balbinus 
(q.v.)  in  .\.i).  238, but  soon  afterwards  nuirdered  by 
the  praHorian  guards. — Mag.xvs  Cle.men.s  JIaxi- 
Mrs,boni  of  obscure  parentage  in  Spain  ;  from  368 
held  high  military  rank  in  Britain;  was  pro- 
claimed Emperor  by  his  soldiers,  as  a  result  of 
their  disaft'eetion  toward  Gratian,  whom  he  de- 
feated and  slew  (383).  Theodosius  and  Valentin- 
ianus  II.  were  induced  to  recognize  him  as  their 
colleague  and  as  Augustus  of  (iaul.  Spain.  Brit- 
ain, etc.;  but  when  he  sought  to  extend  his  sway 
over  Italy  also,  he  was  defeated  by  Theodosius, 
taken  prisoner,  and  executed  (388). — Ma.ximus 
TvRAXXts,  proclaimed  Emperor  in  Spain  (408) 
when  Gerontius  rebelled  against  the  usurper  Con- 
stantine  III.;  was  deposed  on  the  defeat  of 
(Jerontius  (411)  ;  again  rebelled  (418).  and  was 
defeated  and  slain  (  422) .— I'lrrROXirs  .Maximu.s, 
the  intimate  friend  of  Valentinianus  III.,  against 
whom  he  turned  (■loo),  succeeding  him  after  his 
nuirdcr  in  the  same  year;  but  at  the  end  of  three 
months  Maximus  was  slain  as  he  was  lleeing  from 
an  invasion  of  the  X'andals.  invited  by  E\idoxia, 
the  widow  of  Valentinianus. 

MAXIMUS,  Saint,  called  Coxfessob  (c.iSO- 
(■>(!2).  An  advcicate  of  orthodoxy  against  the 
:M<mothelite  heresy.  He  was  born  in  Constanti- 
nople, and  served  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  010- 
(530,  at  which  latter  <latc  he  entered  the  nmn- 
asterv  of  Chrysiqiohs  (Scutari).  He  tirged  Pope 
:Mart'in  L,  at  the  first  l.at(>ran  Synod.  Dill,  to 
anathematize  the  .Monothijlitc  doctrine,  in  which 
condeuuiation  Heraclius  and  Constans  11.  were 
impliiated.  My  command  of  the  latter.  .Maximus 
was  banished  to  Thrace.  O,")") ;  being  recalled  to 
Constantinople  in  0(12.  he  was  commanded  to  ac- 
cept the  Monothelite  heresy.  Refusing  to  do  so. 
bis  timgue  was  cut  out,  his  right  hand  cut  n(T, 
and  he  was  banished  to  Lazika.  Colchis,  wliere 
he  died  August  13.  002.  He  is  called  among  the 
Greeks  Theologos.  and  is  venerated  as  a  saint  by 
the  Western  and  Eastern  Churches.  He  was  a 
voluminous  author;  his  works  are  in  Migne, 
I'ltlnd.   Ii'riren,  xc.-xci. 

MAX'WELL,  .Tames  Clerk- (1831-70).  One 
of   the   greatest   of   modern    physicists.      He   was 


MAXWELL. 


211 


MAY. 


born  iu  Edinburgh,  the  only  son  of  John  Clerk- 
Maxwell  of  ^Miildlebie,  Scuthiud,  receiving  liis 
early  education  at  the  Kdiiiljurgli  Academy,  and 
his  tirst  published  scientitic  paper.  On  the  Uc- 
sciiptiun  of  Ucitl  Curces,  was  read  for  him  by 
Professor  Forbes  before  the  Royal  Society  of 
Kdinburgh  before  he  was  fifteen.  He  spent  three 
vears  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he 
pursued  most  zealously  the  study  of  mathematics, 
piiysics,  chemistry,  and  philosophy,  devoting  con- 
siderable time  to  experimental  research.  During 
this  period  he  wrote  two  valuable  papers.  On  the 
Thcari/  of  Itollijii;  Ciincs  and  On  the  Equilihriani 
of  Elastic  Solids.  He  went  to  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity in  the  autumn  of  18.50  and  there  made  a 
brilliant  record  as  a  student,  graduating  in  1854 
witli  the  position  of  second  wrangler,  and  being 
equal  with  the  senior  wrangler  in  the  competition 
for  Smith's  prize.  In  1850  he  became  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  ilarischal  College.  Aber- 
deen: in  1800  professor  of  natural  pliilosophy  in 
King's  College,  London.  He  Avas  successively 
scholar  and  fellow  of  Trinity,  and  became,  in 
1871,  the  first  professor  of  experimental  physics 
in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  a  post  for  which 
he  was  in  every  way  preeminently  qualified.  The 
Cavendish  laboratory  was  erected  and  furnished 
under  his  supervision.  The  great  work  of  his 
life  is  his  treatise  on  Electricity  and  Magnetism 
(2  vols.,  1873).  He  had  previously,  from  1850 
onward,  published  various  papers  on  these  sub- 
jects, following  very  closely  the  experimental  pro- 
cedure of  Faraday,  t  sing  the  discoveries  of  this 
great  experimenter,  ilaxwell  so  connected  and  ar- 
ranged them  as  to  make  the  material  available 
for  mathematical  discussion  and  treatment.  He 
early  advanced  the  view  that  electric  or  magnetic 
forces  result  from  changes  in  the  distribution  of 
the  energy  which  is  stored  up  in  the  ether  and 
are  not  produced  by  the  attractions  of  electric  or 
magnetic  matter  which  is  distributed  over  the 
surfaces  of  conductors  or  magnetic  substances. 
Ho  then  demonstrated  that  electromagnetic  ac- 
tion traveled  through  space  in  the  form  of  trans- 
verse waves  similar  to  those  of  liglit  and  having 
the  same  velocity.  Jlaxwell's  theory  was  cor- 
roborated by  Hertz,  who  not  only  produced  these 
waves,  but  showed  that  they  are  propagated  just 
as  waves  of  light  are,  and  experience  reflection, 
refraction,  and  polarization,  and  he  also  meas- 
ured their  velocity.  Subsequent  experiments 
amply  confirmed  ilaxwell's  hypothesis  that  elec- 
tricity and  light  are  the  same  in  their  tiltimate 
nature.  After  ilaxwell's  researches  on  electricity 
and  magnetism  conies  his  work  on  color,  the 
well-known  Maxwell  disks  and  color-box  being 
his  inventions.  He  showed  that  any  given  color 
could  be  produced  by  the  combination  of  three 
colors  selected  from  different  parts  of  the 
spectrum.  These  three  fundamental  colors  would 
correspond  to  three  different  sets  of  nerves  or 
sensations  in  the  eye,  each  excited  proportion- 
ately to  the  amount  of  its  appropriate  color  in 
the  compound  color,  The  absence  of  any  one  set 
of  sensations   would   occasion   color-blindness. 

A  paper  on  the  f^tnbilitt/  of  Motion  of  finturn's 
Rings  gained  for  Maxwell  the  .^darn's  prize  from 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  1857.  and  led  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  rings  must  either  be  lluid 
or  else  consist  of  a  large  number  of  small  par- 
ticles. The  kinetic  theory  of  gases  was  also  in- 
vestigated by  Maxwell,  and  the  results  of  his 
study  are  given   in   a    number   of   papers   in   the 


Philosophical  Transact io-ns,  Philosophical  Maga* 
zinc,  and  the  reports  of  the  British  Association. 
Maxwell  was  a  member  r)f  the  electrical  stand- 
ards coinmillee  appointed  by  the  British  Asso- 
ciation in  1802,  and  served  on  a  subcommittee  to 
construct  the  standard  of  resistance,  which  was 
produced  from  experiments  made  in  liis  labora- 
tory at  King's  College.  Among  his  many  papers 
and  works,  a  small  treatise  on  dynamics.  Matter 
and  Motion,  will  be  found  of  great  interest  to  the 
general  reader,  as  it  contains  a  clear  and  com- 
prehensive statement  of  the  principles  underlying 
this  science.  A  memorial  edition  of  Maxwell's 
scientific  papers  published  by  the  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Press  was  published  in  1800.  Consult: 
Campbell  and  CJarnett,  Life  of  .fames  Clerk  Max- 
well (London,  18S'2)  ;  Glazebrook,  .fames  Clerk 
Miixirell  and  Modern  Physics  (ib.,  1890). 

MAXWELL,  WiLLi.\M  H.\Mii:,TON  (1792- 
1850).  An  Irish  novelist,  born  at  Newry.  Couiitv 
Down,  H-eland,  in  1792;  graduated  B.A.  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Dublin,  in  1812;  served  in  the  Pe- 
ninsular campaigns  and  at  Waterloo;  took  orders 
in  the  Church  of  England  and  was  appointed  to 
the  rectory  of  Ballagh,  in  Connemara.  in  the  ex- 
treme west  of  Ireland.  As  there  was  no  other 
Protestant  in  the  parish,  he  devoted  liimself  to 
sport  and  to  novel-writing.  He  retired  from  liis 
living  in  1844  and  settled  near  Edinburgh,  where 
he  died  December  29,  1850.  Maxwell  has  a  place 
in  tlie  development  of  English  fiction  as  the 
founder  of  the  military  novel.  From  him  Charles 
Lever  learned  his  art.  His  best  work  is  represented 
by  W  lid  Sports  of  the  \\'est,ii:ith  Legendari/  Tales 
and  Loral  Sketches  (1832)  :  Stories  of  Waterloo 
(1834);  My  Life,  afterwards  called  Advent nres 
of  Captain  Blake  (1835)  :  and  The  liirouae,  or 
Stories  of  the  Peninsular  War  (1837).  He  wrote 
an  autobiography  under  the  title  Ramhling  Recol- 
lections of  a  Soldier  of  Fortune  (1842).  and  a 
popular  life  of  Wellington   (1839-41). 

MAXWELL,  William  Hexrt  ( 1852— ) .  An 
American  educator,  born  in  the  north  of  Ireland 
and  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Galway.  He 
came  to  America  in  1874,  was  a  teacher  in  the 
Brooklyn  night  schools,  became  assistant  super- 
intendent of  the  Brooklyn  public  schools  in  1882, 
and  superintendent  in  1887,  and  in  1898  was 
appointed  to  a  like  position  in  Greater  New  York. 
He  was  especially  interested  in  the  teaching  of 
English,  and  wrote  English  grammars.  He  urged 
a  State  requirement  of  college  education  for  pub- 
lic school  teachers,  and  raised  the  requirements 
of  teachers'  examinations. 

MAXWELL,  Sir  William  Stirling-.  See 
Stikli.no-M.\xwell. 

MAY.     See  May-Day;    Mois'Th. 

MAY,  Cape.    See  Cape  May. 

MAY.  Edward  Harrison  (1824-87).  An 
American  painter,  born  in  London.  He  was 
brought  to  .\merica  when  a  child,  and  first 
studied  under  Daniel  Huntington.  Afterwards 
he  studied  with  Couture  in  Paris  and  made  his 
home  there.  His  pictures  include :  "The  Dying 
Brigand"  (1855),  in  the  Philadelphia  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts ;  and  "Mary  ]\Iagdalen  at  the 
Sepulchre"  (1873).  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts,  New  York  City.  His  portraits  in- 
clude those  of  Laboulaye  (1860)  and  of  .\nson 
Biirlingame    (1869). 


MAY. 


212 


MAY. 


MAY,  .Jciii.N  Wilder  (1819-83).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyc'i-,  born  at  Atlleboro,  Mass.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  184G,  was 
admitted  to  tlie  Massaehiisetts  bar  in  IH.'jl.  and 
practiced  in  Koxbury  and  Boston.  In  1807  he 
was  elected  to  the  Legislature  and  l)ecame  dis- 
trict attorney  of  Suffolk  County.  May  was  judge 
of  the  iioslon  municipal  court  (187.'!)  ;  editor  of 
Angell's  lAmitulioHS  (1870),  (ireenleafs  I-h-i- 
deiicc  (1870),  and  Stephens's  Diyi'st  of  Eridiiirc 
(1877);  and  author  of  The  Law  of  Insurance 
(1874-82,  and  often)  and  The  Law  of  Crimes 
(1881). 

MAY,  Phil  (1804-190.3).  An  English  illustra- 
tor, born  in  Leeds.  He  left  Leeds  for  London  as  a 
mere  lad,  and  spent  several  years  with  a  com- 
pany of  wandering  actors.  Afterwards  he  at- 
tracted attention  by  his  drawings  in  Saint 
Hiephen's  Ki-view,  and  in  1884  went  to  Australia, 
where  he  worked  on  the  Stidiicy  liuUelin  until 
1889.  In  1891  he  imblished'  TItr  I'anson  and  the 
Painter,  a  series  of  remarkable  sketches.  Later 
his  work  was  produced  in  the  Daily  Graphic; 
Black  and  White;  the  (Iraphic,  for  which  he  trav- 
eled in  -Vmerica ;  and  the  Sketch;  and  in  1895 
he  took  Du  Maurier's  place  on  the  .stalf  of  Punch. 
By  tlio  elimination  of  every  unnecessary  line,  by 
a  felicitous  composition,  a  high  technical  excel- 
lence in  the  use  of  light  and  shade,  and  the 
keenest  observation  and  unflagging  humor.  May 
holds  a  place  among  celebrated  Knglisb  carica- 
turists. His  specially  is  Last  London,  and  the 
types  lie  made  famous  are  the  freipienters  of  the 
r.ice-cour.se,  the  prize-ring,  and  the  stage,  and  the 
'putter-snipes,'  the  children  of  the  slums.  Phil 
May's  (lutter-Snipes  ( 189f>) ,  a  collection  of  draw- 
ings, contains  much  of  his  best  work.  In  these 
his  talent  is  at  its  ripest,  and  the  quality  of 
sympathy  and  kindliness,  never  lacking  in  his 
conception,  is  especially  prominent.  Other  publi- 
cations 1)V  him  are  Phil  May's  Annual  from  1892, 
and  Phil  May's  Sketch  Book  (1897,  .'50  ear- 
toons  ) . 

MAY,  Sami-el  Joseph  (1797-1871).  An 
American  reformer,  prominent  as  an  abolitionist 
in  the  anti-slavery  struggle.  He  was  born  in 
Boston:  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1817;  stud- 
ie<I  for  the  ministry  in  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School  under  Dr.  Ware:  was  ordained  in  1822; 
and  soon  afterwards  became  pastor  of  tlie  I'ni- 
tarian  Thurch  in  Brooklyn,  Conn.  In  IS.SO 
he  hecame  a  diseijile  of  William  Lloyd  Oarri- 
son,  and  in  1832  joined  the  first  New  F.ngland 
anti-slavery  society.  When  Prudence  Crandall 
(q.v. )  was  persecute<l  for  opening  her  school  at 
Canterbury,  Conn.,  to  girls  of  negro  blood,  he 
became  her  friend  and  champion,  and  later  gave 
her  advice  nnd  assistance  when  she  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned.  In  the  same  year.  183.3,  he  was 
a  delegate  to  the  convention  at  Philadelphia 
which  founded  the  first  American  anti-slnverv  so- 
ciety, and  was  niade  one  of  the  vice-presidents. 
In  1834  he  resigned  his  pastorate  and  became  gen- 
eral agent  of  the  Massachusetts  .\nti-Slaverv  So- 
ciety. In  October.  183.5.  while  giving  n  series  of 
lectures  in  \'ermont.  May  was  five  times  molibeil, 
once  while  addressing  an  audience  in  the  ball  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  at  Monlpelier.  The 
next  year  he  became  pastor  of  the  Tinitnrian 
Church  in  South  Scituate.  Mass.,  nnd  remained 
there  until  1S42,  when  he  took  charge  for  three 
years  of  the  f!irls'  Xormal  School  at   Lexington, 


!Mass.  In  1845  he  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian 
society  at  Syracuse,  N.  V.,  and  continued  to  hold 
that  position  until  three  years  before  his  death. 
In  1851  he  assisted  in  the  famous  rescue  of  the 
slave  '.lerry,'  and  for  this  oHense  against  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  he  and  seventeen  others  were 
ancsteil  on  warrants  issued  by  the  United  States 
District  Court  at  Auburn.  Anxi<nis  to  test  the 
question  lieforc  the  ccnirts,  Jlay  and  two  other 
particiijants  in  the  rescue  issued  a  public  decla- 
ration to  the  effect  that  they  had  assisted  in 
the  rescue  of  Jerry,  that  they  were  ready  to 
stand  trial,  but  would  base  tlieir  defense  iipon 
the  "unconstitutionality  and  extreme  wickedness 
of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law."  They  were,  however, 
never  brought  to  trial.  By  temperament  May 
was  averse  to  strife  and  possessed  a  sunny  temper 
and  a  gentle  disposition,  Ijul.  being,  in  his  own 
words,  "a  Unitarian,  a  non-resistant,  a  woman's 
rights  man,  an  anti-capital  punishment  man.  and 
a  Garrison  abolitionist,"  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  be 
engaged  in  many  controversies.  He  published  an 
interesting  volume  entitled  Some  l{ecollcetion»  of 
Our  Anli-Slai-ery  Conflict  (1809).  Consult  Mul- 
ford  (ed.).  Memoir  of  Samuel  Joseph  May  (Bos- 
ton, 1873;  newed.  1882). 

MAY,  Thomas  (159.5-l(r>n).  An  English  his-  « 
torian  and  poet.  He  was  born  at  ilayfield,  Sus- 
sex, England,  of  an  ancient  family:  graduated 
B..\.  from  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1012;  became  a  member  of  Ciray's  Inn,  London, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  l)ut.  owing  to  a 
dcfei-t  in  his  speech,  did  not  practice  law.  lie  de- 
voted him.self  to  literature  and  published  the 
tragedies  of  Antigone  and  Aijrippina,  a  comedy 
entitled  77ic  Heir,  and  other  works.  By  special 
command  of  Charles  L,  with  whom  he  was  a  favor- 
ite, he  published  two  poems  on  the  reigns  of 
Henry  11.  and  Edward  III.  He  translated  into 
ICnglish  vcr.se  Selected  Epigrams  of  Martial, 
\'ergirs  droryies,  and  Lucan's  Pharsulia.  to  the 
last  of  which  he  wrote  a  continuation  in  English 
and  Latin.  During  the  Parliamentary  troiil>les 
he  became  a  Ke]niblican.  He  was  secretary  to 
Cromwell  during  the  Civil  War  an<l  was  employed 
to  write  its  history.  Pulilished  originally  in 
Latin,  and  translated  into  English  in  1050,  his 
History  of  the  Knylish  Parliament,  begun  Novem- 
ber, 1040,  was  edited  by  Baron  Mas^rcs.  and 
translated  into  I'lench  by  Cuizot  (1S12:  new  eil. 
1853).  May  dicil  Noveinber  13.  1050,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  .\bbey,  but  soon  after  the 
Restoration  liis  body  was  disinterred  and  thrown 
info  a  pit  in  the  adjoining  Saint  Margaret's 
churcliyaril. 

MAY,  TiiOMAis  Eii.sKiXE,  Lord  Farnborongh 
(lS15-8(il.  An  English  ccmstitufioniil  jurist. 
He  was  born  in  London,  February  8,  1815,  was 
educated  at  Bedford  School,  beeaine  assistant 
librarian  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1831,  and 
entered  the  bar  in  1838.  In  1844  he  published 
a  treatise  on  the  Lair.  Pririleyes.  Proreediniis.  and 
I'xarirs  of  Parliament  (10th  ed,  1893),  which  has 
become  a  standard  authority  on  |)arliamentary 
law  and  lias  been  translated  into  French,  (lermnn, 
Hungarian,  Italian.  Spani-h.  and  .lapnnese.  In 
1S40  he  was  made  examiner  of  jietifions  for  pri- 
vate bills,  nnd  the  next  year  he  was  nppointed 
taxing  innster  to  the  House  of  Commons,  of 
which  he  becnine  clerk  in  1871.  In  180103  he 
published  The  Constitutional  History  of  England 
Since   the   Accession   of   George   III.,    1700- tSHO. 


MAY. 


213 


MAYAN  STOCK. 


This  leanioJ  and  impartial  wurk  is  supplement- 
ary to  llallam's.  He  also  puljlished  Dcmucracy 
in  Europe:  .1  fjislortj  (1S77).  and  contributed  to 
the  Efliiihiirfih  Review,  to  the  Laic  .l/i/f/r/riHr,  and 
to  otlier  [leriodioals.  He  was  president  of  the 
.Statute  Law  Kevision  Committee,  18ti()-84.  He 
resigned  tlie  clerkship  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  April,  1880,  was  created  Baron  Farnborough, 
and  died  at  Westminster  Palace,  May  17,  1886. 

MAYA,  ma'ya  (Skt.,  artifice,  illusion,  un- 
reality I.  in  the  I'uranic  nivtliulog}'  of  tlie  Hin- 
dus, the  personified  will  or  energ}'  of  the  supreme 
bein;;.  who  thereby  created  tlie  universe.  As, 
in  this  later  doctrine,  the  world  is  unreal  or 
illusory.  Maya  assumes  the  character  of  illusion 
personified.  Maya  is  the  cause  of  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  world;  it  makes  the  unreal  uni- 
verse seem  as  if  it  really  existed  or  was  distinct 
from  the  one  Supreme  Spirit.  In  this  sense, 
Maya  also  occurs  in  the  later  Vedanta  philosophy 
and  in  some  of  the  sectarian  philosophies  of 
India.  According  to  the  modern  Hindu  view 
Maya  represents  the  linntations  of  time,  space, 
and  causation  by  which  the  absolute  becomes  the 
universe.  It  is  then  almost  a  synonym  for  the' 
phenomenal  world.  The  modern  Hindu  views  on 
the  subject  will  be  found  in  Tripathi.  fiketch  of 
the  Vedanta  Philosophy  (Bombay,  1901),  and 
Mvekanaiida.  Leetures  on  Vedanta  Philosophy 
(Xew  York,  1902). 

MAYA.  The  civilized  native  race  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Yucatan.  Mexico,  the  most  important 
of  the  ciij^nate  jieoples  constituting  the  JIayan 
stock  ( q.v. ) .  In  l.")!  1  the  first  landing  was  effected 
by  the  Siiaiiianls  on  the  coast  of  Yucatan,  at  the 
sacred  island  of  Cozumel.  In  1.526,  Mexico  hav- 
ing already  fallen,  the  first  attempt  was  made 
upon  the  peninsula.  In  1539  the  Spanish  com- 
mander. .Montejo.  entered  Chichenltza.  and  a 
year  or  two  later  the  Spanish  Government  was 
declared  established,  the  capital  being  fi.xed  at  the 
new  city  of  Merida  in  1542.  The  country  was 
mapped  out  into  tribute  districts;  missionaries 
began  to  Christianize  the  natives,  and  in  their 
zeal  destroyed  as  heathen  abominatiims  the  na- 
tive temples  and  records  wherever  found.  Resist- 
ance was  crushed  out  by  wholesale  massacres  and 
the  Maya  sovereignty  was  at  an  end.  The  war- 
like Itza  ((j.v. ),  who  had  previously  retired  be- 
J'ond  the  Ouat<'mala  border,  maintained  their  in- 
dependence until  1097.  In  1848  occ\irred  a  gen- 
eral rising  throughout  the  peninsula,  the  Indians 
seizing  the  opportunity  afl'orded  by  internal 
troubles  in  Mexico.  Massing  their  forces  in 
fliousands,  they  took  one  city  after  another,  burn- 
ing and  destroying  everything  and  consigning  to 
indiscriminate  massacre  whole  garrisons  and 
populations.  The  entire  strength  of  the  Mexican 
Government  was  invoked  to  jiut  down  the  reliel- 
lion.  The  ilaya  of  the  northern  and  central 
area  were  finally  subdued,  while  the  more  deter- 
mined warriors  retired  to  the  difficiilt  region 
along  the  southern  coast,  where  they  continued 
to  defy  the  Jlexican  armies  for  more  th.Tn  half  a 
century, while  maintaining  friendly  relations  with 
the  Enalish  of  Belize,  from  whom  they  obtained 
tlieir  firearms  and  ammunition.  The  end  came 
in  May.  1901.  when  by  means  of  a  combined  land 
and  naval  approfich  the  Mexican  army  drove  the 
independent  Mava.  about  15.000  in  number,  from 
their  last  citadel  of  Chan-Santa  Cruz,  opening  up 
to   the   now   civilization    a    region    never   before 


traversed  by  wliite  men.  The  present  number  of 
those  speaking  the  Maya  language  is  about  'MH),- 
000,  about  one-third  of  whom  are  mixed  bloods, 
or  persons  of  European  descent  who  have  adopted 
the  language  as  their  own.  For  general  cliar- 
aeteristics,  see  Jl.iV.vN  StocIv. 

MAYAGUEZ,  ma-ya'gwas.  The  capital  of 
the  Department  of  JIayaguez,  and  the  third 
largest  city  in  Porto  Kico,  situated  near  the 
western  coast  on  the  Mayaguez  Kiver,  which  is 
crossed  by  several  bridges  (Map:  I'orto  Kico, 
A  2).  Its  harbor  consists  of  an  extensive  and 
well-sheltered,  but  shallow  roadstead,  in  which 
heavier  vessels  have  to  anchor  a  mile  from  shore. 
The  industries  of  the  city  are  insignificant,  but 
it  is  an  important  centre  of  the  coffee  trade  of 
the  island,  and  it  exports,  besides  coffee,  consider- 
able quantities  of  sugar  and  oranges,  chietiy  to 
the  United  States.     Population,  in   1899,   15,187. 

MAYAN  (mii'yan)  STOCK.  A  group  of  cog- 
nate tribes  or  nations  occupying  the  States  of 
Vera  Cruz,  Yucatan,  Campeche,  Tabasco,  and 
Chiapas,  in  Mexico,  with  the  greater  part  of 
Guatemala  and  a  small  portion  of  Salvador,  and 
exhibiting  in  their  ancient  native  culture  the 
highest  aboriginal  development  found  upon  the 
American  continent.  The  stock  includes  six  lan- 
guages, with  nearly  thirt}-  dialects,  the  princi- 
pal nations  being  the  Huastec  of  northern  "S'era 
Cruz;  the  Maya  proper  of  Y'ucatan  peninsula, 
with  the  Itzd  and  Lacandon,  speaking  the 
same  language,  across  the  Guatemala  frontier; 
the  Tzcntal,  in  Tabasco  and  Chiapas;  the  Pokom, 
in  the  Vera  Pas  district,  central  Guatemala ;  the 
Mam,  on  the  Chiapas-Guatemala  frontier;  and 
the  Quiche  and  Cakchiquel,  speaking  dialects  of 
one  language,  in  southern  and  western  Guatemal.a 
and  northern  Salvador.  Their  combined  popula- 
tion is  probably  not  far  short  of  two  million. 

According  to  all  historical  and  traditional  evi- 
dence, the  Mayan  tribes  emigrated  from  the  far 
north  at  a  very  early  period,  probably  not  far 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Kra.  As  they 
advanced  along  the  shore  of  the  Mexican  Gulf 
they  left  the  Huastec  as  a  detached  colony  at  the 
north  of  the  Panuco  River  on  the  northern  fron- 
tier of  the  present  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  while  the 
rest  proceeded  southward  into  Chia]ias  and  Y'uca- 
tan, and  thence  still  southward  into  fiuatemala. 
The  date  of  their  arrival  in  Y'ucatan  seems  to 
have  been  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century.  Guatemala  was  probably  occupied  not 
long  afterwards,  as  the  Quiche  chronicles  are 
said  to  go  back  more  than  eight  hundred  years 
before  the  Conquest,  or  to  aI>out  700  a.d.  The 
great  ruined  cities  of  Uxmal  and  Chichen-Itzfl 
date  back  from  twelve  to  fourteen  centuries, 
while  Palenque  antedates  all  American  historical 
records. 

Physically  the  Mayan  peoples  are  dark,  short, 
broad-headed,  and  muscular.  In  pre-Columbian 
times  they  had  attempted  a  high  grade  of  civil- 
ization. Agriculture  was  their  main  depend- 
ence, corn  being  the  principal  crop,  to  which 
were  added  beans,  peppers,  and  cacao,  the  last, 
together  with  pieces  of  copper,  being  used  among 
the  Maya  proper  as  the  ordinary  standard  of 
value.  Bees  were  domesticated  for  their  honey 
and  wax.  Cotton  was  spun  for  clothing  and 
dyed  and  woven  into  fabrics  which  rivaled  silk 
in  delicacy.  The  lands  were  held  in  common 
by   each    village   and    were    parceled    out    by   the 


MAYAN  STOCK. 


214 


MAY   DAY. 


chiefs  on  a  basis  of  a  certain  corn  pro<luction 
per  year  to  each  family.  Gold,  silver,  and  cop- 
per were  used  for  ornanifiitul  purposes,  but 
ordinary  metal  tools  were  unknown.  The  Maya 
of  the  coast  region  had  large  seagoing  canoes, 
witli  which  they  carried  on  regular  trade  witli 
Cuba  and  voyaged  north  and  snutli  along  the 
Gulf  coast  and  the  Caribbean  shore.  Descent  was 
generally  in  the  male  line,  and  each  village  com- 
munity was  governed  by  a  chief  who  derived  his 
authority  from  the  hereditary  ruler  of  the  tribe 
or  province.  A  century  before  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards  the  whole  peninsula  of  Yucatan  was 
under  one  compact  governmental  authority,  while 
the  greater  part  of  Guatemala  was  divided  bc- 
twiiii  the  sovereignties  of  the  Quiche  and  the 
Cakcliiquel. 

Tire  ilayan  peoples  were  remarkable  above 
all  other  cultured  American  nations  for  their 
architecture,  their  calendar,  and  their  hierogly- 
phic system.  Of  their  architecture,  as  exempli- 
fied in  the  great  ruins  of  raleiKpie,  Uxmal, 
Jlayapan,  and  Chichen-ltza,  with  hundreds  of 
lesser  cities  and  isolated  temples  s(attere<l  through 
the  tangled  tropical  forests,  it  is  mmecessary  to 
speak  at  length  here.  The  material  was  usually 
a  hard  limestone,  imbedded  in  lirm  mortar,  well 
cut  and  exactly  fitted,  and  lavishly  carved  on 
every  i)art  with  mythical  and  historical  figures 
and  hieroglyphic  inscriptions.  Their  hiero- 
glyphic records  and  rituals  were  carved  or 
painted  upon  the  walls  of  their  temples  and 
palaces  or  written  in  books  of  folded  sheets  of 
maguey  paper.  The  explanation  of  these  hiero- 
glyphs is  one  of  the  most  important  problems  in 
American  arelueologj-.  Krom  tlie  rounded  out- 
lines of  the  characters,  somewhat  resembling  peb- 
bles or  skulls  in  shape,  they  have  been  described 
as  calculiform.  In  spite  of  wholesale  destruction 
by  the  Spanish  missionaries  and  authorities,  a 
few  of  these  ancient  saered  books  still  remain 
for  study  and  interpretation,  notably  the  Codex 
Troano.  "the  Codex  Peresianus.  and  the  Dresden 
Codex,  besides  a  nund)er  of  otliers  in  the  Maya 
language,  but  in  Latin  characters,  compiled  by 
natives  of  the  Yucatan  peninsula  later  than  the 
Conquest,  and  usually  groupeil  under  the  title 
of  "IJooks  of  Chilan  Balam."  From  these  books 
our  knowledge  of  the  Maya  past  is  chiefly  de- 
rived. The  (Juiche  of  Guatemala  have  also  their 
sacred  book,  the  Popol  Vuh,  of  which  a  transla- 
tion has  been  made  by  the  Abbi'  Hrasse\u  de 
Bourbourg.  The  calendar  system  of  the  Maya, 
which  was  practically  the  same  among  the  neigh- 
boring tribes  of  the  same  stock,  was  more  elab- 
orate anil  exact  than  that  of  the  .\ztec  tribes. 
Their  year,  biginning  on  .Tuly  Itlth,  when  tlie  sun 
crossed  the  zenith,  consisted  of  'M')'y  days,  divided 
into  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days  each,  the 
days  being  grouped  into  weeks  of  five  days  each. 
Af  the  end  of  the  year  there  was  an  interval  of 
five  'nameless  days'  before  the  beginning  of  the 
new  year.  The  years  were  grouped  into  I.ntiiiiK 
of  twenty  years  each,  the  completion  of  each 
successive  hiiliin  lieini;  signalized  by  the  placing 
of  a  commemorative  inscribed  stone  in  the  wall 
of  the  principal  temple  of  the  city.  Thirteen 
kntu/tn  maile  up  an  nhnu  hntun.  or  great  cycle  of 
200  years.  There  was  also  a  lesser  cvcle  of 
fifty-two  years,  similar  to  that  of  the  Aztec  and 
Tnrasco. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  ^laya 
languages,   owing  to   the   literary   tendency,   e\il- 


tural  superiority,  and  numerical  strength  of  the 
people  using  them.  Compared  with  other  Indian 
languages  they  are  comparatively  simple  in 
structure.  The  Maya  itself  forms  one  of  tlie  few 
American  languages  which  have  enough  vitality 
not  only  to  hold  their  own,  but  even  to  force 
themselves  on  Kuropean  settlers  and  supplant 
their  own  speech.  In  Yucatan  whole  families  of 
jnue  white  blood  are  found  who  know  no  Spanish, 
using  the  Maya  exclusivclj-.  The  earliest  Maya 
grammar  is  that  of  Father  \'illalpando,  pul)lished 
about  l.).i.5.  The  tlrst  dictionary  is  also  by 
him,  published  in  1571.  There  is  also  the  Maya- 
Spanish  Dictionary  of  Perez,  1S7T.  with  al)out 
'20.000  words,  and  the  manuscript  Dictionary  of 
the  Convent  of  Motul,  in  three  large  quarto  vol- 
umes, in  the  Carter  Urown  Library  of  Provi- 
dence. The  best  synopses  of  Mayan  culture  and 
chrouologj'  are:  Brinton,  Chronicles  of  the 
Mayas;  id..  Annals  of  the  Cahchiquels ;  id.,  Es- 
sniis  of  an  Amtrlcanist,  See  ClllcilfiN-lTzA, 
CniijiN  P.ALAM;  ICatun;  Popol  Vuh. 

MAY  APPLE.  A  Xoi-th  American  ]ieiennial 
herb.     Sue  .Manuraice  ;   PoDOI'IIYLLrM. 

MAYBACH,  mi'l):iG,  Aluebt  vo.\  ( lS2-2-l!»04). 
A  Prussian  administrator,  born  in  W'erne.  West-  J 
]>halia.  He  early  entered  the  governmental  em-  ( 
])loy  in  the  department  of  railroads,  of  which 
lie  became  head  in  1>*74,  when  he  urged  the  con- 
trol of  all  railroads  by  the  Empire.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  measure  and  the  defeat  of  the  move- 
ment for  private  control  in  the  early  SO's  was 
due  largely  to  him.  From  1S.S2  to  IKO.'i  be  was 
a  member  of  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies, 
and  in  1801,  after  twelve  years'  service,  resigned 
from  the  supervision  of  the  railways  of  Alsace 
and   Lorraine. 

MAY  BEETLE.     See  JrxE  Bug. 

MAY  BIED,  or  iLw  Cock.  The  name  of  sev- 
eral l>ir(ls  which  ajipear  in  May;  especially, 
among  American  sportsmen,  the  knot  (q.v.).  In 
New  England  the  black-bellied  plover  (q.v.)  is 
locally  called  'May  cock,'  but  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  Southern  United  States  a  curlew  is 
meant   by  this   term. 

MAY  DANCE.  The  dance  performed  throiigh-. 
out  England  upon  the  first  of  May.  The  cele- 
bration of  May  Day  with  a  dance  is  an  old  cus- 
tom, being  possibly  of  Swedish  or  Gothic  origin, 
but  more  probal)ly  from  Homan  (its  prototyjie 
being  the  Floralia)  or  Egyptian  and  Indian 
sources.  In  England  the  dance  was  a  composite 
one,  in  whicli  tlie  morris  dance  (q.v.)  played 
an  important  part.  There  was  also  a  milkmaids' 
dance,  and  the  characters  of  Robin  Hood.  Maid 
Marian.  Scarlet.  Little  .John.  Tom  the  Piper, 
the  Hobby  Horse,  the  Lord  and  Lady  of  the 
May,  all  joined  in  the  various  dances  which 
centred  around  the  May  pole.     See  May  Dav. 

MAY  DAY  (OF..  Fr.  »i<ii.  from  Lat.  Mains; 
eiiiuierteil  witli  OLnt.  tiKijiis,  great.  Lat.  niafinns, 
Gk.  n&fat.  niriin.i.  Goth,  niil.ili.  great.  Skt.  niah, 
to  l)e  ;;reat).  The  name  jiopularly  given  to  the 
first  day  of  May.  which  among  the  (iermanic 
and  Latin  people  has  been  associated  from  an 
early  period  with  festal  ceremonies  religious  in 
origin.  It  was  the  custom  on  this  day  to  start 
liefore  dawn,  make  excursions  to  the  woods  and 
fields,  and  return  laden  with  green  flowering 
boughs.  It  is  plain  that  this  festival,  which 
was   celebrated   by   all   classes   alike,   represented 


MAY   DAY. 


tUe  contiuuauco  of  an  ancient  pagan  ceremony; 
and  there  seems  to  be  good  reason  tor  regarding 
it  us  a  survival  of  rites  originally  olVered  to  tlie 
Komaii  gt}ildess  ilaia,  who  was  evidently  wor- 
shiped as  the  principle  and  cause  of  fertility. 
Although  recorded  testimony  does  not  enable 
us  to  reconstruct  the  details  of  her  ceremony, 
it  is  probable  that  one  essential  feature  was  a 
ritual  marriage  to  a  partner  wlio  represented 
the  male  element  of  growth,  w  hence  arose  habitual 
acts  of  license,  which  were  not  repugnant  to 
early  moral  sentiment,  but  which  under  a  stricter 
ethical  code  gave  occasion  for  scandal.  Songs 
and  dances,  which  were  usual  on  similar  occa- 
sions, and  are  reminiscent  of  the  same  spirit, 
have  continued  in  popular  use  to  our  own  day, 
as  the  familiar  English  game  of  children,  "Here 
oats.  peas,  beans,  and  barley  grows."  The  actual 
basis  of  May  Day  seems  to  have  been  the  Roman 
Fluralia,  celebrated  April  28,  and  instituted  at 
Home,  in  tlie  J'ear  B.C.  241,  on  account  of  a  bad 
liarvest.  Flora  (q.v.),  to  whom  the  feast  was 
con.secrated,  was  likewise  a  fertility  goddess, 
and  it  may  be  taUen  for  granted  that  the  ele- 
ments of  her  rite  were  similar  to  customs  which 
had  previously  been  associated  with  ilaia.  Among 
observances  of  the  Floralia  are  mentioned  gay 
costumes,  dramatic  performances,  and  dances  de- 
scribed as  frequently  indecent.  In  the  niediieval 
May  festival  an  important  feature  consisted  in 
a  nocturnal  e.vpedition  to  the  forest,  whence 
branches  were  brought  and  afterwards  attached 
to  doors.  The  bushes  brought  home  were  planted 
in  the  streets,  and  a  lover  might  thus  honor  the 
residence  of  his  mistress.  Corresponding  to  this 
act  of  'bringing  in  the  May,'  it  was  usual  for 
the  young  men  of  the  village  to  fetch  from  tlie 
wood  a  tree,  the  tallest  and  straiglitest  which 
could  be  procured.  This  was  stripped  of  its 
boughs,  planted  in  the  public  green,  decorated 
with  garlands  and  ribands,  painted  with  gay 
stripes,  and  became  the  centre  of  dances  and 
games  having  for  the  most  part  an  amatory  char- 
acter. The  tree  thus  obtained,  as  well  as  the 
branches  of  individual  celebrants,  were  called 
simply  'the  May;'  in  England  the  white-flower- 
ing hawtliorn,  especially,  received  this  title.  A 
'May-pole,'  once  introduced,  might  remain  for 
many  years,  and  annually  be  made  the  focus  of 
popular  amusements.  With  the  season  continued 
to  be  associated  theatrical  perforipances.  These 
were  freqviently  of  a  comic  nature,  and  might 
be  crowded  with  local  jests  and  personal  allu- 
sions often  of  a  scurrilous  sort,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  pastoral  of  Adam  de  la  Halle,  Lc  jru 
de  Robin  et  de  Marion,  composed  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  for  use  on  such  an  occasion.  In 
England  the  story  of  Roliin  Hood  was  connected 
with  the  ilay-games,  and  the  personages  of  his 
cycle  were  introduced  into  the  performances  of 
co.stumed  or  masked  actors,  called  'Morris  dan- 
cers.' In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land (lie  first  of  May  received  the  name  of  Bel- 
tan  (q.v.),  and  was  originally,  no  doubt,  an  inde- 
pendent ceremony.  Customs  analogous  to  May 
Day  are  widespread.  Among  the  Russians  there 
is  a  spring  festival,  celebrated  by  the  boys  and 
girls  witli  a  choral  dance  called  Khorovod.  (See 
Slavonic  ilfsic. )  The  Eurojiean  spring-tide 
feast  sccnis  to  have  come  from  the  Orient,  where 
orgiastic  merriment  was  cnmmon  in  the  spring. 
So  in  modern  India  the  Holi  festival  is  celebrated 
in  Jlarch   or   April,   with   the  singing  of   songs 


215  MAYER. 

generally  obscene,  and  with  the  sprinkling  with 
red  powder  and  water  or  with  tilth.  The  nat- 
uralistic basis  of  the  custom  is  joy  at  the  cre- 
ative impulses  felt  in  the  spring  and  manifested 
both  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  world.  Hence 
comes  the  erotic  character  of  the  songs  and 
dances,  while  the  ilay-pole  itself  is  probably 
jihallic  in  origin.    See  Piiallicism. 

MAYEN,    mi'en.      A    town    in   the    Prussian 

Rhine  Province,  Germany,  on  the  Nette,  15  miles 
west  of  Coblcnz  (ilap:  Prussia,  B  3).  It  lias  a 
late  Gothic  church  and  a  partly  preserved  castle 
of  tlie  Jliddle  Ages.  Cloth,  tobacco,  wool  yarn, 
and  leatlier  are  manufactured,  and  there  is  Vrade 
in  millstones.    Population,  in  1900,  11,961. 

MAYENCE,  ina'yaNs'.  A  town  of  Germany. 
See  .\Iai.\z. 

MAYENNE,  ma'en'.  A  northwestern  depart- 
ment of  France,  traversed  by  the  River  Mayenne, 
a  tributary  of  the  Loire  (Map:  France,  F  3).  It 
was  formerly  part  of  the  Province  of  Jlaine. 
Area,  1906  square  miles.  Its  surface  is  mostly 
level,  becoming  hilly  toward  the  northeast.  Its 
fertile  soil  produces  grain,  llax,  hemp, and  apples; 
tliere  are  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  marble,  and  slate. 
A  large  number  of  cattle  and  fine  horses  are 
reared.  Population,  in  1896,  321,187;  in  1901, 
313,103.     Capital,  Laval. 

MAYENNE.  Tlie  cajiital  of  an  arrondisse- 
nieiit  in  tlie  Department  of  JIayenne,  in  the 
northwest  of  France  (Map:  France,  F  3).  It 
is  ]ileasantly  situated  on  (lie  Mayenne,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Loire,  Its  streets  are  steep,  nar- 
row, and  winding.  It  has  manufactures  of  iron, 
calico,  and  linen,  and  trades  chiefly  in  horses 
and  grain.     Population,  in  1901,  10,125. 

MAYENNE,  Duke  of.     See  Guise. 

MAY'ER,  Alfred  M.\rsiiall  (1830-97).  An 
American  physicist.  He  was  born  atBaltimore  and 
was  educated  at  Saint  Mary's  College,  Baltimore. 
In  1856  he  was  ajipoinled  professor  of  physics  and 
chemistry  in  the  University  of  Maryland,  and 
subsequently  held  positions  in  the  Westminster 
College  in  Missouri,  in  Pennsylvania  State  Col- 
lege, in  Lehigh  University,  and  in  the  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technologj-.  In  1863  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  spent  two  years  in  study  and 
research,  working  under  the  famous  physicist 
Regnault.  He  was  for  a  time  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  Atnericun  Journal  of  Science,  and  con- 
tributed a  number  of  papers  to  its  pages.  In 
1872  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences.  After  assuming  tlie  pro- 
fessorship of  physics  at  Stevens  Institute  (1871) 
he  devoted  himself  to  acoustics,  in  which  field 
he  ])erformed  many  new  and  interesting  experi- 
ments, and  made  some  valuable  discoveries.  His 
most  important  work  in  acoustics,  perhaps,  was 
the  determination  of  the  law  connecting  the  pitch 
of  a  sound  with  tlic  duration  of  the  residual 
sensation  in  the  ear.  To  Professor  Mayer  is  also 
due  a  method  of  determining  the  comparative 
intensity  of  sounds  with  the  same  ]iitcli,  and  tlie 
location  of  the  organs  of  hearing  in  Ihe  mosquito. 
He  developed  new  methods  for  analyzing  sound, 
and  he  made  researches  into  the  nature  of  elec- 
tricity, besides  being  tlie  first  to  give  accurately 
the  temperature  correction  for  tuning-forks.  .\n 
early  paper  on  the  Tlicrmodi/namics  of  Water- 
faUs  (1869)  arouseil  considerable  interest,  and 
one  on  the  variation  of  the  elasticity  of  metals 


MAYER. 


216 


MAYERS. 


with  cliange  of  temperature  slioued  the  delicacy 
of  Professor  Mayer's  experimental  work,  llis 
last  important  research  was  an  experimental  in- 
vestigation of  the  equilibrium  of  the  forces  act- 
ing in  the  flotation  of  disks  and  rings  of  metal 
and  their  application  to  measure  surface  tension. 
In  addition  to  his  scientiJic  attainments,  Professor 
Jlayer  was  an  enthusiastic  sportsman  and  wrote 
apurt  uilh  (lu)i  and  Hud  in  Aiitcricun  Hoods  and 
ir<(/e)'6-(  1883) .  Consult  short  liiograpliical  sketch 
in  iS'cie;icc,  August  20.  ISilT.  liy  W.  Let  onte  .Ste- 
vens. Besides  many  contributions  to  scientific 
journals  and  encycloptedias,  Professor  ilayer  was 
the  author  of  Lecture  Xotes  on  Physics:  (1808)  ; 
The  Earth  a  Great  Maijnet  (1872)  ;  Light,  with 
Charles  Barnard   (1877);  and  Sound  (1878). 

MAYER,  Br.vntz  (1800  7!)).  An  American 
author.  Inirn  in  Baltimore,  Md.  After  graduation 
at  Saint  Mary's  College  he  traveled  in  the  East, 
practiced  law  (1829-11),  was  secretary  of  the 
American  Lcfiation  at  Mexico  (lS4.'i).  and 
wrote  his  observations  there  in  Mexico  as  It  Was 
and  Is  (1844)  :  Mexico.  A^lec,  i^ji'inish.  and  Re- 
publican (1851);  Obserrntions  of  Mexican  Bis- 
iory  and  ArchaoUxjy  (18,50)  ;  and  Mexican  An- 
tiijuities  (18.58);  works  that  retain  some  value, 
especially  for  the  period  following  the  Spanish 
conquest.  He  wrote  also  Captain  Canot,  or 
Tncnty  Years  of  an  African  Slaver  (18.54),  and 
other  less  important  books.  Ma,ver  served  as 
pajTiiaster  in  tlie  Civil  War  and  was  a  founder 
of  "the  Maryland  Historical  Society  (1844).  He 
died  in  lialtiniore. 

MAYER.  Constant  (1,S;V2— ).  An  American 
painter,  born  at  Besancon.  France.  He  Avas  a 
student  at  the  Kcole  des  Beaux-Arts,  and  after- 
wards a  ]>u|)il  of  Leon  Cogniet.  After  18.57  he 
lived  in  New  York  Citv.  His  works  include: 
"Love's  Melancholy"  (1807);  "Maud  Muller" 
(1807)  ;  "Stre<'t  Melodies;"  and  the  "Song  of  the 
Shirt."  He  also  painted  several  portraits,  includ- 
ing those  of  Generals  Grant  and  Sheridan,  the 
Empress  Carlntta,  and  other*. 

MAYER,  Frank  Blackwell  (1827—).  An 
American  portrait  and  genre  painter,  born  in 
Baltimore.  He  studied  under  Alfred  MilliT  in 
Baltimore  and  under  (ileyre  in  Paris,  .\fter- 
wards  he  settled  in  Annapolis,  .Md.  His  collec- 
tion of  drawings  of  the  Dakota  Inilians  has 
an  nrchivological  value.  His  works  include: 
"Fenst  of  Mondawmin"  ( 18.57)  :  "Treaty  of  Trav- 
erse des  .Sinux.  Minnesota"  (1880):  "The  Con- 
tinentals;" and  "The  Attic  Philosopher."  which 
won  a  medal  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of 
187C. 

MAYER,  mi'er.  .Toiiann  TomAS  (172.'502). 
A  (Jiriiiau  mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Marliacli  in  Wiirttembcrg,  He  was  selfi'ducated 
and  at  first  taught  mathematics  for  a  living.  In 
1740  he  became  connectid  with  a  cartographic 
establishment  and  gained  fame  for  his  improve- 
nients  in  map-making.  In  17.51  he  was  ajipointed 
to  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  in  the 
?'niversity  of  O.'ittingen.  and  in  17.54  director 
ol  the  observator>'.  where  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life  he  did  much  to  a<Ivance  the  sci- 
ences of  astronomy  and  navigation.  His  first 
published  work  was  .1  Treatise  on  Carres  for 
the  Conslrueliiin  of  flromctrtcal  Problems,  which 
was  followed  the  same  year  (174.5)  by  .1  Mnlhe. 
maliral  Atlas.  At  Oiittingen  he  gave  much  labor 
to  a  Zodiacal  Catalogue,  which  contains  90S  stars 


and  of  which  a  newly  computed  edition  was 
published  by  Auwers  in  18'J4.  His  Lunar  Tables, 
published  in  17o2-.53.  were  so  correct  as  to  be 
adopted  by  the  British  Board  of  Admiralty,  in 
170U  he  invented  the  repeating  circle,  which  was 
afterwarils  used  with  so  much  success  by  Borda 
in  measuring  the  are  of  the  meridian.  His 
posthumous  works  include:  Theoria  Lunar  Jiixla 
Systenia  yeutonianuni  (1767);  Tabula;  Motuum 
Solis  et  Luna;  .Voice  et  Vorrectw  Quibus  Aeccdit 
Methodus  Lonyiludinuni  I'roniota  (1770)  ;  Ubser- 
vationcs  Astronomia;  Quadrante  Murali  Ilubitce 
In  Uhservatorio  tluttinijensi  (2d  ed.  1820).  He 
left  a  large  number  of  scientific  memoirs,  which 
were  published  by  Lichtenberg  in  1775. 

MAYER,  .Jtuu.s  RoiiEHT  vox  (1814-78).  A 
German  physicist,  born  in  Heilbronn,  Wiirttem- 
bcrg. He  attended  the  gjmnasium  at  Heilbronn, 
studied  medicine  at  Tiibingen,  and  finished  his 
university  course  at  Munich  and  Paris.  He  made 
a  voyage  to  Java  in  1840,  and  while  there  made 
observations  on  the  blood  which  led  him  to  the  in- 
vestigation of  thesuhject  of  animal  heat,  and  final- 
ly to  that  of  the  conservation  and  correlation  of 
forces.  After  his  return  to  Heilbronn  he  ])rae- 
ticed  medicine  there,  but  after  a  few  years  de- 
voted himself  almost  exclusively  to  his  scientific 
investigations.  He  pulilished  a  preliminary  notice 
of  his  work  up  to  1842,  in  IJebig's  .4  nnalen  der  Che- 
mie  and  Pharmacic.  under  the  title  "Bemerkun- 
gen  iiber  die  Ivrafte  der  unbelebten  Xatur."  after 
it  had  been  refused  by  l'oggendortf's.4M«(//<'Honac- 
count  of  its  novel  and  revolutionary  char;icter.  It 
was  in  this  pa]ier  that  the  first  announcement  was 
nuide  of  the  principle  underlying  the  theory  of 
the  conservation  of  energy'.  In  1845  he  made  a 
fuller  explanation  of  the  subject  in  a  memoir, 
iinder  the  title  Die  oryanisehe  Beirefiung  in  ihrem 
Zusantnienhanyc  mit  dcm  Stofficcchst;!.  In  1848 
he  published  Ucitriii/c  zur  Dynainilc  des  Iliniuiels, 
and  in  1851  the  essay  for  which  he  is  perhaps 
more  generally  known  in  popular  science,  that 
upon  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  (lienier- 
L'unat  n  iiber  das  ineehanisehe  .Aei^uirali  )it  der 
M'linne) ,  in  whicli  he  developed  aiul  <'xpanded  the 
jirinciplcs  laid  down  in  his  former  pa])ers.  To 
.Mayer  is  due  the  first  conception  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  conservation  of  energy',  though  he  was  soon 
followed  by  .Joule  and  Helmholtz  (qq.v. )  with  in- 
vestigations and  papers  on  the  same  subjects. 
His  collected  works  appeared  under  the  title  Die 
Meehnnilc  der  Wiirme,  M  ed.,  by  Weyrauch 
(1803).  Consult:  Weyrauch.  If'oherl  Mayer 
(Stuttgart.  1800)  ;  id.,  Kleinere  Sehriflen  und 
Brief c  ron  I'obert  Mayer  (ib.,  ISO."?)  :  and  Gross, 
Robert  Mailer  und  Hermann  ron  Helmholtz  (Ber- 
lin, 18118).' 

MAY'ERS,  Wiu.iAM  Freuerick  (IS.Tl-TS). 
A  sinobigue.  Iiorn  in  Tasmania.  Fducated  in 
.Marseilles  anil  prolicient  in  modern  languages, 
he  was  appointed  at  twenty-eight  student-inter- 
preter in  China,  and  acted  as  \'ice-Consul  at 
Canton  and  Chi-fu,  becoming  in  1872  Chinese 
.■secretary  to  the  British  Legation  in  Peking.  He 
was  a  masler  of  Chinese.  Tibetan,  and  Korean. 
He  p\ihlislied  "Tlie  Lamaist  Seplem  in  Tibet." 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  .Asiatic  Societ,v 
(1800);  The  Anf/lo-Chinese  Calendar  Manual 
(1800):  his  masterpiece.  The  Chinese  Reader's 
Manual  (1874)  :  The  Chinese  Oorernment.  a  Man- 
ual of  Chinese  Titles  (1878)  :  and  in  collabora- 
tion with  Dennys  and  King,  The  Treaty  Ports  of 


MAYERS. 


217 


MAYHEW. 


China  (18(37).  He  procured  for  the  Britisli  Mu- 
seum one  of  the  few  extant  copies  of  the  great 
Imperial  eydopadia  of  Chinese  literature  in 
50:iO  voliinii's. 

MAYFAIR.  One  of  the  most  fashionable 
sections  of  l.ondon.  It  lies  east  of  Hyde  Park, 
between  Park  Laiie  and  Pond  Street,  and  derives 
its  name  from  a  fair  formerly  held  in  the  locality 
during  Jlay. 

MAY'FIELD.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
(Jraves  L'nunty,  Ky.,  25  miles  south  of  Paducah; 
on  the  Illinois  Central  Kailroad  (Map:  Ken- 
tuck}',  C  4).  It  is  the  seat  of  West  Kentucky 
College.  It  controls  a  large  trade  in  tobacco, 
having  large  warehouses  and  a  number  of  re- 
handling  concerns;  and  there  are  flouring,  plan- 
ing, and  woolen  mills,  tobacco  and  clothing  fac- 
tories, etc.  Settleil  about  1820.  .Mayficid  was  in- 
corporated some  thirty  years  later.  Tlie  govern- 
ment is  administered  under  a  charter  of  1893,  by 
a  mayor,  chosen  every  four  years,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  Population,  in  1890,  2909;  in 
1900,  4081. 

MAYFISH.  The  most  common  of  American 
killifish    {Fundtilus  majalis).     See  KiLLiFiSH. 

MAYFLOWER.    See  Arbutus,  Tkailixg. 

MAYFLOWER,  The.  A  ship  of  180  tons 
burden,  liired  to  take  the  Pilgrims  from  South- 
ampton, England,  to  the  New  World  in  1620. 
Some  had  sailed  from  Delft  Haven  in  the  Speed- 
well, which  started  with  the  May/loircr,  but  put 
back  after  several  dajs.  The  ilayfloicer  arrived 
at  Plymouth  December  Ilth,  or  21st.  New  Style 
(anniversary    celebrated    December    22d). 

MAYFLOWER  DESCENDANTS,  Society 
OF.  A  patriotic  hereditary  society,  organized  in 
New  York  City  on  December  22,  1894.  It  admits 
to  membership  any  lineal  descendant  of  any 
passenger  of  the  voyage  of  the  Min/flotcer  which 
terminated  at  Plymouth  Kock,  ilass.,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1020,  The  badge  of  the  society  is  a  round 
medallion  of  gold  with  a  representation  of  the 
Mayflower  in  relief  surrounded  by  a  wreath 
composed  of  the  blossoms  of  the  maytiower 
connected  at  the  bottom  bv  a  scroll  on  which 
is  the  legend  "1020,  Plymouth,  1897,"  There 
are  many  State  societies,  from  which  repre- 
sentatives meet  triennially,  usually  in  Ply- 
mouth, Mass.,  at  the  general  society,  which 
was  organized  on  .January  12,  1897,  A  general 
register  was  published  in  1901,  showing  nearly 
2000  members,  and  the  various  .State  societies 
have  issued  books  containing  historical  infor- 
mation. 

MAY  FLY.  An  insect  of  the  order  Epheme- 
rida,  sometimes  also  called  'shad-fly'  and  'day- 
fl}','  the  latter,  like  the  scientific  name,  derived 
from  the  ephemeral  life  of  the  adult.  They  have 
short  antenme,  very  large  fore  wings,  very  small 
hind  wings,  absolutely  trophied  mouth-parts,  and 
two  or  three  long,  slender  filaments  at  the  end 
of  the  abdomen.  The  transformations  are  com- 
plete, and  the  early  stages  are  passed  in  the 
water.  The  larviT  are  active,  possess  long  and 
strong  legs,  and  lireathe  by  means  of  tracheal 
gills.  They  are  found  under  stones  in  running 
streams  or  swimming  among  water  plants  in 
quiet  waters,  or  they  may  live  at  the  bottom, 
more  or  less  covered  with  slime  or  mud ;  some 
forms  also  burrow  into  the  sand  banks  of  rivers. 
They  both  swim  and  crawl,  and  thev  feed  largely 


upon  vegetable  matter.  The  pupa  or  nymph  is 
also  active  and  feeds.  It  lias  small  wing-pads, 
and  when  ready  to  transform  it  floats  at  the 
surface  of  the  water  and  the  subimago  issues 
through  the  skin  of  the  thorax.  The  emergence 
is  very  rapid,  and  the  subimago  Hies  away  almost 
immediately  after  the  skin  cracks.  The  existence 
of  a  subimago  stage  is  peculiar  to  this  order  of 
insects,  and  there  is  a  si:bsequent  molt  after 
the  subimago  reaches  the  shore,  the  true  imago 
issuing  from  the  skin  of  the  subimago.  The  ilay 
flies  differ  from  all  other  insects  not  only  in  this 
additional  transformation,  but  also  in  jiossessing 
paired  sexual  organs  which  open  to  tlie  exterior 
by  separate  orifices.  The  life  of  tlie  adult  insect 
is  very  short,  but  the  popular  idea  that  they  live 
but  a  day  is  erroneous.  Curtis  kept  one  alive 
three  weeks.  Most  species  couple  during  flight, 
and  egg-laying  is  usually  performed  in  fresh 
water,  where  the  egg  clusters  disintegrate  and 
the  eggs  sink  to  the  beds  of  the  rivers  and 
streams.  The  larval  life  lasts  from  one  to  three 
years,  and  the  larvse  form  a  favorite  food  for 
many  food-fishes.  The  adults  are  also  eagerly 
sought  for  by  fish,  and  man}'  of  the  artificial 
flies,  especially  those  forms  known  as  'duns,' 
'drakes,'  and  'spinners'  (see  Fly-Castixg),  are 
imitations  of  Jlay  flies.  About  .300  species  have 
been  described — 85  from  temperate  North  Amer- 
ica. They  are  strongly  attracted  to  light  and  fly 
in  enormous  numliers,  so  that  they  sometimes 
half  fill  the  globes  of  electric  street  lamps  with 
their  bodies  in  a  single  evening,  and  greatly 
trouble  lighthouse  keepers,  especially  along  the 
Great  Lakes,  by  swarming  about  the  lantern  in 
such  crowds  as  to  obscure  the  light. 

MAYHEM  (archaic  form  of  maim,  from  OF. 
mahair/iier.  mcliaif/iief,  to  maim).  At  common 
law,  the  offense  of  so  maiming  another,  or  doing 
such  violence  to  his  members,  as  to  render  him 
the  less  able  in  fighting  either  to  defend  himself 
or  to  annoy  his  adversary.  It  rendered  the 
wrongdoer  liable  to  a  civil  action  for  damages 
by  the  injured  person  and  also  to  a  criminal 
prosecution  as  "an  atrocious  breach  of  the  King's 
peace,  and  as  tending  to  deprive  him  of  the  aid  < 
and  assistance  of  his  subjects."  Destroying  or 
disabling  an  arm  or  leg.  hand  or  foot,  putting 
out  an  eye,  or  breaking  a  front  tooth,  was  a 
mayhem. 

MAYHEW,  maliu,  Augustus  Septimus 
(1820-75),  An  English  journalist  and  author, 
born  in  London,  He  wrote  in  collaboration  with 
his  brother  Henry  such  works  as  The  (Irentest 
Plague  of  Life,  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Lady  in 
Search  of  a  Good  Servant  (1847,  illustrated  by 
George  Cruikshank).  and  he  joined  H.  S.  Ed- 
wards in  the  production  of  stich  farces  as  The 
Goose  and  the  Golden  Egqs  (Strand  Tlieatre, 
18.59)  :  Christmas  Boxes  "("Strand.  18G0)  :  and 
The  Four  Cousins  (Globe  Theatre,  1871 ) .  From 
1848  to  1850  he  edited  The  Comic  Almanac,  to 
which  lie  had  been  a  contributor  since  1845,  and 
his  individual  productions  include  Pared  with 
Gold,  or  the  Romance  and  Peality  of  the  London 
Streets  (1857),  and  Faces  for  Fortunes  (3  vols,, 
1865). 

MAYHEW,  Experience  (1073-17.581.  A 
New  England  divine.  He  was  born  in  Martha's 
Vineyard,  Mass,,  the  oldest  son  of  Rev,  .John 
Mavhew.  and  great-grandson  of  Gov.  Thomas 
JIayhew.     He  began  to  preach  to  the  Indians  at 


MAYHEW. 


218 


MAYNARD. 


the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  had  the  oversight  of 
five  01'  six  Indian  assemblies,  wliich  he  continued 
for  sixty-four  years.  Having  tliorouglily  mas- 
tered the  Indian  hmguage,  whicli  he  had  learned 
in  infancy,  he  was  emploj-ed  by  the  fSociety  for 
the  Pro|]agation  of  the  Gospel  in  New  England 
to  make  a  new  version  of  the  Psalms  and  of  the 
Gospel  of  John,  which  lie  did  in  1709  in  ]iarallrl 
columns  of  English  and  Indian,  lie  inil)lished 
Indian  Converts  (1727),  comprising  the  lives  of 
thirty  Indian  preachers  and  eighty  other  converts, 
besides  a  volume  entitled  (Irace  Ucfcnded.  Con- 
sult Hallock,  The  Venerable  Mayhcw  and  the 
Aboriginal  Indians  of  Martha's  Vineijard,  con- 
densed from  Rev.  E.  Mayhew's  History  of  Indian 
Converts  and  brought  down  to  date  (Xew  York, 
1874). — His  son.  .Joxatiiax,  wa.s  distingiiislie<l  as 
a  preacher  and  patriot  (see  il.wirEW,  .JoN.\- 
Tii.\.N  ) . — Another  son.  '/,ACii.\m.\u,  was  mission- 
arv  to  the  JIartha's  Vincvand  Indians  from  1707 
to'  his  death.  March  G,   isOG. 

MAYHEW,  He.nry  (1812-87).  An  English 
author.  ?on  of  a  London  attorney.  From  West- 
minster School  he  ran  away  to  sea,  making  a 
voyage  to  Calcutta.  On  his  return  he  was  ar- 
ticled to  his  father  for  three  years.  In  con- 
junction with  Gilbert  a  Beckett,  he  started  the 
Figaro  in  London,  a  comic  weekly  ( 1831-30),  and 
The  Thief  (1832).  'a  paste  and  scissors'  journal, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  I'uneh  (1841). 
He  made  a  hit  with  Tlir  ^yaHdering  Minstrel,  a 
one-act  farce  (  1834).  which  was  followed  by  But 
However  (1838).  written  in  conjunction  with 
Henry  Baylis.  Along  with  his  brother  ArcrSTUS 
(1826-75),  he  wrote  several  clever  fictions,  as 
The  Greatest  Plague  of  Life  (1847)  ;  The  (load 
(lenius  that  Turned  Everything  to  Gold,  a  fairy 
tale  (1847)  ;  Whom  to  Marry  (1848)  :  and  Liv- 
ing for  Appearances  (18.5.5).  His  most  imjiortant 
work  was  a  series  of  articles  in  collahoraticm 
with  .John  liinny,  written  to  make  known  the 
actual  condition  of  the  lower  classes  in  London. 
Originally  appearing  in  the  Morning  Clironicle, 
th^y  were  collected  in  18.51  under  the  title  Lon- 
don Lalniur  and  the  London  Poor.  In  18.5G  the 
series  was  continued  in  monthly  numbers  with 
the  title  The  Great  W(rrld  of  London  (completed 
and  published  in  18G2  as  Criminal  PrLfons  of 
London). — His  brother  Horace  (181G-72)  was 
also  a  well-known  humorist.  He  wrote  farces 
and  tales  and  was  for  a  time  subeditor  of  Punch. 

MAYHEW,  .ToN'ATiiAX  (1720-Gr.).  An  Ameri- 
can (■Icigymaii.  born  on  the  island  of  JIartba's 
X'ineyard.  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1744.  studied  theology-,  and  from  1744  until  his 
death  was  pastor  of  the  West  Church  (Congre- 
gational I.  Koston.  He  became  one  of  the  best 
known  preachers  in  Xew  England  and  bis  influ- 
ence on  the  political  views  and  theories  of  the 
colonists  in  the  pre-RcvoIutiimary  period  was 
probably  greater  than  that  of  any  other  clergy- 
man. Dr.  Mayhew  was  an  ardent  believer  in  the 
rights  of  the  .Xmerican  colonies,  and  expressed 
his  views  with  great  boldness  from  his  pulpit.  Tn 
January,  17.")0,  he  preached  a  sermon  on  the 
execution  of  Charles  1..  in  which  he  dc'chired  that 
all  allegiance  was  liniiteil  by  certain  inalienable 
rialits  that  could  not  be  abrogated  by  the  sover- 
eign without  giving  a  corresponding  right  of 
abrogation  to  the  subject.  His  fearlessness  led 
to  his  being  bitterly  attacked  by  the  Tories,  who 
charged   him,  without    warrant,   with   lieing  the 


instigator  of  the  Boston  Stamp  Act  riots  that 
resulted  in  the  sacking  of  Governor  Hutchin- 
son's house.  In  May,  1760,  he  preaclicd  a 
Thanksgiving  sermon  for  the  repeal  of  the  .Stamp 
Act  that  was  a  remarkable  jilea  for  civil  and 
religious  liberty.  Later  in  tlie  same  year  and 
only  a  short  time  before  his  death  he  wrote  to 
.lames  Otis  a  letter  whicli  probably  contains  the 
earliest  suggestion  of  a  union  of  all  the  colonies. 
Tlic  subsequent  institution  o'f  committees  of  corre- 
spondence undoubtedly  had  its  inception  in  Dr. 
Mayhew's  plan.  His  sermons  were  published  sep- 
arately in  pamphlet  form  and  in  collections. 
Among  them  were:  Seven  Sermons  (174!))  ;  Dis^ 
course  Concerning  Unlimited  Submission  and 
Kon-I{esistance  to  the  Higher  Poivers  (1750); 
Sermons  (1756);  and  Sermons  to  Young  Men 
(1707).  Consult  Bradford.  .Memoir  of  the  Life 
and  Writings  of  the  I'cv.  Jonathan  Mayhew 
(Boston,   1S:!S). 

MAYHEW,  Thomas  (  15!)2-1082')  .  An 
American  colonial  Governor.  He  was  liorn  in 
England  and  was  a  merchant  in  Soutbampton  be- 
fore he  emigrated  to  America  in  1031.  He  set- 
tled in  Watcrtown  in  1030.  obtained  in  1041  from 
the  agent  of  Lord  Stirling  a  grant  of  Martha's 
Vineyard  and  the  neighboring  islands,  and  in 
1042  liecame  both  patentee  ami  (iovernor  of  the 
granted  district.  His  sun  Thomas  having  been 
called  to  the  ministry  at  Eclgartown,  Governor 
Mayliew  encouraged  his  work,  both  by  his  advice 
anil  by  inducing  the  Indian  sachems  to  govern 
their  people  according  to  the  English  laws.  After 
his  son's  death.  Mayhew  continued  the  ministra- 
tions, and  organized  an  Indian  church.  For  forty 
years  while  he  lived  among  them  the  English 
and  Indians  were  at  ])eace.  He  died  in  Martha's 
\'ineyard  in  ilarch,  1082. 

MAY  LAWS.  Tlie  name  applied  to  a  series 
of  laws  enacted  by  the  Prussian  Diet  in  May, 
1S73,  marking  the  opening  of  the  conflict  be- 
tween Church  and  State  generallj'  known  as  the 
Kulturkanipf   (q.v.). 

MAYNA,  mi'na.  or  MAIN  A.  A  group  of 
tribes  constituting  a  di-tiiict  linguistic  stock, 
ujion  the  Ipjier  ilaranun  (.\niazon)  between  the 
Santiago  ami  Pastaza  rivers  on  tbe  Peru-Ecuador 
frontier.  Their  language  is  particularly  harsh 
and  dillicult.  A  part  were  gatliered  in  missions 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  but  the  majority 
are  still  wild  and  unsuliducd.  living  by  bunting 
and  fishing.  The  name  is  also  fre(|ucntly  used 
collectively  to  include  all  the  tribes  of  the 
Icayali  and  ITuallaga  region,  the  former  Peru- 
vian Province  of  Maynas. 

MAY'NARD,  EiiwAHn  (1813-01).  An  Ameri- 
can drnial  --ingeon  and  inventor,  born  at  Madi- 
son. N.  v.,  of  Puritan  ancestry.  He  eiitcnil  the 
I'niteil  States  .Military  .Academy  at  West  Point 
in  1831.  but  his  delicate  constitution  caused  him 
to  resign  and  take  uj)  the  profession  of  dentistry, 
a  calling  which  he  followed  more  or  less  from 
1836  to  18i)0.  in  the  city  of  Washington.  D.  C. 
In  1846  he  made  known  his  discovery  of  the 
great  diversity  of  situation,  form,  and  capacity 
of  the  maxillary  antra.  He  n\<n  exploited  the 
existence  of  dental  fehriles  and  demonstrated 
that  sensitive  dentine  could  be  cut  with  h'SS 
sufTering  to  the  ]ialient  by  operating  in  certain 
directions  than  in  the  opposite  ones;  a  fact  sub- 
sequently demonstrated  by  the  microscope.  In 
1838    he    introduced    the    method    of    filling    llie 


MAYNABD. 


219 


MAYNOOTH. 


nerve  cavity  of  teeth  with  gold  foil,  including  the 
nerve  canals  in  molar  and  bicuspid  teetli ;  and 
seven  years  later  iutroiluced  the  system  into 
Europe.  He  became  a  member  of  the  faculty  of 
the  iiallimore  College  of  Dental  [Surgery,  and 
of  the  National  University  of  Washington.  His 
first  ini])ortaut  mechanical  invention  in  the  con- 
structiou  of  firearms  dates  from  1845,  in  which 
year  he  jiatented  a  system  of  priming  for  fire- 
arms, which  practically  superseded  the  percussion 
cap.  The  L  lilted  States  Uovernment  bought 
the  right  of  use  and  manufactured  nearly 
60,000  rifles  employing  the  new  principle  of 
ignition.  Germany  and  one  or  two  other  Eu- 
ropean powers  also  adopted  his  inventions 
in  part,  fii  18.51  he  patented  a  breech-load- 
ing ride,  afterwards  known  as  the  llaynard 
rille,  and  five  years  afterwards  adapted  it  to 
the  use  of  the  metallic  cartridge,  also  an  inven- 
tion of  his.  Ill  1800  he  patented  a  method  of  con- 
verting muzzle-loaders  into  breech-loaders.  Other 
important  inventions  in  firearms  were  a  method 
of  joining  together  two  rifle  or  shot  barrels, 
which  permitted  the  expansion  or  contraction  of 
one  barrel  independently  of  the  other  (1808); 
an  invention  invaluable  to  sportsmen,  and  a 
mechanism  for  indicating  at  any  time  the  num- 
ber of  cartridges  in  the  magazine  of  a  repeating 
ritle  (1880).  He  was  granted  the  Great  JNIedal 
of  Merit  of  Sweden  and  was  appointed  chevalier 
of  the  military  order  of  the  Red  Eagle  of  Russia. 

MAYNABD,  Geokce  Willougiibt  (1843—). 
An  American  portrait  and  figure  painter,  son  of 
Edward  .Mayiiard,  born  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  the  Royal  Academy  at  Antwerp, 
and  in  1S7S  oi)eiied  a  studio  in  Paris;  later  he 
settled  in  New  York  Citj-.  He  was  elected  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1885, 
and  is  also  member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  and  of  the  American  Water-Color  Society. 
In  1S84  he  received  a  medal  at  the  Pennsjdvania 
Academy,  ilaynard  was  one  of  the  earlv  painters 
to  devote  himself  to  decorative  painting,  and  his 
work  may  be  seen  in  private  houses  and  hotels  of 
Kew  York  City,  in  the  Congressional  Library  at 
^A'ashing1on,  D.  C,  and  in  the  Appellate  Court 
of  Xew  York  City.  Among  bis  works  are:  "Ves- 
pers at  Antwerp"  and  "1776,"  sent  to  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  of  1870;  "Water  Carriers  of 
\Ciiiee"  (1878):  ".Musical  Memories;"  "Vene- 
tian Court;"  "An  Ancient  JIariner"  (188.3); 
"Aurora:"  "Old  and  Rare;"  and  "Strange  Gods:" 
also  portraits  of  Frank  Millet  and  of  his  father, 
and  a  portrait  of  a  child. 

MAYNARD,  Hor.\ce  (1814-82).  An  Ameri- 
can politician,  born  in  Westboro.  Slass.  He 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1838,  and  short- 
ly afterwards  removed  to  Knoxville,  Tenn..  where 
for  some  years  he  was  a  tutor  and  then  professor 
of  mathematics  and  natural  history  in  the  East 
Tennessee  College.  In  1845  he  became  a  lawyer, 
and  in  1857  was  elected  by  the  'Americans'  to 
Congress,  where  he  continued  to  sit  until  1803. 
I.ike  .\ndrew  .lohnson,  W.  G.  lirownlow.  and 
others,  Maynard  strove  hard  but  unsuccessfully 
to  keep  Tennessee  in  the  Union,  and  because  of 
his  loyalty  suffered  loss  of  property  and  exile. 
He  was  again  a  Representative  in  Congress  from 
1800  to  1875.  was  Alinister  to  Russia  from  1875 
to  ISSfl.  ami  was  Postmaster-General  in  President 
Haves's  Cabinet  from  August,  1880,  to  March, 
1881. 

Vol.  XIII.— 16. 


MAYNAED,  Sir  Joiix  (1002-90).  An  Eng- 
lish constitutional  lawyer.  He  was  born  at  'I<iv- 
istock,  England,  and  was  educated  at  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  After  the  regular  course  of  study 
in  the  Middle  Temple  lie  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1020;  he  had  been  elected  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment in  the  previous  year.  He  was  subsequently 
made  a  scrgeant-at-law  and  King's  sergeant,  but 
declined  the  place  on  the  bench  ofl'ered  him  by 
Charles  II.  in  1000.  While  an  advocate  for  in- 
creasing the  power  of  the  people,  he  never  con- 
curred in  the  extreme  views  taken  by  the  radical 
republicans,  and,  although  an  earnest  Presby- 
terian, stood  aloof  from  the  fanaticism  of  many 
in  his  party.  He  was  active  in  the  prosecution 
of  Strafl'ord  and  Laud,  but  opposed  the  arbitrary 
power  assumed  by  the  army,  and  Cromwell's  evi- 
dent intention  of  making  himself  King  in  fact, 
if  not  in  name;  for  the  position  he  took  in  this 
respect  he  was  twice  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
of  London  by  order  of  the  Protector.  At  the 
Restoration,  the  honor  of  knighthood  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  Charles  II.;  his  political 
course  under  that  monarch  was  judicious  and 
conservative.  In  the  time  of  the  revolution  and 
the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  he  showed 
ability,  notably  in  the  great  conference  held  be- 
tween the  House  of  Lords  and  the  Commons  in 
regard  to  the  abdication  of  .lames  II.,  a  measure 
which  he  strenuously  advocated.  In  the  same 
year,  1080,  he  was  made  a  commissioner  of  the 
Great  Seal.  A  number  of  his  political  speeches 
and  legal  decisions  have  been  printed  in  various 
collections.  His  manuscript  collections  in  eighty- 
seven  volumes  are  preserved  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
Library.     He  died  at  Gunnersbury  Manor. 

MAYNE,  .Jasper  (1004-72).  An  English 
dramatist  and  divine,  educated  at  Westminster 
School,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.A. 
1028;  M.A.  1031).  While  at  the  university  he 
wrote  considerable  occasional  verse.  To  him  has 
been  ascribed  the  beautiful  eulogy  signed  I.  JI.  S. 
prefixed  to  the  second  folio  of  Shakespeare's  works 
(1632).  He  afterwards  wrote  verses  in  honor 
of  Ben  Jonson  and  Beaumont  and  Fletcher.  His 
two  plays  are  the  Cili/  Match,  a  comedy  (printed 
1039),  and  The  Amorous  War  (printed  1648).  a 
tragicomedy,  containing  the  quaint  lyric  begin- 
ning "Time  is  a  feathered  thing"  (reprinted  in 
The  Oxford  Book  of  English  Verse.  A.  T.  Quiller- 
Couch.  Oxford,  1900).  In  1038  he  began  a  trans- 
lation of  Lueian's  Dialogues  (printed  1604).  af- 
terwards completed  by  Francis  Hicks ;  and  for 
Donne's  Paradoxes  (1652).  he  translated  several 
Latin  epigrams.  During  the  civil  war  he  lived 
mostly  at  Oxford,  where  he  frequently  preached 
before  the  King.  After  the  Restoration  he  was 
appointed  a  canon  of  Christ  Church,  and  Arch- 
deacon of  Chichester.  He  died  at  Oxford.  De- 
cember 6,  1672. 

MAY'NOOTH.  A  villace  of  Kildare.  Ireland, 
a  short  distance  Avest  of  Dublin,  having  a  popula- 
tion of  less  than  a  thousand.  It  was  the  seat  of 
the  Gcraldines.  the  ruins  of  whose  castle  remain. 
It  was  of  importance  in  the  reliellions  of  the  Iri^h 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ,  and  in  the  time  of 
the  civil  wars  and  the  Commonwealth.  It  is 
chiefly  known  now  as  the  site  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  (\)llege  of  Saint  Patrick.  There  have 
been  000  students  in  attendnnce,  all  candidates 
for  the  priesthood,  and  more  than  half  supported 
by  funds  for  that  purpose. 


MAYO. 


220 


MAYOR. 


MAYO,  ni.'i'd.  A  maritiini;  iduiity  of  tlie 
Province  of  Connaught,  Ireland,  bounded  north 
and  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  east  by  Sligo  and 
Roscommon,  and  south  by  Galway  (Map:  Ire- 
land, B. J).  Area,  212U  square  miles.  The  coast- 
line of  Mayo  is  about  250  miles  long.  Tlie  sur- 
face is  very  irregular,  the  interior  being  a  )ilain 
bordered  by  two  ranges  of  mountains.  The  chief 
branch  of  industry  is  cattle-raising.  Fisheries 
and  linen  manufactures  are  also  carried  on.  The 
capital  is  Castlebar.  Population,  in  1841,  389,- 
2U0;   in   1901,  202,030. 

MAYO,  mii'yo.  A  tribe  of  Piman  stock  (q.v. ) 
upon  tlie  river  of  the  same  name  in  Southern 
Honora,  Mexico.  They  and  the  Vaqui  (q.v.), 
their  northern  neighbors  and  allies,  speak  dia- 
lects of  the  same  language,  and  in  physical  char- 
acteristics and  habit  are  identical.  They  are 
agricultural  and  very  industrious,  cultivating 
corn,  cotton,  squashes,  beans,  tobacco,  and 
maguey,  from  which  last  they  manufacture  mes- 
cal. They  also  work  as  miners,  teamsters,  and 
the  like.  '  Their  liouscs  are  light  structures  of 
cane  and  boughs,  covered  with  palm  leaves.  They 
are  now  very  much  Mexicanized  and  number  per- 
haps 7000. 

MAYO,  niiVo.  Amory  DwTniiT  (1823—).  An 
American  clcrgj'man  and  educator.  He  was  born 
in  Warwick,  Franklin  County,  Mass. :  educated 
at  Amherst  College;  studied  theologv-  with  the 
Rev.  Ho.sea  Ballou.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Univer- 
salist  church  in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  in  ,\ll)any.  X.  Y.,  and  later  of  Unitarian 
churches  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  in  Springfield, 
Mass.;  afterwards  he  engaged  in  educational  work 
in  the  South,  For  .several  years  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  polity  in  the  Meadville 
(Pa.)  Theological  School.  He  edited  the  Massa- 
chusetis  Journnl  of  Education  and  engaged  besides 
in  general  labors  throughout  the  country  to  stim- 
ulate popular  interest  in  the  school  system, 
.\mong  his  works  are:  The  Balance:  or  Moral 
Arguments  for  Universalism  (184fi)  ;  Orarcn  and 
Pnirers  of  the  Christian  Life  (18:52)  ;  Si/niholx  of 
the  Capitol:  or  Cirilization  in  New  York  (18.19)  : 
fioiilhern  Women  in  the  Recent  Kdueational 
Morcmcnt  in  the  South  (1892)  ;  and  Talks  nith 
Teachers    (188.5). 

MAYO,  Fk.\nk  (1839-90).  An  .\merican  ac- 
tor, doubtless  best  known  for  his  long-continued 
])opularity  in  the  backwoods  character  of  Davy 
Crockett,  which  somewhat  obscured  his  more 
legitimate  laurels.  He  was  born  in  Boston.  Early 
in  life  he  went  to  San  Francisco,  where  at  seven- 
teen he  began  his  career,  and  witliin  a  few  years 
was  appearing  witli  the  young  Fdwin  Booth.  In 
1803  he  became  a  le:uling  man  in  San  Francisco 
and  in  IsO,")  in  Boston.  He  won  :ipplausc  ;i> 
Othello,  llanilet,  Ferdinand  in  The  Tempest,  and 
in  other  classic  roles,  but  greater  success  with  the 
public  as  Badger  in  The  ftfrrets  of  AVir  York, 
till  in  1872  he  lirought  nut  Darii  Crockett.  .»\mong 
his  Inter  productions  were  his  own  drainatiz.ntions 
of  Xorrteck  and  of  Mark  Twain's  PuihVnhrad 
ll'i/.toii.  the  latter  a  character  well  suited  to 
display  his  peculiar  gifts  as  a  comedian. 

MAYO,  KirTiAnn  SoniiwKM,  BoriiKK,  sixth 
Earl  of  (1822  72).  An  Enelish  statesman,  lie 
was  born  in  niiblin,  Irel.Tnd.  was  educati'd  at 
Trinity  rollcso  there,  afterwards  traveled  in 
■Russia,  and  published  an  account  of  his  trip, 
entitled  In  Snint  Petcrxhurij  and  Moscotc  (2  vols,, 


1840),  From  1S47  to  1869  he  was  a  member  of 
Parliament,  and  in  1852,  1858,  and  1800  was  ap- 
pointed Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  In  January, 
1809,  by  Disraeli's  appointment,  he  became  Gov- 
ernor-General of  India,  in  which  capacity  he  in- 
troduced extensive  and  careful  reforms  in  the 
conduct  of  the  public  service,  and  was  an  ellicieiit 
and  successful  administrator.  While  insju'ctiMg 
the  penal  settlement  at  Port  Blair,  .-Vnilcnian 
Islands,  he  was  killed  by  one  of  the  convicts. 
Consult  Hunter,  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Mayo  (Lon- 
don, 1875). 

MAYO,  \ViLLi.\M  Stakbitk  (1812-95).  An 
American  novelist  and  traveler.  He  graduated 
from  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  (1833),  traveled  widely  in  little  ex- 
])lored  regions,  and  lirst  won  notice  in  ticticm  by 
Kaloolah  (1849),  a  romance  of  Central  .\frica. 
This  was  followed  by  The  Berber,  a  story  of  the 
mountaineers  of  the  Atlas  ( 1850)  ;  Romance  Dust 
from  an  Historic  Placer,  a  collection  of  short 
stories  (1851)  ;  and  yeccr  Again  (18731.  Mayo'3 
novels  are  strong  in  narration,  good  in  plot,  weak 
in    iharacter. 

MA  YON,  m;i-yon',  or  Aliuy,  .\n  active  vol- 
cano and  the  highest  peak  in  Luzon,  Philippine  ^ 
Islands,  It  is  situated  in  the  Province  of  Albay, 
near  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  island 
(ilap:  Philippine  Islands.  11  0),  It  is  a  ma- 
jestic cone,  rising  from  the  seashore  to  a 
height  of  8274  feet,  and  capped  by  a  white  cloud 
of  smoke  which  in  the  night  assumes  a  fiery 
glow.  Its  sides  are  covered  with  grass  and  mo.ss, 
and  though  apparently  smooth  and  unobstructed, 
the  mountain  is  very  dirticull  of  ascent.  There 
have  been  a  number  of  erupt icms  during  the  past 
century,  in  which  the  niouMt:iin  emitted  great 
quantities  of  lav:i,  cinders, anil  incandescent  rocks, 
on  more  than  one  occasion  destroying  an  entire 
town. 

MAYOR  (from  Lat.  major,  greater,  compara- 
tive of  inaf/nus,  great).  The  chief  executive  of- 
ficer of  a  municipal  corporation.  In  England  the 
mayor  was  originally  a  steward,  bailitV,  or  over- 
seer. Later  he  became  the  chief  magistrate  of  a 
corporate  town.  During  the  reign  of  .lohn  the 
right  of  formally  choosing  their  mayor  was  con- 
ceded to  the  barons  of  London,  the  election  being 
subject  to  the  ajiproval  of  the  King.  During 
the  same  reign  the  other  large  towns  were  al 
lowed  to  have  mayors.  The  mayors  of  the  cities 
of  York,  Dublin,  aiid  London  bear  the  title  of  'lord 
mayor,'  The  lord  mayor  of  London,  whose  juris 
diction  extends  only  to  the  ancient  inner  city,  is 
chosen  annually  from  amnngthe  aldermen.  ])iac- 
tically  by  the  liverymen  of  the  guilds,  llis  chief 
duty'is  to  sustain  ihe  hospit;ility  of  the  city,  for 
which  purpose  he  receives  an  :illowance  of  £8000 
a  year,  together  with  the  use  of  the  mansion 
house.  The  ordinary  English  mayor  is  elected 
by  the  municipal  council,  usually  from  among  the 
aldermen,  for  a  tenn  of  one  ye:ir.  He  is  an  ex- 
officio  justice  of  the  peace  and  usually  serves  as 
a  returning  ofTieer.  In  France  there  is  a  mayor 
(mairr)  at  the  head  of  each  commune,  elected 
by  the  municipal  council  from  among  its  own 
members.  He  serves  during  the  term  of  the 
council.  In  the  Oerninnic  countries  the  mayor 
or  burironinster  is  usually  a  highly  trained  pro- 
fi'ssional  officer  with  more  or  less  experience  in 
tlie  municipal  service,  and  is  frequentiv  called  to 
the  headship  of  a  larger  muncipality  after  having 


MAYOR. 


221 


MAYOW. 


gained  a  reputation  as  mayor  of  a  smaller  town. 
He  is  elected  by  the  eity  council  for  a  long  term, 
often  for  life.  The  prevailing  method  of  .selecting 
mayors  in  the  larger  countries  of  Europe  is  elec- 
tion by  the  niunieipiil  council.  In  Belgium, 
Denmark,  Holland,  .Norway  and  Sweden,  and  iu 
Italy,  so  far  as  the  larger  towns  are  concerned, 
the  method  of  appointment  is  by  the  central 
government. 

In  the  United  States  the  office  of  mayor  existed 
from  the  earliest  cobmial  times,  being  taken  over 
as  a  part  of  the  English  municipal  system.  At 
first  the  mayor  was  usually  appointed  by  the 
tiovernor,  and  was  generally  a  member  of  the 
municipal  cimncil.  Later  he  was  excluded  from 
the  council  and  then  came  to  be  chosen  by  the 
council,  although  occasionally,  as  in  the  city  of 
Boston,  he  was  elected  bj'  popular  vote  from  the 
beginning.  This  is  now  the  rule  in  the  United 
States  almost  without  exception.  The  term  of  the 
mayor  in  the  United  .States  varies  from  one  year 
to  five,  the  usual  term  being  two  years.  Everywliere 
in  Europe  the  mayor  acts  as  the  local  agent 
of  the  central  government  and  consequently  is 
often  subject  to  disci])linarv  control  liy  the  cen- 
tral government.  Thus  the  French  ma.yor  may 
be  sus|)cndcd  bv  the  ])refect  for  one  month,  by 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior  for  three  months,  and 
may  be  permanently  removed  by  the  President :  a 
somewhat  similar  rule  prevails  in  other  Conti- 
nental States.  In  several  American  States  the 
mayor  may  be  removed  by  the  Governor  for 
cause,  subject  to  the  power  of  the  courts  to  de- 
termine what  shall  constitute  just  cause  in  a 
given  case.  Besides  his  duty  as  agent  of  the  cen- 
tral government  the  mayor  is  the  official  bend  of 
the  municipal  corporation.  His  powers  are  much 
larger  in  some  countries  than  in  others.  In  the 
United  States  there  is  a  marked  tendcnc.v  of  late 
years  toward  increasing  tlie  power  of  this  officer 
and  making  him  chiefly  responsible  for  the  good 
government  of  tlie  city.  See  .sections  Ijornl  Gov- 
ernment in  the  various  countries  mentioned.  See 
also  .MrxinpALiTT. 

MAY'OR,  .Toiix  Eyetox  Bickerstetii  (182.5 
— ).  .\n  Enirlish  classical  jiliilologist.  born  at 
Baddagama,  Ceylon.  He  graduated  from  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed 
fellow  in  1849;  from  184!i  to  1853  he  w\as  assist- 
ant master  at  Marlborough  College.  In  tlie  latter 
year  he  was  appointed  college  lecturer,  and  since 
1872  has  been  professor  of  Latin  in  the  univer- 
sity. He  also  held  the  office  of  librarian  of  the 
university  from  180.3  to  18(17.  Professor  Mayor 
is  best  known  as  editor  of  Thirleeii  f)'ilires  of  Ju- 
vennl  (2  vols..  4th  ed..  Lnndon,  1881).  He  has 
also  edited  some  of  Cicero's  works.  Homer's 
Odi/sscii.  books  ix.-xii..  and  is  the  autlior  of  many 
other  works  relating  to  the  classics,  the  history  of 
education,  and  (lie  Clinrch.  He  was  formerly  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  Journal  of  PhUolocjxj  and  of 
the  Ctiixsical  Revieir. 

MAYOR.  .TosEPii  Btckerstet II  (1828— K  An 
English  classical  scholar.  He  was  educated  at 
Rugbv  and  at  Saint  .lohn's  College,  Cambridire. 
From  18(13  to  18(18  he  was  head  Tnaster  of 
Kingston  Proprietary  School,  and  in  1870  be- 
oamc  professor  of  classics  in  King's  College.  Lon- 
don. This  po.st  he  resigned  in  1870.  flavor  had 
married  in  1803  a  niece  of  the  historian  CcorL'c 
Orote,  and  became  his  literary  executor,  editing 
his  posthumous  essays  on  philosophy.     His  otlier 


works  include  an  edition  of  Cicero,  De  datura 
Uevruni  (1880-85);  a  valuable  bibliography  en- 
titled A  Guide  to  the  Choiee  of  Clasaieal  liook.i 
(1880-9G);  Chapters  on  Enylish  Metre  (2d  ed. 
lOUl)  ;  and  editions  of  the  I'Jpi.itle  of  Saint  Jamex 
(2d  ed,  1892)  and  of  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Htromateis,  Book  VII.  (based  on  Horfs  notes, 
1902).  He  edited  the  Classieal  Review  (1887- 
93).     He  was  a  brother  of  J.  E.  B.  Mayor. 

MAYORGA,  ma-yor'gi,  Martin  de  (c.l715- 
83).  A  viceroy  of  .Mexico.  In  1773  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Ontral  America.  In  1779, 
on  the  death  of  Bucareli,  he  was  made  Viceroy 
of  Mexico.  While  he  was  in  power  there  broke 
out  an  epidemic  of  smallpox,  to  arrest  which  he 
made  great  exertions.  He  founded  an  academy  of 
arts  in  Mexico,  and  sent  to  the  royal  archives  of 
Spain  for  publication  copies  of  the  manuscripts 
of  the  liistorian  Veytia.  His  attitude  toward 
foreign    encroachment    was    vigorously   defensive. 

MAYOR    OF   THE   PALACE.      See    JIa.ior 

DOMIS. 

MAYORUNA,  iiiii'yo-rnn'n.i.  A  tierce  and 
savage  tribe  of  Panoan  stock  (q.v.)  living  south 
of  the  MaraiJon  (Amazon),  between  the  Ucayali 
and  .Javari  rivers.  Xortheastern  Peru.  They  "are 
supposed  to  have  lived  formerly  farther  to  the 
west  and  to  have  been  driven  into  the  forest  by 
the  Inca  conquest.  From  the  frequency  of 
beards  and  light  skins  among  them,  traditionally 
due  to  admixture  of  Spanish  captive  bloo<l.  they 
are  sometimes  called  liartjados  (bearded)  bv 
the  Spaniards.  They  live  by  hunting  and  keep 
to  the  forests,  seldom  coming  down  to  the  rivers, 
being  at  war  both  with  all  the  other  tribes  and 
with  the  whites.  Their  weapons  are  spears, 
clubs,  and  blowpipes,  and  they  are  famous  for 
their  powerful  blowgun  poison.  They  are  tall 
and  well  formed,  go  perfectly  naked,  and  cut 
their  hair  across  the  forehead,  letting  it  fall 
loosely  diiwn  beliind. 

MAYO-SMITH,  Rioiimoxd  (1854-19011.  An 
American  economist  and  educator,  born  in  Troy, 
Ohio.  He  graduated  at  Andierst  in  1875.  aiid 
after  two  years  at  Berlin  and  Heidelberg  became 
assistant  professor  of  economics  at  Columbia. 
In  1880  he  began  to  teach  in  the  graduate  school 
of  political  science,  where  he  devoted  himself 
especiallv  to  statistics,  a  form  of  investigation 
in  which  he  was  an  acknowledued  authority. 
He  was  an  editor  of  the  Political  Science  ()u<ir- 
tcrh),  vice-president  of  the  American  Statistical 
Association,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Economic  Association.  His  publica- 
tions include:  Emigration  and  Immiqraiion 
(1890);  Hociolofjy  and  Statinticf!  (1895);  and 
Statistics  and  Economics    (1899). 

MAYOTTA,   ma-yot'ta.      One   of  the  Comoro 

Islands    ((|.\-.). 

MAYOW,  nm'.i,  or  MAYO.  .loii.N  (1G43-79). 
An  English  scientist  and  philosopher,  born  in 
London.  He  studied  Uiav  and  medicine  at 
Oxford,  and  practiced  medicine  at  Bath,  but 
devoted  himself  specially  to  research  in  chem- 
istry and  phvsiology.  and  is  chiefly  known  for 
his  ingenious  speculations  concerning  (he  process 
of  combustion,  in  which  he  anticipated,  to  some 
extent,  the  ideas  which  have  since  been  induced 
from  the  discoveries  of  Priestley.  Lavoisier,  and 
others.  His  principal  publication  is  De  f!alo 
Xiiro  et  Spiritii  \itri  Ai'reo    (1674).     His  work 


MAYOW. 


222 


MAZANDEBAN. 


in  anatomy  and  jjUysiologj',  especially  on  the 
subject  of  muscular  action  and  on  ies|)iration,  is 
scarcely  less  important.  His  Optra  Omnia 
llcdUit  I'hysicu  appeared  in  1081. 

MAYOYAO,  ma'yu-ya'o.  A  hcad-liunting 
ilalay  peojjle  in  Central  Luzon,  speaking  Ifugao. 

See   PlIIMl'I'lNE   ISLANDJi. 

MAYPOP.  The  fruit  of  a  Passion  flower 
(il.v.i. 

MAYK,  nilr,  Geokg  von  (1841—).  A  Ger- 
niau  slulistician  and  economist,  born  in  Wiirz- 
burg.  He  studied  at  ilunicli,  where  he  became 
professor  in  1808;  he  was  appointed  in  1871) 
Tinder-seeretary  to  the  Ministry  for  Alsace-Lor- 
raine; he  was  retired  in  18S7.  and  became 
docent  (ISfll)  and  jjrofessor  (ISOo)  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  .Strassburg.  In  180S  he  was  called 
to  Munich.  He  founded  the  Zcitschrift  den 
ha !/ rise  hen  statistisclieit  Bureaus  (1SC9)  and 
Dan  allfiemcine  statistischc  Archiv  (1887); 
and  wrote:  Die  GesetzmiinKiriLeit  im  Gesell- 
srhaflslrhoi     (1877);    Zur    lieivhsfinanz-Reform 

(1893):  Stnlistik  vnd  (lesellschaftKlehre  (1895- 
97);  Die  Pflickt  im  Wirtsehaftslehen  (1900); 
Flotte  unci  Finanzen  (1900)  ;  drundrixs  zti  Vor- 
lesungen     iiher     praktische      yntionaliikonomic 

(1900  sq.)  ;  and  Zolltariffentirurf  und  Wisisen- 
schaft  (1901.) 

MAYR,  or  MAYER,  .Toiianx  Simox  (1763- 
184.)).  .\  Gorman-Italian  dramatic  composer, 
born  at  Mcndorf,  Bavaria.  Ills  father  was  a 
musician,  and  the  boy  studied  under  him  and  at 
a  .Tosuit  seminary  at  Ingolstadt,  and  later  under 
Lenzi  at  Bergamo.  Italy,  where  he  settled  per- 
manently. In  1791  an  oratorio,  Jaeoh  a  Labano 
Fugiens.  was  so  successful  that  he  was  com- 
missioned to  write  three  more,  and  in  1794 
he  produced  his  first  opera,  Saffo,  ossia  i  rili 
d'.Xpolln  Leucndio.  During  the  next  twenty 
years  be  wrote  about  seventy  operas,  which 
were  only  surpassed  in  popular  favor  by  those 
of  Rossini.  In  1802  he  became  chapel-master 
at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  in  Bergamo,  and  while 
there  refused  the  offers  of  posts  at  London. 
Paris,  Dresden,  and  Milan.  He  was  also  pro- 
fessor of  composition  in  the  music  school  of 
Bergamo,  and  Donizetti  was  one  of  his  pupils. 
His  best  opera's  were:  Lodo'isUa  (179.'))  ;  Ginerra 
di  Hrozia  (1801);  Media  (1812):  and  Rnsa 
hiancu  i  romi  rossa  (1814).  He  was  blind  for 
a  number  of  years  before  his  death,  which  oc- 
cnrreil  at  Bergamo.  In  18.52  n  monument  was 
ereclcil  to  hi-  memory  in  Ihat  city. 

MAY  SUCKER.     A  fish.     See  Cutlips. 

MAYS'VILLE.  A  city  and  the  coimty-seat 
of  Mason  (Viunty.  Ky..  04  miles  .southeast  of 
Cincinnati:  on  the  Ohin  Diver,  and  on  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Ohio  and  the  Louisville  and  Xash- 
ville  railroads  (Map:  Kentneky.  H  2).  Tt  has 
the  Maysville  and  iIa<on  County  Public  Library, 
incorporated  in  1878.  and  Odd  Fellows  and 
Masonic  temples.  There  are  important  com- 
mercial interests  the  city  being  the  centre  of  n 
fine  aL'ricnItural  country,  and  its  industries  are 
represcnteil  bv  cotton  mills.  llo\ir.  saw.  and  plan- 
ins  mills,  foundries,  dintilleric's.  ci^ar.  chewing 
tobacco,  furniture,  and  -hoe  faitories.  and  plow 
and  pnllev  works.  The  government  is  admin- 
istered under  a  charter,  revised  in  1804.  which 
provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  every  four  year.s, 
and  a   nnirnmeral  council.     Settled  as  earlv  as 


1784,  ilaysville  was  incorporated  as  a  town  by 
the  Virginia  Legislature  in  1787,  and  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1S33,  becoming  a  fourth-class 
city  sixty  years  later.  In  1848  it  was  made  the 
countv-seat.  Population,  in  ISUO.  5358;  in  lUOO, 
6423.' 

MAYWEED  (older  Eng.  maicueed,  variant 
of  inuydicwecd;  inlluenced  by  popular  etymolog}' 
with     May,     the     lifth     month),     Uor,     Fexxel 

{Anthcinin  Valuta) .  A  common  roadside  plant 
of  the  order  Compositie,  growing  also  in  pastures 
and  meadows.  It  is  a  native  of  Kurope,  but, 
although  widely  sjjread  in  America,  it  is  not  an 
aggressive  weed.  The  flower  has  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  chamomile,  and  is  sometimes 
called  slinking  chamomile. 

MAZADE,  ma'ziid',  Ciiables  de  (1820-93). 
A     French     ])ublicist,    born    at    Castel-!sarrazin 

(Tarn-et-Garonne) .  He  studied  law  at  Tou- 
louse, and  afterwards  became  a  contributor  to 
the  French  periodicals.  After  writing  for  the 
Prcsse  and  the  Hcvue  de  Paris,  he  became  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
and  from  1852  to  1858,  and  again  from  1805  im- 
til  his  death  directed  its  department  of  politics. 
His    publications    include:    L'Espagne    modrrnr 

(1855);  L'ltalie  moderne  (1800);  La  Poloi/ne 
eontemporaine    (1863);    L'ltalie  ct   les  Italicns 

(1804)  :  Lamarline,  sa  vie  litteraire  et  poliliijue 

(1872)  ;  La  guerre  de  France  (1875)  ;  Le  comte 
de  Carour  (1877)  ;  and  he  edited  the  Correspond- 
ance  d)i  ninri'-chal  Darout    (1887). 

MAZAGAN,  ma'za-gan'.  A  seaport  of  ilo- 
rocco,  Africa,  situated  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
about  110  miles  north  of  the  citv  of  Morocco,  of 
which  it  is  the  pent  (Map:  Africa,  D  1).  It  is 
strongly  fortilied.  and  is  the  centre  of  a  brisk 
trade  in  agricviltural  products,  fruit,  and  wool. 
The  trade  f(n-  1900  exceeded  $3,000,000,  and  the 
shipping  was  over  300.000  tons.  The  settlen>cnt 
was  founded  by  the  Portuguese  in  1509.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  -0000,  including  a 
number  of  European  merchants  and  consular 
agents. 

MAZAMET,  niiVziI'mft'.  A  town  in  the  De- 
partment of  Tarn.  France,  situated  about  50 
miles  east -southeast  of  Toulouse  (Map:  France, 
.T  8 ) .  It  is  noted  for  its  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  cloth,  llanncl,  and  leather.  Population, 
ill  l:'ol.  l:!.li7s. 

MAZANDERAN,  ma'a'in-de-ran'.  A  northern 
province  of  Persia,  south  of  the  Caspian  fSea, 
bounded  resiiectively  east,  south,  and  west  by 
Astrabad.  Irak-Ajami.  ami  the  Klburz  Moun- 
tains and  Gilan  (Map:  Persia.  D  3).  It  is  about 
200  miles  long  by  50  miles  broad,  with  an  esti- 
mated area  of  10.000  sipiarc  miles.  The  surface 
sinks  from  the  elevated  wooded  range  of  the 
southern  Elburz  to  an  extensive  level  along  the 
sea.  and  is  watered  by  numerous  streams.  The 
climate  is  malarial.  The  chief  minerals  are  iron 
ore  and  petroleum  and  its  by-products.  The 
grounil  in  many  parts  is  swampy,  but  fertile,  and 
rice,  cotton,  suj.'ar-cane.  fruit-trees,  and  the  niul- 
berrv  for  the  silk  indii-lrv  are  largely  cultivated. 
Fisbinc  is  an  important  industry,  as  also  is 
pr.nzin;.'.  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats,  being 
raiseil  in  great  numbers.  There  is  a  con«iiler- 
able  export  trade  with  Russia  of  silk,  caviare, 
and  ajiricultnral  products,  the  imports  Iving 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  cutlery,  and  tobacco. 
Population,  estimated  at  300.000.'    Capital.  Sari. 


MAZANDEBANI. 


223 


MAZATLAN. 


MAZANDERANI,  ma'zan-tlc-ra'ne.  The  na- 
tives of  .Uazaiuleraii,  or  Tabeiistan,  iu  Xortliem 
Persia,  on  the  Caspian  ^ea.  Tlicy  speak  a 
dialect  of  Persian  which,  like  tlie  speech  of  the 
neighboring,'  Province  of  GhiUm,  has  peculiaritie3 
justifyinj;  its  classification  as  a  special  form  of 
the  Persian  tonj;ue.  The  ilazandirani  are  of 
smaller  stature  than  the  people  of  the  highlands, 
welljjroportioned,  with  regular  features,  bushy 
eyebrows,  and  abundant  hair. 

MAZAEIN,  ma'za'raN',  Jitles  (1G02-61).  A 
Cardinal  and  Prime  Minister  of  France  during 
the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  bnrn  July 
14,  l(i()2,  at  Piscina,  in  the  Abruzzi,  Italy,  his 
father  being  intcndant  of  the  household  of  Philip 
Colonna.  lie  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit  College 
at  Rome,  and  later  accompanied  Jerome  Colonna 
to  the  S])anish  University  of  AlcalS,  where  he 
studied  law,  but  also  indulged  in  gambling  and 
love-making — |)ractices  which  were  continued  at 
Salamanca.  On  returning  to  Rome,  ilazarin 
became  a  doctor  of  canon  and  civil  law,  and  en- 
tered the  Pope's  military  service  as  a  captain  of 
infantry  in  the  Colonna  regiment.  His  talents, 
however,  were  more  diplomatic  than  militarj', 
and  after  being  employed  on  several  political, 
missions  in  Italy  he  accompanied  the  Papal 
legate  to  the  Court  of  France,  and  there,  about 
1628,  became  known  to  Eichelieu,  who  perceived 
his  peculiar  talents  and  engaged  him  to  maintain 
the  French  interests  in  Italy.  This  he  did  while 
still  employed  by  the  Pope  as  vice-legate  to 
Avignon  (l(i32)  and  nuncio  to  the  French  Court, 
an  oilu-c  to  which  he  was  appointed  in  1034.  The 
Spaniards  eomi)lained  of  his  partiality  for 
France,  and  the  Pope  was  obliged  to  recall  him. 
In  103!),  however,  he  openly  entered  the  service 
of  Louis  XIII.,  was  naturalized  a  Frenchman, 
and  in  llUI  received  a  cardinal's  hat,  through 
the  influence  of  Richelie\i,  who,  when  dying, 
recommended  JIazarin  to  the  King  as  the  only 
person  capable  of  carrying  on  his  political  sys- 
tem. JIazarin's  position  was  one  of  gieat  diffi- 
culty amid  the  intrigues,  jealousies,  and  strifes 
of  the  earlier  years  of  Louis  XIV.'s  minority. 
The  Queen  mother.  Anne  of  Austria,  was  at  first 
hostile  to  him,  hut  although  she  was  declared 
Eole  regent  and  guardian  of  the  young  King, 
Mazarin  kept  his  place  as  Jlinister,  and  soon 
made  himself  indispensable  to  her  by  his  won- 
derful business  qualities,  while  the  exquisite 
charm  of  his  manner  eventually  gained  her  heart. 
It  is  said,  in  fact,  that  a  secret  marriage  took 
place  between  the  Queen  Regent  and  her  Prime 
Minister,  but  this  has  never  becTi  absolutely 
proved.  The  result  of  the  close  alliance  between 
the  (^lueen  and  himself  ^xns  that  ilazarin  ruled 
with  almost  as  unlimited  sway  as  Richelieu  had 
done.  The  Parlement  of  Paris,  thinking  to  con- 
quer political  power,  resisted  the  registration  of 
edicts  of  taxation:  but  Mazarin  caused  the  lead- 
ers of  the  opposition  to  be  arrested,  upon  which 
began  the  disturbances  of  the  Fronde  (q.v.). 
Twice  compelled  to  retire  from  Court,  he  made 
a  triumphant  entry  into  the  capital  in  l(i.53.  and 
in  a  short  time  had  regained  his  former  power. 
In  the  internal  government  of  the  country 
those  principles  of  despotism  were  established 
on  which  Louis  XIV.  afterwards  acted,  ilazarin 
continued  Richelieu's  foreign  policy,  waging  war 
vigorously  against  the  Hapsburg  power  in  Aus- 
tria and  Spain;  his  most  important  diplomatic 
acts  were  in  connection  with  the  Peace  of  West- 


phalia in  1048,  and  that  of  the  PjTenees  in  1059. 
The  administration  of  justice  in  France  under 
ilazarin  became  very  corrupt,  and  the  commerce 
and  finances  of  the  country  underwent  a  great 
depression.  As  a  financier  Mazarin  was  far  in- 
ferior to  Richelieu.  He  was  avaricious,  and  en- 
riched himself  at  the  expense  of  the  country.  He 
died  at  Vineemies,  March  9,  lOGl.  Ilis  magnifi- 
cent library  he  bequeathed  to  the  CollJ>ge  Mazarin 
at  Paris.  The  best  idea  of  Mazarin  is  obtained 
from  his  correspondence,  published  by  ChCruel, 
"Lettres  du  cardinal  JIazarin  pendant  "son  minis- 
t6re,"  in  the  Collection  dc  documents  bu'dits  sur 
I'histoire  de  France,  first  .series  (Paris,  1872-94). 
Consult,  also:  ilason,  Masaiin  (London,  18SG)  ; 
Cousin,  Jeunesse  de  Mazarin  (Paris,  1803)  ;  Per- 
kins, France  Under  Mazarin  (Xew  York,  1894)  ; 
Cheruel,  Ilistoire  de  France  sous  le  ministcre  de 
Mazarin,  IGol-lGiU    (Paris,  1882), 

MAZAR-I-SHERIF,     ma-zar'-e-she-ref.       A 

fortified  town  of  Afghan  Turkestan,  situated 
about  20  miles  southeast  of  Balkh  (Map:  Af- 
ghanistan. K  3).  It  manufactures  swords  and 
other  weapons,  and  attracts  manv  pilLrrims  on 
account  of  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet  Ali,  which 
it  contains.  In  the  vicinity  are  mineral  springs. 
Population,  estimated  at  20,000. 

MAZARRON.  ma'thiir-ron'.  A  town  of  South- 
eastern Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Murcia,  sit- 
uated iYi  miles  from  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
16  miles  west  of  Cartagena  (Map:  Spain,  E  4). 
In  the  neighboring  mountains  are  mines  of  iron 
and  argentiferous  lead,  and  the  town  contains 
several  metallurgical  establishments,  besides 
soap  factories  and  flour  mills.  A  railroad  five 
miles  long  connects  it  with  its  port  in  the  small 
Bay  of  Mazarron.  where  there  is  a  good  road- 
stead and  a  lighthouse.  At  this  port  is  located 
one  of  the  largest  and  best  lead-smelting  estab- 
lishments of  Spain,  capable  of  producing  l25  tons 
of  lead  daily.  There  is  also  considerable  trade 
in  lead  and  ores,  machinery,  coal,  and  timber. 
Population,  in  1887,   16,445;"  in   1900,  23,362. 

MAZAS,  mii'za',  Prlson  of.  A  prison  in  Paris 
in  which  tlie  first  trial  of  solitary  confinement  was 
made  in  France.  It  was  built  between  1845  and 
1850  to  replace  the  prison  of  La  Force,  and 
contained  1200  cells  arranged  in  six  converging 
galleries.  It  stood  on  tlie  Boulevard  ilazas 
(now  the  Boulevard  Diderot),  and  was  officially 
known  as  Maison  d'arret  cellulaire.  The  build- 
ing was  demolished  in  1900. 

MAZATEC,  mii'zi-tek'.  A  Zapotecan  tribe 
occupying  tlie  districts  of  Teotitlan  and  Cui- 
catlan.  in  Xortheastern  Oaxaca.  ilexico.  They 
are  agricultural  and  are  noted  silk-raisers,  weav- 
ing gorgeous  fabrics  of  that  material,  and  hav- 
ing many  curious  beliefs  and  tabus  in  connection 
with  the  tending  of  the  silkworms. 

MAZATLAN,  ma'sa-tlan'.  A  seaport  in  the 
State  of  Sinaloa,  Mexico,  situated  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Gulf  of  California  (Map:  Mexico, 
F  0),  It  is  a  well-built  and  picturesque  town, 
and  has  a  handsome  city  hall,  a  nautical  school, 
and  two  hospitals.  A  street  railroad  runs 
through  the  town,  which  is  lighted  by  gas.  Tlie 
harbor  is  the  best  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  has 
direct  steamship  communication  with  San  Fran- 
cisco and  other  towns  along  the  coast.  Tlie  chief 
exports  are  silver,  pearls,  copper,  lead,  dj'ewoods. 


MAZATLAN. 


224 


HAZZEI. 


and  skins.  Population.  l:i.OUO.  In  1!)03  the  bu- 
bonic plague  made  its  appearance  at  the  port. 
Great  excitement  prevailed,  and  many  deaths 
resulted. 

MAZDAK,  nuiz'dak  (470-?).  A  Persian  re- 
former, wlio  founded  a  religious  and  social  sect 
that  existed  for  a  time  and  were  known  as 
Mazdakites,  after  his  name.  He  was  born  at 
Peisepolis,  and  belonged  originally  to  the  Magian 
faith,  being  a  priest  at  Nishapur.  He  became 
imbued  witli  communistic  and  reformatory  views 
and  |)reaehed  the  doctrine  not  alone  of  the 
e(|uality  of  mankind,,  but  the  comnuinity  of 
jiroperty.  including  women,  and  tlie  consequent 
abolitiiin  of  marriage  laws.  Simjilicity  in  man- 
ner of  life  and  dress,  and  abstinence  from  animal 
food,  except  milk  and  eggs,  were  enjoined.  He 
succeeded  in  converting  to  his  faith  King  Kavadh, 
or  Kobad  (a.d.  488.531)  :  but  a  revolution  of  the 
nobles,  urged  on  doubtless  also  by  the  jealous 
Magian  clergy,  resulted  in  dethroning  the  King 
and  placed  Jamasp,  his  brother,  on  the  throne 
( A.D.  407  ) .  Three  years  later  Kobad  was  re- 
stored to  power,  and  for  pcilitical  ])urposes  he  out- 
wardly recanted  his  Jlazilakite  views.  Toward 
the  end  of  his  reign,  suspecting  Stale  intrigues 
by  the  Jlazdakites.  he  allowed  Mazdak  and  thou- 
sands of  his  followers  to  be  put  to  death.  Traces 
of  the  sect  lingered  on  in  the  neighborhood  of 
llniTimlan  as  late  as  the  Seljukid  era. 

MAZE,  maz.  Hippolyte  (1839-91).  A  French 
historian  and  politician,  born  at  Arras.  He 
entered  the  Ecole  Xormale  Superieure  in  1859, 
I)ecame  a  fellow  in  history-  in  lSfi3.  and  taught 
at  the  lyeees  of  Cahors,  Saint-ljuentln.  Angers, 
and  Versailles.  He  was  appointed  a  prefect  in 
1870.  Tha  next  year,  however,  he  returned  to 
teaching,  and  became  first  professor  of  history 
at  the  Lycd-e  Fontanes  in  Paris,  He  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1879  as  a  Repub- 
lican and  reelected  in  1881.  From  18,8(1  until 
his  death  he  was  Senator  from  Seine-et-Ois<'. 
Among  his  publications  are:  Ad  r/'publiijiic  des 
Etntsl'nif  d'Amvrique.  na  foiidatinn  (1809); 
Hoclie  rn  \'t'iidce  (1882)  ;  and  La  Ittttc  contre  la 
miscre   (1883). 

MAZEPTA,  Ivan-  Stefanovitcii  (1640- 
1709 1.  .\  leader  of  the  (^o.ssacks,  born  in  the 
Russian  (lovernment  of  Kiev,  of  a  noble  family. 
He  became  a  page  in  the  service  of  .John  Casimir, 
King  of  Poland.  A  Polish  nobleman  surprised 
him  in  an  intrigue  with  his  wife,  bound  him 
naked  on  his  own  hor.se,  and  lashed  the  ani- 
mal out  into  the  stepix-s.  The  horse  carried  him 
to  his  own  distant  residence — not  to  the  Ikrainc. 
as  has  been  often  said:  but  Mazep))a.  out  of 
shame,  (led  to  the  T'kraine,  joined  the  Cossacks, 
rose  to  high  distinction  among  them,  overthrew 
their  hetman.  Samilovitcli.  and  in  1087  was 
elected  in  his  place.  He  won  (he  cdnfidence 
of  Peter  the  Great,  who  loadeil  him  with  honors 
anil  made  him  Prince  of  the  I'kraine:  b\it  on 
the  curtailment  of  the  freedom  nf  the  Cossacks 
by  Russia,  Mazeppa.  hoping  to  achieve  complete 
independence,  entered  into  negotiations  with 
Charles  XTI.  of  Sweden,  joined  liim  with  a  erm- 
siderabli'  band,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Poltova,  in  1709.  after  whieli  he  (led  to  Pender, 
and  there  died  in  the  same  year.  His  story  has 
been  widcdy  treated  in  painting,  poetry,  the 
novel,  and  the  drama,  nutably  by  Ryron  in  his 
poem  Mazeppa. 


MAZUEANIC,  mu'zliuu-rll'uich.  Ivan  (1814- 
90).  A  Croatian  pod  and  statesman,  born  in 
Xovi.  He  studied  at  Fiume  and  Agram,  and 
practiced  law  for  several  years.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  promoting  the  national  spirit 
of  the  Croats,  and  wrote  the  influential  mani- 
festo Hrvati  Mugjarom  ('The  Croats  to  the  Mag- 
yars') (1848).  He  was  made  procurator-general 
of  Croatia  and  Shivonia  in  1850.  Afterwards 
he  became  first  Chancellor  of  Croatia  and 
Slavonia  (1861),  and  from  1873  to  18S0  was 
Ban,  or  Governor,  of  Croatia.  Mazuranie  is 
one  of  the  most  representative  as  well  as  the 
greatest* of  Croatian  poets.  His  poems  first  ap- 
peared in  the  Danica  ilirsha  ('The  Star  of 
Hlyria')  in  1835.  His  masterpiece  is  the  epic 
poeni  on  the  death  of  Ismail  Cengie',  Smrt  Smail- 
agc   Criuiir'n    (1846). 

MAZURKA,  maznnr'ka  (Pol.,  Mazur  dance, 
so  named  from  the  Mazurs,  a  branch  of  the 
Polish  nation  inhabiting  Masovia,  in  Russian 
Poland,  and  a  district  in  East  Prussia).  A  na 
tional  Polish  dance  in  triple  time  and  moderate 
tempo.    Its  principal  rhythm  is 

Frequently  the  musical  phrase  ends  with  the  see 
ond  beat,  so  that  the  thinl  becomes  an  up  beat  to 
the  next  bar,  Tlie  history  of  the  mazurka  gws 
back  to  the  sixteenth  century,  when  it  was  a 
song  accomjianied  by  a  dance.  Augustus  III. 
(1733-63)  introduced  it  into  Germany,  and  from 
that  country  it  sjjread  to  France  and,  about  1845, 
to  England,  The  Russian  mazurka  differs  from 
its  original  prototype  in  that  it  may  be  danced 
by  any  number  of  people,  while  the  Polish 
mazurka  is  generally  performed  by  eitlier  four 
or  eight  couples.  The  steps  and  even  the  figures 
are  frcipiently  varied.  Chopin  revolutionized  the 
mazurka.  He  extended  its  form  and  introduced 
characteristic  Polish  melodies,  leaving  prac- 
tieallv  only  the  inten.se  character. 

MAZZARA  DEL  VALLO,  m;\t-sa'ra  del 
viil'l'i.  A  city  in  tlie  Province  of  Trapani. 
Sicily.  13  miles  by  rail  from  Marsala,  on  the 
Mediterranean  (Map:  Italy.  G  10).  A  massive 
wall  36  feet  high  encircles  the  city,  which  has 
many  interesting  ruins.  Its  catliedral  ami 
castle,  dating  fmm  the  Xorman  i)eriod,  and  the 
archiepiscopal  palace  are  the  most  attractive 
buildings.  The  inhabitants  of  the  ueighbiiring 
region  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  an  im- 
portant trade  is  carried  on  in  barley,  corn,  olive 
oil.  fniit.  cotton,  and  wine.  Mazzara  del  Vallo. 
the  ancii'ut  Ma^ara,  was  settled  by  colonists 
from  Selinus,  and  figured  prominently  in  the 
early  history  of  the  island.  Population,  in  1901 
(comnninel ,  -iO.h'iO. 

MAZZARINO,  miit'sa-re'nft.  A  town  in  the 
Province  df  Caltanissetta,  Sicily,  sitviated  about 
35  miles  east  of  Girgent'i  (Ma"p:  Italy.  .1  10). 
It  has  an  old  castle  and  sulphur  springs  in  the 
vicinity.  Its  products  consist  of  fruit,  vegeta- 
bles, and  wine.  Population,  in  1901  (com- 
niniie  i ,    1 6. .355. 

MAZZEI,  miit-.sfi'iV  Philip  (1730-1816).  An 
Italian  |>hysieian,  author,  and  traveler,  a  native 
of  Tuscany.  In  Decendier.  1773.  he  went  to 
Virginia  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  grape 
and  olive  culture  in  that  colony.  Tliere  he  he- 
came  acquainted  with  Thomas  .JetTcrson.  ami 
later,  after  his  return  to  Italy,  corrcsponilcd 
with  him.  From  1779  to  1783  he  was  the  official 
agent    of    Virginia    in    Italy    for    the    purchase 


MAZZEI. 


225 


MAZZINI. 


of  arms,  ainiminition,  and  supplies,  and  in  1785 
he  revisited  Anieriea.  The  correspondence  be- 
tween liinj  and  Jellerson  was  renewed  after  tliis 
second  visit,  anil  in  April,  ITttti,  Jellerson  wrote 
lo  him  the  fanions  'ilazzei  letter.'  In  it  he  liit- 
terlv  attacked  tlie  Federalist  leaders  (including, 
!>\-  implication,  Wasliington)  for  their  'monar- 
chiwtic'  tendencies,  and  declared  that  democracy 
was  heini;  het rayed  by  "men  who  were  Samsons 
in  the  Held  and  Solomons  in  the  council,  but  who 
have  had  their  heads  sliorn  by  this  harlot,  Kng- 
land."  The  letter  was  translated  into  Italian 
and  publislied  in  an  Italian  paper,  translated 
into  Frencli  and  published  in  the  Munitcur  at 
I'aris,  where  it  was  seen  by  an  American  by 
whom  it  was  translated  into  English,  and  sent 
to  the  United  States,  where  it  appeared  in  print 
in  May,  1797,  soon  after  JefTerson's  inaugura- 
tion as  Vice-President.  Its  publication  raised  a 
furor  among  the  Federalists,  who,  in  their  feel- 
ing against  .Jefferson,  even  suggested  his  impeach- 
ment, ilazzei  subsequently  became  a  privy  coun- 
cilor to  the  King  of  Poland,  and  later  in  life 
was  pensioned  by  the  Czar  of  Russia.  He  wrote 
Uecherches  historir/ues  et  poUtiques  sur  les  Etats- 
Cnis  lie  VAmerique  septentriotmlc   (1788). 

MAZZINI,  mat-se'ne.  Gu'SEPPE  (1808-72). 
.\n  Italian  patriot  prominently  connected  with 
the  struggle  for  Italian  unity  and  the  repub- 
lican movement  throtighout  Europe.  He  was 
born  in  Genoa.  .June  28,  1808.  studied  at  the 
University  of  Genoa,  and  practiced  law  in  his 
native  city.  In  1827  his  first  essay  in  litera- 
ture. "Deir  amor  patrio  di  Dante,"  appeared 
in  the  Liberal  journal  //  t^'iibnlpino;  and  he  sub- 
sei|nently  contributed  critical,  literary,  and 
jiolitical  papers  to  the  Antologia  of  Florence 
and  the  Iiidicatore  Genorese.  In  the  pages  of 
the  latter  originally  appeared  the  essay  sub.se- 
ipiently  republished  under  the  title  of  ficritti 
(I'mi  UaUano  virenie.  In  1830  Mazzini  joined 
the  Carbonari  (q.v. )  and  at  once  became  an 
active  and  inlhiential  member.  He  was  soon 
arrested,  detained  for  six  months  in  the  fortress 
of  Savona.  and  tinally  liberated  on  condition  of 
his  departure  from  Italy.  After  short  resi- 
dences in  several  places,  he  made  his  home  in 
Marseilles,  and  thence  addressed  to  Charles  Al- 
bert of  Sardinia  the  famous  letter  which  caused 
him  to  be  eondenined  to  perpetual  banishment. 
Having  become  convinced  that  the  Carbonari  was 
not  erticient  for  the  work  of  Italian  regenera- 
tion. JIazzini  now  undertook  the  organization 
of  a  new  liberal  league.  Young  Italy  (18.31). 
This  organization  sought  to  secure  the  over- 
throw of  all  existing  Italian  governments  and 
the  iniion  of  the  peninsula  under  a  republican 
government.  In  addition  to  its  paramount  aim. 
the  general  principles  of  this  association  enforced 
the  obligation  to  labor  for  a  common  moral 
regeneration  and  the  establishment  of  political 
equality  over  the  world.  Liberty,  equality,  and 
humanity  were  the  watchwords  of  the  body; 
education  and  insurrection  the  great  agencies 
of  its  o])erations;  assassination  was  erased 
from  its  statutes,  and  the  symbolic  dagger  of 
I  lie  Carbonari  was  replaced  by  the  more  hunianft 
emblems  of  a  book  and  the  cypress.  Tlie  white, 
red.  and  green  tricolor  flag  of  the  society  became 
that  of  the  new  Italian  nation.  Mazzini  was  the 
animating  spirit  of  this  league,  which  was  the 
parent  of  similar  associations  adapted  to  the 
individual  requirement  of  the  various  European 


nationalities.  In  1834  Mazzini  planned  an  armed 
invasion  of  Savoy  from  Switzerland,  and  on  Feb- 
ruarj'  1st  an  attack  was  made  on  .some  cuslnm- 
liouse  ollicials  at  the  frontier  of  Savoy;  but  the 
undertaking  failed  utterly.  In  1837  Mazzini 
quitted  Switzerland  for  England,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  London.  There  he  maintained  in- 
cessant activity  in  literary  propaganda,  and  was 
in  touch  with  ])olitical  agitators  of  his  own  coun- 
tiy,  Poland,  and  other  countries.  He  wrote  nmch 
for  various  periodicals,  on  literary  subjects,  com- 
numism,  education,  music,  etc.  After  the  Febru- 
ary Revolution  of  1848  JIazzini  went  to  Jlilan, 
where  he  was  a  resolute  ojiponcnt  of  the  proposed 
annexation  of  the  smaller  Italian  States  to  Sar- 
dinia. He  retired  to  Switzerland  on  the  capitu- 
lation of  Milan  to  the  Austrians,only  to  reappear 
in  Florence  on  the  rising  in  Tuscany.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Provisional  Government,  and 
when,  almost  simultaneously,  Rome  was  pro- 
claimed a  republic,  he  was  sent  there  as  a 
Deputy,  and  was  elected  triumvir.  On  the  tak- 
ing of  Rome  by  the  French  troops  under  Oudinot, 
he  went  to  Switzerland  and  thence  returned  to 
London.  He  bitterly  attacked  the  course  of 
France  in  public  letters  to  De  Tocqueville  and 
others.  At  his  instigation,  as  president  of  the 
Italian  National  Conuuittee,  risings  in  Jlilan 
(1853)  and  in  Genoa  (1857)  were  attempted.  In 
1859,  while  lending  the  wdiole  weight  of  his  in- 
fluence to  the  revolutionary  movements  going  on 
in  Italy,  he  comI)ated  the  threatened  French  in- 
tervention. He  assisted  in  organizing  Garibaldi's 
expeditions  of  18(10.  1802,  and  18G7.  Though  re- 
peatedly elected  by  Messina  to  the  Italian  Parlia- 
ment, Mazzini  refused  to  take  his  seat  under  a 
monarchical  government.  In  I8GG  the  Italian 
Government  abrogated  the  sentence  of  death  un- 
der which  Mazzini  had  been  living  for  many 
years,  but  he  refused  to  accept  a  "pardon  for 
having  loved  Italy  beyond  all  earthly  things." 
In  1808  he  fell  into  a  dangerous  illness,  from  the 
effects  of  which  his  health  never  recovered, 
though  his  zeal  remained  as  ardent  as  ever. 
After  an  ineffective  scheme  for  a  republican  ris- 
ing in  Sicily  in  1870,  Mazzini  ventured  to  enter 
Italy,  and  was  arrested  at  Gaeta,  where  he  re- 
mained a  prisoner  till  Rome  was  occupied  by 
the  Italian  army.  On  his  death,  at  Pisa,  March 
10,  1872,  the  Italian  Government  accorded  him 
a  public  funeral.  Of  the  value  of  Jlazzini's 
services  to  the  cause  of  Italian  independence 
there  are  widely  difTering  opinions.  Republican- 
ism was  a  cardinal  principle  with  him.  to  which 
he  adhered  with  inllexible  tenacity,  never  being 
willing  to  yield  his  personal  conviction  to  the 
actual  necessities  of  Italy  as  did  Manin,  Gari- 
baldi, and  Crispi.  Hence  he  antagonized  the  Sar- 
dinian monari'hy,  and  obstructed  the  work  of 
Cavour.  His  impassioned  writings  often  led  less 
noble  spirits  into  deeds  that  he  would  not  at 
all  apjirove.  Mazzini  possessed  in  the  highest 
degree  that  personal  fascination  by  which  friends 
are  converted  into  ardent  partisans.  In  his  pri- 
vate life  he  was  a  model  of  purity  and  frugal 
simplicity,  as  in  his  public  career  he  was  con- 
spicuous for  disinterestedness  and  self-abnega- 
tion. 

A  comprehensive  edition  of  Mazzini's  works, 
in  eighteen  volumes,  IfrrUti  edile  ec!  iiicdite, 
appeared  in  Milan,  1801-01.  Editions  of  his 
letters  were  published  at  Jlilan  in  1875.  at  Rome 
in     1885,     and     at     Ttirin     in     1888.     Consult: 


MAZZINI. 


226 


HEAD. 


Nardi,  Giuseppe  ilazzini,  lu  vita,  gli  scritti  e  le 
sue  <io</»ine(Aiilan,lS72)  ;  Count  Scliack.  ilazzini 
■und  die  italicnische  Einhcit  (Stuttgart.  1891); 
Siinonl,  llistoire  des  conspirations  mazziniennes 
(Paris,  1S70)  ;  Mario,  iJazzini  ncilii  sua  vita  e 
nel  suo  apostulato  (Milan,  18S)1);  Bouiller,  Un 
roi  et  un  conspirateur — Victor  Emanuel  et  ilaz- 
zini (Paris,  18S5)  ;  Safli,  II  pcnsiero  politico  e 
sociale  de  Oiuscppe  ilazzini  (Koine,  1887);  E. 
A.  V.  (Mnie.  Ashurst-Venturi) ,  Hemoir  of 
Joseph  ilazzini,  with  two  essays  (London, 
1877)  ;  Linton,  Recollections  of  ilazzini  and  Uis 
Friends  (London,  1892).  See  Cavour;  Gari- 
baldi: Italy. 

MAZZOLINI,  mat'si-le'ni-,  LoDOVico  (1479- 
152S).  An  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara, 
wliose  real  name  was  Mazzuoli.  thouph  Vasari 
calls  him  Malino.  lie  studied  at  Bologna  under 
Lorenzo  Costa.  His  best  pictures  are  small  in 
size  and  of  a  fresh,  exquisite  coloring,  and  he 
has  been  considered  the  finest  painter  of  the 
Ferrarcse  School.  "Christ  with  the  Doctors" 
(1.5-24)  in  the  Berlin  Gallery  is  considered  his 
masterpiece,  and  there  are  pictures  by  him  in 
many  of  the  great  European  museums. 

MAZZONI,  mtU-so'ne,  GuiDO  (?-1518).  An 
Italian  sc-iilptor,  born  at  Modena  and  called 
II  Modanino.  After  the  capture  of  Naples  by 
Charles  VIII.  in  1494,  he  went  to  France  and 
stayed  there  for  about  twenty  years.  JIany  of 
his"  worlis  have  been  destroyed ;  those  that  re- 
main, notably  that  of  a  group  round  the 
Sepulchre,  which  is  in  the  Church  of  Monte 
Oliveto  at  Naples,  show  uncommon  technique 
and  a  realistic  treatment  not  usual  in  that  age. 
Other  works  by  him  are  in  the  Church  of  San 
Giovanni  Decollato  and  the  Duomo  at  Modena; 
their  material  is  terracotta. 

MAZZONI,  Guiuo  (18.59—).  An  Italian 
piK't  and  critic,  bom  at  Florence.  He  studied 
at  Pisa  ami  Bologna,  was  made  professor  of 
Italian  language  and  literat\ire  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua  in  1887,  and  occupied  the  same 
position  at  the  Florence  Institute  from  1894. 
Like  many  of  the  younger  Italian  poets,  he 
was  at  first  a  disciple  of  Carducci,  but  after- 
wards his  expression  became  more  individual. 
Ilis  criticism  is  marked  by  a  pure,  elegant  style 
and  an  evident  knowledge  of  foreign  literatures. 
His  works  include:  ilelca/jro  da  Oadara  (1880)  ; 
Espcrimoiti  inctrici  (1882);  In  liiblioteca 
(1882-8G);  I'orsic  (188.3);  \uorc  poesie 
(1880)  ;  Rassegnc  litterarie  (1887)  ;  Tra  libri  e 
carte  (1887);  Pocsic  (1891);  Voci  delta  vita 
(1893);  and  II  teatro  delta  rivotuzione,  La 
vita  di  Mnliire  e  altri  scritti  di  tetteratura  fran- 
crsc    (18!itl. 

MAZZUCHELLI.  mat'soo-kelli,  Giovasni 
Maria,  Count  (1707-r.5).  An  Italian  writer 
on  science  and  literature.  He  studied  juris- 
prudence, then  turned  to  scientific  research.  In 
1737  he  piiblislied  his  Xntizic  storichc  c  cri- 
tirhe  inlrrnn  alia  vita  e  arili  f:rritti  d'Arrliimrde. 
Ilis  principal  work  was  the  compilation  of  a  great 
cyclop:i'dia  of  Italian  literature  and  science  from 
the  beginnings  of  Italian  civilization.  Scrittori 
d'llalia,  riod  »io/i;ic  slorlrhr  c  critirtie  intorno 
attc  rile  e  afjti  srritlori  de'  tetterati  itatiani. 
This  task  he  did  not  live  to  complete.  He  also 
WTote  biographies  of  Scipio  Capece  and  Ginsto 
de'  Conti ;  and  he  edited  Villani's  series  of 
biographies  of  illustrious  Florentines. 


MAZZUOLA,  mat'soo-O'la,  Francesco.  See 
Pakmioiano. 

MEAD  (AS.  mcdu,  OHG.  metu,  mito,  Ger. 
ilclli;  connected  with  Ir.  mcudh,  Welsh  medd, 
mead,  OChurch  Slav,  medit,  Lith.  nicdus,  Lett. 
maddiis,  honey,  Gk.  n48v,  metliy,  mead,  Av.  niadii, 
wine,  Skt.  madhu,  honey,  sweet).  A  fermented 
liquor  made  from  honey.  The  honey  is  mixed 
with  water,  and  fermentation  is  induced  and 
conducted  in  the  usual  manner,  ilead  has  been 
in  use  from  very  ancient  times,  and  was  known 
equally  to  the  nations  of  Southern  Europe  and 
the  barbarous  tribes  of  more  nortliern  regions. 
Pliny  says  it  has  all  the  bad  qualities  of  wine, 
but  not  the  good  ones.  The  Latin  name  is 
Itydromeli. 

MEAD,  nied,  Edwin  Doak  (1849—).  An 
American  author  and  editor,  born  in  Cliesterfield, 
N.  H.  In  lS(!(i  he  entered  the  employ  of  Ticknor 
&  Fields,  the  Boston  publishers.  From  1875 
until  1879  he  studied  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Leipzig,  and  upon  his  return  to  America  began 
to  lecture  on  American  literature  and  politics. 
In  1883  he  became  director  of  the  Old  South 
Historical  Work,  and  in  1890  succeeded  Edward 
Everett  Hale  as  editor  of  the  ^'civ  England 
iiagitzine.  His  publications  include  The  Phi- 
losophy of  Carlyle  (1881),  and  Martin  Luther: 
A  at u'dy  of  ttie  Reformation   (1884). 

MEAD,  or  MEDE,  .losicpii  (1 580- 1638).  A 
Church  of  England  theologian.  He  was  born  at 
Berdcu,  Essex.  While  a  boy  at  school  at 
Wethcrsficld  he  accidentally  picked  up  a  copy  of 
Bcllarmine's  Hebrew  grammar.  :ind  soon  acquired 
a  good  knowledge  of  the  language.  He  grad- 
uated at  Christ  Church.  Cambridge,  in  IGIO.  In 
1(513  he  was  made  a  fellow  of  his  college,  and 
reader  of  the  Greek  lectures  on  Sir  Walter 
Mildmay's  foundation,  which  odice  he  occupied 
till  his  death.  He  was  learned  in  mathematics, 
medicine,  and  various  branches  of  natural  sci- 
ence, history,  antiquities,  and  the  literature 
and  .sciences  of  the  East.  His  chief  work  was 
Claris  Apocalyptica  (1627),  translated  into  Eng- 
lish in  1043,  wliich  has  been  called  the  first  ra- 
tional attempt  to  interpret  the  Apocalypse.  His 
complete  works  were  piiblished  at  London,  1648- 
.52:  new  edition  with  life,  1072. 

MEAD,  Larkix  Gold.ssiitu  (1835—).  An 
American  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Chesterfield, 
N.  H..  and  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  life  resided 
at  Brattleboro.  Vt.  He  studied  iinder  Henry  K. 
Brown,  of  Brooklyn.  N.  Y.  His  earliest  work  in 
marble  was  called  "The  Recording  Angel."  In 
1857  he  modeled  the  colossal  statue  "Vermont," 
which  now  crowns  the  dome  of  the  State  House 
at  Monlpelier.  "Ethan  Allen"  adorns  the  same 
building.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  for  six 
months  an  artist  for  Harper's  Weekly,  contribut- 
ing n\nnerous  spirited  sketches.  In  1802  he 
went  to  Italy,  and  has  since  then  resided  chiefly 
at  Florence.  There  he  executed  a  number  of 
statuettes,  such  as  "Echo."  "La  Contadinella." 
".Sappho,"  "Mountain  Bov."  and  an  elaborate 
group.  "The  Returned  .Soldier"  (ISOfi).  His 
other  works  include  the  Lincoln  monument  nt 
Springfield.  111. ;  the  soldiers'  monument  at 
Saint  .lolmsburv,  Vt. ;  "Cohunbus's  Last  Appeal 
to  Isabella;"  the  .statue  of  Ethan  Allen  (1874) 
in  the  National  Statuim-  Hall  at  Washington; 
and  the  group,  "The  Return  of  Proserpine  from 
the  Realms  of  Pluto."  in  the  pediment  of  the 


MEAD. 


227 


MEADE. 


main  entrance  of  the  agricultural  building  at 
the  Coluiubi.in  Exi)osition  .Tt  Chicago.  He  sub- 
sequently executed  :i  hirge  grouj)  of  the  Stanford 
family  for  the  Stanford  University,  California. 
His  work  is  eharncterized  by  tine  decorative  feel- 
ing and  by  a  skillful  accentuation  of  liglit  and 
shade. 

MEAD,  Uicii,vi!i)  (1(17.3-17.54).  An  English 
physician.  He  was  horn  at  Stepney,  and  at  an 
early  age  entered  the  universitj'  at  Utrecht. 
.\fter  three  years'  study  he  went  to  Leyden, 
where  he  entered  upon  the  study  of  medicine 
under  tlie  noted  Professors  Pitcairne  and  Her- 
mann. Having  taken  his  degree  of  doctor  of 
pliilosopliy  and  jihysics,  he  returned  to  Stepney 
and  began  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  1096. 
In  17(Ki  Dr.  ilead  was  made  a  nieniber  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  a  lecturer  at  Saint  Thomas's 
Hospital.  His  reputation  both  as  a  practitioner 
and  as  a  writer  on  medical  subjects  was  very 
great,  and  he  was  in  constant  correspondence 
with  the  most  eminent  scientists  of  the  day  in 
his  own  and  foreign  countries.  He  received  the 
ajipointment  of  pliysician-in-ordinary  to  George 
11..  and  in  1716  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
College  of  Physicians.  In  addition  to  his  ae- 
tjuivcmcnts  as  a  ph_ysician.  Dr.  Mead  devoted 
mticli  time  to  tlie  study  of  natural  history, 
antii|uarianisni,  and  numismatics.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Bentley,  Pope,  and  Johnson, 
ills  works  were  first  published  in  Latin,  and 
subsecpiently  translated  into  English,  French, 
and  Italian.  They  include  A  Mechairical  Account 
of  Foisoim  (1702)  and  Monita  et  Prcecepta 
Medica   (17.51). 

MEADE,  George  Gordon  (1815-72).  An 
.\nierican  soldier,  born  of  American  parentage 
at  Cadiz,  Spain,  December  31.  1815.  He  at- 
tended scluxil  in  Philadelphia.  Washington,  and 
Baltimore;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835, 
and  served  in  the  Seminole  War.  In  October, 
18.36,  he  resigned  from  the  ami}',  adopted  the 
profession  of  civil  engineer,  and  between  lSo7 
and  1842  was  eni]doyed  as  an  assistant  engineer 
in  the  surveys  made  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  the 
Texas  boundary,  and  the  northeastern  boiuidary 
of  the  United  States.  In  1842  he  was  reap- 
jxjinted  to  the  army  as  a  second  lieutenant  in 
tlie  corps  of  topographical  engineers.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  witli  Mexico,  when 
General  Taylor  crossed  the  Rio  tirande,  he  was 
orilercd  to  the  front,  and  served  with  distinction 
tliroughout  the  war.  Later  he  was  employed  in 
superintendnig  river  and  harbor  improvements, 
and  in  the  construction  of  lighthouses  on  Dela- 
ware Bay  and  oU'  the  coast  ol  Florida.  He  was 
promoted  to  be  tirst  lieutenant  in  1851  and 
captain  in  1856,  and  had  charge  of  the  national 
survey  of  tlie  northern  lakes  until  1861.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  ordered  to 
Washington;  was  commissioned  brig;idier-yencral 
of  volunteers  August  31,  1861,  and  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  second  brigade  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania reserve  corps.  He  was  in  the  action 
at  Dranesville,  Va.,  December  20th ;  was  at 
ilechanicsville,  June  26,  1802,  and  at  the  battle 
of  Gaines's  Mill  on  the  following  day;  and 
served  with  his  reserves  throughout  the  Penin- 
sular campaign,  being  severely  wounded,  June 
30tli,  at  the  battle  of  Fraz'ier's  Farm.  On 
August  29-30,  having  recovered  from  his  wound. 


he  was  engaged  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run :  and  in  Seiitember  took  command  of  a 
division  of  the  First  Army  Corps.  At  the  battle 
of  Antietam  he  was  slightly  wounded  and  had 
two  horses  shot  under  him.  In  recognition  of 
his  gallantry  in  this  battle  he  received  com- 
mand of  the  Fifth  Army  Corps,  and  on  Xovem- 
ber  21),  1802,  was  commissioned  major-general  of 
\olunteers.  He  was  engaged  in  the  battles  of 
Fredericksburg  and  Cliancellorsville,  covering 
the  retreat  at  Chancellorsville  with  his  corps 
and  guarding  the  crossings  until  the  entire  army 
was  safely  over  the  Rappahannock.  On  .lune  28, 
1863.  he  was  unexpei'tcdly  ordered  to  succeed 
General  Hooker  in  the  command  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac.  The  main  army  of  the  Confeder- 
ates, under  General  Lee,  had  invaded  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  it  devolved  upon  Meade  to  arrest  this 
movement  and  drive  back  the  enemy.  Por- 
tions of  Lee's  arnn-  had  reached  York.  Carlisle, 
and  the  Susquehanna;  but  upon  the  advance  of 
the  Federal  army  these  were  called  in.  On  July 
1st  the  hostile  armies  met  at  (Jettysburg.  and 
a  three  days'  battle  ensued,  which  resulted  in 
the  utter  discomfiture  of  Lee,  who,  however,  was 
not  pursued  with  any  vigor.  (See  Gettysburg, 
B.\rTT.E  OF.)  For  this  victory  Meade  was  publicly 
thanked  by  a  resolution  of  Congress,  passed  Jan- 
uary 28,  ISOn.  From  May  4,  1864,  to  April  0, 
1805,  General  Meade  commanded  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  under  General  Grant,  through  the 
Woody  struggle  in  the  Wilderness,  and  until 
the  surrender  of  Lee.  On  August  18,  1864,  he 
was  commissioned  a  major-general  in  the  United 
States  Army.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  w.ts 
placed  in  command  of  the  Military  Division  of 
the  Atlantic,  which  command  he  retained  from 
July  1.  1805,  to  August  6.  1866.  During  the 
years  1866-67  he  was  in  command  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  East,  and  subsequently  of  the  third 
military  district  of  the  South  (under  the  re- 
construction laws).  From  March,  1S09,  until  his 
death,  he  was  again  in  commanil  of  the  ililitary 
Division  of  the  Atlantic.  He  died  on  Kovemlier 
0,  1872.  Citizens  of  Philadelphia  presented  him 
with  a  house,  and  after  his  death  a  fund  of  .$100,- 
000  was  collected  by  subscription  and  presented 
to  his  familv.  Consult :  Bache,  Life  of  General 
G.  G.  Meade  (Philadelphia.  1897);  and  Pcnny- 
paeker.  General  Meade  (New  York,  1901),  in  the 
"Great  Commanders  Series." 

MEADE.  Ricn.vRD  Wors.^m  (1837-97).  An 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  18,50; 
became  navigating  olficer  of  the  Cumberland  in 
1856;  eociperatcd  with  General  Sherman  as  com- 
mander of  a  division  of  the  squadron  off  Helena, 
Ark.,  in  breaking  up  guerrilla  warfare  on  the 
Mississippi  River  in  1802-63;  commanded  the 
marines  in  New  York  City  during  the  draft  riots 
there  in  July,  1803;  and  subsequently  served 
with  distinction  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  West 
Gulf  blockading  si^uadrons.  After  the  close  of 
the  war  until  1868  he  acted  as  bead  of  the  de- 
partment of  seamanship  and  naval  tactics  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy.  He  then  served 
for  a  time  in  .\laska.  and  from  1871  to  1873.  in 
command  of  the  yarrar/anselt.  cruised  in  the 
Pacific.  After  his  return  he  acted  as  president 
of  the  board  appointed  to  revise  the  ordnance 
instructions  of  the  navy.  He  was  promoted  to 
be  ca|)lain  in  March.  1880.  and  to  be  commander 
in   ifav,   1892.     He  was   naval  commissioner  of 


MEABE. 


228 


MEADOW-LAKK. 


the  Government  to  the  World's  Columbian  Ex- 
position at  Cliicago,  and  succeeded  Admiral 
Stanton  in  command  of  the  North  Atlantic 
squadron  in  1894.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
promoted  to  he  rear-admiral,  h\it  a  disagreement 
between  him  and  the  Xavy  liepartment  led  to  his 
retirement  at  his  own  request  in  May,  1895. 

MEADE,  WiLUAM  (1789-1862).  Protestant 
Kpisciji)al  liishop  of  Virginia.  He  was  born 
near  .Millwood,  Va. ;  was  graduated  at  Princeton 
in  ISDS,  studied  theology,  and  was  ordained 
jiricst  in  1814;  was  assistant  clergyman  in  his 
native  parish  at  Jlillwood;  from  1811.  pastor 
of  Christ  Church,  Alexandria,  D.  C.  for  eighteen 
months,  and  afterwards  rector  at  Millwood.  In 
1829  he  was  appointed  Assistant  Bishop  and  in 
1841  Bishop  of  Virginia.  Uc  coiilributed  lib- 
erally to  the  foundation  of  the  Diocesan  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Alexandria.  He  was  an 
active  member  of  the  American  Colonization 
Society,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Evangelical  Knowledge  Society  (1847).  In  1801 
he  labored  to  prevent  the  secession  of  Virginia, 
but  aci|uicsced  when  that  action  was  linally 
determined  upon.  His  principal  literary  produc- 
tions are:  Lectures  on  Fainih/  I'rai/crs  (1834); 
Letters  on  the  Duty  of  Affording  Religious  In- 
struction to  Those  in  Bondage  (1834);  Com- 
panion to  the  Fotit  and  the  Pulpit  (1846); 
Lectures  on  the  Pastoral  Offi-cc  (1840);  Rea- 
sons for  Loving  the  Ejiiscopiil  Church  (1857); 
Old  Churches,  Ministeis,  and  Families  of  Vir- 
ginia (1857);  and  The  Bible  and  the  Classics 
"(1861).  A  memorial  of  Bishop  Meade  was  pub- 
lished bv  the  Rev.  Dr.  .John  .Johns  (Baltimore, 
18.57). 

MEADOW  (AS.  mord,  OFi-ies.  mede,  meadow, 
(iIK;.  iiKila-scrcch.  gra.sshopper.  Ger.  Matte,  mead- 
ow: probably  connected  with  OHG.  mcen,  Ger. 
mJihen,  AS.  mairan.  Eng.  moir.  Lat.  metere,  Gk. 
iftav,  anion,  to  reap.  Olr.  mrithel,  party  of  reap- 
ers). A  tract  of  low,  level  land,  especially 
upon  the  margin  of  a  stream,  in  which  the 
dominant  plant  forms  are  grasses.  Prairies 
(q.v. )  may  be  considered  as  extensive  meadows. 
Some  writers  hold  that  meadows  are  the  product 
of  artificial  conditions;  others  that  (hey  are 
natural  formations.  It  .seems  scarcely  to  be 
doubted  that  alpine  meadows  are  natural, 
either  because  trees  fail  to  obtain  a  foothold  on 
account  of  snow-slides  or  because  the  snow  re- 
mains long  in  such  situations,  and  grasses  take 
possession  during  the  short  summer  if  there  is 
suHlcient  soil  moisture,  .\lnng  streams,  meadows 
are  proliably  d\ie  to  continued  grazing  or  mow- 
ing, l)ecause  tree  vegetation  may  be  kept  down 
by  such  agencies.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  ex- 
tremely unfavorable  for  the  development  of 
trees,  which  might  fail  to  develop  even  in  a 
region  specially  favorable  to  tree  growth,  since 
seeds  would  germinate  with  diirieulty.  Hence 
n  meadow  nniy  perpetuate  itself  n;iturally,  even 
though  originally  artitieial.  Besides  the  grasses, 
other  pliiTits  nre  found  in  mivadows,  among  which 
are  in;iny  species  of  vernal  herbs,  which  mature 
before  mowing  lime  arrives.  Some  botanists,  as 
Wettstein.  believe  that  plants  have  acquired  cer- 
tain habits  which  adapt  them  to  life  in  meadows 
that  are  annually  mowed. 

From  an  agricultural  standpoint  a  meadow 
is  either  a  lowland  or  an  upland  field  upon 
which    hay   or    pasture   grasses    grow    from    self- 


sown  or  hand-sown  seed.  They  are  also  per- 
manent or  temporary  as  well  as  natural  and 
artificial.  When  the  grasses  are  fed  down  by 
stock,  meadows  are  called  pastures.  For  artiti- 
eial meadows  the  soil  is  plowed  deeply  and 
brought  to  the  very  best  condition  before  the 
seed  is  sown.  A  rich,  clean  soil  of  fine  tilth 
adds  greatly  to  the  weight  of  the  crop.  Fre- 
quently grass  seed  is  sown  with  small  grain  as 
a  nurse  crop,  but  the  practice  is  not  always 
successful,  since  the  faster  growing  cereal  de- 
prives the  young  grasses  of  light,  and  they  con- 
sequently fail.  The  best  method  is  to  sow  the 
grass  seed  broadcast  without  a  nurse  crop. 
Timothy,  red-top,  fescue-grass,  orchard-grass, 
oat-grass,  rye-grass,  blue  grass,  bent-grass,  and 
many  other  grasses  are  very  connnonly  grown 
either  as  mi.xtures  or  alone,  Timothy  is  often 
grown  as  a  single  crop.  Clover  is  frequently 
added  to  a  grass  mixture.  When  a  mixture  is 
grown  for  hay,  grasses  which  bloom  about  the 
same  time  are  selected,  but  when  used  for  ])as- 
ture  species  that  ripen  at  difTcrent  times  are 
preferred.  Mowing  machines  and  other  imple- 
ments have  quite  revolutionized  haymaking 
within  the  last  fifty  years,  and  have  enalilcd  the 
farmer  to  make  use  of  more  extensive  nu'adows 
than  when  all  the  work  was  done  by  hand.  See 
also  ll.w  and  Pasiihks. 

MEADOW  FESCUE.     See  Fesccb. 

MEADOW   FOXTAIL.      A   valuable   fodder 

gi-ass.     Sic  Foxtail  (^hass. 

MEADOW  GRASS.  .\  name  applied  to 
many  of  the  numerous  species  of  the  genus  Poa, 
which  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  temperate  iind 
colder  |iarts  of  the  world,  and  form  a  very 
important  part  of  the  herbage  of  pastures  and 
meadows.  .Most  of  the  species  are  slender  and 
of  delicate  appearance,  tender,  nutritious,  and 
rather  abuiulant.  The  rough-stalked  meadow 
grass  (Poa  trivialis)  and  the  blue  grass  or 
smooth-stalked  meadow  grass  (Poa  pratensis) 
are  among  the  most  common,  and  arc  esteemed 
among  the  most  valuable  for  sowing  in  mixtures 
of  grasses  for  pasture.  The  Abyssinian  me:idow 
grass  (Poa  Ahi/ssinica) .  an  annual  s])ccies,  yields 
immense  returns  of  herbage  in  its  native  coun- 
try. Its  seeds  arc  used  as  grain  for  making 
bread.  Beer  is  made  by  putting  slices  of  this 
bread  into  warm  water,  the  temperature  of  which 
is  kept  vip  in  a  closed  vessel  for  some  days.  Poa 
annua  is  a  ccmunon  species,  frequently  found  as  a 
weed  in  cultivated  grounds,  but  it  is  employed 
with  advantage  for  sowing  on  lawns  in  towns, 
and  wherever  from  any  cause  perennial  grasses 
are  apt  to  be  destroyed.  It  is  often  to  be  se<'n 
in  (lower.  :ind  is  said  to  ripen  its  seeds  in  foiir 
or  five  weeks  from  the  time  of  sowing.  It  is 
very  abvmdant  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  The 
nariie  is  sometimes  given  to  species  of  .Mopecurus, 
which  are  more  commonly  known  as  foxt;iil  grass 

(q.v.). 

MEADOW-LARK.  .\  North  American  star- 
ling like  hii-d  frccjuenting  meadows  and  open 
places.  Few  .Xmerican  song  birds  are  nmre  gen- 
eral favorites.  This  is  not  a  lark  at  all,  but 
l>elongs  to  the  family  Icterida-,  and  is  tlierefore 
n  near  relative  of  the  bobolink,  oriole,  and  black- 
bird. The  genus  (Sturnella)  contains  only  one 
wellniarkeil    species,    the    common    meadow-lark 

(Sturnrlla  magna)  of  the  Eastern  United  States, 


MEADOW-LARK. 


229 


MEAGHEB. 


Init  tlicre  are  several  subspecies  wliieli,  tlumgh 
Ihvy  may  not  difter  imieh  in  color,  exliibit 
marked  peculiarities  in  liabit  and  song.  The 
coniiiion  nu'udow-lark  ranges  in  sunnner  from 
New  lininswiek  lo  the  (iulf  of  Mexico,  east  of 
the  -Mississippi,  and  even  in  winter  only  retreats 
as  far  south  as  Southern  New  England  and 
Illinois.  The  Western  meadow-lark  (varietj'  ne- 
ylccttt)  occui)ies  the  western  half  of  the  con- 
tinent and  e.vtends  southward  into  Western 
Jlexieo,  while  other  subspecies  occur  in  Cuba 
and  Mexico.  Jleadow-larks  arc  about  ten  and 
three-<|uarters  inches  in  length,  witli  large  feet 
and  a  hing,  straight,  sliarp  IjIII.  The  leathers  of 
the  upper  surface  are  prevailingly  black,  with 
rufous  and  btitl'  borders  and  tips,  so  that  the 
whole  upper  surface  is  variegated  with  tiiose  three 
colors.  The  throat,  breast,  and  anterior  half 
of  the  belly  are  bright  yellow,  with  a  prominent 
black  crescent  about  the  middle  of  the  breast. 
The  tail  feathers  are  narrow  and  short,  and  when 
the  bird  takes  to  the  wing  the  white  outer  ones 
bi'come  very  consiiicuous.  The  \^'estern  meadow- 
lark  has  lighter  upper  parts,  more  perfect,  less 
confluent  bars  on  the  tail  feathers,  and  the 
sides,  as  well  as  the  front,  of  the  throat  are 
yellow.  The  notes  of  the  meadow-lark  are  clear 
and  strong — a  sort  of  cheerful  whistle — but 
Chaj)man  says  that  they  differ  in  ditl'erent  lo- 
calities, so  that  the  notes  of  the  Florida  birds 
are  markedly  diU'erent  from  those  heard  in  the 
Northern  States.  The  notes  of  the  Western 
meadow-lark  are  famous  for  their  musical  qual- 
ity. The  contrast  between  its  brilliant  song  and 
that  of  the  Eastern  form,  added  to  other  peculiar 
traits,  convince  many  students  of  the  full  specific 
rank  of  the  Western  bird.  Consult  on  this  point 
Coucs.  liirils  of  the  Xorllnvcst  (Washington, 
1874). 

Meadow-larks  feed  ujion  botli  seeds  and  in- 
sects, which  they  obtain  upon  the  ground  in  the 
open  nu>ndows  and  fields.  In  sunuuer  they  are 
not  gregarious,  though  several  pairs  may  be  seen 
in  neighboring  fields:  but  in  winter  they  are 
often  found  in  swamps  in  some  numbers.  The 
nest  is  built  upon  the  ground,  and  is  composed 
of  grasses,  so  arranged  as  to  arch  over  at  the 
top  and  make  a  more  or  less  completely  covered 
shelter.  The  eggs  (see  Colored  Plate  of  Eggs 
01''  Soxd  Birds)  are  four  to  six  in  niunber,  large 
for  the  size  of  the  bird,  white,  marked  chiefly 
at  the  larger  end  with  bright  brown.  Althougli 
not  a  game  bird,  meadow-larks  are  frequently 
hunted,  both  for  sport  and  food,  but  they  are 
not  especially  desirable  for  the  table,  and  the 
shooting  of  them  is  nearly  everywhere  illegal. 
See  Plate  of  Larks  .\xi)  Starlings. 

MEADOW  MOUSE.  Tlie  American  name  for 
the  short -tailed  wild  mice  of  the  genus  Micro- 
luK  of  the  class  called  'vales'  in  Europe.  The 
commonest  species  is  the  widespread  Microtiis 
P'^iiiixiilraniriifi.  called  in  the  older  hooks  Arvi- 
rriln  riinrrin.  Many  other  species  and  subspecies 
arc  cnt.'ilngucd.     Sec  MorsK. 

MEADOW  MtrSSEL.  or  Horse  Mussel.   See 

:Mtssf:i.. 

MEADOW   SAFFRON.     A  European  plant. 

Sec  r'oi.cimrM. 

MEADOW  SNIPE.  A  gunner's  name  for 
snipe  frequenting  grassy  places,  especially  Wil- 
son's and  the  jack  snipe.  (See  Snipe.)  The 
marsh-hens     and     corn-crake     are     often     called 


meadow  crake  or  drake,  meadow  clapper,  etc., 
by   sport.-.men. 

MEADOW-SWEET.     A  plant.     See  Spib.ea. 

MEAD'VILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Crawl'ord  County,  Pa.,  105  miles  north  of 
Pittsburg;  on  French  Creek,  and  on  the  Erie 
and  the  Pittsburg,  Bessemer  and  Lake  Erie  rail- 
roads (.Map:  Pennsylvania.  A  2).  It  is  the  seat 
of  Allegheny  College  (ilethodist  Episcopal),  es- 
tablished in  1815,  and  of  the  ile:ulville  Tlieo- 
logical  School  ( I'nitarian ) ,  opened  in  1844,  and 
has  four  schools  of  music,  two  city  hosjiitals, 
and  a  public  librarj-.  Aniong  the  prominent 
structures  are  the  courthouse,  academy  of  music, 
First  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  Lafayette 
Blo<'k.  Other  notewortliy  features  are  Huide- 
koper,  Diamond,  and  Oakwood  parks,  three  iron 
bridges,  and  the  fair  grounds  and  race  track. 
Meadville  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural  valley,  and 
its  industries  are  represented  by  railroad  shops 
of  the  Erie,  the  Plicenix  iron  works,  nuilleable 
iron  works,  vise  works,  planing  mills,  silk  mills, 
breweries,  a  distillery,  chocolate  chip  works,  etc. 
The  city  is  also  an  important  luarket,  and  a 
shipping  point  for  the  oil  regions.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered,  under  a  charter  of  1S89, 
by  a  mayor,  chosen  every  three  years,  and  a  bi- 
caiucral  council,  which  elects  the  solicitor,  civil 
engineer,  and  city  clerk,  and  confirms  the  execu- 
tive's appointments  to  a  number  of  minor  oflices, 
the  treasurer,  controller,  and  assessors  being 
elected  by  the  people.  The  city  owns  and  ope- 
rates the  water-works  and  electric  light  plant. 
Settled  in  1788,  Meadville  became  a  borough  in 
1823  and  was  chartered  as  a  citj'  in  1800.  Po])U- 
lation,  in  1890,  9520;  in  1900,  10,291. 

MEAFORD,  nie'ferd.  A  lakeport  town  of 
Grey  Comity.  Ontario,  Canada,  on  Nottawasaga 
Bay,  the  south  inlet  of  Georgian  Bay,  Lake 
Huron,  20  miles  west-northwest  of  Collingwood 
(ilap:  Ontario,  C  3).  It  has  a  fine  harbor,  fac- 
tories, and  several  mills.  Population,  in  1891, 
2000;    in    1901,   1910. 

MEAGHER,  ma'rier.  Thomas  Francis  (1823- 
07).  An  Irish-American  soldier.  He  was  born 
in  Waterford,  Ireland,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Jesuit  College  of  Clongowes  Wood,  and  at  Stony- 
hurst  College,  Lancashire.  England.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  of  1848  he 
was  sent  to  Paris  by  the  Irish  Confederation  to 
congratulate  the  republican  leaders.  On  his  re- 
turn, he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  sedition, 
tried  for  high  treason,  found  guilty,  and  sen- 
tenced to  death ;  but  subsequentl.v  the  sentence 
was  changed  to  banishment  for  life  to  Tas- 
mania. Transported  thither,  he  escaped  in  1852 
and  succeeded  in  reaching  New  York.  In  1855 
he  began  to  practice  at  the  New  York  bar, 
and  the  following  year  became  the  editor  of  Ihe 
Irish  yews.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War 
in  1801.  he  organized  a  company  of  zouaves, 
joined  the  Sixty-ninth  Regiiuent.  New  York  Vol- 
unteers, was  acting  major  at  the  first  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  and  after  serving  the  three  months 
of  the  first  call,  returned  to  New  York  and 
organized  the  Iri.sh  brigade,  being  commissioned 
brigadier-general  on  February  3.  1802.  He  served 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  Peninsular  camp:iign, 
and  participated  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
and  in  the  battles  of  Antietam  and  Fredericks- 
burg., in  the  last  of  which  he  was  seriously 
wounded    while    leading    a    charge    on    Marve's 


MEAGHER. 


230 


MEALYWING. 


Heights.  He  resigned  temporarily,  but  was  re- 
coiiiiiiissioia'd  in  ISO-l.  and  for  some  time  was  in 
command  of  the  District  of  Etowah.  He  was 
appointed  secretary  of  Montana  Territory  in 
lSti.5,  and  for  several  months  in  ISCiO,  during  the 
absence  of  Governor  Edgerton,  served  as  Gov- 
ernor pro  tern.  On  July  1,  18()7,  lie  fell  from  the 
deck  of  a  steamer,  at  Fort  Benton,  on  the  upper 
Alissouri,  and  was  drowned.  He  published 
Speeches  on  the  Legislative  Independence  of  Ire- 
land (1852)  and  Last  Days  of  the  Sixty-ninth 
Xcw  York  Regiment  in  Viryinia. 

MEAGRE,  or  MAIGRE  (OF.,  Fr.  maigre, 
lian.  from  Lat.  mavvr,  lean;  connected  with  Gk. 
lULKfAs,  muLroK,  long).  An.v  of  several  European 
drunifish  of  the  world-wide  genus  Seiiena.  The 
typical  meagre  is  Sviwna  mjuilti,  which  ranges 
from  Great  Britain  to  the  ccjasts  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  but  is  best  known  about  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  W'here  it  has  been  v<'rv  highly 
esteemed  since  the  days  of  anticiuity.  It 
reaches  a  length  of  six  feet,  but  ordinary  S|)cci- 
niens  are  about  luilf  that.  The  color  is  brownish 
gray  on  the  back,  with  silver}'  gray  sides  and  a 
white  abdomen.  It  has  always  been  highly 
valued,  esiiecially  by  the  Italians,  but  to  English 
palates  the  llesh  seems  rallier  dry  and  tasteless. 
A  closely  related  species  is  the  inubrine  (Scicvna 
umbrina),  also  one  of  the  favorite  food  fishes  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  occasionally  taken  near 
Great  Britain  and  elsewhere. 

MEAL.     See   1?read;    Flour. 

MEAL  MOTH.  A  pyralid  moth  (Pyralis 
fiiriiHilis) .  cosmopolitan  in  distribution,  which 
infests  milling  establishments  and  storerooms  and 
which  in  the  larval  stage  feeds  upon  stored 
grain,  bran,  and  even  straw,  and  occasionally 
upon  dried  plants  in  herbaria.  A  closely  allied 
species  (I'l/rulis  costatis)  is  known  as  the  clover- 
hay  worm.  There  are  probably  four  generations 
annually.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  small  clusters 
and  the  larvic  live  in  long  tubes  constructed 
of  silk  and  particles  of  meal  and  other  material, 
and  while  tinis  incased  in  the  obscure  corners 
in  whieli  they  habitiuilly  live  they  are  com- 
pletely concealed  frnm  obsciTation.  Another 
species,  commonly  called  the  Indian-meal  moth 
{Plodia  intcrpKnelella) .  in  the  larval  stages 
feeds  not  only  upon  Indian  meal,  but  upon  all 
sorts  of  dried  vegetable  products,  such  as  peas, 
beans,  nuts,  acorns,  and  dried  fruit,  and  upon 
root  and  bark  preserved  in  drug  stores. 

MEAL  WORM.  The  larva  of  either  one  of 
two  or  more  beetles  of  the  family  Tcnebrionidae, 
which,  originally  of  Asiatic  or  European  origin, 
have  become  cosmopolitan  enemies  of  meal.  Hour, 
br.in.  and  other  mill  luoduets.  They  develop  in 
refuse  graindnst  accunuilated  in  dark  corners  and 
out-nf-tbe-wny  places  in  flour  mills,  bakeries, 
stores,  anil  stables.  They  are  also  of  importnnce 
as  enemies  to  ship  biscuits  ami  other  kinds  of 
crackers.  These  meal  worms  are  easily  bred  in 
confinement,  have  a  commercial  value  to  the  bird 
de.tlcr.  and  are  kept  on  sale  in  bird  stores  as  food 
for  'soft  billed'  cage-binls.  The  yellow  meal 
worm  C/'fiielirin  molitor)  is  the  commonest  of 
these  insects.  The  lieetle  is  over  half  an  inch  in 
length,  somewhat  flattened,  shining,  and  nearly 
black:  and  the  larva  is  cylindrical,  slender,  over 
an  inch  long,  and  has  a  waxy  appearance  and  a 
yellowish  color.  The  eggs  are  white,  bean-shaped, 
about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  long,  and  are  de- 


posited in  the  meal  or  other  food  substance.  The 
dark  meal  worm  {Tenehrio  obscunis)  is  very 
similar  to  the  yellow  meal  worm,  but  dull  black 
in  color;  it  has  been  found  in  black  pepper,  phos- 
phate fertilizers,  cotton  seed  and  cotton  meals, 
and  in  commercial  soda  ash.  Perfect  cleanliness 
about  slorerooMis  and  milling  establishments  is 
the  best  preventive  of  the  attacks  of  tliese  in- 
sects, and  rooms  or  buildings  once  infested  may 
be  freed  by  the  use  of  disulphide  of  carbon  or 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  Consult  Cliittenden,  Bul- 
letin Jf,  \ew  Series,  Dii-ision  of  Entomology, 
Drpitrtmiiit  of  Agriculture  (Washington,  1890). 
MEALY  BUG.  A  naked  se:ile-insect  of  the 
genus  Dactylopius,  so  called  because  of  the  white, 
meal-like  powder  which  covers  it.  Like  other 
members  of  the  subfamily  Coccin;p,  the  body  is 
not  covered  by  a  scale,  and  the  females  keep  the 
form  of  the  body  with  the  segments  distinct  until 
the  end,  and  also  retain  the  power  of  motion. 
The  antenna-  of  tlic  female  are  six-jointed  in  the 
larva  and  eight-jointed  in  the  adult ;  the  male 
larva  has  seven-jointed  antennip.  The  tarsi  are 
furnished  with  four  digitules,  and  the  anal  ring 
with  four  hairs.  Most  of  the  mealy  bugs  are 
tropical  or  sulitropical,  but  several  s]u'cies  breed 
abundantly  out  of  doors  in  the  Soiillicni  failed 
States,  e.g.  Dactylopius  cilri,  a  well-known  enemy 


THE   MEAl.Y   DUO 

a,  Female  (enlarged):  b,  group  of  mealy  bugs  on  a  tree. 

of  orange  groves  in  Florida.  It  is,  however,  as 
greeniiouse  jicsts  in  temperate  regions  that  the 
mealy  bugs  are  best  known.  They  secrete  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  honeydew.  and  are  frecpiently  at- 
tended by  ants,  which  are  responsil>le  for  much 
of  the  spread  of  mealy  bugs  in  greenhouses,  since 
they  attend  the  young  bugs  and  carry  them  to 
appropriate  feeding  grounds.  The  mealy  secre- 
tion which  covers  these  bugs  renders  it  difTicult 
to  destroy  them  with  some  of  the  insecticide  mix- 
tures, but  a  dihite  kerosene-soap  emulsion  is 
cllicacious.  Consult  Com.stock,  Ifi/iort  of  the 
Vniled  Sidles  Department  of  Agriculture  (Wash- 
ington.  18S0). 

MEALYWING.  A  bug  of  the  family  Aley- 
rodiihr,  sii  calleil  from  the  white,  meal  like  excre- 
tion on  the  wings  of  the  adult  insect.  The  mealy- 
wings  arc  allied  to  the  aphids  and  scale-insects. 
Tliey  are  very  small,  frequently  minute,  and  in- 
fest the  leaves  of  plants,  both  herl>accous  and  of 
trees,  usually  on  the  lower  side.  In  their  early 
stages  they  are  scale-like,  and  much  resemble 
some  of  the  Coccidir.  Unlike  the  Coccida-.  tlie 
two  se.xes  develop  in  a  similar  manner,  and  both 
males  and  females  are  active  and  have  two  pairs 
of  wings.  In  the  early  stages  the  bmly  may  be 
more  or  less  covered  with  wax.  The  antinnjp  of 
the  adults  are  soven-jojnteil.  and  the  eyes  are 
us\ially  constricted  near  the  middle,  being  some- 
times entirely  divided.  The  wings  are  broad  and 
well-ronnijed,  and  may  be  clear  or  spotted  and 
banded  in  different  ways.     About  150  species  are 


MEALYWING. 


231 


MEANING. 


known,  of  wliich  more  than  50  occur  in  the 
United  States.  The  most  destructive  species  is 
Aleyrodes  ritri,  wiiich  attacks  the  orange  and 
lemon  in  Florida  and  Louisiana,  and  causes  the 
leaves  to  turn  yellow  and  die.  They  secrete  a 
considerable  amount  of  lioneydew,  which  attracts 
the  spores  of  smut  fuiif,'!.  resulting  ultimately  in 
the  blackening  of  the  foliage  of  the  orange  trees. 

MEAN  (OF.  meien,  moien,  Fr.  moycn,  from 
Lat.  mcdiaiius,  middle,  from  medius,  middle). 
In  mathematics,  a  term  interpolated  between  two 
other  terms  of  a  series.     The  arithmetic  mean 

a  +  b 
of  twc  riuantities  a,  b,  is  — ^ —  ;  their  geometric 

mean  is  W ub,  and  their  harmonic  mean  is  -. 

a-\-  b 
The  arithmetic  mean  is  gieater  than  the  geo- 
metric mean,  and  tlie  latter  is  greater  than  the 
harmonic  mean.  In  averaging  observed  results 
of  physical  experiments,  the  mean  result  may  be 
found  by  dividing  the  sum  of  the  observed  re- 
sults by  the  number  of  observations.  But  in 
ease  the  observed  results  are  not  regarded  as 
equally  accuiate,  certain  numbers  may  be  as- 
signed to  these  results  representing  their  relative 
ac<-uracy;  e.g.  four  men.  A.  B.  C,  D.  have  deter- 
mined the  area  of  a  triangle  and  found  10.50, 
Ift.T."),  20.  and  20.25  square  meters,  respectively. 
If  the  relative  accuracy  of  their  work  may  be 
represented  by  the  numbers  3,  2,  2,  4  respective- 
ly, the  area  of  the  triangle  will  be  taken  as: 
3-19.50  +  2-19.75  +  2-20  +  4-20.2.5  _  ,  q  ni 
3  +  2  +  2-f4  -19.J1. 

For  furtlier  jn-actical  methods  of  averages,  see 
Least  Sqiabes.  JIethod  of. 

MEAN'DEB.     A   river  of  Asia  Minor.     See 

il.tAXDEl!. 

MEANING  (from  mean,  AS.  viwnan,  OHG. 
mrinan,  Ger.  meinen,  to  think:  connected  with 
OChureh  Slav,  meniti,  Skt.  man,  to  think).  The 
mental  processes  that  constitute  the  unanalyzed 
consciousnesses  of  ordinary,  everyday  experience 
are  always  surcharged  with  meaning  or  signifi- 
cance. Mind,  as  it  is  given,  is  mind  in  function; 
mental  stuff  that  stands  for,  represents,  sym- 
bolizes, refers  to,  objects  and  events  in  the  out- 
side world.  The  value  and  validity  of  such 
objective  reference  form  a  question  for  epistemol- 
opj-.  (See  Knowledge,  Theory  of.)  But  the 
psychologist,  after  he  has  analyzed  consciousness 
into  its  simplest  structural  elements  (see  Ele- 
JIKXTS,  C'oxsciots),  and  has  traced  the  forma- 
tinn  of  the  more  complex  processes  from  connec- 
tions of  the  elements  (see  .\ssoci.\Tiox  OF  Ideas; 
Fisioj;) — after,  that  is  to  say,  he  has  analyzed 
and  reconstructed  mind  without  regard  to  mind's 
significance  and  meaning — is  met  by  the  ques- 
tion: What  is,  in  psychological  terms,  the  vehicle 
of  meaning?  How  did  meaning  get  into  mental 
])rocesses?  What  are  the  processes,  or  what  the 
aspects  of  process,  that  'carry'  the  meaning  of  a 
given  psychical  coni])lex'; 

As  regards  what  we  may  term  the  'origin'  of 
meaning,  only  two  views  seem  to  be  possible. 
Mind  may,  at  its  first  appearance  in  the  world, 
have  been  meaningless;  and  meaning  may  have 
been  'worked  into'  it,  in  the  course  of  natural 
evolution.  This  view,  however,  presents  extreme 
dilllculties.  It  is  not  hard  to  conceive  that  the 
me.aningful  or  significant  aspect  of  mental  proc- 


ess should  have  been  refined  and  differentiated 
under  the  operation  of  natural  selection;  but  it 
is  impossible  to  form  any  definite  idea  of  the 
way  in  which  an  organism  should  lay  hold  of 
meaningless  nuiterial,  and  press  it  into  service  as 
meaningful.  We  have,  in  other  words,  a  recur- 
rence of  the  ditliculty  which  characterizes  hetero- 
genetic  will  theories  (see  Will)  :  we  can  no  more 
derive  meaning  from  the  unmeaning  than  we  can 
derive  voluntary  action  from  the  physiological 
retiex.  The  alternative  view  is  thus  forced  upon 
us,  that  meaning  did  not  'get  into'  mind,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  it  was  always  there.  Mind  is 
'struck  out'  in  the  interaction  between  organism 
and  natural  environment:  and,  arising  as  it  did, 
could  do  nothing  else  than  mean,  A  mind  that 
should  not  mean  is  a  contradiction  in  terms: 
we  may  abstract  from  meaning,  in  our  laboratory 
dissections  of  consciousness,  as  we  abstract  from 
life  in  the  anatomical  laboratory;  but  a  mean- 
ingless mind  is  not  a  mind,  as  a  dead  organism 
is  not  an  organism.    See  Noetic  Con'sciousxess. 

When,  therefore,  we  come  to  our  other  ques- 
tion, regarding  the  processes  or  aspects  of  proc- 
ess that  form  the  vehicle  of  meaning,  we  find  an 
answer  ready  to  our  hand,  ilental  process  is 
intrinsically  meaningful;  any  process  can  carry 
meaning.  And  it  may  be  remarked,  by  the  way, 
that  tills  fact  largely  accounts  for  the  short 
cuts  in  mental  function,  the  substitutions  of  proc- 
ess for  process  within  a  functional  formation 
(like  that  of  space  perception,  e,g. ),  that  make 
mental  analysis  so  dilficult,  and  render  a  lapse 
into  the  "psychologist's  fallacy'  a  matter  of  siich 
fatal  ease.  (See  Ixtkospectiox. )  Ou  the  other 
hand,  as  mind  advances  in  complexity,  it  be- 
comes necessary  that  arrangements  be  made  (if 
we  may  use  that  expression)  for  devolving  the 
carri.age  of  meaning  upon  determinate  constitu- 
ents of  consciousness.  In  the  absence  of  such 
arrangements  the  grossest  confusion  would  result. 
To  take  a  simple  instance:  there  are  many  words 
which,  as  the  spelling-books  say,  are  pronounced 
alike  but  spelled  difl'erently.  "The  rain  ( reign ) 
is  over  at  last ! "  What  is  it  that  makes  one 
hearer  think  of  the  weather,  and  another  of  the 
Queen  of  England  ?  Why  does  the  auditory 
stimulus  mean  rain  to  the  one  and  reign  to  the 
other  ? 

In  replying  to  this  question,  we  nmst  remem- 
ber that  consciousness  is  a  complex  atVair,  and 
that  its  range  is  wider  than  the  range  of  atten- 
tion (q.v. ).  Hence  there  will  alwaj-s  be,  in  a 
given  consciousness,  a  certain  'focal'  process  or 
group  of  processes,  corresponding  to  the  range 
of  attention,  and  a  group  or  groups  of  obscurer 
'marginal'  processes  which  lie  beyond  that  range. 
Now.  as  Bagley  puts  it,  the  "same  symbol  [e.g. 
word]  arouses  at  difl'erent  times  focal  references 
which  may  be  uniform  or  disparate,  consistent  or 
inconsistent;  and  yet  the  meaning  of  the  symbol, 
in  combination  with  other  symbols,  is  perfectly 
unequivocal."  The  required  uniformity  is  fur- 
nished, and  the  inconsistencies  compensated,  by 
the  marginal  context:  "the  meaning  is  a  function 
of  the  more  transitive  parts  of  consciousness,  the 
fringe  or  relations  which  we  feel  surroTinding 
the  image"  (.Tames).  The  'armngement'  spoken 
of  above  consists,  then,  in  the  relegation  of  the 
meaning-function  to  the  background  of  conscious- 
ness; that  constancy  of  adaptation  to  the  outside 
world,  which  becomes  impossible  to  the  focal 
processes   as   mental   development  advances  and 


MEANING. 


232 


MEASLES. 


experience  widens,  but  wliieli  is  nevertheless  nec- 
essary if  mind  is  to  remain  meaningful,  is  se- 
cured by  constancy  of  the  niar<;inal  elements. 
One  man  hears  "rain,"  because  the  fringe  of  felt 
relations  clustering  round  the  auditory  symbol 
puts  him  in  a  weather  mood;  another  hears 
'reign,'  because  his  margin  puts  him  in  the  mood 
of  politics.  The  chief  constituents  of  the  mood 
are,  undoubtedly,  organic  sensations,  whereby 
the  organism  is  literally  "adapting'  itself  to  the 
reception  of  the  stimulus.  The  uieaningMcae- 
tion  may  become  so  automatic  tliat  the  margin 
thins  out  to  a  mere  thread  of  organic  process; 
or  it  may  demand  so  distinct  a  wrencli  from  the 
present  topic  of  thought  that  the  shift  of  mood 
is  clearly  noticeable.  In  either  case  the  fringe 
is  essential  to  meaning.  We  have  all  noticed 
how  empty  and  meaningless  a  word  becomes 
when  we  have  repeated  it  over  and  over  again: 
we  listen  l)lankly  to  the  sound  of  it,  wondering  if 
we  are  ever  to  recover  the  idea  tliat  we  have 
used  so  long  and  found  so  useful.  But  all  that 
repetition  does  to  the  word  is  to  strip  it  of  its 
fringes.  There  could  hardly  be  a  more  striking 
])roof  of  the  fact  that  mental  economy  has  shifted 
the  burden  of  meaning  from  the  centre  of  con- 
.sciousness  to  its  [leripherj'.  Consult:  .Tames, 
I'riiiciplfs  of  Paycholofiy  (New  York,  1800)  ; 
Bagley.  in  American  -Journal  of  I'siicl'oloiij/,  vol. 
xii.  (Worcester,  1900)  ;  Titchener,  Primer  of 
I'sycholvyy   (New  York,  1900). 

MEARES,  merz,  John  (C.17.5C-1S09).  "  An 
English  navigator.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1771;  served  against  the  French  in  the  West 
India  Islanils.  and  at  the  conclusion  of  peace 
became  captain  in  the  merchant  service.  He 
went  to  India  and  formed  at  Calcutta  what  was 
called  the  Northwest  ,\merica  Company  for  open- 
ing trade  with  Kussian  .\merica.  In  1780  he  ex- 
]>lored  a  part  of  the  coast  of  .\laska.  He  went  to 
China  by  way  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  en- 
tered Xootka  Sound  (1788).  The  next  year  he 
sent  to  Xootka  Sound  three  ships  which  were 
seized  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  ground  that  Kng- 
lishmen  h;id  no  right  to  trade  in  those  waters. 
The  act  caused  great  exeitenu'nl  in  ICngland  and 
a  large  fleet  known  as  the  "Spanish  ,\rmamcnt 
of  1790'  was  collected  to  punish  the  Spaniards. 
who  saved  themselves  only  by  making  amjde 
reparation.  Meares  published  loi/tK/cs  Made  in 
llw  Years  1788  and  17SS  from  China  to  the 
.\iirlhirrxt  Coast  of  America   (1790). 

MEARIM,  ma'a-reN'.  A  river  in  the  State 
of  .\laraidi,"io,  Brazil,  rising  in  the  Serra  do 
Negro  and  flowing  north  into  the  Bay  of  Silo 
.Marcos  near  the  city  of  MaranhTio  (Map:  Brazil, 
.14).  It  is  abo\il  .'i.iO  miles  long  and  navig;iblc, 
but  subject  to  very  sudden  and  viident  bores. 

MEARNS,    uiArnz.      .\    county    of    Scotland. 

Sec    KlNTAKDINKSllIBF. 

MEASLES  ( from  MDutch  maselen,  ma.isclrn, 
spots:  conneited  with  OIK!,  mnsala,  miisnra, 
Ger.  Mnscr.  diminutive  of  OIKJ.  iHii.w,  Ger.  .!/«.«?, 
iipot,  mark  of  a  wound),  known  also  as  RniEOi.A 
and  MouiilLLT.  One  of  the  group  of  di.seases 
termed  rrnnUifma  (q.v.l.  It  Is  communicable 
friim  person  to  person,  and  seldom  occurs  more 
th:in  once  in  the  same  individual.  Its  period  of 
incnbntinn  is  usunlly  abo\it  a  fortnight:  then 
come  lassitude  and  shivering,  which  are  soon  fol- 
lowed by  heat  of  akin,  increased  rapidity  of  the 


pulse,  loss  of  appetite,  and  thirst.  The  respira- 
tory mucous  membrane  is  also  all'ected,  and  the 
symjjtonis  are  very  nmch  the  same  as  those  of  a 
severe  cold  in  the  head,  accompanied  with  a  dry 
cough,  a  slight  sore  thi"oat,  and  sometimes  tight- 
ness of  the  chest. 

The  eruption  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
disease  usually  appears  u])on  the  fourth  day  from 
the  connnenccuient  of  the  febrile  symptoms  and 
the  catarrh,  sclduui  earlier,  but  not  uufreipient- 
ly  some  days  later.  It  is  a  rasli,  consisting  at 
first  of  minute  red  papula",  which,  as  tliey  mul- 
tiply, coalesce  into  crescentic  patches.  It  is  two 
or  three  days  in  coming  out.  beginning  on  the 
face  and  neck,  and  gradually  traveling  down- 
ward. The  rash  fades  in  the  same  order  as  it 
occurs;  and  as  it  begins  to  decline  three  days 
after  its  appearance,  its  whole  duration  is  about 
a  week.  The  red  color  gives  way  to  a  somewhat 
yellowish  tint,  and  the  cuticle  crumbles  away 
in  a  flue  bran-like  powder,  tlie  jirocess  being 
often  attended  with  considerable  itching. 

There  are  two  important  points  in  which  it 
diliers  from  smallpox  (q.v.),  with  which  in  its 
early  stage  it  may  be  confounded:  they  are; 
( I )  That  the  fever  does  not  cease  or  even  abate 
when  the  eruption  appears,  but  sometimes  in- 
creases in  intensity;  and  ("2)  that  the  disease  is 
not  more  severe  or  more  dangerous  beciiuse  the 
eruption  is  plentiful  or  early.  The  character 
of  the  eruption,  after  the  first  day.  will  serve  to 
remove  all  dinilit  regarding  these  two  diseases; 
and  the  com[):uative  prevalence  of  either  disease 
in  the  neighborhood  will  materially  assist  in 
forming  the  diagnosis.  It  is  distinguished  from 
scarlet  fever  (q.v.).  or  scarlatina.  (1)  by  the 
])resence  at  the  outset  of  catarrhal  symptoms, 
which  do  not  occur  in  the  latter  disease,  at  any 
rate,  prior  to  the  eruption:  (2)  by  the  al)scnce 
of  tlie  throat-allection,  which  always  accomjianies 
well-marked  cases  of  scarlet  fever;  (3)  by  the 
cliaracter  of  the  rash,  which  in  measles  is  said 
to  present  somewhat  the  tint  of  the  raspberry, 
and  in  scarlet  fever  that  of  a  boiled  lobster; 
whicli  in  measles  appears  in  crescentic  patches, 
and  in  scarlet  fever  is  universally  dilTused. 

In  ordinary  uncomplicated  measles  the  prog- 
luisis  is  almost  always  favorable.  The  chief 
danger  is  fr(mi  inllammation  of  some  of  the  tex- 
tures that  compose  the  lungs,  and  in  feeble  chil- 
dren it  often  leaves  chronic  bronchial  mischief 
behind  it.  No  age  is  exempt  from  the  disease, 
but  it  is  nuich  more  connnon  in  chiUlhood  than 
subsequently,  a  second  attack  being  comparative- 
ly rare. 

In  mild  forms  of  the  disease  nolliiiig  more  is 
rcipiisite  than  to  keep  the  jiatient  on  a  low  diet, 
attend  to  the  state  of  the  bowels,  and  ]irevent 
exposure  to  cold,  which  is  best  ac<'omplisbed  by 
kcM'ping  him  in  bed  with  the  onliuary  warmth  to 
which  he  is  accustomed  in  health.  If  the  chest 
symptoms  become  urgent,  they  must  be  treated 
according  to  their  nature.  Bronchitis  (q.v.), 
sometimes  extending  into  pneumonia  (q.v.),  is 
nmst  to  he  feared.  If  the  eruption  disappears 
prematurely,  it  may  sometimes  be  brought  back 
by  placing  the  patient  in  a  warm  bath.  In  such 
eases  stinnibints  are  often  reouired,  but  nuist. 
of  course,  only  be  given  by  the  advice  of  the 
physician.  Tlie  patient  nmst  be  carefully  pro- 
tecled  from  exposure  to  cold  for  a  week  or  two 
after  the  disease  has  apparently  disappeared,  as 
the  lungs  and  mucous  coat  of  the  bowels  are  for 


MEASLES. 


233 


MEASUBEMENT. 


some  lime  very  susceptiMe  to   inllammatory  at- 
tacks. 

Except  for  the  lesions  of  the  skin  there  are 
no  characteristic  pathological  changes  in  measles. 
As  in  other  infectious  diseases,  degenerations  in 
the  internal  organs,  especially  in  the  kidneys,  are 
not  uncommon.  Extension  of  the  catarrhal  in- 
flammation of  the  bronchi  to  the  lungs  frequent- 
ly results  in  a  broncho-pneumonia.  As  to  tlie 
specific  cause  of  the  disease  nothing  is  definitely 
known.  Canon  and  Rielicke  in  1892  reported  the 
discovery  in  fourteen  cases  of  measles  of  a  pe- 
culiar bacillus  which  they  considered  specific. 
This  bacillus  was  found  in  the  blood,  more  rarely 
in  the  catarrhal  exudate,  and  was  from  five  to 
seven  microniillinieters  long.  It  was  sometimes 
abundant,  at  other  times  only  a  few  could  be 
found.  Its  cultivation  on  ordinary  media  was 
(liHicult.  These  observations  as  yet  lack  con- 
firmation. 

MEASURE  (OF.,  Fr.  mesurc,  from  Lat.  men- 
stirii.  measure,  from  tiictiri,  to  measure).  In 
music,  the  smallest  metrical  division  of  a  move- 
ment or  piece,  represented  by  the  notes  or  rests 
comprised  within  two  successive  bars  of  the  staff. 
The  time-value  of  a  measure  is  a  fixed  unit,  de- 
pending on  the  character  of  the  time  which  gov- 
erns the  movement.  There  are  but  two  general 
kinds  of  time,  viz.  duple  time,  containing  an 
ecjual  quantity  of  notes  in  the  bar,  and  triple 
time,  containing  an  unequal  quantity.    See  Time. 

MEASURE  FOR  MEASURE.  A  comedy  by 
Shakespeare,  produced  in  1(101,  [)rinted  in  162.3. 
The  plot  is  found  in  Cinthio's  "Hecatommithi." 
in  the  romance  and  tragedy  EpUia.  It  was  used 
by  G.  Whetstone  in  his  play  Promos  and  Cas- 
sandra (1578).  and  in  his  prose  tales  Hepta- 
meron  of  Civill  Discourses  (1582).  If  Shake- 
s])eare  used  that  version,  he  took  from  it  merely 
the  outline,  and  may  have  known  the  original. 
The  pla}'  belongs  to  the  period  of  Othello.  Bnm- 
Irt,  the  revised,  and  Kiiir/  Lear,  which  Darme- 
steter  calls  his  pessimistic  period.  Though 
called  a  comedy,  it  is  gloomy,  brightened  only 
by  the  character  of  Isabella.  After  the  Resto- 
ration it  was  revised  and  altered  by  D'Avenant 
as  The  Lain  Anainst  Lovers  (1G62),  and  later 
adajjtcd  by  Gildon    (1700). 

MEASUREMENT  of  Siiip.s  for  Tonnage. 
The  measureuient  of  ships  to  determine  their 
tonnage  (q.v. )  is  now  made  in  practically  the 
same  way  by  all  maritime  nations.  The  old  rule 
in  tlio  United  States  was  established  by  act  of 
Congress  in  1790.  This  provided  that  the  ton- 
nage should  be  ascertained  as  follows:  From 
the  extreme  length  in  feet  deduct  three-fourths 
the  breadth ;  multiply  the  remainder  thus  ob- 
tained by  the  breadth  and  this  product  by  the 
depth;  divide  the  last  product  by  95  and  the 
(|U(itient  was  the  register  tonnage  for  payment  of 
dues.  In  this  rule  the  depth  of  a  doulile-decked 
vessel  was  arbitrarily  assumed  as  one-half  the 
breadth,  so  that  it  was  to  the  interest  of  ship- 
owners to  build  deep  ships  without  much  regard 
to  the  cft'ect  of  the  deepening  upon  other  quali- 
ties. In  Great  Britain  a  somewhat  similar  rule 
obtained.  The  square  of  the  breadth  was  multi- 
id  icd  by  the  inboard  length  and  the  product 
divided  by  94.  Tliis  rule  had  the  .same  effect 
on  ship  construction  as  that  of  the  United 
states;  and  the  rule  is  still  sometimes  employed 
in  yacht  and  pleasure  boat  measurement.     Ton- 


nage so  obtained   is  designated  as  'old  measure- 
ment'; thus,  320  tons   (O.JI.). 

In  1835,  due  to  the  efTorts  of  Mr.  Moorsom,  an 
act  of  Parliament  provided  for  a  more  accurate 
determination  of  the  tonnage  of  vessels.  Instead 
of  a  thumb  rule  which  might  be — and  usually 
was — verj'  much  in  error,  the  measurement  of  the 
cubic  contents  of  vessels  was  effected  in  accord- 
ance with  Newton's  theorem  for  the  determina- 
tion of  contents  of  solids  bounded  by  irregular 
surfaces.  Tliis  act  was  followed  by  the  'Merchant 
Shipping  Act  of  1854,'  which  is  the  basis  of  the 
present  practice  throughout  the  maritime  world, 
though  some  of  its  provisions  have  been  modified 
in   England   as   well   as   elsewhere. 

The  method  of  measuring  prescribed  in  this  act 
and  subsequent  amendments  is  as  follows: 
Pleasure  the  length  of  the  ship  on  the  tonnage 
deck  from  the  inside  of  the  planking  or  plating 
at  the  extreme  forward  end  at  the  stem  to  the 
inside  of  the  planking  or  plating  at  the  ex- 
treme after  end  at  the  stern,  and  deduct  the 
rake  of  bow  and  stern  in  the  thickness  of  the 
deck  so  as  to  reduce  the  measurement  to  the 
length  of  the  ship  at  the  under  side  of  the  deck 
or  tops  of  the  beams.  This  is  the  'length  on  the 
tonnage  deck.'  which  deck  is  the  upper  one  in  all 
ships  which  have  less  than  three  decks  and 
second  deck  from  below  in  all  others.  Divide 
the  length  obtained  as  follows:  In  ships  which 
have  a  length  on  the  tonnage  deck  of  50  feet, 
this  length  is  divided  into  4  equal  parts;  a 
length  of  50  to  120  feet,  into  G  equal  parts ;  120 
to  180  feet  into  S  equal  parts;  180  to  225  feet 
into  10  equal  parts;  and  over  225  into  12  equal 
parts.  The  division  marks  being  established, 
ascertain  the  depth  at  the  midship  division 
mark;  if  it  exceeds  16  feet  divide  it  into  7  equal 
parts,  if  16  feet  or  less,  into  5  equal  parts. 
Measure  the  inside  breadth  of  the  ship  at  each 
mark  and  at  the  upper  part  of  the  depth  and 
number  them  from  top  to  bottom ;  multiply 
the  2d  and  4th  by  4  and  the  3d  by  2 ;  add  these 
products  together  and  to  the  sum  add  the  1st  and 
5th;  multiply  the  total  by  one-third  the  com- 
mon interval  between  the  breadths  and  this 
product  will  be  deemed  the  transverse  area  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  section.  Divide  the  lower 
breadth  (between  the  inner  bottom,  or  upper 
side  of  double  bottom  and  the  lower  division 
line)  into  four  parts  by  equally  spaced  trans- 
verse horizontal  lines ;  measure  the  breadth  at 
the  four  new  points  and  at  the  toj)  of  the  inner 
bottom;  and  proceed  as  before.  The  sum  of  the 
two  areas  thus  determined  is  the  total  transverse 
area  at  the  point.  The  transverse  areas  at  the 
different  points  (4,  6.  8.  10,  or  12  in  number)  in 
the  length  of  the  ship  being  determined,  they  are 
to  be  numbered  from  forward  (or  aft,  either 
will  do),  the  forward  one  being  at  the  extreme 
forward  end  of  the  measured  length,  and  the 
other  at  its  extreme  after  end.  Multiply  the  .sec- 
ond and  every  even  numbered  area  (except  the 
last)  by  4,  and  the  third  and  every  odd  numbered 
area  (except  the  first)  by  2:  add  these  products 
together,  and  to  the  sum  add  the-  first  and  last 
if  they  yield  anything;  multiply  the  sum  so 
obtained  by  one-third  the  cinnmon  interval  be- 
tween the  areas  and  the  product  will  be  the 
cubic  contents  of  the  ship  below  the  tonnage 
deck.  ■  Add  to  this  the  cubic  contents  of  all  in- 
closed spaces  above  the  tonnage  deck  including 


MEASUREMENT. 


234 


MEASURING  WORM. 


poop,  forecastle,  deckhouses,  between  decks, 
etc.  From  the  total  so  obtained  the  fol- 
lowing deductions  are  made:  (1)  Space 
exclusively  occupied  by  the  crew  and  the 
storage  of  their  clothing,  etc.;  provided  that 
this  space  does  not  exceed  20  per  cent,  of  the 
remaining  tonnage  of  the  ship;  if  it  is  greater 
than  20  per  cent,  the  excess  is  to  be  considered 
as  part  of  the  tonnage  .space.  (2)  Space  framed 
in  above  the  upper  deck  for  machinery  or  for 
ailniission  of  light  or  air.  (3)  In  vessels  pro- 
pelled wholly  by  .sails,  any  space  set  apart  and 
used  exclusively  for  stowage  of  sails,  if  not 
exceeding  2%  per  cent,  of  the  tonnage  of  the 
ship.  (4)  Any  space  used  exclusively  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  master.  (5)  Any  space 
used  exclusively  for  the  working  of  the  helm  or 
of  anchor  gear  or  for  keeping  charts,  signals, 
instruments  of  navigation,  and  boatswain's 
stores.  (G)  Space  occupied  by  donkey  engine 
and  boiler  if  connected  with  main  pumps  of 
ships.  (7)  Double  bottom  when  not  available  for 
cargo,  stores,  or  fuel.  (8)  Actual  engine  room 
and  fire-room  including  shaft  alley,  but  omitting 
all  space  not  occupied  by  engines  and  boilers  or 
necessary  for  working  them.  When  the  actual 
engine  and  fire  rooms  occupy  in  paddle  vessels  20 
to  .30  percent,  of  the  gross  tonnage  the  deduction 
is  to  be  3"  per  cent,  of  gross  tonnage ;  when  the 
engine  and  fire  rooms  occupy  20  per  cent,  or  less 
the  deduction  may  be  37  per  cent,  of  the  gross 
tonnage  or  I'o  times  the  actual  engine  and 
fire  room  space,  the  option  resting  with  the 
Board  of  Trade;  when  the  space  occupied  by  the 
propelling  macliinery,  etc.,  exceeds  30  per  cent, 
of  the  gross  tonnage  the  deduction  to  be  made 
is  37  per  cent,  of  it  or  IVj  times  the  actual 
engine  and  fire  room  space,  the  option  remaining 
with  the  owners.  In  the  case  of  screw  steamers 
when  the  space  occupied  by  the  machinery  and 
boilers  is  13  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  gross  tonnage 
the  deduction  is  32  per  cent,  of  that  tonnage; 
when  the  space  occupied  is  13  per  cent,  or  less 
the  deduction  is  .32  per  cent,  of  the  gross  ton- 
nage, or  l'}\  times  the  actual  space,  the  option 
remaining  with  the  Board  of  Tiade:  when  the 
space  occupied  is  20  per  cent,  or  more  the  de- 
duction is  32  per  cent,  or  l^'i  times  the  actual 
space,  at  the  option  of  the  owners. 

The  total  additions  and  deductions  to  the  ton- 
nage space  having  been  ni:i(le.  the  capacity  in 
cubic  feet  so  obtained  is  divided  by  100,  and  the 
result  is  the  rci/inler  lonnaric  (or  net  register 
tonnage)  of  the  ship.  The  gross  register  ton- 
nage is  obtained  by  dividing  by  100  the  total 
capacity  of  the  hull  and  deckhouses  without  de- 
ductions. 

When.  OAving  to  the  presence  of  cargo  or  other 
reason,  it  is  impracticable  to  measure  a  vessel 
ns  heretofore  described,  the  tonnage  is  deter- 
mined as  follows:  Pas's  a  chain  around  the  hull 
at  Iho  midship  section  and  measure  the  length 
under  the  bottom  from  the  upper  deck  at  one 
side  to  the  upper  deck  at  the  other.  Call  this  the 
girth.  .Add  one-half  the  girth  to  one-half  the 
main  breadth;  square  the  sum  so  obtained  and 
multiply  the  result  by  the  length  of  the  .ship 
from  outside  the  stem  to  outside  the  stern  post; 
multiply  this  product  by  .OOIS  for  wooden  ships 
and  by  .0021    for  those  built   of  iron  or  steel. 

By  the  act  of  Congress  of  May  0.  isri4  (taking 
effect  .January  1,  18(5.5),  the  Tnited  States 
adopted  the  English  system  with  slight  changes 


in  details  which  are  thought  to  conduce  to 
greater  accuracy.  This  act  lirs  been  supple- 
mented by  several  others,  notalily  that  of  ilarch 
2,  1895,  which  makes  the  American  practice 
almost  identical  with  the  Knglish;  indeed,  the 
wording  of  the  law  is  generally  the  same  through- 
out. In  measuring,  however,  the  I'nited  States 
law  divides  vessels  into  six  classes  according  to 
length  and  the  divisions  in  each  class  for  meas- 
urement of  transverse  areas  are:  In  Class  1 
(vessels  under  50  feet  length  on  the  tonnage 
deck)  the  length  is  divided  into  6  equal  parts; 
in  Class  2  (vessels  50  to  100  feet  long),  8  equal 
parts:  in  Class  3  (vessels  100  to  150  feet  long), 
10  equal  parts:  in  Class  4  (vessels  150  to  200 
feet  long),  12  equal  parts;  in  Class  5  (vessels 
200  to  250  feet  long),  14  equal  parts:  in 
Class  6  (vessels  over  250  feet  long),  IG  equal 
parts.  The  method  of  measuring  and  conip\iting 
net  and  gross  tonnage  is  the  same  as  that  al- 
ready described. 

The  British  system  of  measurement  has  also 
been  adopted  by  the  following  countries  on  the 
dates  given:  Denmark,  18G7;  Austria-Hungary, 
1871;  Germany,  1873;  France,  1873:  Italy,  1873; 
Spain,  1874;  Sweden,  1875;  Netherlands,  187G; 
Norway,  187G;  Greece.  1878;  Russia.  1879;  Fin- 
land, 1877;  Haiti,  1882;  Belgium.  1884;  Japan, 
1884.  In  some  of  these  the  allowance  of  deduc- 
tions, particularly  that  for  propelling  machinery, 
dilTers  somewhat  from  the  British  rule. 

BiBLioGR.vriiY.  For  furtlu'r  information,  con- 
sult: Instructions  to  Measuring  Surrcgors  (Lon- 
don, 1891)  ;  Lloyd's  Seaman's  Ahnaniic  (London, 
1893)  ;  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States, 
Section  4153;  and  the  Suppleuicnta  to  the  lie- 
vised  Statutes,  also  the  Statutes  at  Large  for 
1895.  The  Instructions  to  Measuring  Surrcgora 
gives  all  the  British  acts  complete  with  instruc- 
tions for  carrving  them  into  effect,  detinitions, 
etc. 

MEASURE  OF  DAMAGES.     See  Damages. 

MEASURES.     See  Weights  and  Measubes. 

MEASURING  WORM.  Any  one  of  the 
larv:c  of  I  lie  li'[ii(lnptcrous  superfamily  Geoniet- 
rida",  also  calli-d  l(io]H'rs.  The  group  is  a  vei"y 
extensive  one  and  consists  of  fragile  moths  willi 
comparatively  large  wings.  The  caterpillars  are 
long  and  slender,  with  only  one  pair  of  abdominal 
feet  placed  upon  the  ninib  segment  of  the  body. 
There  is  also  an  anal  pair  of  feet  which  function 
as  claspers.  The  measuring  worms  walk  by  mov- 
ing these  two  pairs  of  feet  up  to  the  thoracic 
legs,  so  that  the  body  forms  a  large  loop,  giving 
the  insect  the  appearance  of  measuring  the  sur- 
face \ipon  which  it  is  walking.  It  is  this  habit 
which  has  given  the  popular  names  'loopers.' 
'inchworms,'  etc.  (see  Gkomkthid  Morn),  and 
the.  scientific  name  Geometrida-  to  the  insects 
of  this  groiip.  Measuring  worms  feed  upon  the 
leaves  of  plants,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
which  bore  into  seeds.  They  are  usually  protec- 
tively colored  so  as  to  resemble  twigs,  and  they 
have  the  attitude  when  at  rest  of  holding  the 
body  stiff  and  erect  at  an  angle  from  the  main 
stem  of  the  plant,  so  that  they  almost  perfectly 
resemble  twigs.  'I'he  individuals  of  tlie  same 
species  vary  in  color  during  life,  and  with  some 
species  there  is  a  well  marked  dimorphism.  In 
some  species  the  dimorpliism  is  potential,  and 
the    future   color    is   settled    by    some    condition 


MEASTTBING  WORM. 


235 


MEAT. 


occurring    duriiif;    tlic    early    life   of    tlic    larva,  fat  wliich  are  fmincl  in  the  different  parts  of  the 

Poulton  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  atti-  carcass  betweou  and  within  membranes  and  ten- 

tudcs  and  colors  of  these  larva;,   and  rates  the  dons.     Besides  the  fat  ordinarily  visible,  there  is 

value    of    their    protecting,'    inllucnee    at    a    very  always  present  more  or   less   of  fat  in  particles 

high  ])oint.     In  one  variable  English   sjieciea  he  too  small  to  be  readily  distinguished  from   the 

states  that  the  dark  tint  is  due  to  pigment  in  the  lean    which    surrounds   it.      These    particles   can, 

skin    or    immediately    below    it    and    the    green  however,  be  readily  obtained  by  chemical  methods 


color  to  a  layer  of  fat  between  the  hypoderniis 
and  the  superficial  muscles.  In  some  geometrids 
the  adult  females  are  wingless.  A  marked  ex- 
ample of  this  group  is  seen  in  the  canker-worm 
moths  of  the  United  States.  (See  Canker- 
WOBM.)  The  winter  moth  {Cheimatobia  hruiiui- 
t<i}.  a  species  which  is  conmion  and  widespread 
in  Europe  and  North  America,  has  also  a  wing- 
less female.  One  of  the  currant- worms  common 
to    Euroi)e   and    North    America     [Eufitchia 


in  quantities  sufficient  to  be  seen  and  weighed. 
The  lean  part  of  the  meat  has  practically  the 
same  final  structure,  regardless  of  its  kind  and 
source.  All  muscular  tissue  is  made  uj)  of 
prism-shaped  bundles,  which  can  be  divided  into 
smaller  and  smaller  bundles,  until  finally  the 
muscle  fibres  or  tubes  are  reached.  These  ir- 
regular tubes  vary  in  diameter  from  j^,,^  to 
j^j  of  an  inch,  and  are  therefore  invisible  to  the 
unaided  eye.     They  are  held  together  in  bundles 


leariii)   is  a  member  of  this  gi'oup  in  which  the  by  means  of  connective  tissue  between  and  inside 

female  is  fully  winged.  w-hich  tlie  invisible  fat  is  stored.     The  en\-elope 

Certain    moths    of    the    noetuine    series   exist,  or  wall  of  each  tube  is  a  very  delicate,  elastic 

whose  larva^  lack  certain  of  the  middle  prolegs,  membrane,    composed    of    nitrogenous    material, 

and  which  therefore  walk  in  a  looping  or  meas-  The  walls  themselves  are  comparatively  perma- 


uring  manner,  but  these  are  not  true  measuring 
worms.  The  cotton  caterpillar  {Aletia  xylina) 
is  an  example. 

Consult:   Edwards,  Staiidnrd  Natural  ITistory, 


nent,  but  their  contents  are  continuallj'  under- 
going change  and  renewal. 

Jleat  is  very  commonly  eaten  fresh,  but  large 
quantities   are   also   salted,    smoked,   dried,    and 


vol.   ii.    (Boston,    1884);   Comstock,   ilanual  for  canned.     The  meats  found   in  the  markets  con- 

the    fitudji    of    Insects    (Ithaca,    1895)  ;    Sharp,  sist  of  the   lean   or  muscular  tissue,   connective 

Cambrid(/e    yaiiiral    Ilislori/,    vol.    vi.     (London,  tissue,    or    gristle,    fatty    tissue,    blood    vessels, 

1899)  ;   Packard.  "A  Ponograph  of  the  Geomet-  nerves,  bone,  etc.     No  general  statement  can  be 

rid  Moths  or  Phala-nidse  of  the  United  States,"  made   with   regard   to   the   proportion   in   which 

in  Hayden's  Annual  Report  of  the  United  ^tates  these  substances   occur,  as  it   is   found  to  vary 

Geoloyical  durvey,  vo\.  x.{  Washington,  1876).  greatly  with  the  kind  of  animal,  with  different 


MEAT  (AS.  mete,  Icel.  matr,  mata,  Goth. 
mats.  OHG.  maz,  meat,  Ger.  ilass-leid,  aversion 
to  meat).  The  flesh  of  animals  used  as  food. 
Sometimes  the  word  is  restricted  to  the  domes- 
tic animals,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  while  the  term 


'cuts'  from  the  same  animal,  and  with  many  other 
conditions.  Nearly  all  meats  bought  and  sold  in 
the  markets  contain  portions  not  suitable  for 
eating,  which  may  be  properly  designated  as 
refuse. 

Cuts  of  JIeat.     The  methods  of  ctitting  car- 


game  is  applied  to  the  flesh  of  wild  animals  and  cassos  of  beef,  veal,  mutton,  and  pork  into  parts, 
poultry  to  the  flesh  of  domestic  fowl.  The  great  and  the  terms  used  for  the  different  'cuts,'  as 
importance  of  the  meat  in- 
dustry is  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing figures:  In  1900  the 
estimated  number  of  cattle  in 
the  United  States  was  67,000,- 
000;  of  these  some  17,000,- 
000  were  dairy  cows,  two 
years  old  and  over,  while  the 
remaining  .50.000.000  included 
beef  cattle,  dairy  bulls,  dairy 
heifers  under  two  years  old, 
dairy  calves,  etc.  lii  1901  the 
total  numl)er  of  cattle  slaugh- 
tered in  Cbicagf).  Saint  Louis, 
Kansas  Citv,  and  Omaha  was 
4,500,000.  the  number  slaugh- 
tered by  large  jiackers  in  other 
cities  and  bv  local  butchers 
greatly  exceeds  this  figiire. 
The  total  number  of  hogs  in 
the  United  St:ites  in  1900  has 
been  estimated  at  63.000.000, 
the  number  annually  slaugh- 
tered at  40,000.000,'  in  years 
when  the  liusin.>ss  was  most  artive  and  the  sup-  these  parts  are  commonlv  called,  vary  consider- 
ply  most  plentifid.  The  value  of  all  hogs  slaugh-  ablv  in  diftcrcnt  localities.  The  figures  for  com- 
tered  during  the  year  ending  March  1.  1902.  has  position  quoted  below  ajiplv  in  general  to  cuts 
been  estimated  at  $338..3.50.000.  Similar  statis-  as  indicated  by  the  accoinpanving  diagrams, 
tics  for  the  sheep  and  lambs  slaughtered  for  These  show  the  positions  of  the  dilterent  cuts,  both 
food  are  not  available.  in  the  live  animal  and  in  the  dressed  carcass  as 

_  ileat.  i.e.   flesh   food,  consists  of  the  muscular     found   in  the  markets.     The  lines  of  division  be- 
ti.ssue,   or   lean,   and   the   varying   quantities   of     tween  the  different  cuts  will  vary  sliglitly  accord- 
VOL.  XIII.— 16. 


Fio.  1.  DIAGRAM  OF  CUTS  OF  BEEF  O've  animal). 
1.  Npck ;  2,  chuck  :    3.  ribs;  4,  slioulilered  clod  ;  5,   fore    shauk ;  6.  brisket  ■  7 
cross-ribs  :  8,  pl,ite  ;  9,  navel ;  10,  loin  ;  11,  flank  ;  12.  rump  ;  13,  round  •  14   second 
cut  round  ;  15,  hind  shank. 


MEAT. 


236 


MEAT. 


ing  to  the  usage  of  tlie  local  market,  even  where 
the  general  method  of  cutting  is  as  here  indi- 
cated. The  names  of  the  same  cuts  likewise  vary 
in  dilferent  ]>arts  of  the  countrv.  Thus  the  part 
nearest  the  ribs  of  beef  is 
frequently  called  '.small  end 
of  .loin'  or  "short  steak.'  The 
other  end  of  the  loin  is 
called  'hip  sirloin'  or  'sir- 
loin.' Between  the  short 
and  the  sirloin  is  a 
portion  quite  general- 
ly called  the  "tender- 
loin,' for  the  reason 
that  the  real  tender- 
loin, the  very  tender 
strip  of  meat  lying 
inside  the  loin,  is 
found  most  fully  de- 
volojH'd  in  this  cut. 
Porterhouse  steak  is  a 
term  frequently  ap- 
plied to  either  the 
short  steak  or  the  ten- 
derloin. It  is  not  un- 
common to  find 
the  flank  cut  .so 
as  to  include 
more  of  the  loin 
than  is  indicated 
in  the  figures  be- 
low, in  which 
case  the  upper 
portion  is  called 
'flank  steak.'  The 
larger  part  of 
the  flank  and  the 
rump  is  very  fre- 
quently corned  or 
pickled  in  brine. 
In  some  markets 
the  rump  is  cut 
.so  as  to  include 
a    portion    of    tin 


2.    DItERSKI)   8[I)£   OP   UKKF. 

,   which    is   then   sold   as 


'rump  steak.'  The  portion  of  the  rouml  on  the 
outside  of  the  leg  is  regarded  as  more  tender  than 
that  on  the  inside,  and  is  frequently  preferred 
to  the  latter. 


considerably  from  tlial  employed  with  beef.  This 
is  illustrated  by  Figs.  3  and  4,  which  show  the 
relative  position  of  tlie  cuts  in  the  animal  and  in 
a  dressed  side. 

I'igs.  5  and  C  show  the  relative  position  of  the 
cuts  in  a  dressed  side  of  mutton  or  lamb  and  in 
a  live  animal. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  pork  difl'ers 
considerably     from     that    employed     with     other 
meats.      .\     large    ])ortion    of    the    carcass    of    a 
dressed  pig  consists  of  almost 
clear   fat.     This   furnishes  the 
cuts   which   are   u.sed   for   "salt 
pork'  and  bacon.     Figs.  7  and  S 
illustrate  a  common  method  of 
lutliiig   up    pork,   showing   the 
ii'lative  ])ositions  of  the  cuts  in 
tlie  animal   and   in   tlie  dressed 
side.     The  hams  and  shoulders 
are  more  freciuently  cured,  but 
are    also    sold    as    fresh     pork 
"steak.'     The  tenderloin  proper, 
which    is    not    indicated    in   the 
ligure,  is  a  comparatively  lean 
and   very   small    strip   of   meat 
lying    under    the    bones    of    the 
loin   anil   usiuilly  weighing  less 
than  a  pound.     In  cutting 
up  pork,  sonic  fat  is  usu- 
ally    trimmed     olT     from 
the  hams  and   shoulders, 
wliich  is  called  'ham  and 
>lKnilder  fat'  and  is  often 
used    for    sausages,    etc. 
What  is  called  'leaf  lard.' 
at    least    in    some    locali- 
ties, comes   from   the   in- 
side of  the  back,  and  is  the  kidney  fat. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  average  com- 
position of  a  number  of  kinds  and  cuts  of  meat 
and  also  that  of  a  number  of  meat  products. 

The  amount  of  refuse,  chielly  bone,  in  meat 
as  purchased,  varies  greatly  with  the  different 
cuts.  .Judged  by  the  averages  of  a  large  number 
of  analyses,  it  ranges  in  beef  from  nothing  in 
tenderloin  to  about  '>S  per  cent,  in  lean  hind 
shank;  in  veal,  nothing  in  flank  to  (i.'5  per  cent, 
in  medium  fat  hind  shank ;  in  lamb,  from  7 
per  cent,  in  very  fat  hind  leg  to  "20  per  cent,  in 
shoulder;   in  mutton,  from  about   10  per  cent,  in 


DRKSSED     SIDE     OF 
VEAU. 


Flo.   3.    »IAnRA.U    OK  CUTS  OK    VEAI,. 

1,  Neck  :  2.  chuck  ;  3.  .'4h<Mil<]i>r ;  4,  fore  Hhniik  ;  fi.  Itreoat ; 
6,  rlb« ;  7.  loin  ;  8,  flnnk  ;  il.  leg  ;  lU.  hinil  aliaiik. 


Flo.    &.     DIAOBAM  OK  CL'TH  OK  MCTTON  OR  LAMB  IN  THE  LITB 
ANIMAL. 

1,  Neck  ;  2,  cbuck :  3,  Hhouhli-r ;  4.  flank ;  6.  loin  ;  6.  lei;. 


The  general  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  beef  medium    fat    flank    to    about    28    per    cent,    in 

is  ilhistrnted  in  Figs.   1  and  2,  which  show  the  medium  fat  neck;  and  in  pork,  from  about  1  per 

relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  the  animal  and  in  cent,    in    fresh    lean    liani   to   6S   per  cent,   in   the 

a  dressed  side.  head.     It  would  perhaps  not  be  incorrect  to  say 

The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  veal  differs  that,  considering  all  means,  the  refuse  averages 


MEAT. 


237 


MEAT. 


from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  (he  matorial  as  pur- 
chased. 

Digestibility.  Aeenrdinj;  to  the  results  of  a 
number  of  experiments,  an  average  of  97  per 
cent,  of  the  protein  and  !I5  per  cent,  of  the  fat 
of  meat  is  digested.  Little  is  known  of  llie  rela- 
tive digestibility  of  difl'erent  kinds  of  meat,  but 
it  is  probable  that  as  regards  thoroughness  of 
digestion   they   do  not  vary   greatly. 

Texture  (Toughness)  of  Me.vts.  Whether 
meats  are  tough  or  tender  depends  upon  two 
things:  the  character  of  the  walls  of  the  muscle 
tubes  and  the  eliaraeter  of  the  connective  tissues 
which  bind  the  tubes  and  muscles  together.  In 
young  and  well -nourished  animals  the  tube  walls 
are  thin  and  delicate,  and  the  connective  tissue 
is  small  in  amount.  As  the  animals  grow  older 
or  are  made  to  work  (and  this  is  particularly 
true  in  the  case  of  poorly  nourished  animals)  the 
walls  of  the  muscle  tubes  and  the  connective 
tissues  become  thick  and  hard.  This  is  the 
reason  wliy  the  flesli  of  young, 
well-fed  animals  is  tender  and 
easily  masticated,  while  the 
llesh  of  old,  hard-worked,  or 
poorly  fed  animals  is  often  so 
tough  that  prolonged  boiling 
or  roasting  seems  to  have  but 
little  eti'ect  on  it. 

After  slauglitering,  meats 
iMidergo  marked  changes  in 
texture.  These  changes  can  be 
grouped  under  three  classes  or 
stages.  In  the  first  stage, 
when  the  meat  is  just  slaugh- 
tered, the  tlesh  is  soft,  juicy, 
and  quite  tender.  In  the  next 
stage  tlie  tlesh  stilt'ens  and  the 
meat  becomes  hard  and  tough. 
This  condition  is  known  as 
rifior  mortis  and  continues 
until  the  third  stage,  when  the 
tirst  changes  of  decomposition 
set  in.  In  hot  climates  the 
meat  is  commonly  eaten  in 
either  the  first  or  second 
.stage.  In  cold  climates  it  is 
seldom  eaten  before  the  second 
stage,  and  generally,  in  order 
to  lessen  the  toughness,  it  is 
allowed  to  enter  the  third  stage, 
when  it  becomes  soft  and  tender,  and  acquires 
added  flavor.  The  softening  is  due  in  part  to 
the  formation  of  lactic  acid,  which  acts  upon  the 
connective  tissue.  The  same  eti'ect  may  be  pro- 
duced, though  more  rapidly,  by  macerating  the 
meat  with  weak  vinegar.  Meat  is  sometimes 
made  tender  by  cutting  the  flesh  into  thin  slices 
and  jiounding  it  across  the  cut  ends  until  the 
fibres  are  broken. 

The  flavor  depends  largely  upon  the  kinds  and 
amounts  of  'nitrogenous  extractives'  which  the 
nuisde  fibres  or  tubes  contain.  Pork  and  nuitton 
are  deficient  in  extractives,  and  what  flavor  they 
possess  is  due  largely  to  the  fats  contained  in 
them.  The  flesh  of  birds  and  of  most  game  is 
very  rich  in  extractives,  which  accounts  for  its 
high  flavor.  In  general,  the  flavor  of  any  par- 
tic\ilar  meat  is  largely  modified  by  the  condition 
of  the  animal  when  slaughtered,  and  by  its  food. 
age,  breed,  etc.  The  flesh  of  young  animals  is 
more  tender  than  but  not  so  highly  flavored  as  that 
of  more  raatui-e  animals.     It  is  often  said  that 


the  flesh  of  males  is  more  highly  flavored  than 
that  of  females.  There  are  at  least  two  excep- 
tions to  this  rule,  since  the  flesh  of  the  goose  is 
more  highly  flavored  than  that  of  the  gander, 
and  in  the  case  of  pork  there  is  little  dillerenee 
between  the  flesh  of  the  male  and  that  of  the 
female.    Castration,  as  illustrated  in  the  familiar 


Fia.    6.   DKlisSED   SIDE 
OF      MUTTON      OB 


Fig.  7.    DIAGRAM   OF  CDT8   OF   PORK. 

1.  Head;  '2.  shoulder:  3,  back;  4,  middle  cut;   5,  belly; 
6,  ham  ;  7.  ribs  :  8,  loin. 

example  of  the  capon,  tends  to  make  the  flesh 
more  tender,  fatter,  and  better  flavored.  The 
flesh  of  the  animals  which  feed  exclusively  upon 
fish  or  flesh  has  a  strong,  disagreeable  taste,  and 
is  eaten  only  by  uncivilized  people  or  those  in 
great  need.  Fish  is  an  exception  to  the  rule, 
however.  Jleat  which  is  allowed  to  hang  and 
ripen  develops  added  flavors.  In  the  first  stages 
of  decomposition  compounds  quite  similar  to  the 
nitrogenous  extractives  are  formed,  and  it  is 
to  these  that  the  improved  flavors  are  due. 

Cooking.  Meat  is  not  often  eaten  raw  by 
civilized  people.  For  the  most  part  it  is  either 
roasted,  broiled,  fried,  stewed,  or  boiled.  Among 
the  chief  objects  of  cooking  are  the  loo.sening  and 
softening  of  the  tissues,  which  facilitates  di- 
gestion by  exposing  them  more  fully  to  the  action 
of  the  digestive  juices.  Another  important  ob- 
ject is  to  kill  parasites  and 
microiirganisms  it  present, 
and  thus  destroy  organisms 
that  might  otherwise  expose 
the  eater  to  great  risks. 
Minor,  but  by  no  means  un- 
important, objects  are  the 
coagulation  of  the  albumen 
and  blood  so  as  to  render 
the  meat  more  acceptable  to 
the  sight,  and  the  develop- 
ment and  improvement  of 
the  natural  flavor,  which  is 
often  accomplished  in  part 
by  the  addition  of  condi- 
ments. 

If  meat  in  cooking  is 
placed  in  cold  water  and 
heated  gi'adually,  jjart  of  the 
organic  salts,  the  soluble  al- 
bumen, and  the  extractives 
or  flavoring  matters  will  be 
dissolved  out.  The  broth  or 
soup  obtained  will  be  rich, 
but  the  meat  will  be  eorre- 
s])ondingly  tasteless.  This 
tasteless  material  has  been 
found  to  be  as  easily  and 
completely  digested  as  the  same  weight  of  ordi- 
nary roast.  It  contains  nearly  all  the  protein  of 
the  meat,  and,  if  it  is  properly  <'ombined  w'ith 
vegetables,  salt,  and  flavoring  materials,  makes 
an  agreeable  as  well  as  nutritious  food.  If  a 
piece  of  meat  is  plunged  into  boiling  water,  the 


Fig.  8.  DRESSED  SIDE  or 
PORK. 


MEAT. 


238 


!m:eat. 


AvEBAGE  Composition  of  a  Number  of  Cuts  of  Meat  and  Meat  Products 


BEEF,    FRESH 

Brisket,  medium  fat.  edible  portion 

Chuck,  including  shoulder,  edible  portion 

('buck,  rib,  edible  portion 

Khmk.  edible  portion 

Loin,  edible  portion 

Loin,  porterhoujie  steak,  edible  portion 

Loiu.  sirloin  steak,  edible  portion 

Ijoin,  tenderloin , 

Muvel,  medium  !at,  edible  portion , 

Meek,  edible  portion 

PliiU*,  edible  portion 

Kibs.  edible  portion 

Kib  rolls,  as  purchased 

Round,  edible  portion 

Round,  second  cut,  edible  portion 

Runt]),  edible  i)ortion 

Shank,  fore,  edible  portion 

Shank,  hind,  edible  portion 

Shoulder  and  clod,  edible  portion 

Fl>rc(lUil^^=•^,  edible  portion 

Koi-equarter.  as  purchased 

Uindquarter,  edible  portion 

Hindquartcr,  as  purchased 

Sides,  edible  portion 

•Sides,  afl  purchased 

Beef  liver,  edible  portion 

Tongue,  edible  portion 

BEEF,  CASHED 

Corned  beef 

Dried  beef,  as  purchased 

Roa«t  beef,  as  purchased 

BEEF,   CORNED  AND  PICKLED 

Corned  beef,  edible  portion 

Tongues,  pickled,  edible  portion 

Tongues,  pickled,  as  purchased 

Tripe 

Dried  beef,  salted  and  smoked,  edible  portion 

VEAL.  PBE8H 

Breast,  edible  portion , 

Chuck,  edible  portion 

Flank,  ns  purchased 

I^eg.  edible  ]>nrtion 

Leg  cutlets,  edible  portion 

Loin,  edible  portion 

\«ck.  cdil)le  portion 

Rib.  edible  portion 

Shank,  fore,  ediide  portion 

.Shank,  hlud,  edible  portion 

Foreipiarter.  edible  portion 

Foreipiarter,  as  imrchased 

Hi  ml  quarter,  edible  portion ;. 

Hlndtiuarter.  as  purchased 

Side,  with  kidney,  fat  and  tallow,  edible  portion 

Side,  with  kidney,  fat.  as  purchased 

Heart,  ns  purchased 

Kidneys,  as  pur4'hased 

Liver,  as  purchased 

LAMB.   FRESH 

Breast  or  chuck,  edible  portion 

Leg,  hind,  edible  portion 

Loin,  without  kidney  and  tallow,  edible  portion. 

Ni'ck,  edible  portion 

ForcquarttT,  edible  portion 

Forcqunrter.  as  pnrchasfd 

Hlndi|iiarter.  edible  portion 

Hindcinnrter.  as  j)urchas.'d 

Side,  without  tnlhiw,  edible  portion 

Side,  without  tallow,  ns  purchased 

MUTTON,     FRESH 

Chuck,  edible  portion 

Flank,  edible  portion 

Leg,  hind.  I'dibic  portion 

Loin. -without  kliluey  or  tallow,  edible  portion... 

Nerk.  edible  portion 

.Shonld»T,  edible  i)ortion 

Forequarter,  edible  portion 

ForeqiiarttT.  ns  purchased 

Hindqu^jrter,  edible  portion 

Hlndquarter,  as  purchased 

Sides,  including  tallow,  as  purchnwd 

aide,  not  including  tallow,  rdible  portion 

Side,  not  Including  tallow,  as  purchased 


Refuse 

Water 

Pro- 
tein' 

Fat 

Total 

carbohy- 

drateB 

Aeh 

Fuel  value, 
per  pound 

Perct. 

Per  et. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

CaJories 

54.6 

15.8 

28.6 

0.9 

1.495 

65.0 

19.2 

15.4 

.9 

1,005 

66.8 

19.0 

13,4 

1.0 

!)20 

59.3 

19.6 

21.1 

.9 

1.255 

61.3 

19.0 

19.1 

1.0 

1,155 

60.0 

21.9 

20.4 

1.0 

1.270 

61.9 

18.9 

18.5 

1.0 

1.130 

59.2 

10.2 

24.4 

.8 

1.330 

47.6 

15.6 

SO.  5 

.8 

1,830 

66.3 

20.7 

12.7 

1.0 

920 

56.3 

16.8 

26.9 

.8 

1,450 

67.9 

17.8 

24.6 

.9 

1,370 

64.8 

19.4 

16.5 

.9 

1,015 

67.8 

20.9 

10.6 

1.1 

835 

69.8 

20.4 

8.6    1 

1.1 

740 

57.0 

18.7 

23.1 

.9 

1,325 

70.3 

21.4 

8.1 

.9 

740 

69.6 

21.7 

8.7 

1.0 

770 

08.9 

20.0 

10.3 

1.1 

805 

62.6 

18.3 

18.9 

.9 

1,135 

20.6 

49.5 

14.4 

15.1 

.7 

905 

62.2 

19.3 

18.3 

.9 

1,130 

10.3 

52.0 

16.1 

15.4 

.8 

9,'>0 

62.2 

18.8 

18.8 

.9 

1.145 

18.6 

50.5 

16.2 

16.5 

.7 

935 

71.2 

20.7 

4.5 

1.7 

1.0 

605 



70.S 

18.9 

9.2 

1.0 

740 

51. S 

26.3 

18.7 

4.0 

1,280 

•44.8 

39.2 

5.4 

11.2 

960 

68.9 

25.9 

14.8 

1.3 

1,105 

63.6 

15.6 

26.2 

4.9 

1,395 

62.3 

12.8 

20.6 

4.7 

1,105 

6.0 

68.9 

11.9 

19.2 

4.3 

1.030 

86.5 

11.7 

1.2 

.2 

.3 

270 

54.3 

30.0 

6.5 

.4 

9.1 

840 

68.2 

20.3 

11.0 

1.1 

840 

73.8 

19.7 

6.8 

1.0 

610 

66.9 

20.1 

12.7 

1.0 

910 

71.7 

20.7 

6.7 

1.1 

670 

70.7 

20.3 

7.7 

1.1 

706 

69.5 

19.9 

10.0 

1.1 

790 

72.0 

20.3 

6.9 

1.0 

670 

69.8 

20.2 

9.4 

1.1 

775 

74.0 

20.7 

5.2 

1.0 

605 

73.6 

20.7 

6.6 

1.0 

615 

71.7 

20.0 

8.0 

.9 

710 

24.6 

64.2 

15.1 

6.0 

.7 

535 

70.9 

20.7 

8.3 

1.0 

735 

20.7 

60.2 

10.2 

6.6 

.8 

580 

71.3 

20.2 

8.1 

1.0 

715 

22.6 

65.2 

16.6 

6.3 

.8 

565 

73.2 

16.8 

9.6 

1.0 

720 

76.8 

16.9 

6.4 

1.3 

686 

73.0 

19.0 

6.3 

1.3 

676 

66.2 

19.1 

28.6 

1.0 

1,350 

68.6 

18.6 

22.6 

1.0 

1,3(«) 

63.1 

18.7 

28.3 

1.0 

1,640 

66.7 

17.7 

24.8 

1.0 

1,375 

65.1 

18.3 

26.8 

1.0 

1,4.10 

18.8 

44.7 

14.9 

21.0 

.8 

l,l(i5 

60.9 

19.6 

19.1 

1.0 

1.170 

16.7 

61.3 

10.6 

16.1 

.9 

986 

68.2 

17.6 

23.1 

1.1 

1.3001 

W.3 

47.0 

14.1 

18.7 

.8 

1,056 

48.J 

14.6 

36.8 

.8 

1,825 

42.7 

14.3 

42.6 

.7 

2.065 

63.2 

18.7 

17. S 

1.0 

1,085 

47.8 

15.6 

36.2 

.8 

1,816 

56.6 

16.7 

26.3 

I.O 

1,420 

(KI.2 

17.6 

21.8 

.9 

1,245 

62.9 

15.6 

30.9 

.9 

1,695 

ii.'a 

41.6 

12.3 

24.6 

.7 

1,265 

54.8 

16.7 

28.1 

.8 

1,495 

17.2 

46. 4 

13.8 

23.2 

.7 

1,236 

18.1 

46.4 

13.0 

23.1 

.7 

1,216 

83.6 

10.2 

29.8 

.8 

1,660 

W.3 

43.3 

13.0 

24.0 

.7 

1.256 

MEAT. 


239 


MEAT. 


PORK,    FRESH 

Chuck,  riha.  nml  sluniltler,  edible  portion 

Flank.  .■.lihU-  porriou 

Haiii,  fr.-sli.  fdible  portlou 

Heail.  .Miilile  portion 

Heail  fheerfe.  edible  portion 

Loin.  i-liopH.  edible  pi)rtioii 

Loin.  t^Midei'loiii.  aa  purchased 

Midiile  ruts,  edible  portiou 

Sh»»uitii'r.  edible  portion 

Side,  not  including  lard  and  kidney,  edible  portion... 

Sldt'.  not  including  lard  and  kidney,  as  purchased 

Clear  backs,  edible  portion 

Clear  bellies,  edible  portion 

Back.  Tat,  as  purchased 

Belly,  fat,  as  purchased 

Feet,  edible  portion 

Kidney 

Liver 


PORK,    PICKLED,   SALTED,  AND    SMOKED 

Haul,  smoked,  edible  portion 

Sliouidcr,  smoked,  edildc  portion 

Toiigu»'M.  pickled,  edible  portion 

Feet,  pii-kled.  edible  portion 

Ury»  salted  back,  edible  portion 

Dry.  sait«d  bellies,  edible  portion 

Salt  pork,  dear  fat,  as  jiurchased 

Salt  pork,  lean  ends,  edible  portion 

Bacon,  smoked,  edible  portion 

Ham,  deviled,  canned 


Bolocrna 

Frankfort.. 
Pork 


POULTRY   AND   GAME 

Chicken,  broilers,  edible  portion 

('hieken,  broilers,  as  purchased 

Fowl,  edible  portion 

Fowl,  as  purcliased 

Goose,  young,  edible  portion 

Goose,  young,  as  purchased 

Turke.v,  edible  i.>orlion 

Turkey,  as  purchased 

Chicken,  liver 

Chicken,  heart 

Chicken,  gizzard 

Plover,  roast,  canned 

Quail,  canned 


Refuse 

Water 

Pro- 
tein* 

Fat 

Perct. 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

81.1 

17.3 

31.1 

59.0 

18.5 

22.2 

50.1 

15. T 

33.4 

45.3 

13.4 

41.3 



43.3 

19.5 

33.8 

50.7 

16.4 

32.0 

66.6 

18.9 

13.0 

4S.2 

15.7 

36.3 

51.2 

13.3 

34.2 

34.4 

9.1 

65.3 

11.5 

30.4 

8.0 

49.0 

25.1 

6.4 

67.6 

31.4 

6.9 

60.4 

7.7 

3.6 

89.9 

13.8 

5.2 

81.9 

55.4 

15.8 

26.3 

77.8 

15.5 

4.8 

71.4 

21.3 

4.5 

38.8 

16.5 

38.8 

37.6 

15.5 

41.0 

58.0 

17.7 

19.8 

68.2 

16.3 

14.8 

17.3 

7.7 

72.7 

17.7 

8.4 

72.2 

7.9 

1.9 

86.2 

19.9 

8.4 

67.1 

20.2 

10.5 

64.8 

44.1 

19.0 

34.1 

60.0 

18.7 

17.6 

67.2 

19.6 

18.6 

39.8 

13.0 

44.2 

74.8 

21.5 

2.6 

41.6 

43.7 

12.8 

1.4 

63.7 

19.3 

16.3 

26.9 

47.1 

13.7 

12.3 

46.7 

16.3 

36.2 

17.6 

38.5 

13.4 

29.8 

55.5 

21.1 

22.9 

22.7 

42.4 

16.1 

18.4 

69.3 

22.4 

4.2 

72.0 

20.7 

5.5 

72.5 

24.7 

1.4. 

57.7 

22.4 

10.2 

66.9 

21.8 

8.0 

Total 
carbohy- 
drates 


Perct. 


1.4 


.3 
1.1 
1.1 


7.0 
1.7 


Ash 


Perct 

0.9 

1.0 

.9 

.7 

3.3 

.9 

1.0 

.7 

.8 

.5 

.5 

.4 

.4 

.1 

.2 

.8 

1.2 

1.4 


4.7 
6.1 
3.6 
.9 
2.8 
3.4 
3.9 
5.7 
6.1 
3.3 


3.7 
3.4 
2.2 


1.1 

.7 

1.0 

.7 

.8 

.7 

1.0 

.8 

1.7 

1.4 

1.4 

2.1 

1.6 


Fuel  value, 
per  pijuud 


C&lorieis 
1,0.35 
1,280 
1.700 
1,990 
1.790 
1,655 
900 
1,825 
1,690 
2,505 
2,215 
2,970 
2,675 
3.800 
3,555 
1,405 
490 
615 


1,945 
2,020 
1,105 
930 
3.210 
3,200 
3,670 
2,985 
2.930 
1,790 


1,095 
1,170 
2,125 


505 

295 

1,045 

775 

1,830 

1,505 

1,360 

1,075 

640 

615 

520 

985 

775 


•  In  many  cases  the  sum  of  thp  constituents  does  not  equal  100,  since  no  account  is  taken  of  the  carbohydrates. 
In  analyses  of  meat  it  Is  sometimes  customary  to  estimate  the  protein  as  the  difference  between  100  aud  the 
sum  of  the  other  constituents. 


albuiiicn  on  the  entire  surface  of  the  meat  is 
quickly  coaguhited,  and  tlie  enveloping  crust  thus 
formed  resists  the  dis.solving  action  of  water  and 
prevents  the  escape  of  tlie  juices  and  flavoring 
matters.  Thus  cooked,  the  meat  retains  most  of 
its  llavoring  matters  and  has  the  desired  meaty 
taste.  Tlie  resulting  broth  is  correspondingly 
poor. 

Theoretical]}',  the  principal  difference  between 
roasting  or  baking  and  boiling  is  the  medium 
in  which  the  meat  is  cooked.  In  boiling,  the 
(lesli  to  be  cooked  is  surrounded  by  boiling 
water;  in  roasting,  by  hot  air,  although  in  roast- 
ing proiier  much  of  the  heat  conies  to  the  joint 
as  'radiant'  heat.  In  both  cases,  if  properly  con- 
ducted, the  fibres  of  the  meats  are  cooked  in  their 
own  juices. 

It  is  interesting  and  at  the  same  time  impor- 
tant to  remember  that  the  smaller  the  cut  to  he 
roasted  the  hotter  should  be  the  fire  and  the 
shorter  the  period  of  cooking.  A  very  hot  fire 
coagulates  the  exterior  and  prevents  the  drying 
up  of  the  meat  juices.  This  method  would  not, 
however,  be  applicable  to  large  cuts,  because 
meats  are  poor  conductors  of  heat,  and  a  large 
piece  of  meat  exposed  to  this  intense  heat  would 


become  burned  and  changed  to  charcoal  on  the 
exterior  long  before  the  heat  could  penetrate  to 
the  interior.  The  broiling  of  a  steak  or  a  chop 
is  done  on  exactly  this  principle.  An  intense 
heat  should  be  applied  to  coagulate  the  albumen 
thoroughly  and  stop  the  pores,  and  thus  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  juices. 

Recent  experiments  on  the  losses  in  cooking 
meat  lead  to  the  following  deductions:  The 
chief  loss  in  weight  during  the  cooking  of  beef, 
and  doubtless  other  meats  also,  is  due  to  the 
driving  away  of  water.  When  beef  is  'pan- 
broiled'  there  appears  to  be  no  great  loss  of  nu- 
tritive material.  When  beef  is  cooked  in  water 
from  3  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  solids  is  found 
in  the  broth.  Beef  which  has  been  used  for 
the  preparation  of  beef  tea  or  broth  has  lost 
comparatively  little  nutritive  value,  though 
nuich  of  the  flavoring  material  has  been  removed. 
The  amount  of  fat  found  in  the  broth  varies 
directly  with  the  amount  present  in  the  meat — 
i.e.  the  fatter  the  meat  the  larger  the  quantity 
in  the  broth.  The  amount  of  water  lost  during 
cooking  varies  inversely  as  the  fatness  of  the  meat 
— i.e.  the  fatter  the  meat  the  less  the  shrinkage 
in  cooking.     In  cooking  in  water  the  loss  of  con- 


MEAT. 


240 


MECCA. 


stituenls  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  size 
of  the  piece  of  meat.  In  other  words,  the  smaller 
the  piece  the  greater  tlie  percentage  of  loss.  The 
loss  appears  to  lieiiend  upon  the  length  of  time 
of  cooking.  When  meat  in  pieces  weighing  from 
l';.  to  5  pounds  is  cooked  in  water  at  S0°  to  85° 
C.'(175°  to  185°  F.)  there  appears  to  be  little 
difTerence  in  the  amount  of  material  found  in 
the  broth  whether  tlie  meat  is  placed  in  cold 
water  or  hot   water  at  the  start. 

Since  meat  nutrients  are  principally  protein 
and  fat,  a  considerable  amount  of  carbohydrate 
foods  (bread  and  other  cereals,  vegetables,  fruits, 
etc.)  are  eaten  with  the  meats  to  form  a  well- 
balanced  diet.  According  to  the  results  of  a 
large  number  of  dietary  studies,  beef  and  veal  to- 
gether furnished  10.3  per  cent,  of  the  diet  of  the 
average  American  family;  nuitton  and  lamb,  1.4 
per  cent.;  pork.  5.4  per  cent.;  and  poultrj', 
1.1  per  cent,  of  the  total  food;  beef  and  veal, 
24. (i:  mutton  and  lamb.  3.:i :  pork,  8.8;  and  poul- 
trv.  2.(i  per  cent,  of  the  total  protein,  and  19.5, 
3.8,  30.0,  and  1.2  per  cent,  respectively  of  the 
total  fat. 

For  further  information,  consult  the  general 
works  mentioned  under  Food;  also  Fijrster,  Dcr 
yalnwert  des  Riiitlfleinches  bei  den  gchrauch- 
lichsleih  Zuhercitunrjsarien  (Berlin,  1897)  ; 
L'nited  Stales  Department  of  Agriculture.  Office 
of  E.Kperiment  Stations  Bulletins  Nos.  28  (re- 
vised), Gfi,  and  102;  United  Stales  Department 
of  Agriculture.  Bureau  of  Chemistry  Bulletin 
13.  part  10;  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. Farnn>rs'  Bulletin  Xo.  34. 

MEAT-BIRD.      The   Canada   jay.      See  Jat. 

MEAT-FLY.     See  Fij:.su-Fly. 

MEAT  EXTRACT.   The  term  meat  extract  is 
connncinlv  api)lied  to  a  large  number  of  prepara- 
tions of  "very  dill'erent  character.     They  may  be 
conveniently    divided    into    three    classes:       (1) 
True  meat  "extracts;    (2)    meat  juice  obtained  by 
pressure  and  jjreserved,  compounds  which  contain 
dried  pulverized  meat,  and  similar  prei)arations; 
and    (3)    alluimose  or  peptose  preparations,  com- 
monly called   |)redigested   foods.     Tlic   true  nu>at 
extract,   if  \ni\e.  contains   little  else  besides   tlie 
flavoring  mailers  of   the   meal   from   which   it  is 
prepared,  together  with  such  mineral  salts  as  may 
be  dissolved   out.      It  should  contain   no   gelatin 
or   fat,   and  cannot,  from   the  way   in  which   it 
is    made,   contain    any    albumen.      It    is.    there- 
fore,  not   a   food   at   all.   but  a   stimulant,   an<l 
should    be    classed    with    tea.    coffee,    and    other 
allied    substances.      It    should    never    l)e    admin- 
istered  to   the   sick   except   as   directed    by   com- 
petent  medical   advice.      Its   strong   meaty   taste 
is   diveptive,   and   the   person   depending   upon   it 
alone  for  food  would  certainly  die  of  slarvatitm. 
Siu-h  meat  extracts  are  often  found  useful  in  the 
kitchen   for    flavoring  soups,   sauces,   etc.      Broth 
and  beef  tea  as  prepared  ordinarily  in  the  house- 
hold  contain   niiue  or   less   protein,  gelatin,   and 
fat.   and    llu'ri'fore   are   foods   as   well   as   stinni- 
lants.      The    proportion    of    water    in    such    com- 
pr)unds  Is  always  very  large.     The  i)ieserved  meat 
juice  and   similar   |)reparations  contain   more  or 
less    priilein.   and    therefore   have   some   value   as 
food.      The    third   class   of   preparations    is   com- 
paratively new.     The  better  ones  are  really  what 
they  claim   to  he — predigested  foods.     They  con- 
tain    the     soluble    nlbumoses     (pcptoses),    etc., 


which  ai"e  obtained  from  meat  by  artificial  diges- 
tion. The  use  of  such  preparations  should  bo 
regulated  by  competent  medical  advice. 

MEATH,  meTH.  A  county  of  the  Province  of 
Leinster.  Ireland,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Irish  Sea  and  the  counties  of  Dublin  and  Louth, 
on  the  north  by  Monaghan,  T.oulli.  and  Cavan,  on 
the  west  by  Westmeath  and  Cavan.  and  on  the 
south  by  Dublin.  Kildare.  and  Kings;  area,  90fi 
square  miles  (Ifap:  Ireland,  E  3).  The  soil  is 
a  rich  loam  and  fertile:  but  it  is  devoted  almost 
entirely  to  pasture,  only  21  per  cent,  being  under 
crops.  "  The  capital  is  Trim.  Population,  in 
1841,   183.850:   in  1901.  67,400. 

MEATJX,  mf>.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  De- 
partment of  Seine-et-Marne,  on  the  river  Marne 
(Map:  France.  .13).  It  is  28  miles  by  rail  east 
of  Paris.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  a  college,  and 
a  public  lilirary.  Bossuet.  whose  remains  are  in 
the  calliedral.  was  bishop  here  for  twenty-three 
years.  11  has  a  brisk  trade  in  corn,  cheese,  eggs, 
"and  poultry;  its  mills  supply  Paris  with  most 
of  its  meai  and  corn.  Tlicre  ari"  manufactures 
of  colton  :ind  other  I'loths.  cheese,  sugar,  steel, 
etc.     Population,  in  1901,  13,690. 

MECCA    (Ar.    Makkah,   or   Bakkah,   Koran, 
Sura    iii.    90;    called    also    al-Musharrifah,    the 
E.xalted,  I'm  in  al-Kura,  mother  of  cities,  and  al- 
Bakid    (il-Amln,    the    s;ife    place,    known    to    the 
geograi)hcr    Ptolemy   as   Macoraba).      Capital   of 
the  Turkish   Province  of  Hedjaz  in  .\rabia.  and, 
through  being  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  and 
containing  the  Kaaba,  the  central  and  most  holy 
city  of  all   Islam.     The  two  other  principal  holy 
cities  are  Medina  and  .lerusalem.     It  is  situated 
in  latitude  21°   28'  N.  and   in   longitude  40°    15' 
E.,    250    miles    soutli    of    .Medina,    and    about    60 
miles  east  of  .Jiddah.    its   port   on   the   Red   Sea, 
in  a   narrow,  barren   valley,  surrounded   l>y  bare 
hills     from    250    lo    800    feel     high.       The    city 
is  about  a  mile  and  a   half  long,  and  from  one- 
third  to  two-thirds  of  a  mile  wide,  and  is  divided 
into  the  upper  and  lower  city.   An  aqueduct  built 
by    Zuliaidah     (810),    wife   "of   Harun    al-Rasliid. 
brings   good   water    from   the    mountains    to   the 
east.     By  its  position,  Mecca  commands  the  trade 
routes  connecting  lower  Hedjaz  with  Xorth.  South, 
and  Central  .Arabia,  and  it  has  at  all  times  been 
a  conunercial  and  religious  centre.    The  streets  are 
somewhat   regular,  but   unp:ivcd:   dusty  in   sum- 
mer, and   nuiddy  during  the   rainy   season.     The 
houses  are  often  five  stories  high.     Some  of  the 
Government  buildings,  the  Hamidivvah.  or  palace 
of    the    (iovernor.    the    printing    olfice.    the   chief 
watch-house,  and  the  three  armories,  are  in   the 
new  part  of  the  city   (iilJiiiiid)   southeast  of  the 
IJaram.  or  sacred  precincts,  and  this  part  of  the 
cit.v  has  a  Euro]iean  apjiearance.  Tlu'  only  manu- 
factures of  Mecca  arc  ro>aries  and  pottery:  some 
dyeing  is  also  done:   the   inhabitants  make  their 
living  chielly  by  letting  rooms  at  the  time  of  the 
pilgrimage  (sec  H.\.T.i)   to  the  pilgrims  who  come 
here  often  to  the  number  of  100.000.     The  largest 
numlior  of  these   pilgrims   are   Malays   and    In- 
dians;    then     come     negroes.     Persians.     Turks. 
Egj'ptians.  S.vrians.  Tatars,  and  Chinese.     Ordi- 
narilv  the  citv  contains  about  50.000  inhabitants. 
The    centre    of    the    city    is    the     \tnsji(l    iilfln- 
riim.  or   Sacred   Mosque,  which   lies  beneath   the 
level  u)ion  which  the  rest  of  the  city  stands  and 
is  always  liable  to  inundations  from  the  flail  or 
mountain   torrent.     This  sacred  area   is  capable 


MECCA. 


241 


MECHANICAL  POWERS. 


of  holding  35,000  people.  (See  Kaaba.)  A 
great  number  of  people  are  attached  to  the 
niosquo  in  some  kind  of  ecclesiastical  capacity, 
as  hhatib.s  (preachers),  Kutibs  (scribes),  Muf- 
tis, judicial  assessors,  nuiezzins,  etc.  In  addi- 
tion lo  this,  each  section  of  the  Jlohainmedau 
Avorld  lias  its  representatives  in  Mecca,  who  take 
care  of  its  pilgrims,  provide  them  with  lodgings, 
instruct  them  in  the  ceremonies,  and  the  like. 
Bv  the  side  of  the  mosque  runs  the  Mas'ali,  a 
street  lined  by  high  houses  and  reaching  up  to 
the  hills,  Safa  and  Marwah,  tlirougli  wliich  the 
pilgrims  must  run  seven  times.  A  telegraph 
line  coniU'cts  Mecca  with  .Jiddah  on  the  west  and 
with  Taif  on  the  east,  where  the  Meccans  spend 
their  summer. 

The  history  of  ilecca  has  been  an  eventful  one. 
Mohanunedan  legend  holds  that  it  was  inhabited 
by  Islunael,  whose  posterity  was  supplanted  by 
the  lidiiii  Jiirhum  of  Yemen,  who  in  their  turn 
were  supplanted  by  the  Khuzii'a,  also  of  Yemen, 
in  the  year  a.u.  210.  Aliout  450  a  certain  Kus- 
sai  of  the  Koreish  familv,  and  an  ancestor  of 
Mohammed,  seized  the  Kaaba  and  his  family  is 
supposed  to  reign  there  to-day.  Here  ilohammed 
was  l)orn  (c.  570).  and  in  the  same  year  the  city 
was  menaced  by  the  Abyssinians  ('Year  of  the 
Elephant').  Its  patricians  opposed  the  Prophet, 
but  gave  in  eight  years  after  he  had  fled  to 
Medina.  Though  large  sums  of  money  were 
lavished  upon  it  by  successive  ^Mohammedan 
rulers,  it  was  not  an  easy  cit,v  to  hold.  It  had 
its  own  pretender  to  the  Caliphate  in  Abdallah- 
ben-Zolicir.  who  was  besieged  in  ilecca  in  692  by 
the  Caliph  al-Hajjaj  and  finally  slain.  In  030 
it  was  devastated  by  the  Karmathians.  But  it 
always  had  its  own  rulers  or  sherifs,  descend- 
ants of  the  Propliet  through  Hasan,  son  of  Ali  •. 
and.  though  they  recognized  the  supremacy  of 
the  Fatimites,  Mamelukes,  and  Turkish  sultans, 
they  had  a  large  measure  of  independence.  Since 
Selini  I.  (1517)  they  have  ruled  in  the  name  of 
the  Turkisli  Sultan."  In  ISO:!  tlie  Wahliabis  took 
the  city,  but  were  driven  out  bv  Mehemet  Ali 
in  1813.  A  change  in  the  dynasty  of  sherifs 
occurred  in  1827.  Since  1840  their  prestige  has 
gradually  diminished,  a  Wall  (Governor)  being 
sent  b.v  the  Porte  to  offset  their  power.  Thougli 
all  non-Mohammedans  are  strietl.y  prohibited 
from  visiting  the  sacred  territory.a  few  Euro- 
peans have  been  there  (see  Hajj,  where  the 
literature  will  also  be  found).  Consult  Snouck- 
Hurgronje.  Mekka  (The  Hague,  1888-89,  with 
atlas),  which  is  the  standard  work  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

MECHAIN,  ma'slifix'.  Pierre  Francois  An- 
DRfi  (1744- 1804).  A  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Laon.  He  attracted  the  attention  of  Lalande 
(q.v. ).  who  secured  him  a  place  as  Government 
hydrographer.  He  still,  however,  managed  to 
keep  up  his  astronomical  studies,  and  was  in 
1782  elected  to  .the  Academy.  In  1791,  when  the 
Government  had  decided  to  use  the  arc  of  merid- 
ian between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona  as  a  basis 
for  the  new  metric  system,  he  was  employed 
to  measure  that  portion  which  lies  between 
Rodez  and  Barcelona.  On  the  completion  of 
this  work  he  resumed  his  observations  at  Paris, 
but.  an  error  having  been  discovered  in  his 
measurements,  he  returned  to  Spain  to  correct 
it  and  was  there  stricken  with  yellow  fever.  He 
■contributed  memoirs  on  eclipses  and  the  theory 


of  comets  to  the  1'ransactions  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences   and  to  the   Cuiinaissaiicc  du    Tentjis,  of 
which  he  was  editor  from   I7S8  till   1794. 
MECHANICAL    ADVANTAGE.      See    Me- 

CIlA.NK.^l.    PuWKKS. 

MECHANICAL     ENGINEER.      See    Engi- 
neer AND  Engineering. 

MECHANICAL    ENGINEERS,     American 

Society  of.  An  association  of  professional  me- 
chanical engineers,  manufacturers,  and  pro- 
fessors in  technical  schools,  organized  in  New 
Y'ork  in  1880  to  promote  tlie  arts  and  sciences 
connected  with  engineering  and  mechanical  con- 
struction. There  are  two  meetings  yearly:  one, 
the  regular  meeting,  in  New  York  City  in 
December ;  the  other  in  some  manufacturing 
city.  The  society  has  a  considerable  member- 
ship in  all  civilized  countries  and  has  head- 
quarters in  New  York  City,  with  a  library  of 
over  eight  thousand  volumes.  Membersliip  in  the 
soeiet.v  is  carefully  guarded,  and  consists  of 
honorary  members,  members,  associates,  and 
juniors.  To  be  eligible  as  a  member,  the  candi- 
date must  be  not  less  than  thirty  years  of  age, 
and  must  be  a  competent  engineer,  designer,  or 
constructor,  or  must  have  served  as  a  teacher  of 
engineering  for  more  than  five  years.  An  asso- 
ciate must  be  not  less  than  twenty-six  years  of 
age,  and  must  possess  the  qualifications  of  a 
member.  A  junior  must  have  had  considerable 
engineering  experience  or  must  be  a  graduate  of 
an  engineering  school.  The  society  is  governed 
by  a  council  consisting  of  a  president,  six  vice- 
presidents,  nine  managers,  and  a  secretary  and 
treasurer. 

MECHANICAL     EQUIVALENT     OE 
HEAT.     See  Heat. 

MECHANICAL    POWERS  -  MACHINES. 

Technieall,v  described  a  machine  is  a  combination 
of  resistant  bodies  for  modifying  energy  and 
doing  work,  the  members  of  which  are  so  ar- 
ranged that,  in  operation,  the  motion  of  an.y 
member  involves  definite,  relative,  constrained 
motion  of  the  others.  A  brief  anal.vsis  of  this 
definition  will  help  to  make  it  clear.  First,  a 
machine  must  consist  of  a  combination  of  bodies; 
thus  a  lever  must  have  its  fulcrum,  a  screw  its 
nut.  a  wheel  and  axle  its  bearings,  and  so  on  with 
other  examples:  the  simplest  machine  must  have 
at  least  two  members  between  which  relative 
motion  is  possible.  Second,  the  members  of  a  ma- 
chine must  lie  resistant  in  order  to  transmit  force  : 
tliey  generall.v  are  rigid,  but  not  necessarily 
so,  since  flexible  belts,  chains,  or  springs  may 
be  employed  to  transmit  force  under  the  par- 
ticular action  to  which  they  are  adapted.  Third, 
a  machine  is  used  to  modify  energy  and  perfonn 
work.  This  proposition  is  obvious.  The  con- 
ception of  a  machine  involves  the  conception  of 
some  source  of  energy  and  a  train  of  mechanism 
suitably  arranged  to  receive,  modify,  and  appl,y 
the  energ}'  derived  from  this  source  to  the  de- 
sired end.  A  machine,  then,  consists  of  ( 1 ) 
parts  receiving  the  energy:  (2)  parts  transmit- 
ting and  modifying  the  energy:  and  (3)  parts 
performing  the  required  work.  Finally,  (4)  the 
lelative  motions  of  the  members  of  a  machine  arc 
constrained  or  restricted  to  certain  definite,  pre- 
determined paths  in  which  they  must  move,  if 
they  move  at  all,  relatively.  Tlie  first  two 
propositions  of  the  definition  are  equally  true  of 
structures    (such   as  a  bridge)    as  of  machines, 


MECHANICAL  POWEBS. 


242 


MECHANICAL  UNITS. 


but  tlie  tliiid  and  fourth  are  true  of  machines 
only  and  serve  to  distinguish  machines  from 
structures.  A  structure  modifies  and  transmits 
force  onl}-,  and  does  not  permit  rchitivo  motion 
of  its  members;  a  machine  iiioditics  and  trans- 
mits force  and  motion,  that  is,  energy,  and  per- 
mits relative  constrained  motion  of  its  members. 

The  distinction  between  a  machine  and  a 
mechanism  remains  to  be  explained.  A  mechan- 
ism is  a  combination  of  resistant  bodies  for  trans- 
mitting and  modifying  motion  (not  motion  and 
force  or  energy  as  in  machines)  so  arranged  that, 
in  operation,  the  motion  of  any  member  involves 
definite,  relative,  constrained  motion  of  the  other 
:nembers.  A  mechanism  does  work  incidentally 
such  as  the  overcoming  of  its  own  frictional 
resistance;  its  primary  function  is  to  modify  and 
transmit  motion;  a  meclianisin  or  combination 
of  mechanisms  which  receive  energy  and  transmit 
and  modify  it  for  the  performance  of  useful 
work   constitute   a   machine. 

^lacliines  are  of  various  degrees  of  complexity, 
but  the  simple  parts  or  elements  of  which  they 
are  composed  are  reducible  to  a  very  few.  These 
elementary  machines  are  called  the  mechanical 
powers,  and  are  commonly  reckoned  as  the 
lever,  the  inclined  plane,  the  jointed  link,  or 
toggle  joint,  and  the  hydraulic  press.  All  ma- 
chines and  all  locomotive  movements  of  ani- 
mals resolve  themselves  into  the  action  of  one 
or  a  combination  of  these  simple  mechanical 
powers  or  machine  elements.  A  few  observations 
applicable  to  all  may  appropriately  be  made 
here.  (1)  In  treating  of  the  theory  of  the  lever 
and  other  mechanical  powers,  the  question  really 
examined  is,  not  what  power  is  necessary  to 
move  a  certain  weight,  but  what  power  is  neces- 
sary to  balance  it.  This  once  done,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  least  additional  force  will  suflice  to  be- 
gin motion.  (2)  In  pure  theoretical  mechanics, 
it  is  assumed  that  the  machines  are  without 
weight.  A  lever,  for  instance,  is  supposed  to  be 
a  mere  rigid  line;  it  is  also  supposed  to  be  pcr- 
f'-clly  rigid,  not  bending  or  altering  its  form 
under  any  pressure.  The  motion  of  the  machine 
is  also  supposed  to  be  without  friction.  In  prac- 
tical mechanics,  the  weiglit  of  tlie  machine,  the 
yieliling  of  its  parts,  and  tlie  resistance  of  fric- 
tion have  to  be  taken  into  account.  (3)  When 
the  elTect  of  a  machine  is  to  make  a  force  over- 
come a  resistance  greater  than  itself,  it  is  said 
to  give  a  mechanical  advantage.  A  machine, 
however,  never  actually  increases  power — for 
that  would  be  to  create  work  or  energy,  a  thing 
as  impossible  as  to  create  matter.  What  is 
gained  in  one  way  by  a  machine  is  always  lost 
in  another.  One  pound  of  weight  at  the  long  end 
of  a  lever  will  lift  10  pounds  at  tlie  short  end. 
if  the  arms  are  rightly  proportioned;  but  to  lift 
10  i)onnds  through  I  foot,  it  nuist  descend  10 
feet.  Tlie  two  weights,  when  thus  in  motion, 
have  equal  momenta;  the  moving  mass  multi- 
plied into  its  velocity  is  equal  to  the  resisting 
mass  multiplied  into  its  velocity.  When  the 
lever  seems  to  multiply  force,  it  only  concen- 
trates or  accumulates  the  exertions  of  the  force. 
The  descending  one-pound  weight,  in  the  case 
above  supposed,  may  be  conceived  as  making 
ten  ilistini't  exTtions  of  its  force,  each  through 
a  space  of  a  foot;  and  all  these  are  concentrated 
in  the  raising  of  the  ten-pound  weight  through 
one  font.  The  principle  thus  illustrated  in  the 
case   of  the   lever  holds  good   of   all   the   other 


mechanical  powers.  (4)  The  object  of  a  machine 
is  not  always  to  increase  force  or  pressure;  it  is 
as  often  to  gain  velocity  at  the  exjiense  of  force. 
(See  Leveh. )  In  a  factory,  for  example,  the 
,  object  of  the  train  of  machinery  is  to  distribute 
the  slowly  working  force  of  a  powerful  water- 
wheel  or  other  prime  mover,  among  a  multitude 
of  terminal  parts  moving  rapidly,  but  having 
little  resistance  to  overcome.  (.5)  The  mechani- 
cal advantage  of  a  compound  macliine  is  theo- 
retically equal  to  the  product  of  the  separate 
mechanical  advantages  of  the  simple  machines 
composing  it ;  but  in  applying  machines  to  do 
work,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  inertia  of 
the  materials  comjiosing  them,  the  flexure  of 
parts  sulijected  to  strains,  and  the  friction,  which 
increases  rapidly  with  the  complexity  of  the 
parts;  and  these  considi'rations  make  it  desirable 
that  a  machine  should  consist;  of  as  few  parts 
as  are  consistent  with  the  work  it  has  to  do. 
(6)  The  forces  or  'moving  powers'  by  which 
machines  are  driven  are  the  muscular  strength  of 
men  and  animals,  wind,  water,  electrical  and 
magnetic  attractions,  steam,  etc. ;  and  the  grand 
object  in  the  construction  of  machines  is,  with 
a  given  amount  of  impelling  power,  to  get  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  of  the  kind  required. 
(See  Work;  Koot-i-oi  xd. )  This  gives  rise  to  ti 
multitmle  of  |)rubleiiis.  some  more  or  less  gen- 
eral, others  relating  more  especially  to  particu- 
lar ca.ses — problems  the  investigation  of  which 
constitutes  the  science  of  applied  mechanics. 
One  of  the  questions  of  most  general  ajiplica- 
tion  is  the  following:  If  the  resistance  to  a 
machine  were  gradually  retluced  to  zero,  its 
velocity  would  be  constantly  accelerated  tuilil  it 
attained  :i  maximum,  wlilch  would  be  when  the 
point  to  wliich  the  impelling  force  is  applied  was 
moving  at  the  same  rate  as  the  impelling  force 
itself  (e.g.  the  piston-rod  of  a  steam-engine) 
would  move  if  unresisted.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  resistance  were  increased  to  a  certain  point, 
the  machine  w'ould  come  to  a  stand.  Xow  the 
problem  is,  between  these  two  extremes  to  find 
the  rate  at  which  the  greatest  efTect  or  amount 
of  work  is  got  from  the  same  amount  of  driving 
power.  The  investigation  would  be  out  of  place 
Iierc,  but  tlie  result  is  that  the  greatest  elTect 
is  pnxluced  when  the  velocit,v  of  the  point  of 
application  is  one-third  of  the  maximum  velocity 
above  spoken  of.  The  moving  force  and  the  re- 
sistance should  therefore  be  so  adjusted  as  to 
prcKhicc  this  v<'Ioc-ilv.    Sec  Mechanics. 

MECHANICAL  TISSUE.  The  suiiporting 
tissue  (sterconie)  of  the  ]dant,  including  not 
onl,v  the  vascular  system,  but  also  the  cortical 
sclerenchyma  and  colhnchyma.  Cortical  me- 
chanical tissue  is  ])articularly  prominent  in  the 
hvpodcrma    nf  stems  and   leaves. 

'MECHANICAL  UNITS.  Various  units  or 
standariN  u-ril  in  dill'erent  countries  and  under 
dill'crent  conditions  for  the  expression  of  me- 
chanical quantities.  One  system,  the  C.  G.  S. 
system  (q.v.).  is  based  upon  the  centimeter,  the 
gram,  ami  the  mean  solar  second,  .\nother  uses 
the  foot,  the  pound,  and  the  mean  solar  second. 
Tlie  yard  and  the  ])oun<l  are  legally  defined 
as  follows:  "The  straight  line  or  distance  be- 
tween the  centres  of  the  transverse  lines  in  the 
two  gohl  plugs  in  the  l)ronze  bar  depositeil  in  the 
ollice  of  the  Excherpier  [London]  shall  be  the 
gentiine  standard  yard  at  62°  F. ;  the  pound  is 
the  mass  of  a  certain  piece  of  platinum  marked 


MECHANICAL  UNITS. 


243 


MECHANICS. 


'P.  S.  1844,  1  pound,'  and  deposited  at  the  office 
of  the  Kxchequer."  Both  the  standard  yard  and 
pound  are  now  preserved  at  tlie  Standards  Office 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  London.  Still  another 
system  is  based  upon  the  foot  (one-third  of  the 
yard),  the  mean  solar  second,  and  the  u-ciylit  of 
one  pound  at  sea-level  and  latitude  .'/-i"  as  the 
unit  of  force.  (A  unit  mass  is  yiven  an  accelera- 
tion unity  by  a  unit  force;  hence,  since  the  unit 
force  K'^''**  P^i'  second  an  acceleration  32.172  feet 
per  second  to  a  mass  of  one  pound,  it  will  give  an 
acceleration  1  to  32.172  pounds;  tljerefore.  on 
this  system,  the  unit  of  mass  is  32.172  pounds.) 
The  relations  between  these  units  is  as  follows : 

1  centinietiT  =  0,3937079  inches  =  0.01093633  yards. 

1  vftrd  =  yl. 43835  centimeter. 

1  griltn  =-  0.002'2046212.5  lb.  =  16.43235  grains. 

1  pound  =  453.59205  grams. 

The  units  for  the  various  important  mechanical 
quantities  are  derived  from  them.  These  de- 
rived units  and  a  few  others  are  given  in  the 
following  seetioas: 

\  clocity. — One  centimeter  per  second;  one 
yard  (or  foot)  per  second;  one  nautical  mile, 
knot   (0080  feet),  per  hour. 

Acceleration. — Unit  Telocity  per  second. 

Force. — One  gram  witli  unit  C.  G.  S.  accelera- 
tion =  rfy/ic;  one  pound  with  unit  (ft.-lb.-see.) 
acceleration  =  poundul  =  13,825  dynes.  Weight 
of  one  pound  =  44,520  dynes. 

ll"oc7,-. — One  dyne  acting  through  one  centi- 
meter =  cry ;  10'  ergs  :=joule.  One  pound  raised 
one  foot  =  foot-pound  —  1.326  joules.  One  kilo- 
gram raised  one  meter  =  kilogram-meter  =  9.81 
joules.  (The  last  two  relations  are  approxi- 
mate.) 

Power. — One  joule  per  second  =  icatt ;  33,000 
foot  -  pounds  per  minute  =  horse  -  power  =  746 
watts:  'force  de  cheval'^  75  kilogram-meters  per 
second  :=  730  watts. 

Pressure. — One  dyne  per  square  centimeter  = 
•barie.'  One  megadyne  (10°  dynes)  per  square 
centimeter  =  'mcgabarie.'  'Weight  of  one  pound 
per  square  foot'  =  47.9  dynes  per  scjuare  centi- 
meter; one  poundal  per  square  foot  =  14.88 
dynes  per  square  centimeter;  'one  centimeter  of 
mercury'  =  13.5950  X  980.692  dynes  per  square 
centimeter  =  13,332.5  dynes  per  square  centi- 
meter ;  lience  75  centimeters  of  mercury  =  1 
niegabarie  (very  closely)  ;  70  centimeters  of  mer- 
cury,  'one   atmosphere'  =  1.0133   megabarics. 

MECHANICS  (Lat.  mechaniea,  from  Gk. 
IJi.r]xo.vtKa.,  nifchanika,  fn]xa.viKri,  mcchanikc,  me- 
chanics, from  ix7]xa.rfi,  vierliniie,  device).  The 
science  wliicli  is  concerned  witli  tlie  motion  of 
matter;  the  possible  kinds  of  motion,  the  condi- 
tions under  wliich  the  motion  remains  unchanged, 
and  tliose  under  which  it  changes.  That  branch 
of  mechanics  which  discusses  the  possiljle  kinds 
of  motion  is  called  kinematics;  while  that  which 
discusses  the  properties  of  matter  in  motion  is 
called  diinamics.  Dynamics  is  divided  also  into 
two  parts — statics  and  kinetics — tlie  former 
treating  the  conditions  under  which  there  is  no 
change  in  the  motion;  the  latter,  those  under 
which  there  is  chanse. 

niSTORIC.\L   SKETCH. 

The  first  mechanical  problems  solved  were 
those  dealing  with  the  simple  machines.  Archi- 
medes (B.C.  287-212)  was  acquainted  with  the 
law  of  the  lever  in  its  simplest  form ;  and  Leo- 


nardo da  Vinci  (1452-1519)  stated  the  law  for 
the  most  general  case,  when  the  forces  were  in 
any  directions  and  applied  at  any  points.  The 
principle  of  the  inclined  plane  was  known  to 
Galileo  (1.504-1042)  and  to  Stevinus  (1548- 
1620).  Stevinus  was  Jhe  iirst  to  u.so  a  line  to 
describe  a  force,  and  to  make  use  of  the  principle 
of  the  composition  and  resolution  of  forces;  he 
also  discussed  the  properties  of  pulleys  and  com- 
binations of  pulleys,  using  the  principle  that  if 
force  applied  to  the  cord  (a  weight)  move  down 
a  certain  distance,  a  weight  fastened  to  the  pul- 
ley must  move  up  a  distance  such  that  the  product 
of  each  weight  by  its  distance  is  the  same.  This 
principle  is  that  of  'virtual  velocities,'  so  called, 
which  was  applied  also  by  Galileo,  TorriccUi, 
Bernoulli,  and  Lagrange.  In  his  treatment  of 
the  inclined  plane  Galileo  made  use  of  the  gen- 
ei'al  principle  that  there  is  equilibrium  in  any 
case  when  the  weight  as  a  wliole  cannot  descend 
farther;  or,  as  Torricelli  expressed  it,  when  the  ■ 
'centre  of  gravity'  cannot  descend. 

Galileo  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of  dy^ 
namics.  He  recognized  the  fact  that  if  a  piece 
of  matter  was  in  motion  and  was  free  from  ex- 
tei-nal  action  it  would  continue  its  motion  un- 
altered. He  proved  by  experiment  that  all  l)odie3 
fall  with  the  same  acceleration  toward  the  earth, 
and  proposed  that  the  value  of  a  force's  action  on  a 
body  be  measured  by  the  acceleration  produced. 
He  recognized  the  independence  of  different  mo- 
tions in  discussing  the  motion  of  a  projectile. 
He  was  acquainted,  too,  with  the  general  prop- 
erties of  a  simple  pendulum,  especially  its  prop- 
erty of  having  a  definite  period  which  varied  with 
the  length  of  the  string. 

Huygens  (1629-95)  did  fully  as  important  work 
as  Galileo  and  deserves  to  rank  with  him.  He  de- 
duced the  formula  for  centrifugal  motion,  «  =.s"r. 
He  invented  a  pendulum  clock  and  the  'escape- 
ment' for  it;  he  used  a  pendulum  to  determine  <;; 
and  proposed  a  seconds  pendulum  as  a  stand- 
ard of  length.  He  solved  the  problem  of  deduc- 
ing the  length  of  a  simple  pendulmu  which  would 
vibrate  in  the  same  period  as  a  compound  one, 
that  is,  he  determined  the  position  of  the  centre 
of  oscillation  (q.v. ).  In  tliis  last  deduction  he 
made  use  of  the  principle  that  in  whatever  man- 
ner the  particles  of  a  compound  pendulum  in- 
fluenced each  othei',  the  velocities  acquired  in 
the  descent  of  the  pendulum  are  such  that  by 
virtue  of  them  their  centre  of  gravity  rises  just 
as  high  as  the  point  from  which  it  fell,  whether 
the  pendulum  is  considered  a  rigid  body  or  as 
breaking  up  into  particles  each  connected  with 
the  axis  by  a  cord  and  thus  forTuing  a  great  num- 
ber of  simple  pendulums.  If  ;),,  p,,  etc.,  are  the 
treights  of  the  particles,  ft,,  ft,,  etc.,  arc  the  dis- 
tances they  have  fallen  at  any  instant,  and  s,, 
.Sg,  etc.,  are  their  speeds  at  that  instant.  Huygens's 
principle  leads  to  the  relation,  ip,.s,^  +  i/JjS.'  -|- 

etc.  =  (pifti  -|-  pJi;  -\-  etc.)  -  or 

2  Jp.s2  =  -  SpA. 

In  the  case  of  a  rigid  body  turning  around  a  fixed 
axis  Xips' =  W-Xpr",  where  w  is  the  angular 
speed  and  r  is  the  distance  of  the  particle  of 
weight  p  from  the  axis.  Thus  Huygens  was  led 
to  the  use  of  S/u-  as  a  measure  of  the  inertia 
of  a  rotating  body.  He  did  not.  however,  realize 
the  idea  of  mass  as  distinct  from  weight.     The 


MECHANICS. 


244 


MECHANICS. 


name    •moment   of   inertia'   was   given     Zinr'  by 
Eulcr. 

Xewton  gave  the  principles  of  mechanics  their 
final  form,  and  since  his  day  there  have  been  no 
important  additions  to  them.  We  owe  to  Newton 
( lti4i-1727)  the  recognition  of  other  forces  than 
weiglit,  the  general  idea  of  force,  and  in  particu- 
lar the  conception  of  inertia  or  mass  as  a  prop- 
erty of  matter  distinct  from  its  weight,  the  gen- 
eral statement  of  the  principle  of  the  composition 
and  resolution  of  forces,  and  the  law  of  action 
and  reaction  being  equal  but  opposite.  Newton 
adopted  as  the  proper  measure  of  a  force  the  ac- 
celeration produced  in  a  given  portion  of  matter; 
or,  in  other  words,  the  velocity  produced  in  a 
given  time.  According  to  Iluygens  the  measure 
of  the  force  is  the  square  of  the  velocity  produced 
in  a  given  distance.  Among  the  philosophers 
who  came  after  Newton  and  Huygens  tlu>re  wjis  a 
scliool.  following  Descartes,  who  measured  forces 
by  the  change  in  m  r :  another,  following  Leibnitz, 
who  measured  it  by  the  cliange  in  titv".  Thus,  to  a 
certain  extent  one  school  succeeded  Newton;  the 
other.  Huygens.  The  two  were  shown  by 
D'Alcmbert  to  be  identical,  although  there  was  a 
great  controversy  for  many  years  concerning 
their  relative  merits. 

KINEMATICS. 

All  ])Ossible  motions  of  any  geometrical  figure 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  trunslation  and 
rotation.  In  the  former  all  lines  in  the  moving 
figure  remain  parallel  to  themselves,  i.e.  the 
motions  of  all  the  points  are  identical ;  in  the 
latter  all  the  points  of  the  figure  are  describing 
circles  whose  centres  lie  on  a  straight  line  called 
the  'axis.'  In  the  general  case  the  motion  of  a 
figure  is  a  combination  of  translation  and  rota- 
tion. 

Translation.  In  motion  of  translation  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  the  motion  of  one  point  of 
tlie  figure  only,  as  that  is  the  same  for  all  the 
points.  If  the  figure  is  moved  from  one  position 
to  another,  this  disptdcemeiit  may  be  represented 
by  a  straight  line  joining  the  initial  and  final 
positions  of  any  one  point  of  the  figure.  This 
line  indicates  by  its  direction  and  its  length 
the  dis|)hicement  of  the  whole  figure:  it  is  called 
a  vector,  and  displacement  is  said  to  be  a  vector 
quantitii  because  it  rc(]uires  for  its  complete  un- 
derstanding a  direction  and  a  numerical  (piiuitity 
only,  and  so  can  be  pictured  by  a  straight  line 
having  the  proper  direction  and  a  length  equal 
to  or  proportional  to  the  numerical  quantity. 

If  the  motion  of  the  figure  is  imiform — that 
is,  if  it  passes  over  equal  distances  in  equal  in- 
tervals of  time — the  rate  of  motion,  or  the  dis- 
tance traversed  divided  by  tlie  time  taken,  is 
called  the  linear  speed.  If  the  motion  is  not  \ini- 
forni.  the  linear  speed  at  any  iu'ilant  is  the  dis- 
tance which  the  figure  would  move  in  the  next 
second  if  its  motion  were  to  continue  for  that 
interval  of  time  at  exactly  the  same  rate  as  it  is 
at  that  instant:  in  mathematical  symbols,  if  A.r 
is  the  length  of  the  extremely  short  distance 
traversed  in  the  extremely  short  interval  of  time 
A/    immediatelv   following  the  given   instant,   the 

St 
linear  speed  at  that  instant  is  the  value  of     -— 

in  the  limit  as  A'  is  taken  smaller  and  smaller. 
Speed  is  therefore  a  number.  If  the  speed  in  a 
particular  direction  is  considered — that  is.  if  a 
distinction  is  made  between  the  motions  of  fig- 


ures with  the  same  speed  but  in  different  direc- 
tions— the  linear  speed  in  a  given  direction  is 
called  the  linear  velocity  in  that  direction. 
Linear  velocity  is  evidently  a  vector  quantity; 
the  linear  speed  giving  the  numerical  quantity, 
i.e.  the  length  of  the  vector. 

If  a  figure  is  given  simultaneously  two  dis- 
placements, the  resulting  displacement  is  evi- 
dently found  by  'adding  geometrically'  the  two 
components.  Thus  if  Al.i  and  BC  represent  the 
two  component  displacements,  the  actual  one 
will  be  AC.  formed  liy  jilacing  BC  so  as  to  con- 
tinue the  motion  indicated  by  AB  and  completing 
the  triangle.  (A  man  walking  across  the  deck 
of  a  moving  ship  illustrates  this  'composition'  of 
displacements.)  Similarly,  if  AB  and  BC  repre- 
sent   the    linear   ve- 


locities of  the  two 
component  motions, 
the  actual  velocity 
is  represented  in  di- 
rection and  speed  by 
AC.  In  a  perfectly 
s  i  m  i  1  a  r  manner, 
three,  four,  etc.,  vec- 
tor qualities  may  be 
added  geometrically. 
Further,  conver.sely, 
any  displacement  or 
velocit.v  may  be  re- 
garded as  made  up 
of  two  disphieenients  or  two  velocities,  the 
condition  being  that  the  two  vectors  represent- 
ing the  component  quantities  should  form  a 
broken  line  joining  the  en<ls  of  the  vector  rep- 
resenting the  actual  quantity.  This  is  called 
'resolution'  of  displacement  or  velocity.  In  re- 
solving vectors  it  is  nearly  always  best  to  take 
the  components  so  that  they  are  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  for  then  they  are  independent  of 
each  other,  thus  if  .\B  is  a  displacement— or 
any  vector — its  'component  in  the  direction'  AF 
is  "the  vector  AC  obtained  by  dropping  a  per- 
pendicular from  B  ujion  .\F.  AB  is  equivalent 
to  AC  and  CB,  but  CB  has  no  connection  with 
the  direction  AF,  and  AC  is  then  that  component 
of   AB   which   indicates   how    nnieh    AB   is   con- 


cerned with  the  direction  AF.  In  mathematical 
language  the  component  in  the  direction  AF  of 
a  vector  AB  is  AB  cos  (CAB). 

In  general  the  velocity  of  a  moving  figure  will 
not  be  constant;  and  tlie  rate  of  change  of  the 
linear  velocity  at  any  instant — that  is.  if  ir-  is 
the  extremely  small  change  of  the  velocity  in 
the    extremely    small    interval    of    time    At,    the 

limitinc  value  of  —  —  is  called  the  linear  ac- 

'^  At 

rileration  at  that  instant.  It  ia  evident  that 
acceleration  being  the  change  in  velocity,  and 
therefore  the  <litrerence  between  two  lines,  is  it- 
self a  vector  quantity:  it  has  a  numerical  value 
and  a  definite  direction.,  and  as  with  displace- 
ments and  velocities,  accelerations  can  be  com- 


MECHANICS. 


245 


MECHANICS. 


pounded  l^v  geoiiietiioal  addition  or  resolved  into 
components.  Since  linear  velocity  is  character- 
ized h\  a  speed  and  by  a  direction,  it  can  change 
in  two  independent  ways:  the  speed  can  change, 
the  direction  remaining  the  same,  e.g.  a  falling 
body:  the  direction  can  change,  the  speed  remain- 
ing the  same,  e.g.  a  particle  moving  in  a  circle 
at  a  uniform  rate.  (In  general,  both  speed  and 
direction  change,  e.g.  a  vibrating  sim|dt'  pendu- 
lum.) There  are  therefore  two  independent  types 
of  linear  acceleration.  The  three  most  interest- 
ing cases  of  linear  acceleration  are  the  following: 

( 1 )  Motion  in  a  straight  line,  constant  ac- 
celeration. If  the  acceleration  is  positive,  the 
speed  increases ;  if  it  is  negative,  the  speed  de- 
creases. Let  the  acceleration  be  called  a,  and 
the  speed  at  any  instant  s„ ;  then,  t  seconds  later, 
the  speed  will  be  s  =  s„  -^-  at,  and  the  distance 
traversed  in  that  time  will  be  a?  =  s„f  -H  at".  If 
t  is  eliminated  from  these  equations  it  is  seen 
that  s-  —So"  =  2flj-.  These  formulte  apply  to  a 
body  falling  freeh'  toward  the  earth,  in  which 
case  (/  =  n80:  to  a  body  thrown  vertically  up- 
ward, in  which  case  a  =:  —  980;  and  to  many 
other  illustrations. 

(2)  Uniform  motion  in  a  circle.  If  the  circle 
has  a  radius  r,  and  if  the  constant  speed  is  s, 

s^ 
the  acceleration  has  for  its  numerical  value    — 

r 
and  its  direction  at  any  instant  is  along  the 
radius  toward  the  centre  from  the  point  where 
at  that  moment  the  moving  point  is.  This  last 
fact  is  evident  if  the  change  in  the  velocity  is 
considered.  At  any  position  in  its  path  around 
the  circle  the  moving  point  has  a  velociti/  along 
the  tangent  to  the  circle;  the  following  instant 
this  velocity  is  changed  into  the  next  tangent ; 
and  to  secure  this  change  a  small  vector  perpen- 
dicular to  the  first  tangent  must  be  added  to  the 
vector  representing  the  first  velocity.  The  proof 
that  the  numerical   value  of  the  acceleration   is 

—    will  be  found  in  all  text-books  on  mechanics. 

r 

If  the  point  makes  N  complete  revolutions  per 
second  s=^2ir?"N;  and  the  acceleration  equals 
4t'»'N". 

(.■?)  Simple  harmonic  motion  of  translation. 
This  is  a  vibratory  motion,  to  and  fro  along 
a  .straight  line,  such  that,  if  distances  from  its 
middle  point  are  called  .r,  the  acceleration  of  the 
moving  point  when  it  is  at  a  distance  x  from  the 
centre  has  the  numerical  value  irx,  where  n  is 
a  constant  quantity,  and  its  direction  is  toward 
the  niiddh'  ]Miint  or  centre.  I  To  distances  at  one 
siilc  of  the  centre  are  given  positive  values;  at 
the  other  side  negative.)  This  motion  can  be 
easily  shown  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the 
point  which  is  the  projection  on  a  diameter  of  a 
point  moving  in  a  circle  with  uniform  speed. 
It  can  be  shown  further  that  the  period  of  this 
harmonic  motion,  that  is,  the  time  required  for 
the  point  to  go  from  one  end  of  its  path  to  the 
other  and  back  again,  is  2x/»,  where  ir  ^ 
3.14Ifi.  The  length  of  the  path  is  called  the 
amplitude ;  and  the  position  of  the  vibrating 
point  at  any  instant  gives  its  pliasc.  Thus  there 
may  be  two  vibrating  points  which  have  the  same 
period  and  the  same  amplitude,  but  dilTer  in 
phase — one  lags  apparently  behinil  the  other. 

.\  pendvilum  with  a  long  supporting  cord 
makes  harmonic  vibrations,  if  the  amplitude  is 
small ;   so  does   any  point  of  a  violin   string  if 


the  string  is  vibrating  in  its  simplest  mode;  bo 
does  a  weight  hanging  from  a  rubber  band  or  a 
spiral  spring,  if  it  is  set  vibrating  in  a  vertical 
direction. 

R0T.\TI0K.  It  can  be  shown  by  geometry  that 
if  a  figure  of  any  shape  with  one  point  fixed 
is  displaced  in  any  way  by  any  .series  of  rota- 
tions, the  final  position  may  be  reached  from 
the  initial  one  by  a  single  rotation  around  an 
axis  passing  through  the  fixed  point.  The  simplest 
mode  of  describing  such  a  displacement  is  to 
imagine  a  plane  section  through  the  figure  per- 
pendicular to  this  axis,  to  take  in  this  plane  a 
line  fixed  in  space  and  one  fixed  in  the  figure, 
and  then  to  measure  the  rotation  by  the  change 
in  the  angle  made  with  the  former  line  by  the 
latter  as  the  figure  turns  around  the  a.xis.  Three 
things  are  then  necessary  for  the  representation 
of  the  angular  displacement:  (1)  The  position 
of  the  axis;  (2)  its  direction — a  line  in  one  direc- 
tion will  represent  rotation  in  the  direction  of 
the  hands  of  a  watch,  while  one  in  the  opposite 
direction  will  represent  opposite  rotation;  (3) 
the  numerical  value  of  the  angle  of  displacement, 
measured  as  just  described. 

(The  numerical  value  of  the  angle  between 
two  lines  is  obtained  by  describing  a  circle  of 
any  radius  R  with  the  point  of  intersection  of 
the  lines  as  the  centre,  measuring  the  length  of 
the  arc.  A,  intercepted  between  the  two  lines,  and 
dividing  A  by  R.     See  Teigonometry)  . 

This  angular  displacement  can  be  completely 
pictured  by  a  straight  line  in  the  proper  direc- 
tion made  to  coincide  with  tlie  axis  of  rotation 
and  of  a  length  proportional  to  the  angle  of  rota- 
tion: such  a  line  is  called  a  rotm;  or  a  localized 
vector,  because  it  is  a  vector  placed  in  a  definite 
position. 

If  a  rotation  around  a  fixed  axis  is  considered, 
the  angular  speed  is  the  rate  of  change  of  the 
angle  formed  by  the  line  fixed  in  space  and  that 
fi.xed  in  the  figure,  as  described  above.  The  angu- 
lar velocity  in  this  case  is  the  angular  speed 
around  the  given  axis  in  a  definite  sense  of  ro- 
tation; it  is  therefore  a  rotor.  If  a  figure  with 
one  point  fixed  is  given  simultaneously  two  angu- 
lar velocities  around  two  difl'erent  axes,  the  re- 
sultant angular  velocity  will  be  a  rotor  which  is 
the  geometrical  sum  of  the  two  component  rotors. 
Angular  acceleration  is  the  rate  of  change  of 
angular  velocity;  and  there  are  two,  independent 
types:  (1)  the  position  of  the  axis  fixed,  but 
the  angular  speed  changing;  (2)  the  angular 
speed  constant,  but  the  position  of  the  axis 
changing.  A  door  or  gate  when  opening  or  clos- 
ing is  an  illustration  of  the  first  type:  while  a 
spinning  top  generally  furnishes  an  illustration 
of  the  second,  because,  when  the  axis  of  the  top 
is  not  vertical,  it  is  moving  so  as  to  describe  a 
cone  in  space.  Actually  in  the  case  of  a  spin- 
ning top  the  angular  speed  is  decreasing  owing  to 
friction,  so  it  is  an  illustration  of  the  combina- 
tion of  the  two  types. 

The  three  most  interesting  cases  of  rotation 
are  the  following: 

(I)  Position  of  axis  fixed,  constant  angu- 
lar acceleration.  If  the  constant  acceleration 
is  a,  and  if  at  any  instant  the  angular  speed 
is  u„,  the  angular  speed  t  seconds  later  will 
be  M  ^  W(|  -|-  a(.  and  the  angle  rotated 
through  in  that  interval  of  time  will  be  8  = 
Wo'  +  ,\  at".  If  t  is  eliminated  from  these  two 
equations,  it  is  seen  that  oi'  —  w  „=  =  2o9.    This 


MECHANICS. 


246 


MECHANICS. 


motion  is  illustrated  by  n  lly-wheel  or  grind- 
stone coming  to  rest  under  a  constant  friction  or 
being  set  in  motion  at  a  uniform  rate. 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  definition  of  the 
numerical  value  of  an  angle  that  if  the  linear 
speed  and  acceleration  of  any  point  at  a  distance 
K  from  the  axis  are  *  and  a,  they  are  connected 
with  the  angular  speed  and  acceleration  of  the 
whole  figure  by  the  relations  s  =  Rw,  a  =  Ra. 

(2)  Angular  speed  constant,  but  the  position 
of  the  axis  describing  a  cone  at  a  uniform  rate. 
This  motion  is  illustrated,  as  explained  above, 
by  a  spinning  top.  A  piece  of  apparatus  which 
furnishes  a  more  accurate  illustration  consists  es- 
sentially of  a  heavy  wheel  whose  axle  is  so  sup- 
ported "that  it  can  turn  freely  within  a  circular 
ring  which  is  fastened  rigidly  to  a  metal  rod 
carrying  sliding  weights  at  its  further  end;  this 
rod  is  pivoted  at  its  middle  point  so  as  to  be 
free  to  turn  in  any  direction :  and  the  axle  of  the 
wheel  is  set  in  tlie  same  lino  as  this  rod.  This 
instrument  is  called  a  -gyroscopic  jjcndulum.' 
( For  a  description  of  one  ma<le  out  of  a  bicycle 
wheel,  see  Physical  Review,  vol.  x.  p.  43,  1901.) 
To  produce  the  desired  motion,  balance  the  wheel 
and  its  ring  by  means  of  tlie  sliding  weights  until 
the  rod  is  liorizontal,  set  the  wheel  in  rapid  ro- 
tation, and  disturb  the  balance  slightly  by  adding 
a  small  weight  to  either  portion  of  the  rod.  The 
rod  will  inuiiediately  begin  to  move  around  in  a 
horizontal  plane;  and  thus  the  position  of  the 
axis  of  rotation  of  the  wheel  will  change,  and 
will  describe  a  plane — the  limiting  form  of  a 
cone.  The  reason  for  this  change  is  that  there  is 
compounded  with  the  angidar  velocity  of  the 
wheel  around  its  own  axis  another  one  due  to 
the  disturbed  balance  of  the  rod  which  would  of 
itself  make  the  whole  apparatus  rotate  around  a 
horizontal  axis,  i.e.  turn  over  as  the  extra  weight 
pulls  its  side  down.  This  added  angular  velocity 
is  al)Out  an  axis  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the 
wheel,  and  both  lie  in  a  horizontal  plane;  the 
two  angular  velocities  will  compound  therefore  to 
form  an  angular  velocity  about  an  axis  in  the 
same  horizontal  i)Iai!e.  but  in  a  position  dilTerent 
from  that  of  the  axis  of  the  wheel  before  it  was 
disturbed.  As  fast  as  this  axis  takes  up  its 
new  position,  it  is  again  disturbed;  and  so  the 
motion  is  a  continuous  change  of  jiosition  of  the 
axis  of  the  wheel  in  a  horizcmtal  jilane.  (This 
case  in  rotation  corresponds,  therefore,  i)erfectly 
to  the  one  ih  translation  of  motion  of  a  point  in 
a  circle  at  a  uniform  speed.)  In  the  actual  use 
of  the  gyroscopic  pendtilum  there  are  other  phe- 
nomena depending  upon  the  properties  of  matter 
in  motion;  the  above  description  is  designed  to 
be  a  purely  kinematic  one. 

(3)  Simple  harmonic  motion  of  rotation.  This 
motion  is  illustrated  by  the  to  and  fro  rotation  of 
an  ordinary  clock  pendulum  or  l>y  the  vilirations 
of  any  body  set  swinging  through  small  arcs  when 
suspended  on  a  liorizontal  axis,  also  by  the  bal- 
nnei>  whiKd  of  a  watch.  T.et.  as  before,  two  lines 
be  taken  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis, 
one  fixed  in  the  figure,  the  otiier  in  space,  but 
so  chosen  that  they  coincide  when  the  vilirating 
figure  is  in  its  central  position.  Then,  if  d  is 
the  angular  dlsplacenieiit  at  any  instant  of  the 
line  fixed  in  the  tiguro  from  the  one  fixed  in 
spnco,  the  angular  acceleration  equals  m"  8, 
■where  m  is  a  constant  quantity,  and  the  direction 
of  the  axis  of  the  accelerntion  is  such  ns  always 
to  produce  an  angular  velocity  toward  the  posi- 


tion of  equilibrium.  The  period  of  a  complete 
vibration  may  be  shown  to  be  lir  /m.  The  ampli- 
tude is  the  extreme  angle  turned  through  by  the 
line  fixed  in  the  figure;  the  phase  at  any  given 
instant  depends  upon  the  position  of  this  line  at 
that  instant. 

JIoTioN  IN  General.  Translation  and  rotation 
are  particular  types  of  motion,  and  in  general 
the  motion  of  a  figure  includes  both.  It  may  be 
proved,  however,  by  geometry  that  the  most  gen- 
eral displacement  of  a  figure,  produced  by  any 
number  of  motions,  may  be  reduced  to  a  com- 
bination of  a  translation  along  a  certain  line  and 
a  rotation  around  it  as  an  axis ;  such  a  combina- 
tion is  called  'screw-motion.' 

DYNAMICS. 

Kinematics  is  a  science  which  is  concerned 
with  geometrical  ideas  alone;  it  is  the  application 
of  logical  principles  to  certain  definitions  and 
axioms;  it  is  not  concerned  with  any  appeal  to 
experience.  On  the  other  hand,  dynamics  is 
fundamentally  a  science  based  on  our  experience 
of  certain  sensations  associated  with  the  idea  of 
matter ;  and  the  object  of  the  science  is  to  make  ; 
such  an  analysis  of  the  facts  of  observation  and  , 
experience  as  will  lead  to  the  statement  of  a  few 
principles  from  which  all  observed  phenomena 
may  be  predicted.  It  is  possible  to  have  a  science 
based  entirely  on  definitions — which  are  sug- 
gested by  observations,  however — and  to  show 
that  all  observed  ])henomena  can  be  regarded  as 
consequences  of  these  definitions,  if  they  are  iden- 
tified with  actual  physical  quantities  which  ap- 
peal to  our  senses.  Such  a  science  is  called 
'theoretical  dynamics.'  In  the  following  treat- 
ment statics  is  considered  as  a  special  case  of 
kinetics. 

TuANSLATioN.  The  simplest  properly  of  mat- 
ter (q.v.)  is  illustrated  by  an  experiment  due  to 
Galileo.  If  a  ball  rolls  down  an  inclined  jilane 
and  then  meets  anotlier  plane  inclined  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  the  ball  will  roll  up  it  with  a 
constantly  decreasing  velocity;  the  less  inclined 
this  second  plane  is,  the  less  is  the  rate  of 
change  of  the  velocity  of  the  ball  as  it  rolls  up; 
therefore,  if  the  plane  is  perfectly  horizontal, 
there  is  every  reason  for  believing  that  the  cause 
of  the  observed  decreasing  velocity  of  the  ball  is 
friction,  and  that  if  there  were  no  friction  tlie 
velocity  of  (lie  liall  would  not  change.  In  other 
words,  it  is  tliought  to  be  a  general  law  of  nature 
that  a  portion  of  matter  free  from  all  external 
actions  will  maintain  its  state  of  motion  un- 
altered. 

If,  however,  the  motion  of  one  portion  <if  mat- 
ter is  inlluenced  by  the  presence  of  another  piece 
of  matter,  it  is  oliserved  tli.it  the  effect  is  mutual. 
The  simplest  case  of  two  bodies  influencing  each 
other's  motion  is  illustrated  by  two  billiard  balls 
striking  when  rolling  on  a  smooth  table,  i.e.  a 
surface  free  from  friction;  by  a  man  standing  on 
a  board  which  rests  on  siiinoth  ice,  and  then 
jumping  off;  by  a  bullet  fired  from  a  gun;  etc. 
One  law  applies  to  all  such  cases:  if  m,  and  m, 
are  the  m'assesof  the  twopiecesof  matter  which  are 
supposed  to  be  so  small  as  to  be  called  'particles,' 
r,  and  r,  their  linear  velocities  at  any  instant, 
V,  and  V.  their  linear  velocities  at  any  later  time, 
then 

m,v,  +  m,Vt  =  m,V,  -f  OTjV,, 

provided  there  are  no  external  actions,  that  is, 
provided  that  the  only  cause  of  the  change  in  the 


MECHANICS. 


247 


MECHANICS. 


linear  velocity  of  one  body  is  connected  with 
the  presence  of  the  other.  In  this  equation  the 
sum  of  »i,i,'i  and  hi,'':  and  of  m,Vi  and  m.V, 
is  a  gcoinrtrical  one.  for  each  of  the  terms  is  a 
vector  quantity.  Owing  to  the  importance  of  the 
product  mass  X  linear  velocity,  it  has  received  a 
name,  linear  moinfntiim.    See  Impact. 

This  law  can  be  expressed  in  a  different  way. 
If  the  positions  of  two  particles  of  matter  of 
masses  »i,  and  m.  at  any  instant  are  given  by 
coordinates  x^y^  and  v^^.t  the  coordinates  of  the 
'centre  of  inertia'   (q.v. )   are  defined  to  be 

DiiXi  +  m-a^j  -        'nijj/i  +  m-y^ 

X  = ; and   !/  ^ ; ■ 

nil  -r  "»2  n»i  +  »i2 

Consequently  as  the  particles  move,  the  centre 
of  inertia  changes  its  position.  If  «i  and  «.  are 
the  com|>oiK'nts  along  the  axis  of  X  of  the  veloci- 
ties of  tlie  two  particles  and  ic,  and  ir,  their  com- 
ponents along  the  axis  of  Y,  the  components  along 
the  axes  of  X  and  Y  of  the  velocity  of  the  centre 
of  inertia  are 


»i,i'i  +  mMi 


and  1 


miU\  -j-  »i..(o. 


7)1 1   -1-    l)U  """    ""  nil  +   TO; 

But  if  r,  and  r,  are  the  actual  velocities  of  the 
two  particles,  v,  is  the  geometrical  sum  of  «i 
and  «',.  .Consequently,  if  the  actual  velocity  of 
the  centre  of  inertia  is  V,  it  is  the  geometrical 
sum  of  u  and  w;  that  is, 

"  nil  -j-  m« 
or  (Wi  -(-  ?)!;)  V  =  nijfi  -f  «i2i>2  =  niiV,  -f-  m-V,. 
Since  m^  +  ni^  does  not  change  in  any  physical 
action,  v  must  remain  constant  in  direction  and 
amount,  however  the  velocities  of  the  two  par- 
ticles are  altered  by  their  mutual  influence. 

So  far  as  is  known  this  law  of  inlluence  of  two 
bodies  can  be  extended  to  any  number  of  bodies 
mutually  inliuencing  eacli  other;  that  is,  if  any 
number  of  particles  of  matter  of  masses,  jh,,  OTj, 
etc.,  are  left  alone,  free  from  external  actions, 
their  velocities,  however  changed  by  nuitual  re- 
actions, must  satisfy  the  law  that  the  geometrical 
sum  of  the  linear  momenta  remains  unchanged, 
miV,  +  m.i),  +  etc.  =  constant. 

Expressed  in  terms  of  the  properties  of  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  system  of  particles,  this 
law  is  that  the  centre  of  inertia  of  a  s3-stem  of 
particles  free  from  external  influences  moves  in  a 
straight  line  with  constant  speed.  A  large  solid 
is  of  course  a  special  case  of  a  system  of  par- 
otides ;  and  the  motion  of  the  centre  of  inertia 
of  such  a  body  must  obey  the  same  laws  as  does 
a  single  particle. 

This  principle  of  dynamics  is  kno^\ii  as  the 
'conservation  of  linear  momentum.'  When  this 
principle  is  applied  to  the  mutual  action  of  two 
liodies,  it  takes  the  form 

)H,iii  +  in^i\  =  constant, 

where  «i,  is  the  mass  of  one  body  and  i;,  is  the 
velocity  of  its  centre  of  inertia,  »»„  is  the  mass 
of  the  second  body  and  t'.  the  velocity  of  its  cen- 
tre of  inertia,  and  the  summation  is  a  geometrical 
one.  This  equation  means  then,  that  if  »",i',  is 
changed  in  any  w'ay  by  v^  changing  either  in 
direction  or  in  speed,  iii;?-,  must  change  at  the 
same  time  by  an  amount  equal  and  opposite  to 
that  of  the  change  of  iii,i\.  The  rates  of 
changes  of  the  two  momenta  must  then  be  equal 
and  opposite  vectors  in  the  same  straight  line; 


that  is,  nua-i  =  —i,i./u  if  «,  and  o™  are  the  linear 
.accelerations  of  the  two  centres  of  inertia.  (Illus- 
trations are  afforded  by  a  body  falling  toward 
the  earth,  the  earth  ha.s  an  acceleration  upward ; 
by  a  piece  of  iron  attracted  to  a  magnet  which  is 
suspended  frtie  to  move,  etc.)  This  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  saying  tliat  under  the  inlluence  of  the 
second  body  the  first  has  received  an  acceleration 
fli.  The  product  »i,f/,  is  called  the  'kinetic 
reaction'  of  the  body  of  mass  m^  against  the 
given  influence,  which  is  equal  and  opposite  the 
kinetic  reaction  of  the  second  body  against  the 
action  of  the  first.  The  influence  of  any  body 
on  another  of  mass  m  is  measured,  therefore,  by 
the  product  of  m  and  the  acceleration  produced, 
i.e.  ma.  If  there  is  a  system  of  many  bodies, 
the  action  on  one  due  to  all  the  others  is  the  sum  of 
its  kinetic  reactions  against  all  the  actions;  that 
is,  it  is  the  product  of  the  mass  of  that  one  into 
the  geometrical  sum  of  the  accelerations  wliich 
each  in  turn  of  the  others  by  itself  would  pro- 
duce— or  the  actual  acceleration  of  the  one.  The 
product  of  the  mass  of  any  body,  therefore,  by 
the  linear  acceleration  of  its  centre  of  inertia 
measures  the  external  influences  acting  on  it. 
These  external  influences  combine  to  form  what 
is  called  the  'external  force.'     In  symbols 

F  —  ma 
meaning  that  if  a  body  of  mass  m  is  subjected  to 
a  given  set  of  external  influences  its  acceleration 
is  given  byF/?n  or  if  bodies  of  different  masses 
are  subject  to  the  same  force  the  accelerations 
produced  vary  inversely  as  the  masses.  A  'unit 
force'  is  such  an  external  action  as  results  in  an 
acceleration  of  1  when  the  mass  is  I,  or  an 
acceleration  2  when  the  mass  is  %,  etc.  If  the 
C.  G,  S.  system  is  used,  the  unit  of  mass  is  a 
gram,  and  a  luiit  acceleration  is  a  change  in  one 
second  of  the  velocity  by  an  amount  of  one  centi- 
meter jier  second ;  the  unit  force  on  this  system 
is  called  the  'dyne.'  The  d\Tie  is  so  small,  being 
illustrated  nearly  by  the  upward  force  of  tlie 
hand  required  to  keep  a  milligram  from  falling, 
that  a  'megadyne'  (or  10°  X  dyne)  is  used  as  a 
practical  unit. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  forces  (q.v.)  :  gravi- 
tation, electrical,  magnetic,  muscular,  elastic,  etc. 
It  should  not  be  thought  that  they  are  lliiyigs  that 
exist;  they  are  simply  numerical  values  of  quan- 
tities giving  the  measure  of  external  influences 
on  the  motion  of  a  body,  e.g.  the  effect  of  pulling 
a  string  attached  to  a  body,  the  effect  of  a  mag- 
net on  a  piece  of  iron,  etc.  Forces  are  vector 
quantities  and  nuiy  be  compounded  or  resolved 
into  components.  The  commonest  illustrations 
of  a  force  are  given  by  a  body  falling  freely  to- 
ward the  earth,  in  which  case  the  acceleration,  (j, 
is  a  constant  for  all  bodies  at  any  one  place  on 
the  earth's  surface  ( see  Gravitation  ) ,  and  so 
the  force  on  a  body  of  mass  m  is  mr/,  and  if  a 
body  is  suspended  and  kept  from  falling,  there 
must  be  an  uiiward  force  inf/  due  to  the  sus- 
pension ;  <7  is  nearly  9S0  centimeters  per-second 
per  second,  or  about  32  feet  per-second  per  sec- 
ond. This  product  mg  is  called  the  'weight'  of 
the  body. 

One  of  the  most  important  illustrations  of 
force  is  sho^vn  by  uniform  motion  of  a  particle 
in  a  circle,  which  may  be  produced  by  a  string 
whirling  the  body  in  a  sling,  or  by  making  the 
body  roll  around  inside  a  horizontal  circular  hoop 
on  a  smooth  table.  In  the  former  case  the  string 
is  said  to  'exert  a  tension'  on  the  particle;   ia 


MECHANICS. 


248 


MECHANICS. 


the  latter,  the  hoop  is  said  to  'exert  a  pressure' 
on  it.  In  both  cases  the  acceleration  is  s'/r, 
where  s  is  the  linear  speed  of  tlie  particle  and  r 
is  the  radius  of  its  path,  and  has  the  direction 
from  the  moving  particle  toward  tlie  centre  of 
the  circle;  consequently  the  force  is  imi'/r  in  this 
direction.  In  other  words.,  to  make  a  particle  of 
mass  m  move  at  a  uniform  speed  s  in  a  circle  of 
radius  r  requires  a  force  acting  on  it  directed 
toward  the  centre  and  with  a  mimcrical  value 
tiis'/r,  or,  if  a  is  the  angular  speed  of  the  par- 
ticle, mro)'.  If  this  force  is  decreased,  the  par- 
ticle will  cease  to  move  in  a  circle  and  will  move 
farther  away  from  the  centre;  if  the  force  is  re- 
moved at  any  instant — by  cutting  the  string — the 
particle  will  continue  to  move  with  the  same 
velocity  that  it  has  at  that  instant,  i.e.  along  the 
tangent  to  the  circle  with  a  constant  si)eed. 
This  fact  that,  unless  the  force  is  sulTicicntly 
great,  the  particles  of  a  rotating  body  will  move 
farther  away  from  the  axis  of  rotation  is  illus- 
trated in  many  ways.  The  body  is  said  to  move 
under  the  action  of  a  'centrifugal  force.' 

A  simple  pendulum  is  defined  to  be  a  particle 
of  matter  suspended  by  a  long  niassless  string. 
If  it  swings  through  small  angles  in  a  vertical 
plane,  the  motion  of  the  particle  or  'bob'  is  prac- 
tically in  a  straight  line, 
and  is  simple  harmonic. 
Let  O  be  the  point  of  sus- 
pension of  the  pendulum, 
let  OQ  be  its  position  when 
hanging  at  rest,  and  OP  its 
position  at  any  instant 
while  it  vibrates;  call  the 
angle  QOP,  e.  There  are 
two  forces  acting  on  the 
particle  of  mass  m  placed 
at  I' :  one  is  the  tension  of 
the  string  aUmg  the  string 
toward  (),  the  other  is  its 
wi'ight  ml/,  vertically  down. 
The  actual  motion  at  this 
instant  is  tangent  to  the 
circle  whose  radius  is  OP, 
that  is,  it  is  in  the  direction  I'K.  either  up  or 
down.  The  force  T  has  no  comjionent  in  this 
direction,  being  perpendicular  to  it:  and  that  of 
the  force  mg  is  mg  sinO  (using  the  general  for- 
mula for  resolving  a  vector).  Therefore  the 
acceleration  of  the  vibrating  particle,  in  the  di- 
rection Vi\,  the  force  divided  by  the  mass,  is 

mgainS 
-^— orssmfl 

This  acceleration  may  be  written 

I'Q  X 

g  Qpi  or  calling PQ,  i,  ami  OP,  I ,  g -^ 

If  the  amplitude  is  very  small,  PQ  is  prac- 
tically the  path  of  the  moving  particle;  and 
thus  the  motion  is  harmonic,  in  accordance  with 
the  definition  of  such  motion;  and  its  period, 
therefore,  is 

For  other  illustrations  of  forces  see  Electmcitt  ; 
M.\oNETisM ;    Elasticity  ;    Gravitation  ;    Cem- 

TKAI,   FORCKS. 

It  has  been  shown  that,  if  there  arc  no  external 
intluences,  the  centre  of  inertia  of  a  system  of 
particles  or  of  a  large  body  continues,  if  in  mo- 
tion, to  move  in  a  straight  line  with  a  constant 


speed.  Tliis  is  owing  to  tlie  fact  that  the  action 
and  reaction  of  each  pair  of  particles  are  eciual 
and  opposite.  If,  however,  there  are  external 
forces,  the  acceleration  of  the  centre  of  inertia 
in  any  direction  is  the  sum  of  the  components  of 
these  forces  in  this  direction  divided  by  the  mass 
of  the  whole  system.  This  is  equivalent  to  saying 
that  the  motion  of  the  centre  of  inertia  of  a  sys- 
tem of  particles  is  exactly  as  if  a  single  particle 
of  the  mass  of  the  system  were  under  the  in- 
Uuence  of  the  given  forces.  Thus  if  an  iron  beam 
falls  from  a  building  (witliout  touching  any- 
thing as  it  falls)  the  motion  of  its  centre  of 
inertia  is  like  that  of  a  falling  particle — vertical 
— however  the  beam  revolves.  If  a  hammer  is 
thrown  at  random  into  the  air,  its  centre  of 
inertia  will  describe  a  parabola,  because  that  is 
the  path  of  a  projected  particle.  See  Projectile. 
Many  forces  are  not  constant  and  some  are 
abrupt,  like  the  blow  of  a  hammer:  and  in 
these  cases  it  is  imiiossible  to  measure  them. 
Their  effect  is  evidently  to  produce  a  sudden 
change  in  velocity;  and  it  is  measured  by  the 
total  change  in  the  linear  momentum.  Force 
itself  is  the  rate  of  change  of  linear  momentum; 
so  if  a  force  F  acting  on  a  particle  produces  a 
change  of  momentum  from  mv,,  to  mv  in  an 
interval  of  time   (, 

mv  —  »»!'(, 
^^  = 1 

and  thus  the  total  change  of  momentum  equals 
the  product  of  the  force  and  the  interval  of  time. 
This  product  Ft  is  called  the  'impulse'  of  the 
force,  and  may  be  measured  even  if  both  F  and  t 
are  unknown.  Similarly,  if  an  impulsive  force 
acts  on  a  large  body,  the  velocity  of  its  centre 
of  inertia  will  be  changed  from  r„  to  r  in  the 
direction  of  the  force.  In  other  words,  the 
change  of  velocity  of  the  centre  of  inertia,  r — I'o, 
equals  the  amount  of  the  impulse  divided  by  the 
mass  of  the  body,  entirely  regardless  of  the  point 
of  ap]>lieation  of  the  force.  The  time  required 
for  a  force  F  to  change  the  velocity  from  r„  to  v  is 


The  distance  required  for  this  same  force  F  to 
produce  this  change  in  velocity  from  i-o  to  r  in 
its  direction  is  foinid  by  the  formulse  of  kine- 
matics, which  show  that  under  a  constant  ac- 
celeration «,  the  distance  traversed  while  the 
speed  changes  from  .<„  to  s  is  such  that  iax  = 
S"  —  So'.      Therefoi-e,  in  this  case,  since  a  =  F/m, 

1= p / 

The  product  For,  that  is,  the  force  multiplied  by 
a  distance  in  its  line  of  action,  is  called  the 
'work';  the  quantity  V.nix"  is  called  the  'kinetic 
en<'rgy'  of  tr;inslation  of  the  body  whose  m;iss 
is  HI  when  it  has  the  speed  s.  This  formula  is 
expressed  in  words  by  saying  that  the  'irorfc 
done  by  the  force'  on  the  body  equals  the  in- 
crease in  its  kinetic  energy  of  translation,  pro- 
vided the  speed  is  increasing,  e.g.  a  train  being 
set  in  motion.  If  the  speed  is  decreasing,  e.g. 
a  train  slowing  up  by  virtue  of  its  brakes  and 
the  resulting  friction,  it  is  said  that  the  bo<ly 
loses  an  amount  of  kinetic  energy  of  translation 
e(|Ual  to  the  work  it  does  in  overcoming  friction 
or  'iigainsl   the  f<jree'  V. 

Rotation.  A  'rigid  body'  is  defined  as  one 
which    is   not  deformed    in   anv   way   under  the 


MECHANICS. 


249 


MECHANICS. 


forces  acting  on  it.  If  sucli  a  liody  is  pivotc'tl  on 
an  axis  wliose  position  is  fixed,  e.g.  a  dcjor,  a 
giindstone.  etc.,  it  is  self-evident  that  tlie  an- 
gular motion  jiroduced  in  it  by  a  force  such  as  a 
push  or  pull  depends  not  alone  on  the  amount 
of  the  force  and  its  direction,  but  also  on  its 
point  of  applieation.  Thus  if  the  force  is  at 
ri!,'ht  angles  to  the  door  and  near  the  hinges, 
there  is  only  a  slight  effect ;  if  it  is  applied  near 
the  edge  of' the  door,  it  is  much  greater;  and  if 
the  line  of  action  of  the  force  passes  through 
the  axis  of  rotation,  there  is  no  eil'ect  so  far  as 
rotation  is  concerned.  If  a  plane  section  be 
imagined  in  the  body,  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis,  it  is  evident  that  a  force  jjerpendicular  to 
this  plane,  i.e.  parallel  to  the  axis,  has  no  effect 
on  the  angular  motion;  while  a  force  lying  in 
this  jdane  has  an  efl'ect  which  depends  upon  both 
the  force  and  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the 
point  where  tlie  axis  cuts  the  ]ilaiie  to  the  line 
of  action  of  the  force.  This  i)er|)cn<licular  dis- 
tance is  called  the  'lever-arm'  of  the  force  with 
reference  to  the  .axis ;  and  the  product  of  the 
numerical  value  of  the  force  and  its  lever-arm  is 
called  the  'moment  of  the  force'  around  the  axis. 
A  'moment'  such  that  the  res\ilting  effect  of  the 
force  is  to  produce  rotation  in  one  direction  is 
called  positive ;  while  if  its  effect  is  to  produce 
the  opposite  rotation,  it  is  called  negative.  A 
moment  is  then  a  rotor.  It  can  be  shown  by 
thcnrefical  considerations  that  the  'moment  of  a 
force'  about  an  axis  is  the  proper  numerical 
value  to  give  the  rotational  effect  of  the  force ; 
and  this  is  in  accordance  with  experience,  for, 
if  a  body  pivoted  on  an  axis  is  kept  from  turn- 
reg  under  the  opposing  actions  of  two  forces  dif- 
ferently placed,  it  is  found  that  the  moments  of 
the  two  forces  about  the  axis  are  equal  and 
opposite. 

If  a  moment  is  acting  on  a  pivoted  body  such 
as  a  door,  its  immediate  effect  is  to  produce 
angular  acceleration:  just  as  the  effect  of  a  force 
in  translation  is  to  produce  linear  acceleration. 
It  is  important  to  determine  the  connection  be- 
tween the  moment  of  the  force  and  the  resulting 
angular  acceleration.  The  simplest  case  is  that 
of  a  particle  of  matter  joined  to  an  axis  by  a 
massless  rigid  rod.  and  a  force  acting  on  the 
particle  at  right  angles  to  the  rod.  If  the  rod 
has  a  length  r,  and  the  particle  has  a  mass  m, 
the  mnment  of  the  force  F  around  the  axis  is  Fr, 
and  the  linear  acceleration  of  the  particle  in  the 

F 
direction    of    the    force    is    — .      Therefore,    the 

m 
F 
aiiqiihir  acceleration    (a)    is     — ;   and   if  the   mo- 

mr 

ment  of  tlie  force  is  called  L, 

L  =  Fr  =  HI  r  a. 
The  coefficient  of  o,  nir',  is  called  the  'moment 
of  inertia'  of  the  particle  aroiuid  the  axis.  If, 
now,  the  rotating  Ijody  is  of  any  shape  or  size, 
it  may  be  .shown  that  the  angular  acceleration 
(a)     resulting  from  a  moment    (T^)    is  given  by 

the  fornnila  a  =   — ^,  where  Son-'  is  the  sum 
Svnr- 

ef  the  products  of  the  mass  of  each  particle  of 

the  body  by  the  square  of  its  dislancte  from  the 

axis.      t,mr'  is  called   the  moment   of   inertia    of 

the  whole  body  around  the  .Txis  and  is  commonly 

written  I.     Hence 

L  =  lo, 

a  formula  for  rotation  of  a  rigid  body  aro\ind 


an  a.xis  whose  position  is  fixed,  which  corre- 
sponds perfectly  with  the  fornuihi  F  =  tiiti  for 
translation.  In  the  same  way,  therefore,  that  m 
measures  the  inertia  of  a  body  so  far  as  trans- 
lation is  concerned,  I  measures  its  inertia  for 
rotation. 

A  simple  illustration  is  that  of  a  body  pivoted 
about  a  horizontal  axis  so  that  it  can  make  oscil- 
lations under  the  action  of  gravity,  like  a  com- 
mon clock's  pendulum.  Take  a  i)lane  section 
of  the  body  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  rotati(ui 
(at  0)  and  passing  through  the  centre  of  in- 
ertia (C),  to  describe  the  rotation  clioose  the 
line  fixed  in  the  body  as  the  one  joining  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  body  and  the  point  where 
the  axis  meets  the  plane  (OC),  and  as  the  line 
fixed  in  space  the  one  where  OC  comes  when 
the  bodj'  is  hanging  at  rest  ( OA ) .  As  the  body 
vibrates,  it  will  occupy  in  turn  different  posi- 
tions which  are  completely  described  by  the  angle 
(0)  between  OC  and  OA.  The  prolilem  is  to 
find  the  angular  acceleration. 
There  are  two  forces  acting  on 
the  body:  one  is  the  supporting 
force  of  the  pivot,  and  its  mo- 
ment about  the  axis  is  zero 
because  it  passes  through  0 ; 
the  other  is  the  weight  of  the 
body,  which  is  miy,  where  m  is 
the  nuiss  of  "the  liody  and  g  is 
the  linear  acceleration  of  a  body 
falling  freely,  and  its  line  of 
action  is  vertically  down 
through  the  centre  of  inertia — 
both  of  which  facts  will  be  ex- 
Calling  the  length  of  the  line 
OC,  I,  the  moment  of  the  force  mr/  about  thfTaxis 
through  O  is  mylsind ;  therefore  the  angular 
mglaine 


plained   later. 


acceleration   is 


I 


id    it 


such    a 


direction  around  the  axis  as  to  produce  angular 
motion  tending  to  bring  OC  to  coincide  with  OA. 
If  the  amplitude  of  the  vibration  is  .small  the 
sinS     may   be    replaced    by   0;   and    the    angular 

acceleration  is   —f-9.      Consequently  the  motion 

is  simple  harmonic;  and  the  period  of  one  com- 

.     Such  an  oscillating 
mgl 

body  is  called  a  'compound  pendulum,'  and  it  has 
many  interesting  properties.  (See  Centre  of 
Gyration;  Centre  of  Oscillation.)  A  simple 
pendulum  is  -^  special  case  of  a  compound  one; 
in    it    I  =  ml-    and    so    the    period    becomes,    as 

before. 


plete  vibration  is  27r- 


-V!- 


Since  L  =  la,    if  the   angular   velocity  around 
the  axis  is  called  w,  this  equation  may  be  written 
lu  —  I(J„ 


L  = 


t 


where  a  —  u„  is  the  change  in  the  angular  veloc- 
ity in  *  seconds.  The  product  Lf  is  called  the 
'impulse'  of  the  moment  of  tlie  force,  or  the 
moment  of  the  impulse  of  the  force.  As  a  resjilt 
of  an  impulsive  moment,  the  product  lu — called 
the  'angular  momentum' — is  changed. 

The  time  taken  for  a  moment  L  to  change  the 
angular  velocity  from    u<,  to  u  is  evidently 
^_  la  —  l(j„ 


MECHANICS. 


250 


MECHANICS. 


The  angle  through  which  tlie  body  turns  wliile 
this  eli.iiige  is  going  on  is  given  by  the  formula 
of  kinematics  2a$  —  u- — u^;  and  as  o  =  L/I, 
the  angle 

L9  =  iIo2  — ilUo' 

The  product  L  is  called  'work' ;  and  the  work 
is  said  to  be  done  hy  the  moment  if  u  is  in- 
creasing, and  against  the  moment  if  u  is  de- 
creasing. %I(J^  is  called  the  'kinetic  energy  of 
rotation'  of  the  body  whose  moment  of  inertia 
about  a  given  axis  is  I  and  wliose  angular  speed 
is  u. 

JIoTiox   IN   Gexebai..     If   the   rigid   body    is 

not  pivoted  around  a  fixed  axis,  but  is  free  to 

move  in  any  direction  or  manner,  it  will  receive, 

in  general,  both  linear  and  angular  acceleration 

under  the  inlluence  of  a  force,  e.g.   if  a  body  is 

thrown  in  the  air.     { L'ndcr  the  action  of  gravity 

alone  there  is,  however,  only  linear  acereleration, 

for  reasons  to  be   given   inniiediately. )      It  has 

been  shown   that  the   linear  acceleration  of  the 

centre  of  inertia  of  a  body  acted  on  by  any  forces 

is  the  same  as  that  which  a  particle  having  a 

mass  equal  to  that  of  the  body  would  have  under 

the  action  of  the  same  forces.    A  force  in  general 

does  not  have  a  line  of  action  passing  through  the 

centre  of  inertia;  imagine  a  plane  section  of  the 

body  through   the  line   of  action   and   the  centre 

of  inertia:   the  force  will  then  in  general  have  a 

moment   about   an    axis   through    the    centre    of 

inertia   perpendicular  to  this   ])Iane.     Since  the 

translation  of  the  centre  of  inertia  of  the  body 

imdcr  the  action  of  the  force  is  quite  independent 

of  the  rotation,  the  rotation  will  be  exactly  as 

if  tlie  above  axis  is  fixed,  i.e.   if   m   is  the  total 

mass  of  the  body,  I  its  moment  of  inertia  about 

this    particular    axis,    F    the    force,    and    L    its 

moment  about  the  axis,  the  linear  acceleration 

F 
of  the  centre  of  inertia  will  be    —    and  the  an- 

»i 

gular  acceleration  -=-.     So,  if  the  force  has  its 

line  of  action  through  the  centre  of  inertia,  tbere 
will  be  no  angular  acceleration,  e.g.  tlic  action 
of  gravity. 

If  an  impulsive  force,  whose  impulse  is  K  and 
whose  lever  arm  with  reference  to  an  axis 
through  the  centre  of  inertia  is  7,;,  acts  upon 
the  body,  the  velocity  of  the  centre  of  inertia  in 
the  direction  of  the  force  will  change  accord- 
ing to  the  formula  v  — 1\  =  K/m,  and  the  angu- 
lar veloeitv  about  the  axis  through  tlic  centre  of 

inertia  will  be  given  by  the  formula  u — Uj  =  -j-. 

If  the  body  is  originally  at   rest,   its  centre  of 

inertia   will   move    instantly    in   the   direction   of 

the  force  with  a  velocity  K/m,  and   it  will   in- 

KA" 
stantly  rotate  with  an  angular  velocity  -— .     If 

the  line  of  the  force  is  through  the  centre  nf  in 
crtia  A-  =  0,  and  there  is  no  angular  motion. 
This  fact  fumi.shes  an  experimental  method  for 
the  determination  of  the  centre  of  inertia  (q.v.). 
If  the  linear  velocity  of  the  centre  of  inertia 
at  any  instant  is  r,  and  if  the  angular  velocity 
is  (J,  the  entire  kinetic  energy  is  '{;»ir'  + 
%Icj'.  where  m  is  the  total  mass  and  I  is  the  mo- 
ment of  inertia  of  the  body  about  the  axis  of 
iDtation  through  the  centre  of  inertia. 


Composition  of  Fokces — Statics.  If  several 
forces  are  acting  on  a  rigid  body  there  will  be 
produced  as  a  rule  both  linear  and  angular 
accelerations ;  it  is  a  problem  then  to  determine 
what  single  force,  if  any,  can  produce  the  same 
result.  If  such  can  be  found,  it  is  called  the 
'resultant.'  Since,  as  stated  in  kinematics,  thi 
most  general  motion  is  a  'screw-motion.'  it  i-^ 
impossible  in  general  to  have  a  resultant.  If. 
however,  the  forces  all  have  their  lines  of  action  , 
in  one  plane,  thej'  have  a  resultant  excejit  in 
one  case  to  be  noted  hereafter.  Such  forces  are 
called  'coplanar.'  It  is  simplest  to  distinguisli 
between  two  groups  of  pairs  of  forces,  parallil 
and  non-parallel. 

Two   No.v-Pakallei,  Coplanar   Forces.     Thi 
lines  of  action  of  two  such  forces  meet  in  a  point 
in  their  plane.     Consider  a  case   in   which   this     ] 
point  is  in  the  rigid  body  on  which  the  two  forces 
are  acting.     Tlie  ell'ect  of  a  force  upon  a   rigid 
body   is   evidently   the    same   wherever    its   point 
of  application  is,  provided  it  is  in  the  line  of     ! 
action  of  the  force.     Therefore  the  action  of  the    ,' 
two  forces   in  this  case  is  as  if  they  were  bolli 
applied   at   that  point  of   the    rigid   body   where     ' 
their   lines  of   action  cross.     Their   resultant   is    ; 
then    found    by    constructing    their    geometrical    \ 
.sum  at  this  point;   for  such  a  force  has  obvious-     ^ 
ly  a  translational  ellect  equivalent  to  tlie  sum  of 
the    ell'ects    of    the    two    forces,    and    it    may    be 
shown    by    simple    geometry    that    its    moment 
around  any  axis  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  mo- 
ments of  the  two  forces  around  that  axis,  and  so 
its  rotational  elTect  is  the  same  as  the  combined 
effects  of  the  two  forces.     The  line  of  action  of 
the  resultant  passes  through  tlie  point  of  inter- 
section of- the  two  forces,  but  its  point  of  appli- 
cation   can    be    anywhere    iu    this    line;     conse- 
quently,  it   is  entirely   immaterial   whether   the 
point  of  intersection  itself  is  a  point  of  the  body 
or  not. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  body  is  under  the 
action  of  three  forces,  one  of  which  is  equal  and 
opposite  to  the  resultant  of  the  other  two.  there 
is  no  resulting  force  or  moment:  that  is,  there  is 
neither  linear  nor  angular  acceleration.  Such  a 
condition  is  called  •equilibrium'  (q.v.).  The 
stability,  instability,  etc.,  of  equilibrium  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  article  on  Kqiilibrhm. 

Conversely,  if  a  rigid  body  is  in  equilibrium  un- 
der the. action  of  three  non-parallel  forces,  their 
lines  of  action  must  meet  in  a  point,  they  must 
lie  in  one  plane,  and  one  must  be  equal  and  op- 
posite to  the  geometrical  sum  of  the  other  two. 

Two  Pahallkl  Forces.  Two  i>arallcl  forces 
form  a  limiting  case  of  two  nou-]iarallel  coplanar 
forws  whose  point  of  intersection  recedes  to  an 
infinite  distance.  Their  geometrical  sum  then  be- 
comes their  aliiclnoic  sum;  if  the  two  forces  are 
in  the  same  direction,  their  resultant  is  a  force 
parallel  to  them,  in  the  same  plane,  and  numeric- 
ally equal  to  the  sum  of  tlieir  numerical  values; 
if  they  are  in  opposite  directions,  their  resultant 
is  a  force  parallel  to  them,  in  the  same  plane, 
and  numerically  equal  to  the  difference  of  their 
numerical  values.  (  For  the  time  being,  the  ciise 
is  excluded  in  which  the  two  parallel  forces  are 
equal  ami  opposite:  such  a  combination  is  called 
a  'couple,'  q.v.).  This  resultant  must  have  such 
a  position  relative  to  the  two  forces  that  its 
moment  about  any  axis  equals  the  sum  of  their 
moments  about  the  same  axis.  If  the  forces  are 
as   shown   in   the   figure,   F,  and   Fj  being  at  a 


MECHANICS. 


251 


MECHANICS. 


known  distance  AC  njiait  and  O  he'mn  i|ip  inter- 
section of  any  axis  pt'i|Hndicular  to  tlitir  plane 
«itli  the  plane,  OC'H.A,  hein;,'  a  line  pei|iendieiilar 
to  the  forces,  the  resultant  R  must  have  such  a 
position  that 

HW  =  F,AO  +  FjCO 
Snli^tituting  for  R  its  value  Fj  +  F,,  this  be- 
einMcs 


or 


hence 


( Fi  +  Fj)  BO  =  FiAO  +  FfiO 
F.AC=  (F,  +  F.)BC 
F, 


BC  = 


-AC 


Fi  +  F/ 

and  therefore  the  position  of  the  resultant  is 
given  in  terms  of  known  quantities.  (This  ex- 
presses the  obvious  fact  that  the  moment  of  the 
resultant  around  an  axis  through  C  equals  the 


moment  of  Fj  around  the  same  axis;  for  the 
moment  of  F,  around  this  axis  is  zero.)  In  a 
perfectly  similar  manner  the  resultant  of  two 
■  parallel  forces  in  opposite  directions  may  be 
found. 

One  of  the  most  important  illustrations  of 
parallel  forces  is  given  by  the  gravitational  ac- 
tion of  the  earth  on  a  body.  Experiments  show 
that  the  accelerations  of  all  bodies — all  materials 
and  all  cpiantities — when  falling  freely  toward  the 
earth  at  any  point  on  its  surface  are  the 
same.  V/.'  Therefore  each  particle  of  matter 
of  mass  m  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
being  acted  upon  by  a  force  mg,  whose  direc- 
tion is  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Any 
large  rigid  body  is,  then,  under  the  action  of  a 
great  number  of  ]iarallel  forces.  Their  resultant 
is  a  vertical  force  y\tf,  if  M  is  the  total  mass 
of  the  body.  Its  centre,  i.e.  the  point  tlirough 
which  its  line  of  action  always  passes,  however 
the  body  is  turned,  is  called  it^  'centre  of  gravity' 
((j.v. ).  Jt  may  be  shown  analytically  and  by 
experiment  that  this  point  coincides  with  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  body.  This  is  further 
evident  from  the  fact  that,  if  a  body  falls,  how- 
ever it  revolves  in  so  doing,  its  centre  of  gravity 
must  have  the  acceleration  ri :  and  this  property 
has  been  shown  to  be  peculiar  to  the  centre  of 
inertia. 

It  is  evident  that  if  a  rigid  body  is  under  the 
action  of  three  co-planar  parallel  forces,  one  of 
which  is  equal  and  opposite  to  tlie  resiiltant  of 
the  other  two,  the  body  is  in  equilibrium.  The 
conditions  then  are  (II  that  the  algebraic  sum 
of  the  three  forces  equals  zero;  (2)  that  the 
algebraic  sum  of  the  moments  of  the  three  forces 
Vol.  xm.— 17. 


around  any  axis  equals  zero.  If  any  number  of 
eoplanar  forces,  jmrallel  or  non-parallel,  act  on 
a  rigid  body  their  resultant  may  be  found  by 
compoimding  them  in  pairs,  as  described.  If, 
however,  the  final  pair  of  forces  is  a  couple,  that 
is,  consists  of  two  equal  and  opposite  forces, 
there  is  no  resultant.  The  moment  of  a  couple 
around  any  axis  perpendicular  to  their  plane  is 
the  product  of  either  of  the  forces  by  their 
distance  apart:  this  product  is  called  the 
'strength'  of  the  couple.  The  action  of  a  coupie 
is  to  make  a  body  rotate  about  an  axis  perpen- 
dicular to  its  plane  and  passing  through  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  body:  and  this  can  be 
balanced,  not  by  a  single  force,  but  by  another 
couple  of  equal  strength,  and  opposite  in  direc- 
tion.    A  couple  is  then  a  rotor. 

The  action  on  a  rigid  body  of  any  number  of 
forces  in  all  directions  can  be  reduced  in  the 
end  to  a  single  force  through  the  centre  of 
inertia  and  a  covtplc:  for  each  force  can  be  re- 
placed by  a  parallel  force  through  the  centre  of 
inertia  and  a  couple  lying  in  their  plane,  and 
so  all  the  forces  reduce  to  the  sum  of  a  number 
of  forces  all  passing  through  the  centre  of 
inertia  and  to  tlie  sum  of  an  equal  number  of 
couples  each  tending  to  jn'oduce  rotation  around 
its  own  axis  passing  through  the  centre  of 
inertia. 

The  dynamics  of  fluid  bodies  are  considered 
in  Hydhodyx.^mics  and  PxEUsr.iTics. 

\\ouK  AXD  Energy.  Two  genera!  formuhp  were 
developed  in  the  discussion  of  translation  and 
rotation, 

F.r  =  im.?^  —  i-  m.%' 
he=  1 1  <.>■'  — iuo^ 

The  first  formula  may  be  expressed  in  words  as 
follows;  if  a  particle  \\'hose  mass  is  ni  is  nioving 
with  a  speed  So  in  any  direction,  this  will  be 
changed  to  s  in  that  same  direction  inider  the 
action  of  a  constant  force  F  in  that  direction, 
provided  the  distance  traversed  in  that  time  is 
X  as  given  by  the  relation  Fj;  =:  1.4  tils' —  %»"«(.". 
An  illustration  is  afl'orded  by  an  arrow  shot  from 
a  bow:  .s.j  =  0.  then  F.r  =  X<2ms-  Fa;  is  called 
the  'work'  dtme  by  the  bow,  and  the  q\mntity 
il>»i.s"  is  called  the  kinetic  energy  of  IraiiaUition. 
Any  body,  not  itself  in  motion,  which  has  the 
power  of  producing  kinetic  energy  in  another 
body  is  said  to  have  potential  energy.  Thus  a 
bent  bow.  a  compressed  spring,  a  stretched  elastic 
cord,  etc.,  have  potential  energy.  To  bend  the 
bow,  compress  the  spring,  stretch  the  cord,  etc., 
a  force  must  be  overcome;  that  is,  motion  is 
produced  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  elastic 
force  of  the  body.  The  numerical  value  of  the 
potential  energj-  is  defined  as  equal  to  the  prod- 
uct of  the  force  overcome  and  the  distance 
through  which  this  has  been  done.  i.e.  to  the 
'work  done  on'  the  bow,  spring,  or  string.  If 
the  spring  is  compressed  by  a  body  falling  upon 
it,  the  spring  gains  potential  energy  since  work 
is  done  on  it  and  the  body  loses  kinetic  energy. 
(The  spring  and  body  together  would  naturally 
continue  to  vibrate  up  and  down,  but  it  may  be 
stipposed  here  that  the  spring  is  caught  and  held 
when  it  is  compressed  to  its  greatest  extent.)  If 
F  is  the  force  of  opposition  due  to  the  spring: 
,T,  the  distance  reqiiired  to  change  the  speed  of 
the  body  of  mass  m  from  s  to  ,■;„;  the  gain  of 
potential  energy  of  the  spring  in  that  distance  is 
Fir,  and  the  loss  of  kinetic  energj-  is 
ipHs-  —  Im.'o^!   where  Fr=ims-  — \msQ^.       Sim- 


MECHANICS. 


252 


MECHANICS. 


ilarly.  if  the  spring  expels  tlie  body,  the  spring 
dop.s  work  on  tlu'  liody  and  loses  potential  energy', 
and  the  body  gains  kinetic  energy ;  the  loss  in  po- 
tential encrgj'  being  Fa;  and  the  gain  in  kinetic 
energy  being  \ms- — itits^-  if  in  the  distance  x 
the  speed  is  increased  from  s,  to  s;  and  as  before 
Fic  =  ims-  —  AmSo".  The  kinetic  energy  of  the 
spring  itself  is  neglected. 

In  words,  this  formula  means  that  the  loss  of 
potential  energy  of  the  system  producing  the 
acceleration  cquaJs  the  gain  of  kiiu'tie  energy 
of  the  particle  accelerated;  or,  the  gain  of  po- 
tential energj'  of  a  system  ])ro<lueing  retardati(m 
c(pials  the  loss  of  kinetic  energy-  of  the  retarded 
imrticle.  Kinetic  energy  may  also  be  produced 
by  the  impact  of  another  body;  and  all  experi- 
ments are  in  accord  with  the  idea  that  the 
kinetic  energy  gained  by  a  body  in  tliis  case 
equals  tluft  lost  by  the  impinging  particle  pro- 
rilled  nu  other  effects  are  produced.  This  is 
illustrated  by  the  impact  of  perfectly  elastic 
bodies.  (In  general,  when  there  is  impact,  heat- 
effects  such  as  rise  of  temperature  are  produced, 
in  which  case  the  kinetic  energy  gained  by  the 
|)article  docs  not  equal  that  lost.)  In  general, 
then,  in  mechanics,  whenever  one  body  Iosch  energy 
another  body  gains  an  equal  amount,  work  be- 
ing simply  the  transfer  of  the  energy.  Work  is 
done  in  two  ways:  pnjdueing  a  change  in  s|)eed 
and  overcoming  some  opposing  elastic  force. 
Unless  ihere  is  motion  in  the  direction  of  the 
force,  no  work  i>  done. 

It  is  evident  that  the  kinetic  energj-  of  a 
moving  body  involves  the  idea  of  speed,  not  veloc- 
it;/,  because  the  amount  of  work  it  can  do  is 
independent  of  the  direction  of  the  motion.  (Also 
if  there  is  no  change  in  the  speed  of  a  body,  the 
force  is  at  right  angles  to  the  motion  and  so  no 
work  is  done,  whatever  the  change  in  direction 
may  be.)  Illustrations  of  tlie  second  formula, 
Lfi=  5  IW —  iI«o-,  ire  given  by  the  turning  of  a 
/TPindstone,  and  by  a  fly-wheel  being  set  in  motion 
or  stopped. 

There  are  other  ways  of  doing  work  than  in 
overcoming  elastic  forces  and  producing  speed, 
e.g.  raising  a  body  up  from  the  earth,  separating 
a  ])iece  of  iron  from  a  magnet,  separating  two 
bodies  electrified  oppositely,  overcoming  the 
force  of  friction,  etc.  In  all  these  cases,  the 
body  doing  the  work  loses  energj'  and  the  system 
on  which  work  is  done  gains  energy.  The  'prin- 
ciple of  the  conservation  of  energy'  is  that  in 
every  case  the  energy  lost  by  the  former  equals 
that  gained  by  the  latter;  so  that  on  the  whole 
there  is  no  change.  Kvery  phenomenon  in  nature 
is  in  accord  with  this  principle  so  far  as  is 
know  n. 

When  a  body  is  raised  from  the  earth,  work 
is  done  eipial  to  the  product  of  the  weight  of  the 
body  and  the  rertical  height  it  is  raised,  mf/h. 
This  amiumt  of  energy  is  gained  by  the  system 
consisting  of  the  earth  and  the  body  whose  mass 
is  ni  :  but  mitil  gravitation  is  understood  it  will 
be  impossible  to  locate  the  energy'  in  any  definite 
place  in-  |)laees.  If  n  body  falls  through  a  height 
h.  it  ami  the  earth  lose  potential  energy,  mr/ft, 
which  is  gained  in  the  form  of  kinetic  energy 
by  the  falling  body  ami  the  earth,  principally  by 
the  former,  since  the  change  in  the  speed  of  the 
earth  occasioned  by  the  body  as  it  falls  toward  it 
is  so  infinitesimal.  If,  after  the  body  falls  a  dis. 
lance,  h.  its  speed  is  s,  its  kinetic  energj-  is 
Vims',  and  therefore  mgh  =  "4  ms'  or  s'  =  2gh. 


This  formula  .shows  that  the  speed  of  a  falling 
body  depends  upon  the  vertical  height  traversed, 
not  on  the  slope  or  length  of  the  |)atli  itself;  it 
may  fall  vertically,  or  down  an  inclined  plane, 
or  down  a  spiral,  etc. 

The  cases  of  work  being  done  against  electri- 
cal and  magnetic  forces  are  discussed  under 
Electricity  and  JIaq.\etism.  Whenever  work 
is  done  in  overcoming  friction,  it  is  observed 
that  heat-elfects  are  produced,  which  can  be 
traced  to  the  fact  tliat  the  minute  portions 
of  the  body  on  which  the  work  is  done  gain 
energy.  This  question  is  f\illy  discussed  under 
Heat.  Since,  when  any  inelastic  body  is  de- 
formed in  any  way,  there  is  internal  friction, 
part  of  the  energy  gained  by  such  a  body  when 
it  strikes  another  body  goes  into  producing  heat- 
effects. 

It  is  a  general  property  of  motion,  which  fol- 
lows at  once  from  the  delinition  of  ]iotential 
energj',  that  all  motions  take  place  of  themselves 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  potential  en- 
ergj- of  the  svstem  decrease,  and  that  eiiuilibriuni 
is  not  reached  until  the  potential  energj'  liaa 
reached  a  value  such  that  it  is  a  mininuim — that 
is.  is  as  small  as  is  possible  under  existing  condi-  . 
tions.  '  ( 

The  unit  of  work  or  energj'  is  that  correspond- 
ing to  a  unit  force  acting  through  a  distance  of 
a  unit  length.  On  the  C.  G.  S.  system  this  unit 
is,  then,  tlu\t  corresponding  to  a  force  of  1  dvne 
acting  through  1  cm.:  it  is  called  an  'erg.'  An 
erg  is,  however,  such  a  small  imit  that  10'  ergs — 
a  'joule,'  as  it  is  called — is  ordinarily  used  as  the 
practical  unit.  The  amount  of  work  done  in  a 
unit  interval  of  time  by  any  agency  is  called  its 
'activity'  or  'power'  (q.v.).  On  the  C.  0.  S.  sys- 
tem the  unit  is,  then.  1  erg  per  second.  The 
jiractical  unit  is.  however.  1  joule  per  second; 
this  is  called  a  'watt.' 

M.vciii.NEs  are  mechanical  aiqiliances  by  means 
of  which  a  force  apiilied  at  one  point  and  in  a 
definite  direction  is  made  to  produce  a  different 
fence  at  another  point  and  generally  in  a  dilferent 
direction;  the  work  done  bv  means  of  the  latter 
force  can  never  be  greater  than  that  done  by  the 
former — it  is  in  practice  always  less,  owing  to 
friction  and  other  causes.  The  'mechanical  ad- 
vantage' of  the  machine  is  the  ratio  of  the  two 
forces  described  above.  There  are  many  forms  of 
machim^s:  levers,  ]>ulleys,  inclined  jdane,  w-edge, 
screw.  winiUass.  etc.  (See  the  separate  articles.) 
The  problem  in  any  one  case  is  to  determine  the 
theoretical  mechanical  advantage  of  a  machine; 
that  is,  on  the  assumption  that  there  is  no  fric- 
tion when  the  forces  are  w-orking.  There  arc 
two  general  methods  of  solving  this:  one  is  to 
imagine  a  certain  foree  acting  on  the  madiine  and 
to  determine  by  the  ordinarj  principles  of  eipii- 
librium  wliat  second  force  will  just  balance  the 
action  of  the  first:  the  second  is  to  consider  the 
machine  in  eipiilibrium  under  the  action  of  these 
two  forces,  then  to  imagine  a  small  displacenu'nt, 
and  to  express  the  fact  that  the  work  done  by 
one  force  equals  that  done  against  the  other. 
Kor  the  application  of  these  prineiidcs  to  the 
various  machines  reference  should  bi'  made  to 
the  separate  articles  in  which  they  are  de- 
scribed. 

Rllil.liHiR.MMlY.  .\  brief  useful  treatise  for  the 
gcni-ral  reader,  which  gives  a  clear  conception  of 
the  elementarv  principles  of  mechanics,  is  Max- 
well, .l/((/(cr  and  Motion  (New  York,  1892).  The 


MECHANICS. 


253       MECHANICS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 


following  works,  all  of  wliioh  are  standard,  can 
be  recommended  to  the  student  of  mechanics: 
Mach,  Science  of  Mccliaiiics  (Eng.  trans.,  Chi- 
cago, 18!)3),  a  critical  and  historica!  discussion 
of  the  principles;  Ziwet,  Theoretical  Mechanics 
(New  York,  1804),  an  elementary  te.\t-book  of 
the  best  type;  Love,  Theoretical  Mechanics 
(Cambridge,  1897),  a  most  critical  treatment  of 
the  fundamental  principles;  Routh.  Elementary 
Rigid  IJt/nantics  (London,  1882);  id.,  Adeanced 
Riyid  Dynamics  (London,  1884)  :  id.,  Statics  (2 
vols..  Cambridge.  181)2)  ;  id.,  Dynamics  of  a 
Purtieir   ( ('anil. ridge.   IS'.tS). 

MECHANICSBURG,  m«-kan'lks-bflrg.  A 
borough  in  Cumberland  County,  Pa.,  8  miles  west 
of  Harrisburg;  on  the  Cumberland  Valley  Rail- 
road (ilap:  Pennsylvania,  D  3).  It  is  the  seat 
of  Irving  College  (Lutheran),  and  has  a  public 
library.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  an  agricul- 
tural and  iron-mining  country,  is  an  important 
shipping  point  for  iron  ore  and  a  depot  for  sup- 
plies for  the  iron  region,  and  manufactures 
spokes,  wheels,  carriages,  and  foundry  and  ma- 
chine-shop products.  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  maj'or,  elected  every  three  years,  and  a 
council.  Mechanicsburg  was  settled  in  1800,  and 
was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1828.  Popula- 
tion, in   1S90,  .•^CiOl;   in  1900,  3841. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.  A  statutory  lien  or 
charge  upon  real  estate  to  secure  payment  for 
work  and  labor  performed  on,  or  materials  fur- 
nished for,  Iniildings  or  other  improvements 
thereon,  at  the  request  or  with  the  consent,  ex- 
press or  implied,  of  the  owner.  Under  the  early 
English  law  no  liens  on  real  estate  were  recog- 
nized, as  it  was  against  the  policy  of  the  feudal 
system  to  permit  a  tenant  thus  to  charge  land 
which  he  held  of  his  feudal  lord,  who  in  turn 
held  of  tlie  King.  After  the  feudal  system  was 
abolished,  lands  might  be  charged  with  liens  by 
express  agreement  of  the  owner,  and  this  became 
common  in  the  form  of  mortgages.  Courts  of 
equity  also  recognized  certain  agreements  in  the 
nature  of  mortgages.  Therefore,  there  are  no 
common-law  liens  on  real  estate.  By  statutes, 
however,  several  liens  were  created,  such  as 
judgment  liens,  and  liens  for  taxes  and  assess- 
ments. With  the  development  of  business  cus- 
toms much  work  which  was  formerly  done  by 
persons  acting  as  servants  for  a  master  came  to 
be  performed  by  independent  contractors  who 
stood  on  an  equal  footing  with  those  who  en- 
gaged them.  For  tlie  protection  of  such  con- 
tractors and  of  material  men  whose  wares  are 
used  in  buildings  and  other  improvements  on 
real  estate,  the  statutes  loiown  as  'mechanics' 
lien  laws'  have  been  enacted  in  all  the  United 
States  and  in  Canada,  but  not  in  England.  There 
was  a  precedent  by  analogy  for  such  laws  in  the 
common-law  liens  of  artisans  on  personal  prop- 
erty for  labor  bestowed  on  it,  such  as  the  re])air 
of  a  wagon  or  a  pair  of  shoes.  Somewhat  similar 
liens  on  real  estate  were  also  recognized  and 
protected  by  the  civil  law.  The  theory  on  which 
mechanics'  liens  are  given  by  statute  is  that  the 
value  of  the  real  estate  has  been  increased  by  the 
addition  of  the  improvements  on  which  the  work 
was  performed  or  materials  furnished,  and  that 
the  property  should  accordingly  be  held  subject 
to  such  claims.  This  creates  a  preference  of 
these  claims  over  those  of  unsecured  creditors  of 
the  owner,  but  a  mechanics'  lien  is  subject  to 
valid   prior   liens    on    the    real   estate,    such    as 


mortgages,  judgments,  ta.xes,  etc.  The  term  me- 
chanics' lien  is  used  in  a  general  sense  to  cover 
all  liens  for  labor,  whether  skilled  or  unskilled, 
and  to  describe  liens  for  materials  furnished. 
These  liens  give  a  right  to  look  to  the  property 
for  compensation,  but  do  not  create  a  personal 
claim  against  the  owner.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
lien  attaches  both  to  the  building  or  improve- 
ment and  to  the  land  on  which  it  is  erected  :  but 
if  the  improvement  is  placed  on  the  land  without 
the  ownei''s  consent  the  lien  will  not  extend  to 
the  land,  but  will  cover  the  improvement  to  the 
extent  of  the  interest  of  the  person  who  ordered 
the  work  and  materials.  The  lien  only  attaches  to 
the  very  property  on  which  the  work  was  done, 
and  will  not  affect  the  other  real  estate  of  the 
owner.  A  mechanics'  lien  may  be  tiled  against 
any  title  or  interest  in  real  estate,  even  though 
it  is  quite  limited,  as  a  lease  for  a  year,  pro- 
vided it  is  such  an  interest  as  may  be  sold  on 
execution. 

The  statutes  in  the  different  States  vary  in 
their  provisions  as  to  the  character  of  the  im- 
provements which  will  serve  to  raise  a  lien.  In 
general,  however,  such  liens  will  attach  to  the 
real  estate  where  any  structure  in  the  nature  of 
a  building  is  constructed,  altered,  or  repaired.  In 
some  States  the  right  is  extended  to  cover  the 
erection  of  fences,  laying  pipes,  building  sewers, 
grading,  terracing,  or  sodding  the  land,  and  all 
other  improvements  which  may  he  said  to  benefit 
the  land.  The  idea  of  benefit  is  usually  con- 
sistently followed,  in  that  the  lien  does  not  at- 
tach where  buildings  are  torn  down  or  moved 
from  the  land.  In  most  States  only  a  person 
who  does  work  or  furnishes  nurterials  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  owner  is  entitled  to  protect  himself 
by  a  mechanics'  lien.  However,  in  a  number  of 
States,  subcontractors,  that  is.  those  who  work 
or  furnish  materials  for  the  one  who  contracts 
directly  with  the  owner,  are  allowed  to  file  direct 
or  subordinate  liens  against  the  property. 

As  a  general  rule  the  work  to  which  the  owner 
is  entitled  under  a  contract  must  be  entirely 
performed  before  the  contractor  can  file  a  lieu, 
but  where  an  owner  defaults  in  his  payments  or 
otherwise  breaks  his  part  of  the  contract,  the 
right  to  file  a  lien  usually  attaches  at  once. 
In  order  to  perfect  a  mechanics'  lion  the  statutes 
of  most  jurisdictions  provide  that  a  notice  set- 
ting forth  the  names  of  the  owner  and  the  party 
claiming  the  lien,  the  character  of  the  work 
done,  a  description  of  the  premises,  the  total 
contract  price,  the  amount  paid  thereon,  the 
amount  still  due.  and  the  date  when  the  last 
item  of  work  was  performed,  shall  be  filed  in  the 
county  clerk's  office  and  a  copy  thereof  served  on 
the  owner  of  the  property  affected.  In  a  number 
of  the  States  this  lien  attaches  and  relates  hack 
to  the  time  of  the  commencement  of  the  work 
upon  its  being  filed,  and  is  prior  to  all  liens  sub- 
sequent to  that  time,  but  it  is  hardly  the  general 
rule,  as  they  usually  attach  and  take  precedence 
according  to  the  order  of  their  being  filed. 
The  statutes  of  the  States  vary  in  their  details 
as  to  ])rocedure.  time  of  filing,  etc..  and  must 
be  consulted  to  ascertain  those  particulars.  .See 
GAR^'rSII^rK^"T:   Lten:   ifouTOACE. 

MECHANICS  OF  DEVELOPMENT..  This 
term,  or  'Entwicklungsmechanik'  of  the  German 
embryologists  and  cytologists.  is  in  frequent 
use.  sussested  by  the  chan<res  undergone  dur- 
ing cell-division    (see  Mitosis)    and  also  in  the 


MECHANICS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 


254 


MECKLENBURG  DECLARATION. 


egg  ol  all  animals  previous  to  and  following  fer- 
tilization. These  changes  are  so  orderly  and 
complex  as  to  suggest  mechanical  causes  for 
them.  As  early  as  llie  first  quarter  of  the  last 
century  Pander  (1817)  inquired  into  the  me- 
chanics of  development,  and  Lotze  followed  him 
■with  some  luminous  suggestions.  The  subject 
was  continued  by  His  and  by  Rauber,  Van  Ben- 
cden,  and  more  recently  tlirough  observation  and 
experiments  in  artificial  fertilization  and  in  ani- 
mal grafting  carried  on  by  O.  Hertwig,  Bovcri, 
Fol,  Biilselili,  Plliiger.  ISorn.  Koux.  Driesch, 
Schultzc.  Herlach,  Wilson,  Loew.  and  otlicrs.  Thus 
Uiitschli  by  his  researches  on  'foam'  has  shown 
that  the  forms  of  the  amoeba  and  other  Protozoa 
may  be  due  to  mechanical  causes  of  the  environ- 
ment. His  studies  may  be  called  'protoplasmic 
mechanics.'  Here  also  come  in  the  suggestions  of 
Herbert  Spencer  and  of  Kyder  as  to  the  me- 
chanics and  mathematics  of  the  initial  steps 
taken  during  the  growth  of  organisms.  See 
Growth. 

MECHANICSVILLE,  mf-kanlks-vil.  A  vil- 
lage in  Saratoga  County,  X.  Y.,  19  miles  north 
of  AUiany :  on  tlie  Hu<lson  River  and  the  Cham- 
plain  Canal,  and  on  tlie  Delaware  and  Hudson 
and  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroads  (ilap:  Xew 
York,  O  3).  It  has  a  public  school  library  of 
over  4200  volumes.  The  industrial  interests  are 
favored  by  abundant  water  power,  and  include  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  pulp  and  paper,  knit 
goods,  sash  and  blinds,  and  other  establishments. 
The  water-works  arc  owned  and  operated  by  the 
municipality.  Population,  in  1800,  2670;  in 
1000,  4005." 

MECHANICSVILLE,  Battle  of.  A  battle 
fought  at  Medianicsville,  on  the  Chickahominy 
River,  seven  miles  from  Richmond.  Va..  .June  20. 
I.'i02.  between  a  Federal  force  of  about  oOOO 
tinder  the  immediate  eonunand  of  General  Fitz 
.lohn  Porter  and  a  Confederate  force  of  about 
10.000  under  the  command  of  General  Robert 
E.  Lee.  The  Confederates  in  three  corps,  com- 
manded by  A.  P.  Hill.  Longstreet,  and  D.  H. 
Hill,  made  two  attacks  on  the  strong  Fed- 
eral position,  but  made  little  impression,  and, 
after  sufTering  great  loss,  were  finally  driven 
back.  Early  on  the  morning  of  tlie  27th.  how- 
ever. General  .JacU'ion  with  a  strong  Confederate 
reenforcement  having  arrived  in  the  vicinity. 
General  Porter  abandoned  his  position  for  a 
stronger  one  several  miles  to  his  rear,  where  later 
in  the  day  he  was  again  altaeked.  (See  Gaines's 
^IlLL. )  In  the  engagement  at  ^leclianicsville 
the  Federals  lost  about  .300;  the  Confederates 
about  2000.  The  engagement  was  the  first  of  the 
so-called  'Seven  Days'  Battle'  of  the  Peninsular 
campaign,  and  is  .sometimes  known  as  the  battle 
of  Beaver  Dam  Creek. 

MECHANISM  (Lat.  mcclmnisnia.  contriv- 
ance, frnni  (;k.  ^7;xo*^»  mrchimr,  device).  In 
philoMopliy  properly  employed  to  designate  any 
view  which  seeks  to  explain  the  universe  in  terms 
of  motion:  in  this  sense  it  is  praeticnlly  equiva- 
lent to  materialism  (q.v.).  It  is.  however,  often 
used  more  loosely  as  a  synonym  for  naturalism 
(q.v.)  ;  in  this  latter  sense  its  antonym  is  teleol- 
opj'  (q.v.). 

MECHERINO,  mft'kfl-re'nA.  Ir..  A  name 
sometime-  applii'd  to  the  Italian  painter  Do- 
nienieo  Beeeafumi    (q.v.). 


MECHLIN,  meK'lin.  or  MALINES.  One  of 
the  chief  cities  of  the  Belgian  Province  of  Ant- 
werp, situated  13  miles  south-southeast  of  the 
city  of  Antwerp,  on  tlie  navigable  River  Dyle, 
which  Hows  through  the  city  in  a  number  of 
arms  (Map:  Belgium,  C  3).  The  city  is  circular 
in  shape,  surrounded  by  a  canal  and  a  wide 
boulevard.  As  the  See  of  the  ('ardinal  Primate 
of  Belgium,  it  retains  a  considerable  ecclesiastical 
importance;  of  its  numerous  churches,  tiie  most 
noteworthy  is  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Rombaiid.  a  i 
vast  Gothic  structiiie.  adorned  in  the  intiiior 
with  many  line  paintings  and  choice  carvings, 
the  allarpieee  by  \  an  Dyck  being  one  of  that 
master's  finest  works.  It  was  built  between  the 
twelfth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  and  one  tower, 
320  feet  in  height,  remains  unfinished.  The  other 
buildings  most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  churches 
of  Saint  .John  and  of  Our  Lady,  which  contain 
works  by  Rubens;  the  town  hall,  dating  from  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  known  as  the  Beyard;  the 
market  hall,  erected  in  1340:  and  tlie  splendid 
modern  archiepiscopal  palace.  IMcchlin  has  two 
seminaries,  an  academy  of  painting,  a  g^nuia 
sitim,  and  a  botanical  garden.  It  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  important  lace  manufactures,  but 
its  chief  manufactures  now  are  caps  and  woolen 
goods,  'gobelin'  tapestry,  tobacco,  .starch,  and  i 
beer.  There  are  also  extensive  workshops  at  the 
railroad  station  outside  the  city,  which  is  the 
centre  of  several  important  railroad  lines.  Popu- 
lation, in  ISOn,  .51.014;  in  1000,  50,013. 

MECHLIN  LACE.  A  lace  so  named  from 
being  originally  manufactured  nt  Mechlin,  in 
Belgium.  It  is  a  hexagon  mesh  of  three  threads 
in  which  the  pattern  is  worked.  The  mesh  con- 
sists of  four  plaited  and  two  twisted  sides.  See 
Lace. 

MECK'EL'S  GANGLION,  or  The  Spiiexo- 
P.VL.VTIXE  Gaxcliox.  Tlie  largest  of  the  four 
sympathetic  ganglia  connected  with  the  fifth 
cranial  nerve,  the  others  being  the  ophtlialmic 
(q.v.),  the  otic  (q.v.),  and  the  submaxillary 
(q.v.).  It  lies  deep  in  the  spheno-maxilhiry 
fossa  (a  small  triangular  space  just  bencatli 
the  apex  of  the  orbit),  close  to  the  spheno-jial.t- 
tine  foramen.  The  ganglion  is  a  small  tri- 
angular or  heartshaiied  body,  of  a  reddish-gray 
color,  and  was  first  dcscrilied  by  Meckel.  Like 
the  other  ganglia  of  the  fifth  nerve,  it  possesses 
a  motor,  a  sensoiy,  and  a  sympathetic  root.  Its 
sensory  root  is  derived  from  the  superior  maxil- 
lary branch  of  the  fifth  nerve,  through  its  two 
spheno-palatine  branches;  its  motor  root  from  the 
facial  nerve,  through  the  large  superficial  ]ietrosal 
nerve:  and  its  sympathetic  root  from  the  carotid 
plexus,  through  the  large  deep  pctro-,aI  nerve. 
The  ganglion   gives   olT  branches  of  <listriliiiti.in 

in  four  groUjis:  an  ascending  group,  which  p:i 

to  the  orbit:  a  descending,  to  the  pahitc:  an  in 
ternal.  to  the  nose:  and  posterior  branehe-  !" 
the  pliarjTix  and  nasal  foss.T.  See  Xervois  Svs 
TEM  Axn  Brain, 

MECK'LENBURG  DECLARATION  OF 
INDEPENDENCE.  In  American  history,  a 
series  of  re-^olutions  purporting  to  have  been 
adopted  at  Charlotte.  ^lecklenburg  County.  X.  C, 
^lay  20.  1775,  by  a  convention  of  delegates  repre- 
senting each  militia  company  of  the  county.  .\n- 
other  set  of  resolutions  is  attributed  to  a  similar 
meeting  on  May  31,  1775.  but  the  use  at  tli.lt 
time  of  both  modes  of  reckoning  time  makes  it 


MECKLENBURG  DECLARATION.         2c 

proluililu  tliat  uiily  one  iiieuliiii;  was  hcUl,  al- 
thoii^li  tliis  has  alwaj's  been  a  deljatal)le  <iut'stion 
auci  lia-i  given  rise  to  a  detailed  and  prulouged 
contioveisy.  Tlie  copy  of  the  resolutions  made 
by  the  secretary  of  the  meeting  is  said  to  have 
bei'n  destroyed  by  fire,  but  on  April  30.  1819, 
what  purported  to  be  a  copy,  made  jirobaldy  from 
recollection,  was  ])ublished  in  the  Raleigh  (  N.  C.) 
Heyistcr.  The  use  of  phrases  in  the  published 
cojiy  similar  to  certain  passages  in  the  real 
Declaration  of  Independence  of  July  4,  1776, 
cau-.td  doubt  to  arise  as  to  the  authenticity  of 
the  Mecklenburg  Declaration.  Tlie  Legislature  of 
Xorth  Carolina  in  1831,  after  an  investigation  of 
the  subject,  declared  Jlay  20th  a  legal  holiday. 
The  weight  of  authority  at  present  is  overwhelm- 
ingly against  the  authenticity  of  the  Declaration, 
and  favors  the  opinion  that  only  one  meeting  was 
held — the  one  of  May  31st — and  that  tlie  reso- 
lutions there  adopted,  bearing  no  resemblance  to 
Jetl'erson's  Declaration,  constitute  the  nearest- 
approach  there  was  to  a  Mecklenburg  Declaration 
of  Independence.  The  resolutions,  as  published 
in  the  Raleigh  lienistcr  in  1819,  are  five  in  number. 
They  declare:  ( 1 )  that  whoever  aids  or  abets  the 
invasion  of  American  rights  is  "an  enemy  to  this 
country — to  America — and  to  the  inherent  and  in- 
alicnaole  rights  of  man;"  (2)  that  all  political 
bands  between  those  passing  the  resolutions  and 
the  mother  country  are  dissolved,  the  allegiance  of 
the  citizens  of  ilecklenburg  County  to  the  British 
Crown  being  absolved  and  all  political  connec- 
tion with  that  nation  broken  off ;  ( 3 )  that  "we  do 
hereby  declare  ourselves  a  free  and  independent 
people:  are.  and  of  a  right  ought  to  be,  a  self- 
governing  association,  under  the  control  of  no 
power  other  than  that  of  our  God  and  the  gen- 
eral government  of  the  Congress;  to  the  main- 
tenance of  which  independence  we  solemnly  pledge 
to  each  other  our  mutual  cooperation,  our  lives, 
our  fortunes,  and  our  most  sacred  honor:"  (4) 
tliat  those  passing  the  resohitions  acknowledge 
the  existence  of  no  law  or  public  officer,  but  re- 
adopt  their  former  laws  in  so  far  as  these  laws 
do  not  recognize  the  authority  of  the  Crown,  thus 
vacating  all  civil  and  military  commissions 
granted  by  the  Crown;  and  (5)  that  all  military 
officers  in  the  county  are  retained  in  their  former 
connnand  and  that  every  member  of  the  conven- 
tion be  henceforth  a  civil  officer  with  power  to 
issue  process,  hear  and  determine  all  matters  of 
controversy,  preserve  peace  and  harmony,  and 
endeavor  to  spread  the  love  of  country  until  a 
more  general  organized  government  be  estab- 
lished in  the  province. 

The  best  discussion  of  the  authenticity  of  the 
Declaration  is  that  by  Lyman  C.  Draper,  The 
Mccklnihiirg  Dechirafion :  Its  Orifiin.  History, 
and  Actors,  icifli  «  Bihliographij  of  its  Literature 
and  Explaiiatori/  Documents,  a  work  which  was 
never  ptiblished  and  forms  part  of  the  manu- 
script collections  of  the  Wisconsin  Historical  So- 
ciety. After  an  elaborate  consideration  of  the 
evidence.  Drajier  decided  against  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Declaration.  In  the  library  of 
the  "  Wisconsin  Historical  Society  are  also 
many  documents  bearing  on  the  subject..  For 
briefer  discussions  consult  articles  in  the  yortli 
American  Revieir  for  1874.  and  in  vol.  xxi. 
of  the  Magazine  of  American  Uistori/.  and 
the  note  (p.  4231  in  Frothingham,  Rise  of  the 
RepuWc  of  the  United  fttates  (Boston.  1881) 
— all  opposing  the  authenticity  of  the  Declara- 


5  MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 

lion;  and  a  chapter  by  Hawks  in  Cooke,  Ueiolu- 
tionary  History  of  Sorth  Carolina  (Kaleigh, 
1853),  and  Graham,  Address  on  the  Mvcklen- 
hurg  Declaration  of  Independence  of  May  20, 
mo  (Xew  York,  1875) — defending  its  authen- 
ticity. 

MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN,  mek'len- 
boorK  shvfi-ren'.  A  grand  duchy  and  constituent 
State  of  the  German  Emjiire,  bounded  by  the 
Baltic  Sea  on  the  north,  the  Prussian  Province  of 
I'omerania  and  the  C4rand  Duchy  of  Jlecklenburg- 
Strelitz  on  the  east,  tlie  Prussian  provinces  of 
Brandenburg  and  Hanover  on  the  south,  and 
.Schleswig-Holstein.  the  Principality  of  Ratzeburg 
(belonging  to  Jlecklenburg-Strelitz) ,  and  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Liibeek  on  the  west  (Map:  Germany, 
D  2) .  Area,  including  the  three  enclaves  in  Bran- 
denlnirg  and  ilecklenburg-Strelitz,  5135  square 
miles. 

The  country  is  generally  flat  with  the  exception 
of  the  central  part,  which  is  traversed  from 
southeast  to  northwest  by  a  chain  of  low  hills, 
forming  the  watershed  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Baltic  Sea.  The  fiat  coast-line  is  100  miles  long 
and  is  broken  by  a  number  of  deep  indenta- 
tions, including  the  Bay  of  Wismar.  Numerous 
rivers  traverse  the  country  from  north  to  south. 
The  Recknitz.  the  Warnow,  and  the  Stepenitz 
fiow  toward  the  Baltic,  and  the  Xew  Elde  and 
the  Sude  are  tributaries  of  the  Elbe,  which  for 
a  few  miles  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
grand  duchy.  The  country  abounds  in  lakes,  the 
largest  of  which  are  the  Muritz  See  (51  square 
miles),  the  Schweriner  See  (23  square  miles), 
the  Kiilpiner.  and  the  Planer  See. 

The  climate  is  mild  and  healthful,  although 
somewhat  raw.  The  average  annual  temperature 
is  46°  and  the  anntial  precipitation  21  inches. 
There  are  chalybeate  springs  at  Doberan  and 
Gioldberg  and  saline  springs  at  Siilze.  According 
to  the  industrial  census  of  1S95  nearly  one-half  of 
the  population  depended  for  their  livelihood  on 
agriculture.  The  land  is  divided  between  the 
Crown,  the  aristocracy,  the  clergy,  and  the  towns, 
the  peasantry  forming  an  hereditary  tenantry 
class.  About  90  per  cent,  of  the  area  is  under 
cultivation  in  pastures  and  in  forests.  The  crops 
exceed  the  local  demand  and  are  partly  exported. 
Rye.  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes  are  the 
staples.  Tobacco  is  cultivated  to  some  extent. 
Stock-raising  is  carried  on  extensively,  and  dairy- 
ing is  an  important  adjunct  to  agricultiu-e. 

The  manufacturing  industries  are  far  inferior 
to  the  agricultural  interests.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  foundries,  machine  works,  sugar  refineries, 
breweries,  distilleries,  paper  mills,  tanneries,  to- 
bacco factories,  brick  yards,  etc. ;  but  many  man- 
ufactures are  imported  for  local  consum]ition, 
and  the  native  exports  contain  no  manufactured 
product  of  importance.  The  trade  is  very  ex- 
tensive and  favored  by  the  situation  of  the  coim- 
try.  The  imports  pass  chiefly  through  the  seaports 
of  Warnemiinde  and  Wismar.  The  chief  exports 
are  agricultural,  dairy,  and  animal  products,  live 
animals,  etc.,  and  are  transported  mostly  by  rail. 
The  annual  outward  and  inward  shijiping  exceeds 
900.000  tons.  The  transportation  facilities  are 
excellent,  consisting  of  a  system  of  navigable 
I  ivers  and  canals,  and  a  number  of  State  rail- 
way lines  with  a  total  length  of  740  miles  in 
1901. 

The  Constitution  of  the  two  duchies  of  ileeklen- 
burg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  is  based 


MECKLENBURG-SCHWEBIN. 


256 


MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 


on  tlif  ayrci-nionl  concliuUil  in  17 oo  ln'l\voc:i  the 
Dukf  of  -Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  his  estates, 
and  adopted  in  the  same  year  by  the  Duchy  of 
^lecklenbiiigSticlitz.  The  crown  is  liereditary 
in  the  male  line  in  both  ducliies  and  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  reij;ning  dynasty  in  either  State  the 
succession  reverts  to  the  otlier  house.  In  tlie  case 
of  tlie  extinction  of  both  houses,  the  rif,'ht  of  suc- 
cession passes  to  Prussia.  Tlie  govornriicnl  of  the 
two  Mecklenburgs  is  semi-feudal  in  character, 
and  the  proprietors  of  the  land,  whether  belong- 
ing to  the  nobility  or  not,  are  endowed  with  many 
special  privileges.  The  conunon  assembly,  or 
Landesunion,  of  both  grand  duchies  consists  of 
the  representatives  of  the  landed  aristocracy,  or 
Ritterschaft,  and  the  burgoma.sters  of  49  towns. 
The  tenants  of  the  royal  domains  are  not  repre- 
sented. 

The  assembly  convenes  every  year  for  a  short 
period,  alternately  at  Sternberg  and  at  Malchin. 
There  arc  also  a  pernument  committee  of  nine 
members  at  Rostock  representing  the  two  estates 
when  the  Landtag  is  not  in  session,  and  convoca- 
tion and  deputation  diets  which  can  be  assembled 
for  special  purposes  in  either  of  the  duchies.  The 
Principality  of  Ratzeburg  is  under  the  direct 
authority  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  ilecklenburg- 
Strelitz.  The  executive  authority  in  llecklen- 
hurg-Schwerin  is  vested  in  a  Cabinet  of  four  min- 
isters. Mecklenburg-Schwerin  is  represented  by 
two  members  in  the  Bundesrat  and  sends  six 
Deputies  to  the  Reichstag.  The  capital  is  Schwe- 
rin;  the  sunnner  residence  of  the  Granil  Duke 
is  Ludwigslust. 

The  two  duchies  have  two  separate  systems  of 
lower  courts  and  a  common  su|ircnie  court  at  Ros- 
tock. There  is  no  general  linaneial  syst<'m  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  The  reve- 
nue is  divided  into  three  classes,  of  which  by  far 
the  largest  (derived  from  the  royal  domains  and 
ordinary  ta.xes)  is  under  the  sole  control  of  the 
Grand  Duke.  A  part  of  it  goes  to  cover  the  or<li- 
nary  expenses  of  the  Government.  The  total  public 
debt,  incurred  to  some  extent  for  the  purchase  of 
railways,  amounted  in  1001  to  .$2()..505.000.  Gen- 
eral and  technical  education  is  on  a  high  ])lane. 
The  universitv  at  Rostock  ii\.\.)  iirovides  higher 
cdiu'ation.  Population,  in  18110,  .-)78,342;  in  1!)00, 
GOT ,770.  almost  entirely  Protestant. 

History.  The  territory  of  .Mecklenburg  was 
anciently  occupied  by  Germanic  peoples,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  Wends, 
Obotrits,  and  other  Slavic  tribes  took  possession  of 
the  region.  The  Slavic  inhabitants  long  resisted 
the  power  of  (iermany.  but  were  finally  subdued 
in  the  .second  half  of  the  twelfth  century  by 
Henry  the  l.ion,  Duke  of  Saxony.  Henry  left  a 
part  of  the  ciiuntry  (which  took  its  name  from 
Mikilinborg,  the  principal  settlement  of  the  Obo- 
trits, near  the  modern  Wismar)  under  the  rule 
of  the  Obotrit  jirinces,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  Gcrmanization  of  the  region  .was  proseculed. 
After  1220  the  territory  was  fi-e<iuently  divided 
an<l  subdivided  among  the  desiendants  of  the 
original  Slavic  rulers.  In  134S  Mecklenburg  was 
elevated  into  a  duchv  by  the  Knipi'ror  f'liarles 
IV.  In  ISfi.t  Albert  III.",  Duke  of  M<<<klenburg. 
was  called  to  the  throne  of  Sweden,  but  in  KiSO 
was  dethroned  by  Margaret.  (,)ui'en  of  Denmark 
and  Norway.  In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury T.utheranisiii  was  made  the  established  re- 
ligion in  Alecklenburp.  About  this  time  there 
was  n  division  into  the  two  ducal  lines  of  Meck- 


lenburg-Sihwcrin  and  Mecklenburg  (Mislrow.  In 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  the  Dukes  of  Mecklenburg 
joined  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  in  the  .struggle 
against  the  Catholic  powers,  and,  as  a  result, 
were  deprived  of  their  possessions,  which  were 
conferred  in  1020  upon  Wallenstein.  In  1031, 
however,  the  ihikes  were  restored  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  of  Sweilen.  After  various  subdivisions 
of  the  ducal  line  into  the  branches  of  .Selnverin, 
Strelitz,  and  others,  and  the  successive  extinction 
of  several  of  these  collateral  houses,  the  Imperial 
Commission,  which  met  at  Hamburg  in  1701, 
brought  about  a  family  compact,  by  which  it  was 
arranged  that  Schwerin  and  Giistrow  should  form 
one  duchy  and  Strelitz  with  Ratzeburg,  .Star- 
gard,  etc.,  another.  In  I8I5  the  dukes  of  both 
the  Mecklenburgs  assumed  the  title  of  Grand 
Duke.  Frederick  Francis  (178.5-1837),  Grand 
Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Sehwerin.  abolished  serfdom 
in  his  dominions,  to  which  he  added  \\  ismar. 
The  reign  of  Frederick  Francis  II.  of  the  same 
duchy,  who  succeeded  his  father,  Paul  Fri'deriek, 
in  1842,  was  disturbed  by  a  contest  between  the 
nobles  and  the  burghers  and  smaller  landowners. 
The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  gave  a 
fresh  stimulus  to  the  popular  ferment  in  both 
duchies,  and  the  disturbances  could  only  be 
quelled  by  the  intervention  of  the  Prussian  troops; 
but  a  reaction  took  place  in  18")0.  and  matters 
were  restored  to  their  former  condition.  Fred- 
erick Francis  II.  (q.v.).  CJrand  Duke  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin, was  (me  of  the  principal  gen- 
erals in  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870-71.  As 
members  of  the  new  German  Empire,  the  two 
duchies  have  maintained  their  internal  constitu- 
tion very  much  on  the  old  footing.  Consult: 
Boll,  fit'schichtc  MtvLlciibKrgs  (Xeubrandenburg, 
18.'j.5-.t0)  ;  Mayer.  (Imrhichtc  des  (I'lDxslirrzog- 
thums  Mccklcnhitrrj  -  XtrrJilr  tStO-90  (  N'eu.stre- 
litz,   1 800). 

MECKLENBTJRG-STBELITZ,  -stra'lits.  A 
grand  ducliy  and  eoiist itueiil  State  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  consisting  of  the  grand  ducliy 
proper,  bounded  by  the  Prussian  provinces  of 
I'omerania  and  Brandenburg  and  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Mecklenburg-SehweTin.  and  of  the  Principality 
of  Ratzeburg.  which  is  separated  from  it  by 
Jleeklenburg-Schwcrin  (Map:  Genuany.  E  2). 
Total  area.  1131  square  miles.  In  the  formation 
of  its  surf:ice  the  grand  duchy  proper  riseiiible.s 
Meeklenburg-Sehwerin.  It  is  watered  chiefly  by 
the  Havel,  and  contains  numerous  lakes.  The 
Principality  of  Ratzx-burg  is  watered  by  the  >Ste- 
penitz. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation,  and  the 
system  of  land  tenure  does  not  diller  from  that 
prevailing  in  the  Gniild  Duchy  of  Mecklenluirg- 
Schwerin.  The  trade  is  naturally  less  developed 
than  in  Meeklenburg-Sehwerin  on  account  of  the 
absence  of  harbors,  but  there  is  considerable  in- 
land trallic.  and  the  railway  facilities  are  good. 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz  is  governed  by  the  same 
constitution  as  Meeklenburg-Sehwerin  (q.v.). 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Minister  of 
State  and  a  small  council.  The  scat  of  govern- 
ment is  at  Neustrclitz.  The  financial  system 
also  resembles  that  of  Mecklenburg-Sehwerin. 
Jlecklenburg-Strelitz  is  represented  by  one  mem- 
ber in  the  Bundesrat.  and  returns  one  Deputy  to 
the  Reichstag.  Population,  in  1800,  07.078:  in 
lOOn,  102.002.  almost  exclusively  Protestant.  For 
history,  sec  Mecklenbubg-Schwebin. 


MECONIC  ACID. 


257 


HEDAL. 


MECON'IC  ACID  (Gk.  /iijkuhhos,  vu'ki'inilcos, 
pcrtiiiiiing  to  the  poppy,  from  li-f/Kuy,  niikOn, 
pojipy ) .  C;HiO;4-3H,(J.  An  acid  existing  in 
opium,  whicli,  when  good,  yields  from  (i  to  8  per 
cent,  of  it.  iiotli  the  acid  and  its  salts  assume 
a  characteristic  Idood-red  tint  with  ferric  .salts; 
and  this  test,  which  is  very  sensitive,  is  employed 
hy  the  to.xicologist  in  searching  for  traces  of 
opium.  As,  however,  the  alkaline  sulphocyanides 
which  exist  normally  in  the  saliva  give  a  pre- 
cisely similar  tint  with  the  ferric  salts,  it  is 
necessary  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  meconato 
of  iron  from  the  sulphocyanide  of  iron.  A  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  gold  or  of  corrosive  sublimate 
removes  all  doulit  by  discliarging  tlu^  color  of  the 
suliihiicyanidc,  but  not  ail'ccting  the  color  of  the 
meconate  of  iron.  The  constitution  of  mcconie 
acid  is  represented  by  the  fornuUa  CjHOjIOH) 
(COOHjj,  showing  it  to  be  chemically  a  niono- 
hydroxy-diba.sie  acid.  The  alkaloids  morphine, 
codeine,  narcotine,  thebaine,  papaverine,  and 
others  exist  in  opium  in  combination  partly  with 
nieconic,  partly  with  sulphuric  acid. 

MECO'NIUM  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ij.T)Kiiviov,  me- 
hiinton.  po])py-juice,  from  /i'^Kuv,  mekOii,  poppy). 
The  earliest  matter  discharged  from  the  bowels  of 
a  new-born  infant.  It  is  of  a  brownish-green  or 
almost  black  color,  acid,  devoid  of  odor,  and 
rapidly  ]nitrefying  on  exposure  to  air.  It  is 
usually  regarded  as  a  product  of  the  fcctal  liver, 
but  it  contains  neither  biliary  acids  nor  bile-pig- 
ment. It  consists  of  an  abundance  of  cylinder 
epithelium  of  a  green  tint,  of  mucus  corpuscles, 
and  iif  fat,  with  which  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
cliolc^tcrine. 

MEDAL  (OF.  medaillc,  Fr.  medaille,  from 
l.at.  nicldlhiin,  from  Gk.  ^^raXXoi',  metal).  A 
piece  of  metal,  more  or  less  of  the  form  of  a  coin, 
stamped  on  one  side  or  both  with  image  and 
insiription,  with  the  object  of  commemorating  an 
event  or  of  honoring  a  person,  and  not  intended 
for  circulation  as  money.  This  use  of  the  word 
excludes  all  ancient  and  modern  coins,  even  those 
which,  like  the  .\merican  C'ohimbian  half-dollar, 
are  commemorative  pieces  struck  only  for  a  spe- 
cial occasion,  but  designed  for  circulation  as 
money.  The  coins  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
have  so  many  medallic.  i.e.  commemorative, 
characteristics,  that  the  belief  that  they  were 
really  medals  rather  than  coins  was  a  natural 
one.  There  is  hardly  any  event  of  popular 
interest,  whether  public  or  private,  in  ancient 
times,  especially  under  the  Roman  Empire,  that 
is  not  recorded  on  the  coins.  The  term  medal- 
liiiii  is  for  convenience  still  used  of  certain 
classes  of  ancient  coins  that  surpass  the 
rest  in  size  and  teclinii|ue;  but  the  strictly 
monelary  character  of  even  these  is  now  suffi- 
ciently proved.  Though  objects  of  real  art, 
often  designed  for  royal  gifts  or  for  ornament, 
they  were  still  multiples  of  the  regular  coins, 
and  as  such  could  be  entered  into  circulation. 
Such  were  the  magnificent  'medallion.s'  of  Syra- 
cuse, real  gems  of  the  die-engraver's  art  signed 
with  the  artist's  name,  and  the  'medallions'  in 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  of  the  Roman  Km|)erors, 
coined  under  their  special  control,  and  hence 
lacking  the  usual  S.  C.  (><e>intu.i  consulto,  "by 
order  of  the  Senate')  of  the  senatorial  bronze 
money.  Sometimes  these  Roman  medallions  are 
found  set  in  a  circlet  of  fine  metal.  This  was 
not  the  w(n'k  of  the  coiner,  however,  but  of  the 


jeweler  who  adapted  the  coin  to  artistic  use. 
If  we  are  to  .seek  anything  approximating  the 
medal  in  ancient  times,  it  may  perhaps  l)e  found 
in  certain  pagan  talismans  and  in  the  little 
Christian   medals  of   devotion. 

Jlodern  medals  begin  in  the  ))criod  of  the 
Renaissance.  The  earliest  bear  the  pin-traits 
and  inscriptions  (in  Latin)  of  rulers  and  poten- 
tates. The  subjects  are  at  first  drawn  ex- 
clusively from  classical  art;  hence  their  value  as 
documents  of  contemporary  history,  though  not 
of  art,  is  materiallj-  lessened.  The  most  famous 
Italian  medalist  of  the  fifteenth  century  was 
Vittorio  Pisani  of  Verona,  whose  splendid  works 
are  signed  "Opvs  Pisani  Pictoris."  It  became 
the  custom  for  rulers  to  inaugurate  their  reign 
and  celebrate  its  chief  events  by  striking  medals. 
Tlie  scries  of  the  popes  begins  with  Paul  IT. 
(1464-71),  and  continues  without  a  break  to 
the  present  time.  Medals  of  the  earlier  popes 
are  the  work  of  a  later  period.  A  medallic 
mint  is  connected  with  the  Vatican,  where  the 
best  artists  are  emploj-cd.  Some  of  the  medals 
of  Julius  II..  Leo  X..  and  Clement  VIL  have 
an  esjiecial  interest,  as  having  been  designed 
by  Raphael  and  Giulio  Romano,  and  engraved  by 
Benvenuto  Cellini,  A  sixteenth-century  medal 
of  Sicily  is  probably  the  first  instance  in  modern 
times  of  the  use  of  a  medal  as  a  vehicle  of 
political  satire;  it  is  directed  by  Frederic  II. 
against  his  adversary,  Ferdinand  of  Spain. 
Satirical  medals  were  afterwards  common  in  the 
Low  Countries.  Some  of  the  Dutch  medals  are 
noted  for  the  elaborate  views,  maps,  and  plans 
engraved  on  them.  Of  many  reigns  a  complete 
medallic  historv  can  be  written,  as,  for  example, 
of  that  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  American  Presi- 
dents, beginning  with  Washington,  are  commemo- 
rated in  a  series  of  portrait  medals.  But  it  is 
no  longer  merely  kings  and  rulers  and  great  mili- 
tary and  naval  events  that  are  commemorated 
in  medals.  Events  of  general  interest  in  science, 
art,  or  literature,  movements  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  conditions,  learned  societies,  are  all  found 
recorded  in  these  artistic  little  documents  of 
history. 

Besides  the  purely  commemorative  medals, 
there  is  another  class — that  of  'decorations' — ■ 
which,  beginning  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  has  attained  an  enormous  development. 
These  are  conferred  by  the  sovereign  or  the  State 
as  marks  of  distinction  for  eminent  services, 
particularly  in  the  army  and  navy.  Such 
medals  of  honor  are  seldom  of  much  intrinsic 
value,  their  w{}rth  depending  mainly  on  the  asso- 
ciations connected  willi  them.  They  have  rili- 
bons  attached,  with  clasps  or  small  bars,  each 
of  which  often  hears  the  name  of  a  battle.  Such 
medals  are  intended  to  be  worn  on  the  breast. 
They  are  of  very  varied  form,  the  cross  being 
the  most  common. 

BlBLloc,R.\PiiY.  Snowden.  Description  of  Vff- 
iicinnl  and  MinceVnnemis  Medulfi  (Philadelphia, 
18G1);  Sandham,  Coins.  Medals,  and  Tokens  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  (London,  ISfiO)  ;  Lou- 
bat,  Medallic  llistori/  of  Ihc  United  States  (New 
York,  1878)  :  Hawkins,  Medallic  lUiistrafion  of 
History  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (London. 
1885)  :  MacShcrry,  "The  National  Medals  of 
the  United  States,"  in  Mari/land  flistorical 
Fund  Pnhlications,  No.  25  (Baltimore.  1887)  ; 
Ileiss,  TjCs  medailletirs  de  la  Renaissance,  vol. 
viii.     (Paris,    1800)  ;    Leduc,    Tlistoirc    des   deco- 


MEDAL. 


258 


MEDEA. 


rations  en  France  (Le  Mans,  1890)  ;  Long, 
British  Saiy  Medals  and  How  They  ^\'ere  lVci;i 
(London,  18'J5)  ;  Irwin,  lirilish  War  Medals  and 
brcoratio)is  (2d  ed.,  London,  1890).  There  is  a 
scries  of  articles  by  M.Trvin  on  ilasonic  medals 
in  the  American  Journul  of  yuinisinalics,  vols, 
x.xiv.,  xxii.-xxxvi.  (Boston,  1870-80;  1888- 
19U2). 

MEDALLION  (Fr.  medaillon,  augmentative 
of  medditie,  medal).  In  architecture,  a  circular 
or  oval  panel  carved  in  Ijas-relief  witli  a  licad, 
Ijiist.  figure,  ornamental  design,  etc.  The  term 
is  also  used  of  a  similar  design  in  color. 

MEDAL  OF  HONOR,  Umted  State.s.  Tlic 
medal  of  honor  of  the  I'nited  States,  given  for 
l)ravery  on  the  field  of  battle,  was  first  instituted 
in  18(12  by  a  law  approved  -July  12th  of  that 
year.  It  is  a  five-pointed  star  of  bronze  tipped 
"with  trefoil,  each  point  containing  a  crown  of 
laurel  and  oak;  in  the  middle,  within  a  circle 
of  thirty-four  stars,  America,  pers<milied  as 
Minerva,"  stands  with  her  left  hand  resting  on 
llie  fasces,  while  with  lier  right,  in  which  she 
holds  a  shield  emblazoned  witli  tlie  American 
arms,  she  repulses  Discord,  represented  with 
two  snakes  in  each  hand;  the  whole  s\is|)ended  by 
a  troi)hy  of  two  crossed  cannons,  balls,  and  a 
sword  surmounted  by  the  American  eagle,  which 
is  united  by  a  ribbon  of  thirteen  stripes,  pale- 
wise,  gtiles  and  argent,  and  a  cliief  azure,  to 
a  clasp  composed  of  two  cornucopias  and  the 
American  arms.  On  March  25,  177(),  before 
even  independence  had  been  proclaimed.  Congress 
ordered  that  a  gold  medal  be  struck  and  pre- 
sented to  General  Washingtcm.  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, who  at  the  time  was  in  Paris,  was  instructed 
to  employ  the  greatest  artists  in  France  to 
execute  a"  suitable  design.  Although  this  was 
the  first  medal  voted,  the  first  one  struck  was  a 
silver  medal  ]iresented  to  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Fleury.  a  volunteer  officer  from  the  Freneli  reg- 
ular army,  who,  entering  the  United  States  .\rniy 
in  1777  as  a  |)rivate.  distinguislied  liimself  so 
greatly  and  rendered  such  valuable  services,  that 
Congress  promoted  liim  to  be  lieutenant-colonel. 
For  his  gallantry  in  the  assault  upon  Stony 
Point,  July  15.  1779,  Congress  voted  him  a  silver 
medal,  and  afterwards  a  vote  of  thanks.  It 
was  not  until  the  institution  of  the  medal  of 
honor  that  the  I'nited  States  possessed  a  mili- 
tary e(|uivahnt  to  the  Victoria  cross  (q.v.)  of 
F.nghuxl,  or  the  iron  cross  (q.v.)  of  Prussia. 
Like  the  former  decoration,  it  is  l)estowed  on 
both  commissioned  an<l  non-commissioned  ranks 
alike,  the  decoration  being  the  same  in  every 
instance.  Medals  of  honor  are  only  awarded  to 
officers  or  enlisted  men  for  distinguished  bravery 
or  conspicuous  gallantry,  which  has  liivn  mani- 
fested in  action,  tiy  conduct  distinguished  above 
the  others,  and  that  involved  risk  of  life,  or  duty 
more  than  onlinarily  bazardnus.  An  interest- 
ing account  of  the  deeds  by  wliich  the  medal  of 
honor  has  been  won  will  \ie  found  in  Roden- 
boiigh,  Uncle  Sam's  Medal  of  Honor  (New  York, 
18fl0). 

MEDAL  OF  HONOR  LEGION.  A  patriotic 
society  ulmse  nicMdiei>bip  cumprises  otiieers  and 
enlisted  men  who  have  received  the  medal  of 
honor  (q.v.).  Tlie  society  was  originally  organ- 
ized to  admit  those  who  had  participated  in  the 
Civil  War.  hut  the  membership  was  subsequently 
extended  to  those  who  took  part  in  the  war  with 


8pain(189S)  and  in  the  fighting  in  China(  1900). 
The  nnmlier  of  members  on  tlie  rolls  in  1903  was 
aljout  (100. 

MEDANO,  mi-da'no.  A  Spanish  term  ap- 
pliiil  to  the  curious  traveling,  crescent-shaped 
sand  hills  wliieh  occur  in  nundjers  on  the  ele- 
vated ijampa  of  Islay  near  Arecpiipa,  Peru.  They 
move  across  the  desert  from  south  to  north  in 
the  direction  of  the  prevailing  day  wind.  They 
are  composed  of  a  white  sand  apjiarently  quite 
dill'erent  from  that  wdiich  makes  up  the  rest  of 
the  desert  surface. 

MED'ARY,  Samuel  (1801-64).  An  Ameri- 
can editor  and  politician.  He  was  born  in  Jlont- 
gomery  County.  Pa.,  and  had  an  academic  educa- 
tion. In  1825  he  removed  to  Ohio,  and  in  1828 
became  editor  of  the  Ohio  Sun,  a  Democratic 
paper.  After  serving  in  both  Houses  of  the 
Ohio   Legislature,   he  was  editor   from    1830   to 

1857  of  the  Ohio  Statesman,  which  became  a 
great  power  in  the  West  aiul  Southwest.  He 
was  high  in  the  confiilence  of  President  Jackson 
and  the  succeeding  Democratic  Presidents,  and 
is  said  to  have  originated  the  plirase  "Fifty-four 
forty  or  fight"  during  the  Oregon  boundary 
dis]nite.  In  1853  he  declined  the  position  of  ' 
L'nited  States  Minister  to  Chile.  He  was  the  ' 
last  Territorial  Governor  of  Minnesota  in  1857- 
58,  was  postmaster  of  Columbus.  Ohio,  in  1858, 
and    was    Governor    of    Kansas    Territory    from 

1858  to  1800,  when  he  resigned  to  found  The 
Crifis,  which  he  contiimed  to  edit  until  his  death. 
The  Democrats  of  Ohio  erected  a  handsome  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  at  Columbus. 

MEDE'A  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  MijSeia,  Medeia). 
In  Circcian  legend,  a  famous  sorceress,  the 
daughter  of  .Fetes,  King  of  Colchis,  and  of  the  . 
Oeeanid  Idyia,  or  of  Hecate,  and  niece  of  Circe. 
On  the  arrival  of  the  Argcmauts  (q.v.)  at  the 
Court  of  -Ectcs,  in  search  of  the  Golden  Fleece, 
she  fell  in  love  with  .Tason,  aided  him  by  her 
magic  arts  to  perform  the  tasks  set  him,  and 
finally  to  carry  oil"  the  fieece.  Pursued  in  her 
flight  with  the  Argonauts  by  her  father,  she 
killeil  her  brother  Absyrlos  and  scattered  the 
fragments  of  his  body  on  the  sea.  Her  father 
pausing  to  give  burial  to  the  remains,  the  Ar- 
gonauts gained  time  for  their  escape.  On  the 
return  of  Jason  to  lolcus,  she  aided  him  to  take 
vengeance  on  Pelias,  who  had  murdered  her  hus- 
band's parents.  Having  cut  up  an  old  sheep 
and  boiled  the  pieces  with  magic  herbs,  she 
brought  forth  from  the  caldron  a  young  lamb, 
an  inci<lent  represented  not  infrequently  on 
G'rc<'k  vases.  She  t,hen  easily  persuaded  the 
daughters  (if  Pelias  to  cut  their  father  in  pieces, 
that  be  might  regain  his  youth:  hut  when  they 
liad  yielded,  she  refused  to  employ  her  art.  For 
this  she  ami  .fason  were  forced  to  flee  to  Corinth, 
where  .Tason  repudiated  Medea  to  marry  Glam'e, 
or  Creusa,  the  daughter  of  the  King.  Medea  sent 
her  rival  a  poisoned  robe  and  crown,  whereby 
both  the  princess  and  her  father  were  destroyed. 

T mplcte    her    revengi'.    she    then    slew    the 

children  she  had  borne  Jason,  and  fled  on  her 
dragon  chariot  to  .\thens.  where  she  was  received 
by  King  .Fgcus,  to  whom  some  said  she  bore  a 
son,  Medos.  On  the  arrival  from  Trn-zen  of  the 
son  of  .Fgeus,  Theseus,  she  ])lotted  against  his 
life,  but  was  discovered,  and  with  her  son  lied 
back  to  .\sia,  where  Medos  gave  his  name  to  the 
Medes.     As  a  sorceress  she  seems,  like  Circe,  im- 


M£DEA. 


250 


MEDHURST. 


mortal  in  some  of  the  writers,  while  others 
reganliil  her  as  a  heroine  and  united  her  to 
Achilles  in  the  Elysian  lields.  These  outlines 
of  the  legend  were  often  very  variously  lilled 
in,  and  it  is  elear  that  in  the  sUjry  niaii.v  ele- 
ments are  eonibined.  JIuch  points  to  an  original 
divinity  sunk  to  lieroine.  as  is  so  often  the  case, 
and  niueh  also  to  an  original  good  sorceress,  a 
counterpoise  to  the  wicked  Circe.  The  attempts 
to  interpret  the  myth  in  the  light  of  natural 
phenomena  cannot  be  regarded  as  successful. 
The  figure  of  .Medea  was  a  favorite  one  in  art, 
especially  with  the  vase-painters.  The  Corinthian 
episode  is  common  on  Roman  sarcophagi.  It  at- 
tained especial  prominence  through  the  great 
tragedy  Medea,  \)y  Euripides. 

MEDEA.  (1)  A  tragedy  by  Euripides  rep- 
resented in  B.C.  431.  when  it  obtained  only  the 
third  prize.  The  delineation  of  the  passionate 
lieroine  makes  it  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Greek 
tragedies.  Euripides's  Medea  was  translated 
into  Latin  by  Ennius.  (2)  A  play  of  consider- 
able power  by  Seneca,  1027  lines  in  length.  It 
is  otily  occasionally  like  the  play  of  Euripides. 
It  is  distinguished  by  the  beautv  of  its  clioral 
odes.      (;J)    .\  tragedy" by  Eichard "Glover   (1701). 

MEDECIN  MALGRE  LUI,  ma'd'sax'  mal'- 
grft'  Iwe,  Le  (Fr.,  the  physician  in  spite  of  him- 
self |.  A  three-act  farce-comedy  in  prose  by  Jlo- 
liJre.  produced  at  the  Palais  Royal  in  IGCiCi.  The 
plot  is  taken  from  an  old  fabliau  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  Le  luedecin  dc  Bra y- ox  Le  vilain  mire. 
Marline,  the  wife  of  Sganarelle,  who  has  been 
beaten  by  her  husband,  seeks  to  revenge  herself, 
and  informs  the  servants  of  Geronte,  w'ho  are  in 
search  of  a  ])hysician  for  his  daughter  Lucinde, 
that  Sganarelle  is  a  wonderful  doctor.  He  has, 
however,  the  peculiarity  that  he  will  not  use  his 
art  unless  beaten.  The  servants  follow  her  sug- 
gestion, and  Sganarelle  works  a  cure  on  Lueinde, 
whose  only  illness  is  the  desire  to  marry  Lean- 
dre.  The  comedy  was  set  to  music  by  Gounod 
and  presented  at  the  Opera  Comique  in  1858. 
It  was  given  in  London  as  "The  Mock  Doctor" 
in  18C5. 

MEDECIN"  VOLANT,  vo'lax'.  Le  (Fr..  the 
llyiiig  doctor  I.  A  comedy  by  iloli&re  (1659).  in 
which  Sganarelle.  the  valet  of  Val&re,  appears  dis- 
guised as  a  physician,  engaged  by  Gorgihus  to 
treat  his  daughter  I.ucile.  whom  Val6re  loves, 
and  who.  to  escape  another  marriage,  feigns  ill- 
ness. Sganarelle  directs  Gorgihus  to  transfer  his 
daughter  to  a  room  from  which  she  can  readily 
elope,  and  distracts  his  attention  by  appearing 
alternately  as  the  physician  .nnd  as  the  valet. 
In  the  performance  of  his  double  role  Sganarelle 
is  obliged  to  leave  and  enter  the  house  by  the 
window,  whence  the  title  of  the  play.     , 

MEDEE,  ma'da'  (Fr..  :Stedea).  The  title  of 
several  French  tragedies  inspired  by  the  Medea  of 
Euripides.  (1)  A  play  by  Jean  de  la  Peruse 
(155.3),  a  translation  of  Seneca's  version  of  the 
tragedy.  (2)  A  tragedy  by  Pierre  Corneille 
( 1(>.35) ,  based  on  Euripides  with  an  admixture  of 
Seneca,  but  with  a  nundicr  of  now  minor  charac- 
ters and  with  variations  in  the  details  of  the  plot. 
(."!)  A  play  by  Clement  (1770)  which  eliminates 
the  su|H'rnatural  features.  (4)  A  play  by  Ca- 
♦  nlle  ^Iend?s.  produced  at  the  Renaissance  in 
18!)8  with  Sarah  Bernliardt  in  the  title  role.  It  is 
based  on  Euripides  and  Seneca,  with  modifica- 
tions   ingeniouslv    introduced. 


MEDELLIN,  luu'Da-lyOn'.  The  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Antiotjuia,  Colombia,  situated 
between  the  ranges  of  the  central  and  western 
Cordilleras  (Jlap:  Colombia,  B  2).  It  is  a 
beautiful  town,  and  its  elevation  being  about 
5000  feet  above  sea-level,  the  climate  is  pleasant. 
Its  streets  are  broad  and  straight,  and  it  has 
several  parks  and  squares  adorned  with  hand- 
some buildings,  among  which  are  a  high  school, 
a  museum,  and  a  public  library.  The  manu- 
factures of  the  town  are  chiefly  shoes,  clothing, 
locks,  and  chemicals,  and  it  has  some  trade  in 
gold  and  silver.  Population,  20,000.  iledellin 
\\as  founded  in  1674. 

MED'FORD.  A  city,  including  the  villages 
of  Hillside.  Glenwood.  South  Jledford,  Welling- 
ton, and  West  iledford,  in  Middlesex  County, 
ilass.,  five  miles  north  by  west  of  Boston;  on 
the  Mystic  River,  and  on  the  southern  and  west- 
ern divisions  of  the"  Boston  and  ilaine  Raihwid 
(Map:  Massachusetts,  E  3).  The  city,  which 
extends  four  miles  in  lengtl>  and  breadth  and 
occupies  an  area  of  about  nine  square  miles,  is 
a  popular  residential  suburb  of  Boston,  and  the 
seat  of  Tufts  College  (q.v.).  It  has  a  public 
library;  several  historically  interesting  build- 
ings, of  which  the  old  Cradock  House,  built  in 
1034,  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  structure  retaining 
its  original  form  in  the  United  States;  Jliddle- 
sex  Fells  Park,  Jlystie  Valley  Parkway,  Brooks 
Playslead,  Salem  Street  Common,  and  several 
smaller  parks ;  and  three  cemeteries,  the  largest 
of  which.  Oak  Grove,  contains  about  34  acres. 
The  principal  manufactures  include  carriages, 
bricks,  machinery,  chemicals,  dyes,  calico,  rum, 
etc.  The  government  is  administered  under  the 
charter  of  1802,  which  provides  for  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years;  a  bicameral  council, 
the  "board  of  aldermen  being  elected  at  large  for 
terms  of  two  years,  and  the  connnon  council,  an- 
nually by  wards;  and  subordinate  administra- 
tive officials.  The  last  are  elected  either  by  the 
aldermen  and  common  council,  or  appointed  by 
the  JIayor  with  the  confirmation  of  the  board 
of  aldermen  or  of  the  city  council.  The  school 
board  is  independentlv  chosen  bv  popular  vote. 
Population,  in  1800,"  11,079;  in  1900,  18,244. 
Founded  as  ileadford  by  a  company  from  Salem 
in  1630,  Medford  became  a  town  in  the  following 
year  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1892.  Con- 
sult Usher.  History  of  the  Toxon  of  Medford, 
Mass.  (Boston,  1880). 

MEDFORD.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Taylor  County.  Wis..  119  miles  south  of  Ash- 
l.Tud;  on  the  Black  River,  and  on  the  Wisconsin 
Central  Railroad  (Jlap:  Wisconsin,  C  3).  It 
has  saw  and  floining  mills,  a  foundrj',  a  tannery, 
cheese  factories,  etc. ;  and  is  the  centre  of  a 
lumbering  district.  Population,  in  1890.  1193; 
in  1900.  1758. 

MED'HXJRST,  W.*.lter  Henry  (1796-18.57). 
An  Englisli  missionary.  He  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, and  went,  by  appointment  of  the  London 
Jlissionary  Society  in  1816,  to  Malacca  as  a 
missionary  printer.  His  fitness  for  the  ministry 
induced  tlie  missionaries  to  ordain  him  in  1819, 
and  he  did  good  service  in  various  Eastern 
lields,  Malacca,  Penang,  Batavia,  Paraiiattan, 
anil,  from  1S42  to  1S56,  at  Shangluii.  For  six 
years  he  performed  mission  work  in  the  interior 
of  China  amid  much  peril.  In  1847  delegates 
from  several  stations  convened  in  Shanghai   for 


MEDHURST. 


260 


MEDICAL  CODE. 


till!  ivvisioii  of  the  New  Testament.  In  this 
work  lie  was  engaged  until  ISoD,  when  he  de- 
voted his  lime  to  the  Old  Teslanient.  In  1857 
he  returned  to  England  in  impaired  health,  and 
died  three  days  after  his  arrival,  lie  was  well 
versed  in  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  Javanese,  and 
other  languages,  besides  Dutch  and  French,  in 
all  of  which  he  wrote.  His  special  works  are: 
China,  Jts  Slate  and  Prospects,  icith  Especial 
licfcrciice  to  the  Diffusion  of  the  dospel  (1838)  ; 
Visscrtalion  on  the  Theolot/y  of  the  Chinese 
(1847);  .1  Chinese  Dictionary  (1842-43);  An 
English  and  Japanese  Vocatiulary  (1830);  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Hokkien  Dialect  (1832)  ;  Chinese 
Dialoyiies  (1844);  English  and  Chinese  Dic- 
tionary  (1847-48). 

ME'DIA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  M7)5(a,  frcjm  M^Sos, 
.1/rr/os,  from  OPers.  .l/«(/«,  Mcdei.  In  ancient 
times,  the  name  of  the  northwestern  |)art  of 
Iran,  bounded  by  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north, 
by  Persia  on  the  south,  by  I'artliia  on  the  east, 
and  by  Assyria  on  the  west.  The  northern  por- 
tion of  the  country  is  very  mountainous;  the 
south  is  a  rich  and  "fertile  tract.  Media  at  pres- 
ent f(n-ms  the  Persian  provinces  of  Azerbaijan, 
CJhilan.  .Mazanderan,  and  Irak-Ajemi,  and  the 
northern   portion  of  Luristan. 

The  Medians  were  in  language,  religion,  and 
manners  very  nearly  allied  to  the  Persians. 
After  they  had  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  the  As- 
syrians, their  tribes  united  about  B.C.  708  under 
Deioces,  whom  later  Persian  tradition  seeks  to 
identify  with  Kai  Kohod.  Deioces  nnule  Ecba- 
tana  (q.v. )  his  capital.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Phraortes  ( n.c.  047-025).  whose  name 
has  been  brought  into  jjossible  connection  with 
the  early  history  of  Zoroastrianisra.  The  King 
who  followed  was  his  son  Cyaxares,  who  reigned 
B.C.  G25-.585.  (See  Cyax.\bes'  I.)  This  monarch. in 
alliance  with  Xabopolassar.  King  of  Babylon, 
overthrew  the  .Assyrian  Emjiire  about  B.C.  (i04. 
spread  the  terror  of  his  arms  as  far  as  Kgy|)t  and 
the  farthest  boumls  of  Asia  Minor,  and  van- 
quished the  brigand  hordes  of  Scythia.  who  had 
exten<led  their  ravages  to  Syria.  He  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  son  Astyages,  in  whom  the  later  tradi- 
tion a])parently  wrongly  seeks  to  recognize  the 
tyrant  Azh-dal\ak.  or  Azhidahaka.  of  Babylon, 
who  was  overthrown  by  Cyrus  (q.v.).  Persia 
now  became  the  mistress  instead  of  tlie  vassal 
of  Media;  and  from  this  time  the  two  nations 
are  spoken  of  as  one  people,  .\fter  the  death  of 
Alexandir  the  Great  (B.C.  .323)  the  new  por- 
tion of  Media  became  a  separate  kingdom. 
Media  Minor,  and  existed  till  the  time  of 
Augustus,  (he  other  portion,  under  the  name  of 
Media  Major,  forming  a  part  of  the  Syrian 
monarchy,  ih'dia  was  on  several  occasions 
separated  from  Persia.  In  B.C.  152  Mithridates 
I.  took  Great  .Media  from  the  Syrians  and  an- 
nexed it  to  the  Parthian  Empire,  and  about  B.C. 
30  it  had  a  king  of  its  own.  named  .\rtavasdes. 
against  whom  Stark  .\ntony  made  war.  I'nder 
the  Sassanian  dynasty  the  whole  of  Media  was 
Ignited  to  Persia.  It  became,  during  the  four- 
teenth anil  lifteentli  centuries,  the  stronghold 
of  (he  Turcoman  tribes  Kara-Koinln,  or  'Black 
Sheep,'  and  .\k-Koinlu.  or  'Wliite  .Sheep.' 

In  early  times  the  Medes  were  a  warlike  race, 
possessed  of  an  enthusiastic  love  of  independnv^e, 
and  distinguished  for  their  skill  with  (he  bow. 
They  were  also  celebrated  for  their  horseman- 
ship, and  it  was  from  them  that  the  Persians 


adopted  this  and  other  favorite  exercises  and  ac- 
quirements. Media  i)layed  an  important  part  in 
the  early  religious  history  of  the  East,  when 
we  consider  that  the  ilagi  sprang  from  Media 
and  Zoroaster  probably  arose  there,  although  part 
of  his  activity  is  located  in  Bastria.  Consult: 
Justi,  "Das  Medische  Reich,"  in  Geiger  and 
Kuhn,  (Iriindriss  dcr  iranischfn  Philologie(iitult- 
gart,  18!)7 )  :  Ragozin,  Media,  Babylon,  and  Persia 
(New  York,  1888). 

JdEDIA.  A  borough  and  the  county-seat  of 
Delaware  County.  Pa.,  14  miles  west  of  Phila- 
delphia: on  the  Philadelphia,  Wilmington  and 
Baltimore  Railroad  (.Map:  Pennsylvania.  F  4). 
It  is  finely  situated  in  a  fertile  and  picturesque 
region  and  is  a  popular  residential  suburb  of 
Philadelphia.  The  Delaware  County  Institute 
of  Science,  founded  in  1833,  has  a  valuable  scien- 
tific library  of  5000  volumes,  and  there  is  a 
free  library  with  about  3000  volumes.  The 
waterworks  are  owned  by  the  nuinicipality, 
also  the  street-lighting  plant.  Population,  in 
1890,  2730:   in  1900.  3075. 

ME'DIANT  (It.  mediante,  from  Lat.  mediarc, 
to  divide  in  the  middle,  from  meditt^,  middle). 
The  third  degree  of  the  musical  scale.  The  chord 
of  the  mediant  is  the  triad  built  upon  the  third 
degree.  In  mediopval  music,  the  tone  lying  mid- 
way between  the  final  and  dominant.  See 
MoiiK. 

MEDIATE  (Lat.  nirdiatus.  p.p.  of  mcdiare, 
to  divide  in  the  middle).  I'nder  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, and  especially  in  (k-rmany.  a  term  ap])lied 
to  tho.se  lordships  or  possessions  whieli  were 
held  by  feudal  tenure  under  one  of  the  greater 
vassals,  and  so  only  mediately  under  the  Em- 
peror as  the  supreme  feudal  lord.  JIany  of  the 
smaller  States  or  lordships  were  gradually  re- 
duced to  this  condition,  as  the  neighboring  greater 
States  increased  in  power,  and  amid  the  changes 
caused  bv  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution,  in 
1803  anil  ISOO,  many  small  States  were  thus 
mediatized,  the  greater  States  thus  finding  some 
compensation  for  their  losses  in  other  cpiarters. 

MEDICAL  ASSOCIATION,  The  Amkru'.w. 
An  :issoc-iation  iiicurpinated  in  1897.  and  h:\ving 
in  1903  a  membersbip  of  over  twelve  thousand. 
Its  annual  sessions  are  held  in  the  different  large 
cities  of  the  Vnitcd  States,  but  the  present 
oflice  of  the  secretary  and  editor  is  at  ChicaRO, 
111.  The  object  of  the  association  is  to  form 
into  one  compact  organization  the  medical  pro- 
fession of  the  country  for  the  purpose  of  foster- 
ing the  growth  of  medical  knowledge.  The  asso- 
ciation publishes  the  record  of  its  proceedings 
with  original  papers  and  monographs  upon  medi- 
cal topics. 

MEDICAL  CODE.  .\  body  of  laws  adopted 
liv  a  !iiedii;il  association  regul;iting  the  condiiet 
of  the  profession.  Such  codes  forbid  the  public 
advertising  of  sjiecific  medicines  and  gratuitous 
cures,  and  condenui  patent  and  secret  nostrums. 
The  codes  of  both  chief  .schools  of  practice  re- 
quire the  iirofessional  attendance  of  one  jdiysi- 
cian  >ipon  the  family  of  another  to  be  m.ide 
without  charge,  except  under  circumstances  in- 
volving unusual  trouble  and  expense:  they  ex- 
plain the  proper  relations  which  should  <'xist 
between  patient  and  physician,  and  they  care- 
full\  define  the  relative  positions  of  the  attend- 
ing and  the  consulting  physician,  forbidding  the 
latter   to   infringe   upon   the   peculiar   rights   of 


MEDICAL  CODE. 


261 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION. 


the  foiiiier.  Tlie  iiiL-tlical  t-ude  uf  ethics  in  Eng- 
land was  prepared  in  1S03  bj-  Tliomas  Percival, 
and  on  il  is  founded  the  code  established  in  the 
United  States.  Prior  to  1847  the  codes  of 
medical  ethics  which  existed  in  this  country  were 
instituted  by  State  and  local  societies,  and  there 
were  none  in  many  of  the  States.  At  its  annual 
convention  in  that  year  the  American  iledical 
Association  adopted  a  code  wliich  was  recognized 
as  the  national  code  throughout  the  United 
States  fen-  thirty-five  years.  The  code  of  the 
American  iledical  Association  excludes  all  physi- 
cians other  than  'regular'  from  consultations; 
and  the  action  of  the  New  York  County  Jledical 
Society,  in  ISS'2,  in  giving  their  members  the 
right  to  consult  with  'all  legally  qualified  prac- 
titioners,' has  been  the  cause  of  a  serious  ditler- 
cnce  between  the  national  and  the  State  or- 
ganizations, delegates  from  the  New  York 
Society  liaving  been  refused  admittance  to  the 
annual  meetings  of  the  American  Medical  Asso- 
ciation. Consult  Flint,  Medical  Ethics  and  Eti- 
quette (Xew  York.  188.3). 

MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  United  States 
Abmy.  This  department,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  War,  is  charged  with  the  duty 
of  investigating  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
army  and  making  recommendations  in  reference 
thereto,  with  the  duty  of  earing  for  the  sick 
and  wounded  :  making  physical  examinations  of 
officers  and  enlisted  men;  the  management  and 
control  of  military  hospitals;  the  recruitment, 
instruction,  and  control  of  the  Hospital  Corps 
and  of  the  Army  Xurse  Corps  (female);  and 
furnishing  all  medical  and  hospital  supplies, 
except  for  pul)lic  animals.  In  190,3  the  depart- 
ment consisted  of  1  brigadier-general.  8  colonels, 
12  lieutenant-colonels,  60  majors.  43  captains, 
197  first  lieutenants.  300  hospital  stewards  fnon- 
eonuiii^siiined  olficers).  400  acting  hospital  stew- 
ards, and  in  the  Hospital  Corps,  which  is  under 
the  conniiand  and  control  of  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment, tlicre  were  3300  enlisted  men;  making  a 
total  of  321  commissioned  officers  and  4000  en- 
listed men.  The  Army  Medical  School  is  at 
Washington.  D.  C,  and  is  organized  with  a 
faculty  of  four  or  more  professors  selected  from 
the  senior  officers  of  the  Medical  Department 
stationed  in  or  near  the  city  of  Washington,  and 
such  associate  professors  as  may  be  required. 
The  senior  officer  acts  as  president,  and  the 
junior  as  secretary  of  the  faculty.  Student 
officers  are  selected  by  the  Surgeon-General  from 
those  medical  officers  who  have  been  appointed 
since  the  last  preceding  term  of  the  school  and 
such  others  as  may  be  authorized  to  attend.  The 
course  of  instruction  is  of  five  months'  duration 
annually,  and  includes  lectures  and  practical 
instruction  in  the  duties  of  medical  officers  in 
war  and  peace;  military  surgery,  the  care  of 
the  wounded  in  time  of  war,  and  hospital  ad- 
ministration; military  hygiene;  military  medi- 
cine; microscopy,  sanitary  and  clinical;  pathol- 
ogy', histolng}-.  bacteriology,  and  urinology-; 
hospital  corps  drill ;  and  first  aid  to  wounded. 
Civilian  physicians  and  dentists  are  employed 
whenever  necessary,  under  contracts  entered  into 
by  or  with  the  authority  of  the  Surgeon-General 
of  the  army.  (See  Coxtr.xct  Si-R(;i.:ox.)  See 
SrncEoN.  Mii.nARY;  Hospital  Corps;  Hospital, 
section    Mililihji  llusiiilnls. 

MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  U.xiTED  States 
Xavy.     The  medical  corps  of  the  United  States 


Xavy.  in  1902.  consisted  of  a  Surgeon-General 
(ranking  as  rear-admiral),  a  number  of  medical 
directors  (ranking  as  captains),  medical  in- 
spectors (ranking  as  commanders),  55  surgeons 
(ranking  from  lieutenant  to  lieutenant-com- 
mander), and  110  past  assistant  and  assistant 
surgeons  (ranking  from  lieutenant,  junior  grade, 
to  lieutenant,  senior  grade).  By  an  enactment 
of  Congress  the  relative  grades  in  the  navy  and 
army  have  been  made  to  correspond  as  nearly  as 
possible.  Candidates  for  surgconships  in  the 
navy  must  be  between  twenty-one  and  tliirty 
years  of  age,  and  must  apply  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Xavy  for  permission  to  take  the  required 
entrance   examination. 

MEDICAL  EDUCATION.  The  earliest  in- 
stitutions for  the  teaching  of  medicine  were  situat- 
ed in  temples  and  groves  dedicated  to  the  worship 
of  the  deities  who  were  supposed  to  preside  over 
the  health  of  their  worshipers.  Thus  in  Egypt 
the  god  Osiris  and  his  wife  Isis  were  the  tutelary 
deities  of  the  medical  arts,  and  in  Greece  the 
god  of  health  was  .Esculapius.  The  temples 
were  situated  in  the  neighborhood  usually  of 
streams  and  springs  which  were  supposed  to 
possess  healing  properties.  One  of  the  most 
famous  of  these  ancient  temples  was  that  sit- 
uated on  the  island  of  Cos ;  its  most  celebrated 
disciple  was  Hippocrates,  who  flourished  early  in 
the  fourth  century  B.C.,  and  whose  teachings  ruled 
medical  science  even  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Throughout  Italy  the  same  methods 
prevailed,  the  Romans  deriving  most  of  their 
medical  lore  from  Greek  teachers.  Thus  Galen 
was  a  native  of  Pergamum.  where  there  was  a 
famous  medical  school  in  which  he  was  educated. 
His  great  work  as  a  teacher,  however,  was  done 
in  Rome.  Greek  teachers  were  also  responsible 
for  the  rise  of  the  Arabian  school  of  medicine. 
In  the  sixth  century  a.d.  the  Nestorians,  being 
driven  out  of  Syria  because  of  their  heretical 
opinions,  settled  largely  among  the  Arabs,  and 
transmitted  to  them  their  medical  know-ledge.  By 
this  time  the  teacher  of  medicine  was  practically 
divorced  from  his  religious  functions,  although 
even  down  to  the  media-val  jieriod  much  of  the 
medical  learning  of  the  world  appertained  to  the 
priesthood. 

Until  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  the  teaching 
of  medicine  in  the  media>val  medical  schools 
consisted  almost  solely  in  dissertations  and  lec- 
tures upon  the  writings  of  Hippocrates  and 
Galen.  The  dissection  of  the  human  body  was 
only  intermittently  practiced.  In  1315  Mondino 
dissected  in  Bologna  the  cadavers  of  two  women. 
Master  Albert,  a  lecturer  in  the  same  institution, 
dissected,  in  1319,  a  body  stolen  from  the  ceme- 
tery by  the  students.  Bertucci  and  Pietro  de 
Angela,  a  little  later,  made  systcmatie  dissec- 
tions. But  on  the  whole,  anatomical  science  had 
made  little  advance. 

Clinical  teaching  was  on  no  better  basis.  The 
only  way  in  which  the  student  received  bedside 
instruction  was  through  apprenticing  himself 
to  some  practitioner  and  accompanying  him  on 
his  roiuids.  or  by  acting  as  bis  servant  and  as- 
sistant. Although  the  great  universities  con- 
ferred degrees  in  course,  there  were,  nevertheless, 
enormous  numbers  of  quacks  and  charlatans  who 
flourished  in  the  absence  of  any  efficient  laws 
regulating  the  right  of  persons  to  practice  the 
healing  art. 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION. 


263 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION. 


In  the  Middle  Ages  tlie  most  laiiioiis  of  all 
the  medieal  schools  was  thai  of  Saluiiio,  near 
Xaples,  which  was  organized  in  connection  with 
a  monastery  of  iSenedictine  monks.  Its  grad- 
uates were  to  be  fonnd  teaching  in  all  quarters 
of  the  globe,  and  its  inlluence  was  widespread, 
not  only  at  the  period  in  which  it  flourished, 
but  for  many  years  subsequent,  -\nolher  cele- 
brated medical  school  was  that  of  ilontpel- 
licr,  in  France.  The  University  of  Paris  was 
founded  in  1205  and  graduated  enormous  classes. 
Its  graduates  were  held  in  high  esteem.  They 
were  not  allowed  to  practice  surgery,  and  held 
practitioners  of  that  art  in  the  greatest  con- 
tempt. France,  however,  was  the  jjioncer  in 
recognizing  the  necessity  for  a  higher  education 
of  surgeons,  and  for  their  elevation  to  a  rank  cor- 
responding to  that  of  physicians.  In  surgical 
teaching  the  French  were  always  greatly  in  ad- 
vance of  other  nations.  It  was  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  likewise,  that  midwifery  was  first 
taught  to  classes  of  male  students. 

Among  the  most  famous  centres  for  medical 
teaching  in  the  sixteenth  century  were  the  schools 
of  Bologna.  Padua,  and  Pisa  in  Italy.  At  the 
present  time  Italian  physicians  are  doing  an 
enormous  amount  of  scientific  research  work. 
The  facilities  olTered  to  students  in  their  medical 
colleges,  however,  are  not  to  be  ciiiiiiiared  wit)i 
those  afforded  by  the  other  Continental  medical 
schools.  In  Germany  there  were  nnmbers  of 
universities  with  flourishing  medical  depart- 
ments at  a  very  early  periml.  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  Erfurt,  Wittenberg,  and  Vienna. 
With  the  nineteenth  century  a  new  era  dawned 
in  German  medicine.  To  it  more  than  to  any 
other  single  nation  is  duo  the  credit  of  the 
wonderful  achievements  of  the  present  <lay  medi- 
cine. Virchow,  Koch,  and  the  other  distinguished 
occupants  of  professorial  chairs  have  had  in 
their  classes  and  laboratories  eager  students 
from  all  over  the  world.  A  more  general  educa- 
tion and  a  larger  acquaintance  with  the  various 
branches  of  the  natural  sciences  are  required 
of  the  German  medical  student  than  is  cus- 
tomary elsewhere;  a  term  of  five  years  is  re- 
quisite to  obtain  the  degree  of  II.D. 

In  England  the  teaching  of  medicine  was 
established  u|)on  a  scientific  basis  ehielly  by 
the  efforts  of  Thomas  Linacre,  who  founded 
chairs  for  the  teaching  of  medicine  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  .\s  physi- 
cian to  Henry  VIII.  he  possessed  an  enormous 
influence  at  Court,  and  this  he  wielded  to  great 
advantage,  inducing  the  King  to  take  the  power 
of  licensing  persons  to  practice  medicine  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  bishops,  and  rendering  it 
necessary  for  the  ean<lidates  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation and  receive  a  degree  from  one  or  the 
other  of  the  two  universities.  In  England,  as 
in  France,  it  was  many  years  before  the  educa- 
tion of  the  surgerm  was  considered  as  of  equal 
importance  with  that  of  the  physician.  Until 
174.5  the  surgeons  were  a.ssociated  with  the 
barbers  in  the  corporation  of  the  barber  sur- 
geons. In  that  year  they  separated,  nlthovigh  it 
was  not  until  more  than  fifty  years  later  that 
the  Roynl  College  of  Surgeons  was  incorporated. 

The  medical  profession  in  England  consists  of 
three  classes:  first,  physicians,  who  have  received 
their  rlegree  from  one  of  the  universities;  second, 
stirgcons.  who  have  graduated  from  one  or  an- 
other   of    the    medical    schools    which    exist    in 


connection  with  tlie  hospitals ;  and  third, 
apothecaries,  who  dispense  their  own  drugs  and 
are  generally  considered  as  family  physicians. 
Dispensers  like  American  apothecaries  are  in 
England  called  chemists.  The  large  hospitals  in 
London  have,  in  many  instances,  medical  .schools 
connected  with  them.  Of  the  more  iirominent  may 
be  mentioned  Saint  Thomas.  Saint  Bartholomew, 
Saint  (ieorge,  and  Guy's.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion at  these  hospitals  is  three  years;  the  teach- 
ers are  the  physicians  ami  surgeons  who  servo 
the  hospitals.  After  passing  the  examinations 
at  his  medical  school,  in  order  to  obtain  au- 
thority to  practice  the  graduate  is  obliged  to 
pass  an  examination  before  a  board  com]iosed 
of  representatives  of  some  of  the  leading  uiedical 
societies,  such  as  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  or  the  Society 
of  Apothecaries,  or  of  some  of  the  faculty  of 
one  of  the  universities. 

The  medical  schools  of  Scotland  are  of  great 
aiili<|uity.  That  of  Saint  Andrews  was  foimded 
in  1411,  and  the  University  of  Edinburgh  dates 
back  to  the  year  1582,  although  it  was  many 
years  subsequent  to  this  before  medical  teaching 
there  was  placed  on  a  scientific  basis.  The 
latter  university  exerted  an  incalcnlalilc  influ- 
ence on  medical  teaching  in  the  United  States, 
owing  to  the  large  numljcr  of  American  students 
who  attended  its  courses. 

From  a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of 
North  America  public  lectures  on  medical  topics 
were  given  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  To 
Dr.  Cadwallader  CoUlen  is  ascribed  the  credit 
of  the  first  attempt  to  establish  a  system- 
atic course  on  medicine  in  the  Colonies.  lie 
tried  to  have  the  Assembly  in  the  Province  of 
Pennsylvania  pass  an  act  imposing  a  tax  upon 
every  unmarried  man  fur  the  purpose  of  sup- 
]iurting  a  'inililic  jihysical  lecture  in  Philadel- 
jjliia.'  His  ell'orts  were  fruitless.  In  1750  Dr. 
Thoniiis  Cadwallader  lectured  on  anatomy  in 
Phihulelphia.  and  in  1752  Dr.  William  Hunter, 
a  cousin  of  the  great  John  Hunter,  lectured  on 
anatomy  at  Newport.  R.  I.  Dr.  Charles  F. 
Wiessenthal.  of  P>altiniorc,  delivered  lectures  on 
surgery  in  that  city  prior  to  the  Revolution. 

The  first  medical  school  in  the  United  Stales 
was  founded  by  Drs.  .luhn  Morgan  and  William 
Shippen,  .Ir.,  in  1705.  when  tliey  estaldishcd  a 
medical  ilep:irtmeut  of  the  C(dlege  of  I'liihidcl- 
])hia.  which  institution  sidisequently  became  tlie 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  This  was  shortly 
followed  by  the  organization,  in  1707,  of  the 
medical  dejiartment  of  King's  College,  New  York, 
the  lineal  ancestor  of  Columbia  University. 
Harvard  University  established  its  medical  de- 
jiartment in  1782.  and  in  171I8  a  medical  depart- 
ment was  established  by  Dr.  Nathan  Smith  at 
Dartmouth  College.  Previous  to  the  fnundatioB 
of  medical  schocds.  the  education  of  jihysician* 
in  this  country  had  been  entirely  by  means  of 
the  apprenticeship  system,  except  when  a  young 
man  possessed  sutlicient  means  to  go  abroad  and 
study  in  the  meilieal  schools  of  Edinburgh.  Lon- 
don," or  the  Cnnlinent.  It  ha.s  been  estimated 
that  at  the  outset  of  the  War  for  Independence 
there  were  ujiward  of  .•^500  practitioners  in  the 
Colonies,  of  whom  not  more  than  100  hail  re- 
ceived ntedicnl  degrees.  Most  of  the  early  teachers 
in  .\merican  meilieal  schocds  had  been  educated  at 
the  University  of  Edinbtirgh.  This  leil  to  a  close 
perpetuation   of   the    traditions   of   the    medical 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION. 


263 


MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 


-school  of  Eiliiibui'f^li  oil  tliis  >\(\e  of  tlio  Atlantic. 
In  the  early  part  of  tlie  ninetoonth  century  it  lie- 
came  customary  for  Anierieau  physicians  desirous 
of  studying  abroad  to  take  their  postgraduate 
work  in  Krancc.  In  this  way  the  teaching  of 
Lacnnee,  Trousseau,  and  above  all  of  the  great 
Louis, became  familiar  to  the  American  profession, 
and  served  to  give  an  immense  impetus  to  scien- 
tific medical  work  in  the  United  .States.  The  most 
prominent  medical  colleges  of  the  United  States 
now  require  candidates  for  admission  to  possess 
a  collegiate  degree,  or  to  pass  examinations 
practically  ecpiivalent  to  those  customary  at  the 
termination  of  the  sophomore  year  of  the  col- 
legiate course. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1898-'J9,  there 
were  at  that  time  in  the  United  States  a  total 
of  157  medical  colleges;  of  these,  122  were 
classed  as  regular,  21  as  hoiiKEopathic,  G  as  eclec- 
tic, 2  as  physio-medical,  and  0  as  post-graduate. 
There  were  23.778  students  in  these  institutions, 
and  43811  instructors.  In  almost  every  State  of 
the  Union  there  are  now  examining  boards  which 
hold  biennial  examinations,  which  it  is  necessary 
for  a  physician  to  pass  before  he  can  establish 
himself  in  practice  in  the  State.  In  1875  there 
were  no  medical  schools  in  the  United  States 
which  required  even  so  much  as  a  three  years' 
course.  In  189!)  a  four  years'  course  was  com- 
pulsory in  141  medical  schools. 

Meuical  Euuc.\tio.\  of  Womex.  The  proposi- 
tion to  admit  women  into  the  medical  profession 
met  with  bitter  ojiposition,  which  has  gradually 
given  way.  Although  the  Boston  Homceopathic 
School  for  Women  was  opened  as  early  as  IS48, 
the  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  the 
Medical  Education  of  Women,  organized  some 
time  afterwards,  first  brought  the  subject  clearly 
to  puldic  attention.  The  Woman's  Medical  Col- 
lege at  Pliiladclphi.a  was  opened  in  1850,  alid 
graduates  about  20  physicians  every  j'ear.  Tlie 
Woman's  iledical  College  of  the  Xew  York  In- 
firmary was  opened  in  1S68  by  Dr.  Elizabeth 
Blackwell  (q.v.)  and  her  sister  Emily,  the  In- 
firmary for  Women  and  Children  having  been  in 
successful  operation  since  its  establishment  by 
Dr.  Blackwell  in  1S53.  The  college  was  closed 
in  .June,  1898,  having  fulfilled  its  mission.  The 
New  York  Free  ilcdical  College  for  Women  was 
founded  in  1870.  There  are  at  present,  besides 
these,  colleges  at  Baltimore,  San  Francisco,  and 
Chicago,  and  a  homa'opathic  institution  in  Xew 
York.  At  the  University  of  Michigan  female 
students  are  admitted  to  the  regular  courses  in 
me<lKiuc,  which  are  for  four  years,  attending 
certain  lectures  separately.  The  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  at  Boston  and  Omaha 
Medical  College  are  open  to  both  sexes,  and  the 
Meharry  medical  dejiartment  of  the  I'niversily 
of  Central  Tennessee  was  founded  for  colored 
male  and  female  students.  In  the  large  cities 
the  dispensaries  are  now  open  to  women,  and 
candidates  for  degrees  in  the  Woman's  Medical 
College  of  New  Y'ork  were  received  as  residents 
of  the  New  York  Infirmary  to  receive  special 
instruction  in  obstetrics  and  phannacy.  A  be- 
quest of  .$10,000  was  left  the  medical  department 
of  Harvard  University,  with  the  condition  that 
women  slinuld  be  admitted  to  the  full  course 
of  instruction;  and  although  the  bequest  with 
■this  proviso  was  not  accepted  by  the  authorities, 
there  was  a  noticeably  strong  vote  in  its  favor. 


Jn  1S90  the  tru^lees  of  .Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore,  accepted  from  ladies  of  that  city  and 
elsewhere  $100,000  for  the  endowment  fund  of  the 
university  medical  school,  with  the  understanding 
tliat  it  should  admit  women  on  the  same  terms  as 
men.  Medical  schools  for  women  have  been  found- 
ed by  American  women  in  Turkey,  and  fifteen 
gradiurtes  of  the  Woman's  Medical  College  of 
Philadelphia  in  1884  were  especially  prepared  for 
missionary  work  in  foreign  lands.  One  of  the  first 
female  practitioners  in  England  was  ])r.  Eliza- 
beth Blackwell,  who  settled  in  T.ondon  in  1808 
and  became  connected  with  tlie  Women's  Jledieal 
College  there.  As  late  as  1807  the  Apothecaries' 
Society  passed  resolutions  excluding  women  from 
examinations  for  degrees.  The  admission  of 
women  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh  led  to 
o|ien  riots  among  the  students.  The  'enabling 
bill,'  giving  permission  to  medical  schools  and 
societies  to  grant  qualifications  for  the  registra- 
tion of  physicians  A\ithout  regard  to  .sex,  was 
passed  by  Parliament  in  1870;  King's  and 
(Jueen's  College  of  Physicians,  Dublin,  and  the 
London  University  threw  open  their  doors  to 
women  soon  afterwards;  and  a  preparatory  medi- 
cal school  in  London  annually  recruits  the  num- 
ber of  female  matriculates  in  these  institutions. 
There  are  dispensaries  at  London,  Leeds,  and 
Bristol  superintended  by  female  physicians;  and 
Queen  Victoria  during  her  reign  interested  her- 
self in  behalf  of 'medical  missions  carried  on  by 
Englishwomen  in  the  East.  The  faculty  of 
medicine  at  Paris  has  given  ii  number  of  diplo- 
mas to  women,  as  have  the  imi versifies  of  Bern, 
Zurich,  and  Geneva.  The  first  woman  medical 
graduate  in  Germany  was  !Mrs.  Dorothea  Chris- 
tiana Erxleben.  who  received  the  medical  degree 
from  the  University  of  Halle  in  1754.  upon  rec- 
onnnendation  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  a  royal 
decree.  But  medical  colleges  in  Germany  were 
closed  to  women  till  1900,  when  by  a  decision 
of  the  German  Federal  Council  female  medical 
students  were  entitled  to  be  admitted  to  the 
State  examinations  in  medicine.  Heidelberg 
University  opened  its  doors  to  women  in  1900. 
Thei-e  are  medical  courses  for  women  at  the 
Carolinian  institutions  at  Stockholm  and  at  Up- 
sala.  The  Spanish  iiniversities  of  Madrid.  Val- 
ladolid,  and  Barcelona  extend  the  same  privi- 
leges. Tlie  War  Department  of  the  Russian 
Government  founded  a  medical  school  for  women 
at  Saint  Petersburg;  a  similar  institution  is 
now  open  at  iloscow.  All  the  medical  societies  in 
the  United  States  and  many  in  foreign  countries 
admit  female  physicians  to  their  congresses  and 
discussions. 

MEDICAL  ELECTRICITY.  See  Electbxc- 
ITY.  ^[edical  Use.s  of. 

MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE,  or  Forex- 
,sic  !Medicixe.  The  application  of  medical 
science  to  the  elucidation  of  legal  questions 
which  have  a  medical  aspect.  The  questions  in- 
cluded in  modern  medical  jurisprudence  are 
divided  by  Ciodkin  into  five  general  classes: 
(1)  Those  arising  out  of  sex  relations,  as  im- 
potence and  sterility,  pregnancy,  legitimacy,  and 
rape;  (2)  injuries  inflicted  on  the  living  or- 
ganism, as  infanticide,  wounds,  poisons,  injuries, 
and  death  from  violence;  (3)  questions  arising 
out  of  disqualifying  di-^eascs.  as  the  different 
forms  of  mental  alienation;  (4)  those  arising 
out  of  deceptive  practices,  as  feigned  diseases; 


MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 


264 


MEDICI. 


(5)  qiu'sliuus  uf  a  miscellaneous  iiatui'j,  as  age, 
identity,  presumption  of  seniority,  and  life  as- 
surance. 

In  criminal  trials  in  the  United  States  each 
side  hires  its  own  experts,  and,  owing  to  the 
use  of  hypothetical  questions  and  the  advocate's 
eliciting  only  part  of  the  truth,  the  spectacle  is 
often  presented  of  equally  competent  medical 
experts  flatly  contradicting  each  other.  The 
etTcct  which  this  has  had  in  casting  d()ul)l  upon 
the  value  of  expert  opinion,  ami  the  dissatisfac- 
tion to  which  it  has  given  rise  in  the  minds 
of  judges,  juries,  and  experts  themselves,  have 
led  to  numerous  plans  for  remedying  this  defect 
in  the  present  system  of  calling  expert  witnesses 
by  establishing  a  class  of  ollieial  experts;  but 
most  of  these  plans  conllict  witli  one  or  all  of 
the  fundamcnt,Tl  principles  of  tlie  common  law 
relating  to  the  cimduct  of  criminal  trials:  tliat 
the  court  shall  bo  the  sole  judge  of  the  law,  that 
the  jury  shall  pass  upon  facts,  and  that  the 
defendant  shall  have  the  right  to  present  any 
proper  evidence  on  his  own  behalf. 

In  France  ex])erls  are  generally  selected  from 
a  list  of  ollieial  specialists,  termed  experts  assvr- 
menlcs,  and  if  the  parties  cannot  agree  upon 
the  experts,  the  court  appoints  them.  The  court 
may  order  an  investigation  and  report  by  experts 
whenever  necessary,  and  the  order  contains  a 
statement  as  to  the  exact  object  of  the  investiga- 
tion, .ind  appoints  a  referee  (U-  jiiyc  eomntissairc. 
Harristers  or  arucats  do  not  appear  before  the 
experts;  but  the  parties  are  represented  by 
solicitors  or  avoues,  or  sometimes  by  persons 
specially  skilled  in  the  matter  under  investiga- 
tion. The  report  must  be  signed  by  all  the  ex- 
perts (who  are  three  in  number),  the  rca.sons 
for  any  dissenting  opinion  being  emboilied  in  the 
report.  The  ju<lges.  however,  are  not  bound  by 
the  report  if  it  is  contrary  to  their  convictions. 

In  Gernuiny,  after  the  issues  are  determined 
upon  which  expert  testimony  is  sought,  the 
parties  may  agree  upon  the  experts,  and  the 
court  may  appoint  them.  The  court  may  limit 
the  number  of  experts,  or  may  submit  to  the 
parties  the  names  of  a  number  of  experts,  permit 
each  side  to  challenge  a  certain  number,  and 
appoint  those  remaining.  There  is  a  class  of 
nlluially  appointed  experts  on  certain  subjects, 
and  these  have  the  preference  in  trials  w  liich 
concern  those  subjcct.s,  imless  there  is  some 
special  reason  to  the  contrary. 

The  plan  suggested  by  Sir  .James  Stephen  in 
his  Hinlory  of  the  Cri'iiii)ial  Law  of  ICntiluml. 
and  used  for  some  years  in  Leeds,  has  given 
much  satisfaction.  Under  this  plan,  which  re- 
quires a  high  standard  of  professional  h<mor 
and  knowledge,  medical  men  refuse  to  testify 
unless  liefore  doing  so  they  can  meet  in  confer- 
ence with  the  experts  of  the  opjiosing  side,  and 
have  an  exchange  of  views.  As  a  result,  it  is 
stated  that  at  Leeds  medical  witnesses  are  rarely 
eross-pxamincd,  and  often  they  are  called  on  one 
Bide  only. 

See  KviDENCE;  Bloodstains;  Homicide;  1n- 
KANTICIDE;  I.NSANITY.  Consult:  Hamilton  and 
(iodkin,  .1  .System  of  Legal  MrUieiiic  (New  York. 
I'.IOO)  ;  and  Heese.  TrxtlxKilc  uf  Medical  Jiiri.iiirti- 
ileiiec  mill   Tiuiriilniii/    ( I'hiladelphia,   1902). 

MEDICAL  SCHOOL.  See  ^Iedical  Educa- 
tion. 

MEDICAL  SCHOOL,  Netley.  An  establish- 
ment at  Netley,  near  Southampton,  England,  for 


the  technical  education  of  medical  officers  for 
the  13ritish  and  Indian  military  service.  Can- 
didates are  examined  competitively  in  the  ordi- 
nary subjects  of  professional  knowledge;  and, 
passing  satisfactorily  through  that  ordeal,  are 
then  required  to  attend,  for  six  months,  at  the 
AHlitary  Medical  School,  where  they  go  through 
practical  courses  of  military  lij-giene,  military 
;ind  clinical-military  surgery  and  medicine,  and 
pathology  witli  morbid  anatomy.  There  is  a 
training  school  for  army  nurses  in  connection 
with  the  hospital  at  Netle.v,  where  women  enlist 
for  life  or  during  competency  for  work  in  army 
hospitals,  in  the  field,  or  in  foreign  lands  in  care 
of  the  sick  soldiery. 

MEDICAL    STATISTICS    of    the    United 

Statks.  In  (lie  Lniteil  States  of  America,  in- 
cluding the  l'hilii)pines.  Porto  llico.  and  Hawaii, 
there  were,  in  1901,  115,222  physicians  to  a 
population  of  84,.332,010.  The  last  complete 
<lata  we  have  concerning  the  number  of  and 
attendance  upon  medical  schools  are  for  1899. 
In  this  year  there  were,  including  graduate 
schools,  1.57  medical  schools  in  the  I'niti'd  States, 
with  28, "78  students  and  43.S9  instructors.  The 
growth  in  the  number  of  medical  students  in 
twenty-one  years  has  been  142  |)er  cent.  l)f  the 
157  schools,  122  are  regular.'  21  are  homa?o- 
pathic,  0  eclectic.  2  physio-medical,  and  0  post- 
graduate. The  status  of  these  schools,  while 
determined  in  part  by  the  ruling  of  State  boards 
of  health  or  luedical  examiners,  as  in  New  York 
and  Illinois,  is  generally  fixcil  by  the  Associa- 
tions of  the  organized  medical  bodies  of  educa- 
tion. 

The  ratio  of  physicians  to  population  is  less 
than  1  to  (iOO  in  the  United  States,  while  in 
foreign  countries  it  varies  from  1  to  about  1100 
in  the  British  isles  to  1  to  about  ,S500  in  Russia. 
We  are  said  to  have  in  proportion  to  our  popula- 
tion four  times  as  many  physicians  as  France, 
five  times  as  many  as  Germany,  six  limes  as 
many  as   Italy. 

MEDICI,  ma'de-ch^.  The.  The  most  cele- 
brated family  of  the  Florentine  Republic.  The 
iledici  owed  their  earliest  distinction  to  the 
success  with  which  they  had  imrsued  various 
branches  of  commerce,  and  the  liberal  spirit  in 
which  they  devoted  their  wealth  to  purposes  of 
general  utility.  From  the  thirteenth  century 
the  Medici  took  Jiart  in  all  the  leading  events 
of  the  Rei)ublic.  From  the  time  when  Salvestro 
de"  Medici  attained  the  rank  of  gonfalonierc  in 
1378  the  family  ro.se  nipidly  to  preemiiK'nce.  the 
foundation  of  its  greatness  being  especially  due  to 
(liovanni.  who  died  in  1429,  leaving  to  his  .sons, 
Cosimo  and  Lorenzo,  a  heritage  of  wealth  and 
honors  hitherto  unparalleled  in  the  Republic. 
With  Cosimo  ( 1389-1404 ) ,  on  whom  was  grate- 
fully bestowed  the  title  of  •Father  of  his  Coun- 
try.' began  the  glorious  epoch  of  the  .Medici;  while 
from  Lorenzo  was  descendeil  the  collateral  branch 
of  the  family,  which  in  the  sixteenth  century 
obtained  absolute  sway  over  Tuscany.  Cosimo's 
life,  except  during  a  short  period,  when  the  ,\1- 
bizzi  and  other  families  reestablished  a  successful 
opposition  against  the  policy  and  credit  of  the 
>lediei,  was  one  uninterrupted  course  of  |)ros|)er- 
ity.  ,'\t  once  a  munificent  patron  and  a  success- 
ful cultivator  of  art  and  literature,  he  did  more 
than  any  sovereign  in  Kurope  to  re\ive  the  study 
of  the  ancient  classics,  and  to  foster  a  taste  for 


MEDICI. 


265 


MEDICI. 


mental  culture.  He  iisseiubled  about  him  learned 
men  of  every  nation,  and  gave  lilieral  support  to 
numerous  Greek  scholars;  and  by  his  foundation 
of  an  academy  for  the  study  of  the  philosophy  of 
I'lato,  and  of  a  library  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Oriental  manuscripts,  he  inaugurated  a  new  era 
in  modern  learning  and  art.  But,  though  he  re- 
tained the  forms  of  the  Republic,  and  nominally 
confided  the  executive  authority  to  a  gonfaloniere 
and  eight  priori  or  senators,  he  totally  extin- 
guished the  freedom  of  Florence. 

His  grandson,  LoHEXZo  the  Magnificent 
(144!)-92),  became  the  virtual  head  of  the  Flor- 
entine State  in  14G!).  In  1478  the  conspiracy  of 
the  I'azzi  nearly  succeeded  in  overthrowing  the 
Medici.  Lorenzo's  brother  Giuliano  was  slain, 
and  he  himself  barely  escaped.  '  The  result  of  the 
conspiracy  was  to  give  Lorenzo  a  firmer  hold 
upon  the  State.  He  pursued  with  signal  ijuecess 
the  policy  of  his  famil}',  which  was  to  win  the 
favor  of  the  lower  classes,  and  thereby  make 
absolute  their  own  power.  He  encouraged  liter- 
ature and  the  arts,  employed  learned  men  to 
collect  choice  books  and  antiquities  for  him  from 
every  part  of  the  known  world,  estalilished  print- 
ing presses  in  his  dominions,  founded  academics 
for  the  study  of  classical  learning,  and  filled 
his  gardens  with  collections  of  the  renuiins  of 
ancient  art.  When,  however,  his  munificence 
and  conciliatory  manners  had  gained  for  him 
the  allcction  of  the  higher  and  the  devotion  of 
the  lower  classes,  he  lost  no  time  in  breaking 
down  tlie  forms  of  constitutional  independence 
that  he  and  his  predecessors  had  hitherto  suf- 
fered to  exist.  Some  few  Florentines,  alarmed  at 
the  progress  of  the  voluptuous  refinement,  which 
was  smothering  every  spark  of  personal  inde- 
pendence, tried  to  stem  the  current  of  corruption 
by  an  ascetic  severity  of  morals,  which  gained  for 
them  the  name  of  pirignotti.  or  weepers.  Fore- 
most among  them  was  the  Dominican  friar  Gi- 
rolanio  Savonarola  ( q.v. ) ,  whose  eloquent  ap- 
peals to  the  people  in  favor  of  a  popular  and 
democratic  form  of  government  and  a  life  of 
asceticism  threatened  for  a  time  the  overthrow 
of  the  Medici.  Lorenzo  achieved  some  reputation 
in  belles-lettres.  We  have  from  him  jioems  of 
many  kinds,  l3'ric,  nmral,  dramatic,  and  descrip- 
tive. His  Canzoni  and  Honrtii  are  love  poems, 
to  which  he  added  ,a  prose  conniientary.  A  true 
feeling  for  nature  appears  in  the  Caccia  col  fnl- 
coiir.  and  a  rather  pleasing  picture  of  rural  life 
is  to  be  found  in  his  Xencia  da  Barbcriiio.  A 
dramatic  composition  of  a  kind  held  in  favor  at 
the  time  is  the  t'diiprrsentdzione  di  Santi  Giovan- 
ni e  I'uolo  (i)crfornied  in  1489).  Like  so  many 
wrilers  of  the  period,  he  cultivated  the  form  of 
the  hnlUita  or  dance-song.  He  wrote  also  a  num- 
ber (if  (\inti  cannisrifilrfichi  or  carnival  songs. 
The  religious  spirit  prevails  in  his  l.aiidi  -ipiri- 
tuitli.  His  love  poetiy  is  tlie  best  of  all  that  he 
produced,  and  the  most  distinctive  characteristic 
in  it   is  the  note  of  melancholy. 

PiETRo  (born  in  1471),  who  succeeded  his 
father  liOrenzo  in  1492.  possessed  neither  capacity 
nor  prudence;  and  in  the  troubles  which  the  am- 
bition of  her  princes  and  the  undue  use  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  popes  broiight  upon  Italy, 
by  plunging  her  into  civil  and  foreign  war.  he 
showed  himself  treacherous  and  vacillating,  alike 
to  friends  and  foes.  When  Charles  VIII.  of 
France,  in  1494.  marched  into  Italy  in  order 
to   achieve   the   conquest   of   Naples,    Pietro,    in 


hopes  of  conciliating  the  powerful  invader,  has- 
tened to  meet  the  troops  on  their  entrance  into 
the  dominions  of  Florence,  and  surrendered  to 
Charles  the  fortresses  of  Leghorn  and  I'isa, 
which  constituted  the  keys  of  the  Republic.  The 
magistrates  and  peoi)le,  incensed  at  his  perlidy, 
drove  him  from  Florence,  and  formally  deposed 
the  family  of  Medici  from  all  participation  in 
|)Ower.  i'ietro  lost  his  life  in  the  l)altle  of  the 
(iarigliano  in  1503  while  fighting  in  the  French 
ranks.  In  1.512  the  Jledici  were  reinstated  in 
Florence,  and  the  elevation  of  Giovanni  de'  Medici 
to  the  Papal  chair,  under  the  title  of  Leo  X. 
(1513-21),  completed  the  restorSition  of  the  fam- 
ily to  their  former  splendor.  The  accession  of 
Giulio  de'  Medici  to  the  pontificate  as  Clement 
VII.  (1523-34),  the  marriage  of  Catharine,  the 
granddaughter  of  Pietro,  to  Henry  II.  of  France 
in  1533,  and  the  military  power  of  the  cadet 
branch  (descended  from  a  younger  brother  of  the 
'Father  of  his  Country')  widened  the  role  which 
the  Medici  were  enabled  to  play. 

Expelled  from  Florence  in  1527,  they  were  re- 
instated, and  this  time  permanently,  in  1530, 
by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
\'.  and  Pope  Clement  VII.  The  Florentines  were 
forced  to  accept  as  their  ruler  a  worthless  prince, 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  a  natural  son  of  Lorenzo 
II.  (the  father  of  Catharine),  who  in  1532  was 
invested  with  the  ducal  dignity.  On  his  death  by 
assassination  without  direct  heirs,  in  1537,  Cosimo 
I.,  the  descendant  of  a  collateral  branch,  was  raised 
to  the  ducal  chair.  Cosimo,  known  as  the  Great, 
possessed  the  astuteness  of  character,  the  love  of 
elegance,  and  taste  for  literature  that  had  dis- 
tinguished his  great  ancestors ;  but  none  of  their 
fraidc  and  generous  spirit.  He  founded  the 
academies  of  painting  and  of  fine  arts,  made 
collections  of  paintings  and  statuary,  published 
magnificent  editions  of  his  own  works  and  those 
of  others,  and  encouraged  trade,  for  the  )notection 
of  which  he  institutecl  the  ecclesiastical  Order  of 
Saint  Stephen.  He  was  implacable  in  his  enmity, 
and  did  not  scruple  to  extirpate  utterly  the  race 
of  the  Strozzi  (q.v.),  the  hereditary  foes  of  his 
house.  His  acquisition  of  Siena  gained  for  him 
in  1569  the  title  of  Cirand  Duke  of  Tuscany  from 
Pius  V.  He  died  in  1574,  leaving  enormous  wealth 
and  regal  power  to  his  descendants,  who,  through- 
out the  next  half  century,  maintained  the  literary 
and  artistic  fame  of  their  family.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  race  rapidly  degenerated,  and 
after  several  of  its  representatives  had  sufi'ered 
themselves  to  be  made  the  tools  of  Spanish  and 
Austrian  ambition,  the  dynasty  of  the  Medici 
became  extinct  with  (iiovanni  Gastone.  who  died 
in  1737.  In  accordance  with  the  stipulation  of 
the  Peace  of  Vienna,  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tus- 
cany passed  to  tlie  House  of  Lorraine.  The  name 
of  the  Jledici  family  was  kept  alive  by  a  house 
whieli  pretended  io  have  emanated  from  it  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  which  accpiired  the  Prin- 
cipality of  Ottajano  toward  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  To  this  house  belonged  Luigi  de' 
Medici  ( 17C>n-1830) .  Duke  of  Sarto.  known  as 
the  Chevalier  de'  Medici.  He  was  a  minister 
of  Ferdinand  I.  and  Francis  I.  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  and  died  while  visiting  Madrid  in 
1830.  Consult:  Fabroni,  Vita  Magni  Cosmi 
Mrdicci  (Pisa.  1788-89)  ;  Armengaud.  "Cosme 
des  Mcdicis  et  sa  correspondance  inedite,"  in 
the  Comptcs  reiidus  de  I'ucadimiv  des  sciences 
morales  et  philosophiques  (Paris,  1876)  ;  Galluzi, 


MEDICI. 


266 


MEDICINE. 


Storia  del  granducato  di  Toscana  (Florence, 
1871);  Perrens,  Histoire  de  Florence  dvpiiis  la 
domination  des  ilcdicis  y'lisfyii'ii  /((  cliiiU  dc  la 
ripuhlique  (Paris,  1SS8-"JU)  ;  Koscoe,  The  Life  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  (London,  1784),  ed.  by  \V. 
llazlitt  (London,  18'J0)  ;  Reumont,  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1883)  ;  Koscoe,  Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Leo  X.  (5th  ed.,  London,  1840). 
Sec  C.\TIIAB1XE  de'  IMedici;  JIaria  de'  ilEDiti; 
Tuscany. 

MEDICI,  Tombs  of  the.  Tlic  burial  phue  of 
the  Medici  family  in  the  new  sacristy  of  the 
Church  of  San  Lorenzo,  at  Florence.  It  contains 
JNIichelangclo's  statues  of  Giuliano  and  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici,  the  former  represented  as  a  general 
of  the  Church,  the  latter  in  dee))  meditation.  The 
sarcophagus  of  Giuliano  is  adorned  by  tlie  fa- 
mous sculptures  of  Day  and  Niglit.  and  lliat  of 
Lorenzo  by  those  of  Kvening  and  Dawn.  Tlie 
work  was  left  unfinished  in  15.34. 

MEDICI,  Villa.  A  villa,  south  of  the  Pin- 
cian  Hill  at  Kome,  built  in  1540  for  Cardinal 
Ricci  da  Montcpuiciano  and  acquired  by  the 
Medici  in  lOOO.  In  1801  it  became  the  home 
01  the  French  Academy  of  Art,  which  was 
founded  by  Louis  XI  \".  and  formerly  was  in  the 
Palazzo  Salviati.  The  facade  incloses  ancient 
reliefs  and  an  important  collection  of  casts  is 
contained   in   the   wing. 

MEDICINA,  niri'di-chc'na.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Bologna,  Italy,  15  miles  east  of  the 
city  of  Bologna  (.Map:  Italy,  F  3),  It  is  situ- 
ated in  a  low-lying  region  which  is  extensively 
cultivated.  It  has  so)ue  manufactures,  and  trades 
in  grain,  wine,  and  mineral  waters.  Population, 
in  I'.IOI    (commune).  12, .■).'!■"!. 

MEDICINAL  PLANTS.  Plants  of  which 
some  part  or  product  is  used  in  medicine.  Con- 
sult Potter,  Materia  Medica.  Pharmacy  and 
ThrraiKiilics   (Philadelphia,  1902). 

MEDICINE,  Amehkax  Academy  of.  .\n 
association  organized  in  1870,  holding  annual 
meetings  in  the  different  large  cities  of  the  United 
States:  (1)  to  bring  together  physici.ans  who  are 
also  alumni  of  some  academic  or  scientific  col- 
lege; (2)  to  urge  the  importance  of  a  thorough 
mental  training  before  studying  medicine;  and 
(3)  to  investigate  and  discuss  ])robIems  of  medi- 
cal sociology.  The  society  has  a  membership  of 
nearly  000," and  its  publication  is  The  Piillclin, 
appi'aring  at   F.aston,   Pa, 

MEDICINE,  Forensic.  See  JIedical  Juris- 
rni  UKM  i:. 

MEDICINE  (OF.  medicine,  Fr,  ni<  (Irvine, 
from  l.at.  muliiina.  medicine,  from  nirdirinnx, 
relating  to  a  physician,  from  mediciix.  physician, 
from  medrrr,  Av,  mad,  to  healK  History  of. 
While  medical  practice,  in  an  elementary  form, 
is  probably  as  old  as  man,  the  oldest  records  of 
medical  matters  extant  are  those  of  Kgj'pt.  Most 
of  nur  knowledge  of  Kg^'ptian  medicine  is  derived 
from  the  (Jreeks,  but  recent  disenverie.;  of  ancii-nt 
papyri  and  better  methods  of  deciphering  in- 
scriptiiina  have  yieliled  much  original  informa- 
tion. The  Papyrus  Fber.*  dales  from  about  the 
sixteenth  century  R.C.,  and  nnich  of  the  learning 
therein  recorded  had  been  traditional  for  cen- 
turies. Certain  facts  concerning  Ep>"plian  medi- 
cine are  Avell  established.  This  art,  as  most 
others,  was  vested  in  the  priests;  there  was  nn 
extensive  fornuilarv,  combined  with  many  cere- 


monial rites:  practice  was  widely  specialized^ 
there  were  physicians,  gjnecologisls,  vctcrinai-i- 
ans,  and  military  surgeons;  but  there  was  noth- 
ing like  progress  from  one  age  to  another. 
Egyptian  medical  lore  was  preserved  in  the  last 
si.\  \olumes  of  the  Sacred  Book.  These  treated 
of  anatomy,  general  diseases,  instruments,  reme- 
dies, diseases  of  the  eye,  and  diseases  of  women, 
and  in  completeness  and  arrangement  rival  the 
llippocralic  collection,  which  they  antedate  by  a 
tliousand  years. 

Tiie  Hebrews  derived  their  medical  knowledge 
from  Egjpt,  and  are  cliielly  remarkable  for  their 
thorough     concept  iim     of     the    value    of    public 
hygiene  and  sanitation,   of   which   systems   lliey 
niay  bo  considered  the  originators.     In  the  early 
days  of  the  existence  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  dis- 
ease was  looked  upon  as  a  punishment  for  sin, 
and  the  Ixvites  were  the  sole  practitioners.  Later 
in  their  history  the  .lews  received  the  impress  oi 
Assyrian,  and  "later  still  of  Greek  thought,   .\fter    j 
two  captivities  we  find  a  class  of  temple  physi-    J 
cians  and  special  surgeons,  and   in  the  centuries 
inunediately    preceding   the   Christian   Era    tlicrr 
were    conununal    or    city    physicians    who    wert     ^^ 
held  in  high  esteem,    dewish  medical  records  cm- 
braced  in  the  Talmud   (ipv.)   show  that  the  .Jew-    \ 
ish    pliysicians    had,    like    the    Egyptian,    little    ; 
knowledge  of  human  anatomy,  that  their  surgeiT 
was  crude,  and  that  no  operations  in  midwifery 
were  performed. 

The  Vc<las  (q.v.),  the  sacred  books  of  India, 
show  that  medicine  as  a  separate  science  wa~  in 
that  count r.v  very  ancient.  The  Indian  pliysi- 
cians combined  a  close  observation  of  jiatliological 
phenomena  with  a  genius  for  misinterpretation, 
so  that  their  study  availed  them  little,  Demon- 
ology  played  a  large  part  in  their  practice  and 
belief.  Physicians  were  drawn  from  the  highest 
caste  (the  Brahmans),  and  long  training,  <le- 
conim,  and  piety  were  required  of  them.  Their 
thenipeutie  methods  embraced  diet,  bathing,  and 
innumerable  drugs. 

I'he  origin  of  Chinese  medicine  is  lost  in  tra- 
dition and  fable.  The  Chinese  attributed  the  in- 
vention of  medicine  to  the  Emperor  Hwang-ti, 
who  was  supposed  to  have  livcil  about  n.c.  2087. 
They  had  elaborate  rules  for  noting  the  pulse,  and 
a  ]>ortentous  array  of  curious  remedies,  drawn 
from  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  king- 
doms. They  knew  no  anatomy,  and  their  surgery 
was  of  a  barbarous  ty|ie.  No  bloody  operations 
were  performed,  l)ut  cupping,  acu])unclure  (q.v,), 
plasters,  and  fomentations  were  used.  .Medical 
l)ractice  was  entirely  unrcgtilated. 

It  is  Greece  that  furnishes  us  with  the  most 
interesting  and  significant  remains  of  the  hi' 
iory  of  medicine  during  aniicpiijiy.  Chiron  (q.v.  i. 
the  Centaur,  is  fabled  to  have  introduced  the  art 
of  healing  into  (Jreece.  anil  to  have  l)een  the  pre- 
ceptor of  .Ksculapius  (q.v.).  who  was  as  eminent 
among  the  Greeks  as  was  Hermes  in  Eg>pt.  Some 
schidars  ccmsider  them  identical.  The  followers 
of  .i:scul;iiiius  early  formed  a  separate  cult  or 
worshiji.  They  had  lemples  situated  in  groves 
and  near  springs,  where  healing  was  practiced 
and  instruction  given.  Treatment  consisted  of 
the  interpretation  of  dreams,  propitiatory  sacri- 
fices, the  olTering  of  votive  tablets,  etc.,  hut  diet 
ing,  pure  air,  tcmneratc  living,  and  bathing  also 
had  their  part  in  the  cure,  together  with  frictions, 
emetics,  ami  purgatives.  The  system  finally  de- 
generated into  mere  mysticism,  and  by  the  time 


MEDICINE. 


267 


MEDICINE. 


of  Hil>pocTatos  only  the  superstitious  resorted 
to  it.  iiesi<les  the  temple  inedieine  there  were 
gymnasia,  older  even  than  -Esculapius,  each  of 
whiih  had  its  (ji/mnasiinch  or  director:  a  gym- 
nast, under  him,  who  directed  the  treatment  of 
the  sick;  and  iairuliples,  who  anointed,  gave 
massage,  bled,  and  dressed  wounds  anil  ulcers. 

The  period   prior  to  the  dispersion  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Pythagoras  (q.v.)    (C.500  li.c.)   is  some- 
times called  the  xdcred  period  of  medicine.   It  «as 
followed  by  the  philosoijhical  period,  inseparably 
linked    with    the    name    of    Hippocrates    (q.v.) 
(B.C.  4(iO-e.3.57) ,  the  first  great  apostle  of  rational 
medicine.     He  classified  diseases  into  epidemic, 
endemic,  and  sporadic ;  he  wrote  extensively  on 
surgery   (though  ignorant  of  dissection),  on  ob- 
stetrics, hygiene,  regimen,  and  on  climatic  influ- 
ences; and  his  works  display  an  immense  range 
of  knowledge  and  high  powers  of  description. 
From  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  for  several  cen- 
,  turies.  we  fin<l  medical  beliefs  crystallizing  about 
'  several   schools   or   systems.      The   Dogmatic   or 
'  rationalistic  school  of  Hippocrates,  founded  by 
I  his  sons,  Thessalus  and  Draco,  and  his  son-in- 
I  law,   Polj'bius,   based    its   principles   of   practice 
;  on  theories  derived  from  known  facts  and  obser- 
'  vations,   and    regarded    maladies   as   units   from 
'  their  beginning  to  their  termination  ;  that  is,  tliey 
recognized  diseases  as  distinct  entities.     The  Em- 
pirics, on  tlie  other  hand,  taught  that  remedies 
could   only   be   suggested   by   experience.      Their 
school  was  founded,  according  to  Cclsus,  by  Sera- 
pion.  a  pupil  of  Hierophilus,  mentioned  later  in 
this  article.    The  lleilwdists  occupied  a  position 
somewhere  between  the  Empirics  and  Dogmatists, 
and  the  Kclectics  chose,  or  pretended  to  choose, 
from  each  system  what  suited  them,  and  adhered 
to  none. 

The  philcsophic  period  ended  and  the  anatomic 
period  began   with  the   foundation  of  tlie  Alex- 
andrian   Library,   after   the   death   of   Alexander 
the  Great,  by   Ptoleun',   one  of  his   lieutenants. 
This  was  in  B.C.  320,  and  the  centre  of  medical 
thought  and  teaching  was  now  shifted  to  Alex- 
andria.   Here  tlie  Ptolemies  gathered  about  them 
j  the  learned  men  of  the  day.     Although  Egi'ptian 
!  prejuilice  was  strong  against  it.  Ptolemy  encour- 
i  aged  dissection  of  the  human  bod.v.     Among  the 
j  famous  teachers  of  Alexandria  were  Hierophilus 
I  and  Erasistratus  (q.v.).    The  former  is  supposed 
I  to  have  been  the  first  to  dissect   a   human  body, 
\  and  between  them  they  made  many  notable  dis- 
I  coveries  concerning  the   structure  of  the  brain, 
;  eye,  heart,   and    intestinal    canal.      Erasistratus 
:  died  about  B.C.  2S0.     During  this  period  medical 
I  thought  was  practically  divided  into  two  schools, 
I  the  Dogmatist  and  the  Empiric, 
j      The  first  native  Roman  writer  on  medicine  was 
'  Celsus    (q.v.).  bnrn  at  about  the  time  of  Christ. 
His  work.  Di'  Mrdicina,  gives  a  sketch  of  the  his- 
tory of  medicine  up  to  his  time,  and  the  state  in 
which  it  then  existed.     He  followed  the  teachings 
of  Hippocrates  and  exercised  a  dominant  inlluence 
until  (ialen  (q.v.)    (130-C.-201)  totally  supplanted 
him.     (ialen  wrote  over  a  hundred  works,  some 
of  them  on  anatomy.     He  described  every  bone 
in  the  human   bodv.   and   the   functions   of  the 
muscles;    he    recognized    two    kinds    of   nerves — 
those  of  sensation,  which  he  thought  came  from 
the  brain,  and  those  of  motion,  which  be  believed 
to  originate   in  the   spinal   marrow.     He   divided 
the  body  into  the  cranial,  thoracic,  and  abdominal 
carities.    whose    proper   envelopes    he   described. 
Vol.  XIII.— 18. 


Galen  strove  to  popularize  tlie  study  of  anatomy, 
with  but  little  success,  and  with  his  death  came 
the  end  of  the  anatomical  period  and  the  end  for 
several  centuries  of  medical  progress. 

The  first  names  of  any  renown  that  occur  after 
the  death  of  Galen  arc  those  of  Uribasius,  Alex- 
ander of  Tralles,  -Etius.  and  Paulus  yEgineta, 
who  flourished  between  the  fourth  and  seventh 
centuries.  They  were  all  zealous  Galenists.  With 
the  death  of  Paulus  the  Greek  .school  may  be 
said  to  have  ended,  for  after  bis  time  no  works 
of  any  merit  were  written  in  this  language. 

Arabian  medicine  was  an  offspring  of  the 
Greek,  througli  tlie  Xestorian  monks,  who  settled 
in  Persia  and  Arabia  in  the  si.xth  century,  and 
establisjied  many  schools  of  learning.  Fragments 
of  the  sect  still  remain  in  these  countries.  By 
the  seventh  centuiy  Arabian  physicians  were  in 
high  repute.  The  earliest  Arabic  w  riter  on  medi- 
cine was  Ahrum,  wlio  was  contempuraiy  with 
Paulus,  but  the  most  celebrated  pliysicians  of 
this  school  were  Rhazes,  who  lived  in  the  ninth 
century  and  was  the  first  to  describe  smallpo.x; 
Avieenna  (q.v.),  of  the  eleventh  century,  whose 
Canon  Medicince  embraced  all  that  was  then 
known  of  medicine  and  the  collateral  sciences; 
Albucasis,  whose  works  on  surgery  were  the 
standard  for  several  centuries;  Avenzoar;  and 
Averroes.  who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century  and 
was  equally  celebrated  as  a  physician  and  a  phi- 
losopher. The  works  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen, 
which,  together  with  those  of  Aristotle.  Plato,  and 
Euclid,  were  translated  into  Arabic  in  the  ninth 
century,  formed  the  basis  of  their  medical  knowl- 
edge; but  the  Arabian  physicians  did  good  ser- 
vice to  medicine  by  introducing  new  articles 
from  the  East  into  the  European  materia  medica, 
for  example,  rhuliarb.  cassia,  senna,  and  camphor, 
and  in  making  known  the  first  elements  of  phar- 
maceutical chemistry,  such  as  distillation,  and 
the  methods  of  obtaining  various  metallic  oxides 
and  salts.  During  this  period  that  part  of  Eu- 
rope not  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  was  sub- 
.jeeted  to  successive  invasions  of  northern  bar- 
barians, and  medicine,  as  other  arts,  was  at  a 
standstill.  There  was  a  brief  period  of  quiet  during 
the  reign  of  Charlema.sne,  when  medical  practice 
seems  to  have  again  passed  into  ecclesiastical  con- 
trol, and  from  the  ninth  until  the  thirteenth 
centui-y  the  .Jews  (who  acquired  their  learning 
from  the  Saracens)  shared  with  the  clergy  the 
art  of  healin.a. 

I'pon  the  decline  of  the  Saracenic  universities 
of  Spain,  which  may  be  dated  from  the  death 
of  Averroes.  the  best  medical  teaching  was  to 
be  found  in  Italv.  where  the  School  of  Salerno 
became  celebrated.  It  was  gradually  eclipsed  in 
its  turn  by  the  rising  fame  of  other  medical 
schools  at  Pologna.  Vienna.  Paris.  Padua,  and 
elsewhere.  Contemporary  with  Jfondino  lived  Gil- 
bert, the  first  English  medical  writer  of  note; 
and  the  prior  century  gave  birth  to  Linacre(q.v.), 
who  studied  at  the  Continental  universities  and 
subsequently  founded  the  London  College  of 
Physicians.  It  was  in  the  fifteenth  century 
that  the  sect  of  chemical  ph.vsicians  arose,  who 
maintained  that  all  the  phenomena  of  the  living 
bodv  may  he  explained  by  the  same  chemical 
laws  as  those  which  rule  inorganic  matter.  The 
chemical  school,  with  Paracelsus  (q.v.)  at  their 
head,  did  nothing  to  advance  medicine  except  to 
introduce  into  the  materia  medica  several  valu- 
able metallic  preparations.     During  this  period 


MEDICINE. 


268 


MEDICINE   DANCE. 


many    new    diseases    were    recognized    and    de- 
scribed. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  studj-  of  lnuiian 
anatomy  was  lirst  fairly  established  by  the  labors 
of  W'salius  (q.v.)  ;  and  in  this  century  and  the 
following  we  meet  with  the  names  of  many 
physicians  whose  anatomical  and  physiological 
studies  materially  advanced  medical  science.  This 
was  the  epoch  of  Eustachio  (q.v.),  Fallopio 
(q.v.),  Assellius,  Harvey  I  q.v.),  Kudbeck,  Bar- 
tholin, Glisson,  Sylvius,  Willis,  Bellini,  and 
others.  Ambroisc  Parf  ( 1.517-fKI )  made  important 
additions  to  surgical  knowledge  an<l  technii|ue. 
The  CiBsarian  operation,  whicli  had  been  known 
among  the  Greeks  and  Kouians,  was  revived. 
Malpighi  (q.v.)  and  Grew  founded  the  cell  doc- 
trine. Besides  many  discoveries  in  minute  anat- 
omy, made  possible  by  the  invention  and  gradual 
improvement  of  tlie  microscope,  the  materia 
medica  was  enriched  by  tlie  addition  of  Peruvian 
bark  or  cinchona  by  the  Countess  Chinchon  in 
11)32.  The  seventeenth  century  is  also  marked 
by  great  advance  in  obstetrics;  medical  jurispru- 
dence had  its  beginning  about  this  time;  and 
bedside  or  clinical  teaching  was  introduced. 
Chemistry  was  now  becoming  distinct  from  al- 
chemy, and  advancing  to  the  dignity  of  a  science, 
and  an  alliance  between  its  principles  and  those 
of  physiology  was  formed,  which  resulted  in  a 
new  sect  of  chemical  physicians,  quite  distinct, 
however,  from  the  sect  represented  two  centuries 
previously  by  Paracelsus.  These  chemical  phy- 
sicians believed  that  diseases  were  referable  to 
certain  fermentations  which  took  place  in  the 
blood,  and  that  certain  of  these  humors  were 
naturally  acid  and  others  alkaline,  and  that 
when  one  or  the  other  of  these  predominated 
certain  specific  diseases  were  the  result,  wliich 
were  to  be  removed  by  the  exlnl)ition  of  remedies 
of  an  opposite  nature  to  that  of  the  disea.se. 
They  were  soon  succeeded  by  the  Tatro-mathe- 
matical  school,  of  wliich  Borelli.  Sauvages, 
Kneill.  .luriu.  Mead,  and  Friend  were  among  the 
best  known.  Another  sect  was  that  of  the  Vital- 
ists,  which  originated  with  Van  llelmont.  and 
which,  with  some  modification,  was  adopted  by 
Stahl  and  Hotfnuinn.  .\mong  other  physicians 
whose  names  stand  out  prominently  in  the  annals 
of  the  seventeenth  century  are  Sir  Thomas 
Browne  and  Sydenham  (q.v.),  both  Englishmen, 
the  latter  the  greatest  clinical  i)liysician  of  his 
time:  Wharton,  who  discovered  the  submaxillary 
duct;  Schneider,  who  described  the  Schneidcrian 
mucous  membrane  of  the  nose:  Stenson.  Peyer, 
Brunner.  Pacehioni,  Havers,  and  Cowper. 

The  most  eminent  teacher  of  medicine  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  Boer- 
haave  (q.v.).  elected  to  the  chair  of  medicine  at 
Leyilen  in  1700.  .\mong  the  pii))ils  of  P.oerhaavc 
was  Van  Swieten.  whose  coniments  on  the  aphor- 
isms of  his  master  formed  a  valuable  colh'ction  of 
practical  observations;  and  llalli^r  (q.v.).  who 
has  been  called  the  father  of  moilern  phvsiologj' 
and  who  first  enunciated  the  theory  tliai  irrita- 
bility and  sensibility  are  specific  projierties  of 
muscular  and  nervous  tissues.  Most  of  the  dis- 
tinguished physicians  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
eishteenth  century  belonged  to  the  Culleninn 
school  of  meilicine.  (See  Cn.j.EN.)  Cullen's 
views  were  attacked  with  great  acrimony  by  his 
former  assistant.  .John  Brown  (q.v.).  who  be- 
came the  founder  of  the  Brunonian  system  of 
medicine.     In  Great  Britain  the  views  of  Brown 


were  regarded  as  too  purely  theoretical,  and  did 
not  attain  any  great  popularity;  but  in  some 
jjarts  of  the  Continent,  and  especially  in  Italy, 
they  found  acceptance,  and  liecame  for  a  con- 
siderable time  the  prevailing  doctrine  in  the 
leading  medical  schools.  Among  the  medical 
curiosities  of  the  later  years  of  this  century  were 
the  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism  or  mesmerism 
(q.v.)  and  homceopathy  (q.v.).  The  latter  was 
founded  by  Hahnemann  (q.v.)  and  served  a  use- 
ful purpose  in  protesting  against  the  enormous 
dosage  of  medicines  and  the  excessive  blood- 
letting then  in  vogue.  The  eighteenth  century 
witnessed  a  steady  progress  in  all  branches  of 
medicine  and  surgery,  the  social  status  of  the 
practitioner  was  raised,  and  medicine  became  a 
conscientious  vocation  and  not  a  mere  trade.  The 
greatest  single  discovery  of  the  age,  and  that 
which  conferred  the  most  benefit  on  mankind,  was 
vaccination  (see  Jexner),  and  next  to  this,  per- 
haps, a  reform  in  the  methods  of  treating  the 
insane.  To  supplement  this  outline  of  the  prog- 
ress of  medicine  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
reader  is  recouniieiuled  to  consult  the  biographical 
sketches  of  Jlonro,  the  Hunters,  and  others. 

The  nineteenth  century  was  one  of  epoch-mak- 
ing discoveries,  only  a  few  of  which  can  even  , 
be  mentioned  within  the  limits  of  this  arti- 
cle. In  the  early  years  of  the  century  Laennec 
(q.v.)  invented  the  stethoscope  and  thereby  in- 
stituted a  complete  revolution  in  the  methods  ol 
physical  diagnosis;  X'irchow  (q.v.)  founded  mod- 
ern cellular  pathology:  Pasteur  (q.v.).  by  his 
studies  in  lermcntation  and  putrefaction. prepared 
the  way  for  the  germ  theory  of  disease :  and 
Lister  (q.v.),  stimulated  by  Pasteur's  discoveries, 
gave  to  surgery  the  antiseptic  treatment  of 
wounds.  Laveran  (q.v.)  in  1880  discovered  the 
plasniodiiun  of  malaria  (q.v.),  and  Koch  (q.v.t 
in  1882  the  b:icilliis  of  tuberculosis.  Since  then 
it  has  been  proved  that  anthrax,  .\siatic  cholera, 
and  most  of  what  arc  called  the  specific  infec- 
tious diseases  are  due  to  minute  vegetable  organ- 
isms. (See  Bacteria.)  The  discovery  of  gemral 
ana'sthetics  was  no  less  important  and  remark 
able.  Morton  (q.v.),  of  Boston,  demonstrated  the 
iina'sthetic  properties  of  sulphuric  ether  in  lS4t): 
and  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh,  introduced  chloro- 
form in  1847.  The  introduction  of  cocaine  as  a 
local  anasthetie  in  1SS4  by  Roller  made  possible 
the  performance  of  painless  operations  on  the  eye 
anil  in  the  nose  and  throat  and  other  parts  of 
the  body.  The  materia  medica  has  l)een  enriched 
by  the  addition  of  quinine,  morphia,  strychnine, 
iodine  and  the  iodides,  the  bromides,  hydrocyanic 
acid,  and  cod  liver  oil.  and.  more  interesting  than 
these,  of  antitoxic  serums.  (See  .X.ntitoxiN: 
Serum  Therapy.)  Diphtheria  antitoxin  espe- 
cially has  saveil  thousands  of  lives.  Among  the 
more  important  inslrunients  invented  during  the 
nineteenth  century  are  the  ophthalmosco]ie  and 
the  liiryngoscope.  Tlie  X-rays  (q.v.)  and  ill'' 
Kinsen  rays  (see  Piiototiiekai'Y)  are  of  loo 
recent  introduction  to  have  proveil  their  worth. 
I'^or  a  comidete  review  of  the  meilieal  progre?« 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  consult  the  liilnnn- 
tioiKil  Ynir  Hook  for  1900,  Consult:  Baas.  His- 
tory of  Mrrlirinr  (Xew  York.  ISOO)  ;  Park.  An 
Epilomr  of  llir  flintorii  of  Mrdiriiif  (\ew  York. 
ISO!))  :  and  Bcnnet.  Disrasrf!  of  the  liiblf  ( Lon 
don.  IS87). 

MEDICINE  DANCE.     A  popular  name  ap- 
plied   to   a    Cheyenne    Indian   ceremony   attended 


MEDICINE   DANCE. 


269 


MEDINA. 


with  fearful  personal  mutilation  and  torture.  It 
is  identical  willi  tile  sun  dance  (q.v.)  practiced 
by  tlie  Sioux  and  other  Xorthern  tribes. 

MEDICK  (OF.  mcdiqiie,  from  Lat.  inedica, 
from  Gk.  fx.i]5iKi^,  mcdilcC,  median  grass,  from 
>I7j5ik4i,  Mrdikos,  median,  from  M^os,  inSdos, 
OPers.  Mdda,  Mede),  Mcdicapo.  A  f;enus  of 
plants,  natives  of  temperate  and  warm  climates 
of  the  Old  World,  of  the  natural  order  Legumi- 
nosse,  distinf,'uislied  from  the  closely  related 
gemis  Trifulium  (clover)  by  the  siclde-shaped 
or  spirally  twisted  legume.  The  species,  which 
are  very  numerous,  are  mostly  annual  and  peren- 
nial herbs  with  leaves  of  three  leatlets  like  those 
of  clover.  A  number  of  them  are  found  in 
Europe,  and  have  also  been  introduced  into  the 
United  States.  The  most  important  species  is 
the  purple  niedick,  lucerne,  or  alfalfa  (q.v.)  ; 
other  important  species  are  bur  clover  (Medi- 
cago  dciiliviildtd) ,  distributed  in  California  and 
the  grazing  regions  of  the  .Southwest;  yellow 
lucerne  (.Vedicago  falcata),  which  grows  wild 
in  Xorthern  Europe;  black  medick  (Medicago 
lupuliiui).  widely  grown  as  a  pasture  plant;  and 
spotted  medick  {iledicagu  miiculata) ,  introduced 
into  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States.  They 
are  generally  valuable  as  forage  and  pasture 
plants. 

MEDICO  DE  SU  HONRA,  ma'dek6  da  soo 
On'ra,  El  (Sp.,  the  i)liysician  of  his  own  honor). 
One  of  the  strongest  dramas  of  Calderon,  in  which 
a  husband,  Don  Guttiere,  surprises  his  wife  in  the 
act  of  writing  a  letter  to  the  King's  brother,  who 
had  tried  to  corrupt  her  before  marriage.  Al- 
though the  wife  is  pure,  she  consents  to  a  cruel 
punishment,  and  her  husband  kills  her  by  exces- 
sive blood-letting,  in  order  that  her  death  may 
appear  natural.  Don  Guttiere  marries  again, 
warning  his  new  wife  that  an  instant's  suspicion 
will  subject  her  to  the  sanie  fate  as  satisfaction 
for  his  sensitive  conjugal   honor. 

MEDICO  -  PSYCHOLOGICAL  ASSOCIA- 
TION OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRE- 
LAND, TuE.  An  association  founded  in  1841, 
with  licadquarters  in  London,  England.  Its  ob- 
jects are  the  stud}'  and  promotion  of  mental 
pathology  and  the  improvement  of  the  treatment 
of  the  insane.  The  membership,  which  is  over 
600,  is  made  up  of  registered  medical  practi- 
tioners and  of  honoraiy  corresponding  members. 
The  regular  publication  of  the  association  is 
The  Journal  of  Mental  Hcience. 

MEDILL',  .Joseph  (1823-99).  An  American 
jounialist.  He  was  born  in  New  Brunswick, 
Canada,  but  at  the  age  of  eight  removed  witli 
his  parents  to  Massillon,  Ohio.  He  studied  law 
at  Clinton,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1846, 
but  in  1840  entered  journalism,  and  took  charge 
of  the  Coshocton  Republienn,  a  Free-Soil  paper. 
Two  years  later  he  established  the  Cleveland 
Forest  City,  a  Whig  organ,  but  in  18.52  united 
it  with  the  Free  Democrat,  the  new  paper  being 
called  the  Leader.  A  little  later  he  left  the  Whig 
Party,  and  in  18.54  was  an  orjianizer  of  the  Repub- 
lican Party  in  Ohio.  In  185G.  with  two  partners, 
he  bouirht  the  Chica<;o  Trilnrne.  In  1870  he 
helped  frame  a  new  State  constitution  for  Illi- 
nois: in  1871  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
first  Civil  Service  Commission,  and  in  1872  was 
elected  JIayor  of  Chicago.  In  1874  he  became 
chief  proprietor  and  editor-in-chief  of  the  Tribune, 
and  he  continued  in  that  position  until  his  death. 


MEDI'NA  (Ar.  al-Mcdiuah,  the  city;  or  more 
fully  Medinat  al-Xabi,  the  city  of  the  Prophet; 
called   also   Tayyibah,   the   perfumed,   or   ul-Uu- 
nawwarali,    the    illumined;    before    the    time    of 
Mohammed,  known  as  Yallirib,  whence  it  is  men- 
tioned by  Ptolemy  as  Jathrippa).     One  of   the 
sacred  cities  of  [slam,  the  scene  of  Mohammed's 
labors  after  his  lliyht  from  Mecca   (see  Moham- 
med; Hejira),  and  the  place  of  his  tomb.     It  is 
situated  about  2.50  miles  north  of  Mecca,  and  140 
north  by  east  of  the  port  of  Vambu  on  tlie  Red 
Sea.    The  population  was  estimated  by  Uurton  at 
the  time  of  his  visit   (1852)    at  16,000;   a  later 
estimate  places  it  at  40,000.    The  city  originally 
contained   a   large   Aramean   population;    but   in 
the   third   century   a.u.    the    tribes   of   Aus   and 
Khazraj  emigrated  thither  from  Yemen,  and  gave 
it   an   Arabic   character;    later   they   became   the 
'helpers'  (Ansar)  of  Mohammed  when  he  Hed  from 
Mecca.      Medina    also    contained    a    large    .Jew- 
ish   population,    who    were     influential     in   the 
early  days  of  Islam,  but  whom  the   Prophet  se- 
verely repressed.     It  was  the  capital  of  the  new 
Mohammedan   power  until   Moawiyah  exclianged 
it  for  Damascus.     It  consists  of  three  principal 
parts — a  town,  a  fort,  and  suburbs  of  about  the 
same  extent  as  the  town  itself,  from  whicli  they 
are   separated   by  a   wide   space.      Medina    forms 
an  irregular  oval  within  a  walled  inclosure,  .35  to 
40  feet  in  height,  and  flanked  by  thirty  towers — a 
fortification    which    renders    the    city    the    chief 
stronghold  of  Hedjaz.    Two  of  its  four  gates,  viz. 
*!ie  Bab  al-Jum'ah   (Assembly  Gate,  in  the  east- 
trn  wall ) ,  and  the  Bab  ol-Mi-vi  (  Egyptian  Gate) , 
are  massive  buildings  with  double  "towers.     The 
streets,  between   fifty  and  sixty  in  number,  are 
narrow   and   paved   only   in   a   few   places.     The 
houses  are  flat-roofed  and  double-storied,  and  are 
built  of  a  basaltic  scoria,  burned  brick,  and  [lalm- 
wood.      Very   few   public   buildings   of   any    im- 
portance are  to  be   noticed  except  the   mosque, 
erected   near   the    spot   where   Mohammed    died. 
It     is     of     smaller     dimensions     than     that     of 
Mecca,    being    a    parallelogram,    420    feet     long 
and    340    feet    broad,    with    a    spacious    central 
area  called   al-Sahn,  which   is  surrounded  by  a 
peristyle,   with   numerous   rows   of   pillars.      The 
JIausoleum,  or  nujrah,  itself  behind  the  mosque 
proper,  is  an  irregular  square,  50  to  55  feet  in 
extent,  situated   in  the   southeast  corner  of  the 
building,   and   separated   from   the  walls   of  the 
mosque  by  a   passage  about   26   feet  broad.     A 
large  gilt  crescent  above  the  'green  dome'  spring- 
ing   from    a    series    of    globes,    surmounts    the 
Hujrah,  a  glimpse  into  which  is  only  attainable 
through    a    little   opening,    called   the    Prophd's 
Window:  but  nothing  more  is  visible  to  the  pro- 
fane eye  than   costl.v  carpets   or   hangings,   with 
tlirce   inscriptions    in    large   gold   letters    stating 
that  behind  them  lie  the  bodies  of  the  Prophet  oi 
Allah    and    the    two    caliphs     (Abu    Bekr    and 
Omar),   and   an   empty  tomb   for  Jesus.     These 
curtains,  changed  whenever  worn  out,  or  when 
a  new  Sultan  ascends  the  throne,  arc  supposed 
to  cover  a  square  edifice  of  black  marble,  in  the 
midst  of  which   stands   Mohammed's   tomb.      Its 
exact  place  is  indicated  by  a  long,  pearly  rosary 
(Kaiikab  al-Durri)    suspended  from   the  curtain. 
The    Prophet's   body    is    supposed    to    lie    (unde- 
caved)    stretched  at  full  length  on  the  right  side 
with  the  right  palm  supporting  the  right  cheek, 
the    face    directed    toward    ^lecca.      Outside    the 
drapery  is  the  tomb  of  Fatima,  the  daughter  of 


MEDINA. 


270 


MEDINET  HABtr. 


Mohammed.  Close  behind  him  is  placed,  in  the 
same  position,  Abu  Bekr,  and  behind  the  latter 
Omar.  Tlie  fact,  however,  is  that  \\lu'n  the 
mo>que,  which  had  been  struck  by  lightning,  was 
rebuilt  in  892.  three  deep  graves  were  found  in  the 
interior,  filled  only  with  rubbish,  ilany  other 
reasons  make  it  more  than  problematic  whether 
the  particular  spot  at  Medina  really  contains 
the  I'rophet's  remains.  Of  the  fabulous  treasures 
which  this  sanctuary  once  contained,  little  now 
remains.  As  in  Mecca,  a  great  number  of 
ecclesiastical  officials  are  attached  in  some  capa- 
city or  other  to  the  mosque,  as  ulemas,  imams, 
khatibs,  etc. ;  and  not  only  they,  but  the  towns- 
people in  general,  live  to  a  great  extent  on  the 
pilgiinis'  alms,  the  city  having  little  trade.  The 
mosque  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1257,  and  was 
rebuilt  12.5S-88;  it  was  restored  in  1487  by 
Khaid  Bey,  of  Kgypt.  The  city  was  conquered  by 
the  Turkish  sultans  in  the  sixteenth  centuiy. 
It  fell  into  the  power  of  Sau<l.  the  W'ahhabite 
general,  in  1803.  and  was  reconquered  by  Tussun 
I'asha  in  1S15.  There  are  few  other  noteworthy 
spots  to  be  mentioned  in  Medina,  save  the  minor 
mosques  of  Abu  Bekr,  Ali.  Omar,  etc.  The  pri- 
vate houses,  however,  surrounded  by  gardens, 
fountains,  etc.,  have  a  very  pleasing  appearance; 
and  the  city,  although  in  its  decay,  is  yet  busy 
and  agreeable.  A  number  of  medreses,  or  en- 
dowed schools,  represent  what  learning  there  is 
left  in  iledina.  once  famed  for  its  scholars.  As 
is  the  case  with  Mecca,  non-Jlohammedans  are 
rigorously  excluded  from  the  sacred  city,  yet  it 
has  been  "visited  by  Burckhardt  (1811)  and  Bur- 
ton (1852).  Consult:  Burckhardt,  Travels  in 
Arahia  (London,  1820)  ;  Burton,  Joiirvnl  of  a 
Pilgrimage  to  El-Mcdinah  and  Mecca  (London, 
18.55)  ;  Soubhy,  Pelerinage  a  la  Mecque  et  a 
Medine.  (Cairo',  1894)  ;  Wellhausen,  iledinah  vor 
dem  Islam,  in  his  Sli—cn.  iv.  (Berlin.  1889). 

MEDI'NA.  A  village  in  Orleans  County.  X. 
Y.,  41  miles  west  of  Rochester  and  equally  dis- 
tant to  the  northeast  from  Bulfalo;  on  Oak 
Orchard  Creek,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad  (Map: 
New  York,  B  2).  It  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural 
region  and  derives  good  water  power  from  the 
creek,  where  a  storage  dam  is  being  (1902)  con- 
structed, designed  to  yield  2000  horse-power, 
which  will  be  utilized  to  generate  electricity  for 
industrial  purposes.  There  are  valuable  sand- 
stone quarries,  foundries,  iron  works,  pump 
works,  tlouring  mills,  and  manufactories  of  fur- 
niture, shoos,  shirts,  vinegar,  cigars,  and  ex- 
tracts. Me(lina  Falls  are  visited  for  their  scenic 
interest.  Settled  about  IS.SO,  Medina  was  in- 
corporated in  18,'!2.  The  present  government  is 
administered  under  a  charter  of  1874,  which,  as 
subsequently  amended,  provides  for  a  president, 
annually  elected,  and  a  board  of  trustees  who  act 
with  the  executive  in  electing  subordinate  ofTi- 
cials.     Population,  in  1890,  4402:  in  1000,  4716. 

MEDINA.  The  sister  of  Elissa  and  Perissa. 
in  S|Kiis.r's  Faerie  Queene.  She  represents  the 
golden  mean. 

MEDINA,  mft-de'nfl.  Josf;  ^f.vRI.^  (c.l815- 
7S).  A  Central  American  politician,  born  in 
Honduras,  .\ftcr  acting  as  President  of  Hon- 
duras in  18fi2  and  ISfi."?.  he  was  elected  lo  that 
office  in  IStU.  ISOfi.  and  1870.  His  administra- 
tion was  fortunate  and  tranquil  until  1871.  when 
war  broke  out  with  Salvador.     Medina  was  de- 


feated and  was  deposed  by  Arias  at  the  head  of 
the  Liberal  Party.  Against  Leiva,  who  became 
President  in  1874,  Medina  revolted  in  1875-76 
and  again  in  1877.  As  a  result  of  the  later  at- 
tempt iledina  was  arrested,  court-martialed,  and 
shot. 

MEDINA  DE  RIO  SECO,  da  re'O  sa'kO.  A 
small  town  of  .Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Vaila- 
dolid,  20  miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  that 
name  (Map:  Spain,  C  2).  Here,  on  .July  14, 
1808.  a  Spanish  army  of  50,000  was  defeated  by 
12,000  French. 

MEDINA  SERIES.  A  subdivision  of  the 
Upper  Silurian  system.  The  rocks  are  conglom- 
erates, sandstones  and  shales.  They  are  abundant 
in  the  Eastern  United  States.  At  Medina,  X.  Y., 
large  quarries  of  building  stone  occur  in  the 
formation.     See  Geolouy;   Sa>'1).st0NE. 

MEDINA  SIDONIA,  svnu'nt-k.  A  town  of 
Southern  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Cadiz,  situ- 
ated on  a  steep  eminence,  20  miles  southeast  of 
Cadiz  (Map:  Spain.  C  4).  It  has  a  |)icturosque 
appearance,  contains  a  beautiful  (Jotliic  cliurch 
and  the  ruins  of  a  palace  of  the  dukes  of  Medina 
Sidonia.  It  was  fcmnded  as  a  fort  by  the  Moors. 
Population,  in  1000.  11.003.  The  d'ukes  of  Me- 
dina Sidonia  played  an  important  part  in  the  ' 
internal  political  life  of  Spain,  and  to  one  of 
them  was  intrusted  the  conunand  of  the  Armada 
for  the  invasion  of   England   in   1588.     See  Ab- 

.M.VUA. 

MEDINET-EL-FAYTJM,  mc-de'net  e\  ft- 
oom'.  The  capital  of  the  Egyi)tian  Province  of 
Fayum  (q.v.),  situated  on  the  Bahr-Yusuf,  55 
miles  south  of  Cairo  (ilap:  Egjpt.  D  3).  It  is 
a  well-built  town,  with  an  interesting  mosque  and 
a  fine  bazaar.  The  chief  industry  is  the  manu- 
facturing of  woolens ;  there  is  a  considerable 
trade  in  grain,  woolens,  and  roses.  The  town  is 
the  seat  of  an  .\nicrican  mission.  Poi?ulation,  in 
1900.  40.000. 

MEDINET  HABtr,  nK-dr'net  liii-bT^'.  The 
modern  .\r;il)ic  name  of  a  ruined  Coptic  village, 
built  in  early  Christian  times,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Nile  in  about  latitude  25°  50'  X.  It  stood 
around  and  upon  the  ruins  of  a  group  of  tenq)le 
buildings  in  the  western  quarter  of  ancient 
Thebes.  These  ruins  include  a  small  tem|>lc  laiilt 
by  Queen  Hatasu  and  King  Thothmes  III.,  \\itli 
additions  by  several  later  monarchs,  and  a  large 
temple  built  after  the  model  of  the  Ramesscuni 
(q.v.)  by  Rami'scs  III.  The  larger  temidc  orig- 
inally stood  within  an  indosure  surrounded  by  a 
wall  of  which  considerable  traces  yet  remain. 
The  main  entrance  to  the  inclosure  is  through 
a  gateway  in  a  massive  pavilion  built  in  imita- 
tion of  ,a  Syrian  fortress  and  containing  several 
chambers  whose  walls  are  beautifully  decorated 
with  reliefs.  Within  the  inclosure  a  great 
pylon  gate  faces  the  pavilion,  and  gives  en- 
trance to  a  colonnaded  court  115  feet  in  length 
and  about  the  same  in  breadth.  .\  second  pylon 
gate  forms  the  entrance  to  a  second  colonnaded 
court  (125  feet  long  and  138  feet  broad)  which 
in  Christian  times  was  converted  into  a  church. 
At  the  upper  end  of  this  court  is  a  terrace  from 
which  a  door  leads  to  the  hypostyle  hall,  sup- 
ported by  twenty-four  cohinms.  To  the.  rear  of 
the  hall  are  two  smaller  halls  and  a  nuniber  of 
chamhers.  most  of  which  are  in  a  ruinous  condi- 
tion. 


MEDINET  HABU. 


271 


MEDITEKKANEAN  SEA. 


Close  to  the  temple  of  Ranicst's  III.  lie  the 
buildings  of  tlie  smallor  temple.  Between  two 
nylons — the  outer  built  by  Ptolemy  X..  the  inner 
by  Tahnrka — is  a  small  chapel  (32  feet  long), 
biiilt  by  Xectanebo.  The  inner  pylon  forms  the 
entrance  to  a  court,  at  the  upper  end  of  which 
is  the  temple  built  in  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  by 
Hatasu  and  Thothmes  III.  It  consists  of  a  cham- 
ber surrounded  by  a  colonnaded  portico,  and 
adorned  with  reliefs  and  inscriptions.  To  the 
rear  lie  six  smaller  chambers,  in  one  of  which 
is  a  shrine  for  a  divine  image.  Consult:  De- 
saiption  de  VEgypte  (Paris,  180!)-29)  ;  Wilkin- 
son. Tupography  uf  Thebes  (London,  1835)  ;  Dii- 
niiehen,  Geschivkte  des  alien  Aegyptens  (Berlin, 
1878).     See  also  Thebes. 

BTEDING,  ma'ding,  Osk.\r  ( 1 820-1903 ) .  A  Ger- 
man Udvelist,  whose  pseudonym  wus'Gregor  Sama- 
row.'  He  was  born  in  Kuiiigsberg,  Prussia, 
studied  law,  and  in  1870  retired  from  the  civil 
service.  From  1873  to  1879  he  lived  in  Berlin, 
and  then  at  Castle  Wohldenberg.  and  in  1900  set- 
tled at  Charlottenberg.  His  novels  deal  mostly 
with  modern  histoiy.  He  wrote,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  'Samarow,'  Um  Scepter  ttnd 
Kronen,  a  cycle  (1872-7G)  ;  Die  Romerfahrt  der 
Epigonen  (1874;  4th  ed.  1S87)  ;  Hijhen  undTiefen 
(1879-80)  ;  Krieg  oder  Frieden  (1897)  ;  and  Ein 
Gespenst  (1902).  He  also  wrote  under  his  own 
name  and  the  pseudonym  'Leo  Warren.'  More 
purely  historical  and  biojirajihical  are  his  Ue- 
moiren  CMr  Zcitgescliichte  (1881-84)  ;  Erinnerun- 
gen  axis  der  Zeit  der  Giiriing  und  Kliirung  ( 1896)  ; 
and  Alls  vergnngenen  Tngen    (1896). 

ME'DIOLATSTUM.    llie  Latin  name  of  Milan. 

MEDITERRANEAN"  FEVER.  See  JIalta 
Fever. 

MEDITERRANEAN  RACE  (Lat.  mediter- 
raneus,  midland,  from  mrdius,  middle  -|-  terra, 
land).  That  portion  of  the  white  or  Caucasian 
division  of  mankind  dwelling  now  or  formerly 
about  the  ilediterranean  Sea,  characterized  by 
long  heads  and  faces,  dark  brown  or  black  hair, 
dark  eyes,  medium  stature,  slender  bodies,  and 
broad  noses.  It  is  called  Iberian  by  English 
ethnologists,  Ligurian  by  the  Italians,  Ibero-ln- 
sular  or  Atlanto-ilediterranean  by  Deniker,  and 
Ibero-Pictish  by  Rhys. 

There  are  four  subraces  of  the  Mediterranean 
race.  In  the  southwestern  portion  of  Europe,  in- 
cluding Spain  and  Portugal,  and  moving  onward 
as  far  as  Iceland  and  Scotland,  were  the  Iberians 
(q.v.),  who  left  their  name  on  the  Iberian  penin- 
sula. In  the  middle  projection  into  the  ilediter- 
ranean  were  the  Ligurian  sulirace,  whose  terri- 
tory stretched  westward  into  Southern  France. 
The  eastern  peninsula  and  the  isles  of  Greece 
were  the  home  of  the  Pelasgians  (q.v.),  who 
moved  northwestward  through  ancient  lllyriciiiii 
into  Italy  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  one 
race  with  the  Hittites  (q.v.)  of  Asia  Minor.  The 
Xortlieastern  and  Xorth  .\frican  subraee  may  be 
called  in  general  terms  Haniite  (q.v.),  to  which 
belonged  among  others  the  Egyptians  and 
Libyans.  Cdusult  Sergi,  The  Mediterranean 
Rece  (London,  1901),  with  references  to  his 
nnmerous  writings  and  the  best  authorities. 

MEDITERRANEAN  SEA.     A  great  inland 

sea  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  .almost  entire- 
ly inclosed  by  the  continents  of  Europe.  Asia, 
and  .Africa,  and  communicating  with  the  Black 
Sea  by  the  Dardanelles,  the  Sea  of  ilarmora,  and 


the  Bosporus  ( .Map :  Europe,  Do).  It  extends 
from  longitude  3°  21'  W.  to  30°  10'  E..  a  distance 
of  2320  miles.  Its  breadth  dillers  widely  in  dilier- 
ent  parts,  the  maximum  l)readth  being  1080 
miles.  It  is  connected  with  the  Atlantic  by  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar.  The  southern  or  African 
coast  is  comparatively  smooth  and  unindented. 
The  northern  or  European  coast,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  extremely  broken,  with  several  long 
peninsulas,  deep  bays  and  gulfs,  and  mauy  isl- 
ands. It  aboimds  in  good  harbors,  which  early 
conduced  to  extensive  commerce.  The  Balearic 
Isles,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Sicily,  Crete,  and  Cyprus 
are  the  largest  islands.  The  Italian  peninsula, 
with  Sicily  and  the  extended  shallows  that  lie 
between  Sicily  and  Tunis,  divide  the  Mediter- 
ranean into  two  parts. 

The  depth  of  the  Mediterranean  differs  greatly 
in  diiierent  parts,  the  maximum  depth  being 
14,400  feet  in  the  eastern  basin  south  of  the 
jMorea,  and  12,200  feet  iu  the  western  basin  east 
of  Sardinia.  The  depth  at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
is  less  than  1000  fathoms,  while  fifty  miles 
outside  the  water  shoals  to  200  fathoms.  The 
specific  gravity  and  salinity  of  the  water  is 
slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  Atlantic,  the 
proportions  being  1.029  to  1.028.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  surface  water  in  summer  is  commonly 
a  few  degrees  higher  than  that  of  the  Atlantic  in 
the  same  latitudes,  and  the  temperature  at  depths 
is  much  higher,  as  is  often  the  case  in  partly 
inclosed  seas.  While  the  temperature  in  the 
greater  depths  of  the  Atlantic  is  very  near  the 
freezing  point,  in  the  Mediterranean  it  reaches 
only  54°  to  56°  F.  In  winter  the  surface  tem- 
peratures do  not  differ  materially.  The  tides  are 
very  slight,  at  most  places  being  only  a  few  inches 
in  height.  In  the  summer  the  northeast  trades 
blow  over  the  Mediterranean,  while  in  the  winter, 
with  the  shifting  of  the  trades,  the  prevailing 
winds  are  westerly.  Specially  designated  winds 
are  the  Bora,  in  the  Adriatic,  and  the  Sirocco, 
blowing  over  from  the  .\frican  desert. 

The  great  rivers  wliich  Uow  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean are  few  in  number,  the  principal  ones 
lieing  the  Ebro,  Rhone,  and  the  Po  from  Europe, 
and  the  Xile  from  Africa.  Into  the  Black  Sea 
flows  much  more  water,  hence  there  is  a  constant 
current  from  the  Black  Sea  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean. From  the  Atlantic  flows  a  constant  .sur- 
face current  into  the  Mediterranean,  due  prob- 
ably to  the  excess  of  evaporation  over  supply  in 
the  latter  body  of  w-ater,  while  there  is  a  lower 
current  flowing  in  the  contrary  direction.  The 
chief  divisions  of  the  Jlediterranean  are  known 
as  the  Levantine  Sea  (in  the  east),  the  .Egean 
Sea,  Ionian  Sea,  Adriatic  Sea.  Tyrrhenian  Sea 
(immediately  west  of  the  peninsula  of  Italy), 
and  Balearic  Sea. 

Of  the  European  sea  fishes  over  400  species 
inhabit  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  some  of  which  are 
peculiar  to  it.  It  has  a  greater  mtmber  of 
species  than  the  British  and  Scandinavian  seas, 
but  does  not  nearly  so  much  abound  in  useful 
kinds.  The  sponge,  tunny,  and  sardine  fisheries 
are  important  on  some  parts  of  its  coasts.  It  is 
rich  in  red  coral,  which  is  procured  in  great 
quantity  on  the  coasts  of  Provence,  of  the 
Balearic  Isles,  and  of  Sicily,  hut  particularly  on 
the  coasts  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli  in  Africa. 

The  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  are  in 
many  parts  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes.  Be- 
sides the  existing  active  volcanoes  of  Etna,  Vesu- 


MEDITERRANEAN  SEA. 


272 


MEDULLARY  SARCOMA. 


vius.  ami  Stioniboli.  tluTp  are  many  evidences 
of  recent  volcanic  action,  and  instances  have  oc- 
curred of  islands  smliicnly  uplicaved  by  it,  where 
volcanic  llres  liave  a|i])carcd  for  a  short  time. 
Consult :  Playfair,  "The  Mediterranean,  Physical 
and  Historical."  in  Smithsoniau  Institution  Re- 
port, 1S90  (Washington,  1891);  Smyth.  The 
Meditcrranpun.  Memoir  I'hysicnl,  Historiedl,  and 
Xaliiral  (T^ondon,  1854). 

MEDITERRANEAN      SUBREGION.        In 

zoiigi'oyraphy,  that  suhdivisjun  id'  the  Palearctic 
Region  wliich  includes  the  basin  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  Asia  Minor.  Persia,  and  the  south 
coast  of  Asia  as  far  as  the  Indus.  The  Canary, 
Azores,  and  Maileira  islands  ari^  also  included. 
It  is  l)Ouniled  on  tlie  nortli  by  tlie  line  of  moun- 
tains which  extend  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
Himalayas,  and  on  the  soutli  by  the  Atlas  Jloun- 
tains,  the  deserts  of  Xorthwestern  Africa  and  Cen- 
tral Arabia,  and  east  of  that  by  the  Indian  Ocean. 
It  is  a  region  of  subtropical  warmth,  and  except 
along  the  north  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  is 
largely  treeless,  arid,  and  elevated.  Within  re- 
cent times  the  Mediterranean  has  been  of  much 
less  extent,  enal)ling  animals  to  pass  freely  across 
its  basin  at  two  or  more  places;  and  much  of  the 
country  now  barren  was  fornierlj'  wooded.  It  is 
not  surprising  to  find,  therefore,  a  general  simi- 
larity and  great  variety  of  life  throughout  the 
entire  area.  Among  the  possible  indigenes  of  this 
subregion  were  the  horse,  camel,  and  some  other 
now  wholly  domesticated  animals.  Of  the  few- 
remaining  or  recently  extinct  manunals  of  the 
larger  sort,  the  Barbary  ape.  fallow  deer,  aoudad. 
nioutllon  (of  Sardinia),  and  civets  arc  most  prom- 
inent. Several  gazelles  and  antelopes,  which  do 
not  range  south  of  the  Sahara,  the  Asiatic  wild 
ass,  and  many  small  animals  are  peculiar.  Most 
of  the  North  European  birds  pass  across  it  in 
their  migration  to  and  from  their  winter  homes; 
but  it  has  many  resident  s])ecies  of  its  own, 
especially  among  the  birds  of  prey  and  the  game 
birds.  See  Di.stributiox  of  .\xim.\ls:  and  con- 
sult the  accompanying  maps,  and  the  authorities 
there  cited. 

MEDJIDIE,  nie-jid'i-a  (Turk.  miijhVi.  from 
Turk..  \y.  mnjul.  glorious,  from  Ar.  mnjd.  glory, 
from  majiidii.  to  be  glorious).  .X  Turkisli  orilcr 
of  di^tinclion.  fust  in^lituted  in  1S.")2.  The  Order 
of  Medjiilie  lias  five  classes,  each  ditTering  in  size, 
the  clecoration  on  which  is  a  silver  sun  of  seven 
triple  ra.vs.  the  crescent  and  star  alternating 
with  the  rays.  In  the  centre  of  the  decoration,  on 
a  circle  of  red  enamel,  is  the  legend  signifying 
'zeal,  honor,  and  loyalty,'  and  the  date  l'2liS,  the 
Alohanuiiedan  calendar  year  e(uresponding  to 
18.52.  The  Sultan's  name  is  inscribed  on  a  gold 
field  within  this  circle.  The  fir'^t  three  classes  of 
the  firder  are  worn  sus|)endrd  from  the  neck,  and 
the  fourth  and  fifth  on  the  left  breast.  A  star 
closely  resembling  the  badge  is  worn  on  the  left 
breast  by  the  wearers  of  the  first-class  order, 
and  on  the  right  breast  by  those  of  the  second 
class.  The  ribbon  is  red  with  green  borders.  See 
Plat"  of  OiiiiKiis. 

MEDLAR  (OF.  medler,  mexler.  meslirr,  med- 
lar-tree, from  mctle,  mrftplr.  niple,  Fr.  ni^flr.  It. 
rirnpiln.  medlar-fruit,  from  OHO.  menplla,  nrx/irln, 
('•IT.  lfiv/)(7.  medlar,  from  l.at.  me.Kpiliif!.  Ok. 
liiawtKov.  mmpilon,  luffjrCKri.  nirspilr,  medlar; 
probably  connected  ultimately  with  Heb.  shilpri, 
to  be  low),  Mespilim.    A  genus  of  trees  or  shrubs 


of  the  nat\iral  order  Rosacea"  sometimes  combined 
with  tlic  genus  Pyrus  by  botanists.  The  common 
medlar  (Mcsiiilii.s  or  I'ynis  germunieu) ,  a  large 
shrub  or  small  tree,  spiny  in  a  wild  state,  but 
destitute  of  spines  in  cultivation,  is  a  native  of 
and  in  general  cultivation  in  the  south  of  Europe 
and  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  seldom  .seen 
in  America.  It  has  lanceolate  leaves,  not  divided 
nor  serrated,  solitary  large  white  Jlowers  at  the 
ends  of  small  spurs,  and  somewhat  top-sliaped 
fruit,  of  the  size  of  a  small  ])car  or  larger,  ac- 
cording to  the  variety.  The  fruit  is  very  astrin- 
gent, even  when  ripe,  and  is  not  eaten  until  its 
tough  pulp  has  become  soft  and  vinous  by  in- 
cipient  decay. 

MEDLEY,  S.VMiEL  (17.18-90).  Baptist  pas- 
tor in  Livcr])0(>l,  England,  from  1772,  and  favor- 
ite hymn-writer.  In  early  life  he  was  in  the 
navy,  but  was  obliged  to  retire  on  account  of 
wounds  in  1759.  He  then  taught  school,  till  in 
1767  he  became  a  preacher.  Two  of  his  hymns, 
"Oh.  could  I  speak  the  matchless  worth."  and 
".\wake  my  soul  to  joyful  lays,"  are  well  known. 

MEDOO.      See  WiXE. 

MEDOWS,  med'r>z.  Sir  William  (17.18-1813). 
An  English  soldier.  In  175()  he  entered  the  Brit- 
ish Army,  in  which  he  served  for  many  years, 
first  in  Germany,  then  in  the  war  with  the  Amer- 
ican colonies,  in  which  he  commanded  the  Fifty- 
fifth  Regiment.  He  was  soon  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  First  Brigade  of  Grenadiers  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  bravery  at  the  battle  of 
Brandy  wine  and  in  the  expedition  of  1778  against 
Saint  Lucia.  He  afterwarils  lived  in  India  from 
1781  to  179.1,  occupied  several  |)Osts  of  responsi- 
bility there,  and  served  as  Governor  of  Madras 
from  1790  to  1792.  His  military  renown  was 
greatly  increased  by  gallant  conduct  at  the  siege 
of  Seringajiatam.  and  in  179.1  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general was  conferred  upon  him.  For 
some  tinu'  after  his  return  to  England  he  was 
Governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  afterwards, 
as  the  successor  of  Cornwallis,  was  commander- 
in-chief  in   Ireland    (1801-0.1). 

MEDRANO,  ma-dra'iiA.  Fh.vncisco  de.  A 
Spanish  po<t  of  the  seventeenth  century,  born  at 
Seville.  It  is  known  that  he  visited  Rome,  but 
no  other  details  of  his  life  are  authenticated.  He 
is  one  of  the  best  of  Spanish  lyric  ])oets,  and  is 
especially  noted  for  his  odes  in  the  manner  of 
Horace,  His  works  were  first  published  in  the 
fleiitinn.i  of  Pedro  Venegas  de  Saavedra,  a  poet 
of  Seville  (l(il7).  They  are  reprinted  in  Riva- 
denera's  liibliolvea  de  autorex  espniiolea,  vols, 
xxxii..  x\\v..  and  xlii.    (IS.'i-ll. 

MEDUL'LA  OBLONGA'TA.     See  Nervois 

SYSTIM     ami     I'.IIAIV. 

MED'ULLARY  RAY  (Eat.  mcdullaris.  per- 
taining to  marrow,  from  mednlln.  marrow).  The 
mdiating  vertical  plates  of  tissue  in  stems,  the 
primary  ones  extending  from  the  pith  to  the 
cortex;  also  called  •pith-rays.'  Rays  of  less  ex- 
tent ari'  called   'secondary.'     See  Woon. 

MEDXTLLARY  SARCCMA.  One  of  the 
synonyms  for  that  variety  of  cancer  which  is 
also  known  as  encephaloid.  cellular  cancer,  medul- 
lary cancer,  fungus  mcdullaris.  etc.  It  grows 
more  quiekl.v.  distributes  itself  more  rapidly,  and 
attains  a  more  considerable  bulk  than  any  other 
form  of  cancer,  tumors  of  this  nature  being  often 
as  large  as  a   man's  head,  or  even   larger.     Of 


MEDULLARY  SARCOMA. 


273 


MEDUSA. 


all  forms  uf  cancer,  it  runs  the  ipiickest  course, 
soonest  ulcerates,  is  the  most  malignant,  and 
causes  death  in  hy  far  the  shortest  time,  often 
destroying  life  in  a  few  weeks,  or,  at  furthest, 
in  a  few  months  after  its  first  appearance,  unless 
it  has  been  removed  by  an  operation  at  an  early 
stage. 

When  it  ulcerates,  fungoid  growths  form  upon 
the  surface;  they  are  extremely  vascular,  and 
bleed  on  the  slightest  provocation.  In  this  state, 
the  disease  has  received  the  name  of  fungus 
hamatoilcs.    See  Tumor. 

MEDUL'LA  SPINA'LIS.  See  Nervous  Sys- 
tem  A.N  1 1   HraIN. 

MEDUM.  ma-doom'.  A  village  in  Kgypt.  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Nile,  some  40  miles  south 
of  Cairo,  in  about  latitude  29°  30'  N.  Near  it, 
on  the  edge  of  the  desert.  Ls  the  pyramid  of  King 
Snefru  (q.v.),  the  first  King  of  the  Fourth  Dy- 
nasty and  the  immediate  jiredecessor  of  King 
Cheops  (q.v.).  From  a  great  mass  of  rubbish, 
which  covers  its  base,  it  rises  in  three  stages  to 
the  height  of  about  122  feet,  the  upper  stage 
being  almost  entirely  destroyed.  The  outer  walls 
consist  of  linely  |)olished  blocks  of  ilokattam 
stone,  beautifully  joined  together.  The  pyramid 
was  opened  in  18.S1  by  Maspero.  who  discovered 
a  long  passage  leading  from  the  north  face  into 
the  se|)nlchral  chamber,  which  is  built  upon  the 
surface  of  the  underlying  rock.  The  chamber 
had.  however,  been  rolibed  as  early  as  the  time 
of  the  Twentieth  Dynasty,  and  in  it  were  found 
only  some  liroken  fragments  of  the  wooden  culfin 
and  a  wooden  jar.  Flinders  Petrie.  who  later 
made  a  careful  examination  of  the  pyramid, 
found  against  its  eastern  face  a  funerary  chapel 
consisting  of  an  open  court  and  two  small  cham- 
bers. Ancient  visitors  to  the  chapel  had  left 
upon  its  walls  numerous  graffiti,  in  five  of  which 
Snefru  is  mentioned  as  the  King  to  whom  the 
pyramid  was  attribtited.  Petrie's  researches 
showed  that  the  present  peculiar  form  of  the 
pyramid  resulted  from  the  removal  of  its  outer 
layers  in  order  to  obtain  stone  for  building  pur- 
poses. 

Near  the  pyramid  are  the  tombs  (mastabas, 
q.v.)  of  a  number  of  high  personages  of  Snefru's 
Court.  The  most  important  of  them  are  the 
mastabas.  richly  adorned  with  mural  paintings, 
of  Prince  Rehotep  and  Nofret,  his  wife,  and  of 
Prince  Nofer-ma't  and  his  s]x)use.  Yetct.  The 
statues  of  Ke-hotep  and  Nofret,  found  in  their 
tomb,  are  now  in  the  ^luseum  of  Cairo.  In  the 
cemetery  of  Mediim  have  been  found  a  number  of 
graves  exliibiting  a  peculiar  mode  of  burial.  The 
bodies  lie  upon  the  left  side,  with  the  face  to- 
ward the  east  and  the  knees  drawn  up;  coffins 
and  the  usual  accessories  of  Kg^'ptian  graves  are 
absent.     Consult  Petrie,  MerT.iim    (London,  1892). 

MEDUSA.     See  GoRoo. 

MEDUSA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  iUdov<ra,  Medousa, 
name  of  one  of  the  three  Gorgons,  from  fiideiv, 
nieitriii,  to  rule).  .\  general  name  applied  to  the 
disk-like,  lunbrella-shaped  jelly-fish,  with  long 
marginal  feelers,  and  so  called  from  their  re- 
semblance to  the  fabled  Jledusa's  head.  (See 
Plate.)  While  the  term  medusa  is  now  generally 
applied  to  the  sexual  free-swimming  adult  stage 
of  any  hydroid.  it  is  particularly  applicable  to 
our  conunon  North  Atlantic  Aiirrlin  fhividuhi  of 
the  class  f>rtipho:oii  (the  group  formerly  called 
Discophora) .     Anotlier  general  name  is  acaleph. 


Our  most  aliunilant  medu>a  is  Aurelia  flavi- 
dula,  which  late  in  summer  abounds  along  the 
coast  from  New  York  northward.  It  grows  to  the 
diameter  of  from  eight  to  ten  inches,  becoming 
fully  mature  in  August.     Its  rather  tough  jelly- 


FlO.  2.  GA8TBULA   OF   AN  AUKE- 
LIA-LIKE   MEIJU.SA. 

a.  Primitive  month;  h,  gae- 
tro-vuscular  cavity;  c,  ecto- 
derm; d,  endoderm;  e,  meso- 
derm layer. 


Fig.   1.   AURELIA   FLAVIDULA. 

Adult,  natural  size,  seen  from  above. 

like  disk  is  moderately  convex  and  evenly  curved, 
while  four  thick  oral  lobes  depend  from  between 
the  four  large  genital  pouches;  the  edge  of  the 
disk  is  minutely  fringed  to  the  ends  of  the  ten- 
tacles. On  the  fringed  margin  are  eight  eyes, 
each  covered  by  a 
lobule  and  situated  on 
a  peduncle,  and  occu- 
pying as  iiuiny  slight 
indentations,  dividing 
the  disk  into  eight 
slightly  marked  lobes. 
Tlie  subdivisions  of 
the  water-vascular  ca- 
mils  or  tubes  are  very 
numerous  and  anasto- 
mose at  the  margin  of 
the  disk,  one  of  them 
being  in  direct  com- 
munication with  each 
eye-peduncle,  \\lien  in 
motion  the  disk  contracts  and  expands  rhythmic- 
ally, on  the  average  twelve  or  fifteen  times  a 
minute.  On  the  approach  of  danger  the  animal 
sinks  below  tlie  surface.  Though  it  has  lasso- 
cells,  it  is  not  poisonous  to  batliers,  while  the 
great  Cyaitra  arcticn  is  verv  much  so. 

The  A  u  r  e 1 i  a 
spawns  in  late 
summer,  the  fe- 
males being  distin- 
guishable by  their 
yellow  ovaries,  the 
corres])onding  male 
gland  being  rose- 
ate, w'hile  the  ten- 
tacles of  the  female 
are  shorter  and 
thicker  than  in  the 
males.  The  eggs 
pass  out  of  the  mouth  into  the  sea  along  the 
channeled  arms,  and  in  October  the  ciliated 
gastrula  (Fig.  2)  l)ecomes  iiear-shaped  and  at- 
tached to  rocks,  dead  shells,  or  seaweeds,  and 
then  assumes  a  hydra-shaped  Scyphistoma  stage 
(Fig.  ,3),  with  often  twenty-four  very  long  tenta- 


Fkj.  ;i.    scvi'Hihtoma  of   Aurelia 
tiavklula,  at  different  aoe8. 
Magiiifled.    (.ilter  AgasRiz.  / 


MEDUSA. 


274 


MEEHAN. 


Rfe^tV) 


■4.    8TROB1LA    OF    Au- 

relia  Savidula. 


cles;  in  this  stage  it  remains  about  eighteen 
months.  Toward  the  end  of  this  period  the  body 
increases  in  size  and  divides  into  a  series  of  cup- 
shaped  disks.  These  saucer-like  disks  are  scal- 
loped on  the  upturned  eilge.  tentacles  lead  out, 
and  the  animal  assumes 
the  Strobila  stage  ( Fig. 
4).  Finally  the  disks 
separate,  the  upper  one 
becomes  detached  and 
witli  the  other  disks 
swims  away  in  the 
Ephyra  form  (Fig.  5). 
When  about  a  fifth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and 
toward  the  middle  or  end 
of  the  summer,  this  young 
medusa  becomes  an  adult 
Aurclia. 

Other  forms  of  greater 
beauty  occur  in  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  tropics. 
A  much  larger  kind  of  medusa  than  Aurclia, 
Vyanea  arctica,  is  connuon  on  the  (ivand  Banks 
and  olV  the  coast  of  Xorlhern  New  Kngland.  It 
sometimes  attains  a  diam- 
eter across  the  disk  of  from 
three  to  even  five  feet, 
though  it  is  produced  from 
a  Scyphistoma  not  more 
than  half  an  inch  in  height. 
Its  tentacles  stream  behind, 
sometimes  to  the  length  of 
several  fathoms,  ami  poison 
the  hands  of  fishermen.  Spe- 
Fia.  5.  EPHYiiA  OK  EAK-  cics  of  Pclagia  do  not  un- 
UE8TKKKEUO.NI.ITIO.V  ^j.^,,,,  .,„  alteration  of  gen- 
OF   All  relia.      (After  f.  ,  n 

Agassis.)  erations       (see      Faktiieno- 

GEXEsis),  but  grow  directly 
from  the  egg,  without  passing  through  a  Strobila 
stage. 

For  various  Mediterranean  and  tropical  forms, 
see  Colored  Plate  of  Medv.s.e  and  Sipiionopiiore. 

Medusa?  shelter  various  kinds  of  animals,  which 
live  as  fellow-boarders  or  commensals,  viz.  tem- 
porary non-attached  ]iarasitcs.  Some  of  them 
live  in  or  under  the  mouth-cavity  or  between  the 
four  tentacles  of  the  larger  mcd\isa~.  Such  is  the 
little  am[>hipod  crustacean,  llyperia,  which  lives 
within  the  mouth,  while  small  fishes,  such  as  the 
butterflsh,  swim  under  the  umbrella  of  the  larger 
jelly-lishes,  C'yanca.  etc..  for  shelter  and  protec- 
tion. Besiiles  small  animals  of  various  classes, 
the  larger  jelly-fishes  kill  by  means  of  their  net- 
tling organs  small  cuttle-fishes  and  true  fishes, 
the  animals  being  paralyzed  by  the  ])ricks  of 
the  minute  barbed  darts.  See  Ccelenterata ; 
C'tenopiiora  :  Nematocy.st. 

Fo.ssiL  JIeiiis.t:.  Beoause  of  the  jelly-like 
nature  of  the  body  and  the  absence  of  any  hard 
parts  in  medusa',  these  animals  would  seem  to 
present  the  inii«t  unfavorable  conditions  for  fos- 
silization.  Indeed,  they  are  rarely  found  in  the 
ancient  rocks,  but  there  are  some  noteworthy  ex- 
ceptions, especially  in  the  fainbrian  and  .Tiirassic 
formations.  Impressions  and  also  what  have  hern 
considered  to  be  casts  of  the  medusoid  bodies 
have  been  fnund  in  rocks  of  the  Lower  Cambrian 
in  both  Sweden  and  North  America.  The  ]ieeuliar 
fossil  called  Pactyloidiles  fnund  in  the  green 
roofing  slates  of  Oranville.  Washington  Count.v, 
N.  Y.,  is  generally  regarded  as  of  this  nature. 
Fine  impressions  of  jelly-fish  are  found  in  the 


surfaces  of  the  fine-grained  lithographic  lime- 
stones of  Jurassic  age  at  Solcnhofen  and  other 
places  in  Bavaria. 

(.'onsult:  Agassiz,  L.,  Contributions  to  tli0 
yuturul  lliistori)  of  the  United  States,  vols,  iii., 
iv.  (Boston,  1802-00)  ;  Agassiz.  A.,  .Vo;//i  Aiiur- 
icuii  Aculviihs  (Cambridge,  KSOo)  ;  llaeckel.  .Si/s- 
tem  dcr  Mcdusen  (Jena,  1880-81);  id.,  "Keport 
on  Medusic,"  in  Chulleiiger  llcports,  vol.  iv.  (  Lon- 
don, 1881)  ;  id.,  '•Ueber  fossile  Medusen,"'  in 
Xcitschrift  fur  \cissenschu{lli<:he  Zoulvjic,  vols. 
XV.  and  xix.  (Leipzig,  180.5-70)  ;  Von  Amnion. 
'"L'eber  jurassische  iledusen,"  in  AhhntidluiifUfi 
dcr  Kijiii<ilicl'.  biiicriachcn  Akadcmic  dcr  lli.s- 
sc}iscliaflr)i.  vol.  xvii.  (Munich.  ISS:?)  :  Walcntt. 
■"Fossil  Medus.T,"  in  Monoi/rtiplis  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Hiirreu.  vol.  xx.x.  (Washington, 
1898).    SeeHYDROli);  Hydkozoa. 

MEDUSA  KONDANINI,  rAn'da-ne'nf.  A 
noted  marble,  formerly  in  the  Rondanini  Palace 
in  Uome,  acquired  in  1808  by  the  Crown  Prince 
of  Bavaria,  and  now  preserved  in  the  (Jlyptothek 
at  Munich.  It  is  of  the  later  type  which  repre- 
sents the  (iorgon  not  with  convulsed  features,  but 
with  a  fixed  and  calm  expression. 

MEDUSE,  mu'dyz'.  La  (Fr.,  the  Medusa). 
A  French  vessel  sent  by  the  Government  to  resume 
possession  of  the  colony  of  Senegal,  which  had 
been  restored  by  the  treaties  of  181.>.  She  was 
wrecked  near  the  .\frican  coast  on  July  '2,  1816, 
and  140  persons  took  refuge  on  a  hastily  con- 
structed raft.  After  twelve  days  of  horrible 
suti'ering,  during  which  the  castaways  were  re- 
duced to  eating  their  companions,  the  fifteen 
survivors  were  rescued  by  tlie  brig  Argus.  The 
disaster  forms  the  subject  of  a  famous  painting 
by  Gericault,  in  the  Louvre,  exhibited  in  the 
Salon  of  1810.  The  picture  represents  the  raft 
just  as  the  brig  appears  on  the  horizon,  and  is 
notable  for  its  intense  realism. 

MED'WIN,  Thomas  (1788-1809).  The  bio|p- 
rapher  of  the  poet  Shelley,  born  at  Horsham,  in 
Sussex,  England,  March  20,  1788.  His  mother, 
Mary,  a  daughter  of  .Tohn  Pilfold,  was  first 
cousin  to  Klizabeth  Pilfold.  the  mother  of  Shelley. 
Jledwin  and  Shelley  were  eilucated  at  Sion  House 
.'school.  Brentford,  and  they  spent  their  vacations 
together  at  Horsham.  Medwin  entered  the  army, 
and  became  a  lieutenant  in  181.'?.  With  his  regi- 
ment he  passed  some  time  in  India.  In  ISl!)  he 
retired  on  half  pay  and  soon  (piitted  the  service. 
In  1821  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  associated 
intimately  with  Shelley  and  Lord  Byron.  He 
afterwards  led  an  unsettled  life.  He  died  at 
Horsham,  August  2,  1800.  His  Journal  of  the 
Comersatinnn  of  Lord  Hgron  (1824)  created  a 
sensation  owing  to  its  personalities.  .\  Memoir 
of  Shrllei/  (1833)  was  afterwards  expanded  into 
The  Life  of  Shelley   (2  vols.,   1847). 

MEEHAN.  mr-'on.  Thomas  (1820-1001).  An 
American  botanist  and  horticulturist,  born  at 
Potter's  liar,  near  Loiulon.  In  1847  he  came  to 
.\merica  to  manage  Buist's  nursery  at  Rosedale, 
ne.ir  Philadelphia,  and  six  years  later  started 
his  own  mirseries  at  Oermantown.  Meehan  was 
prominent  in  Philadelphia,  as  a  member  of  the 
council  and  'father  of  the  small  parks."  As  a 
vegetable  biologist  he  obtained  great  fame,  espe- 
cially by  his  theory  that  sex  is  determined  by  the 
vitality  of  the  branch  bearing  the  llower.  A 
member  of  the  Philadelphia  .\cademy  of  Natural 
Sciences  and  of  the  American  Association  for  the 


MEDUS/E   AND  SIPHONOPHORA 


^P 


ConvBiOKT,  rsoi.av  dodo,  mcao  t.  company 


I  DESMOMEMAANNASETHE,VS   NATURAL  SIZE,  FROM  SOUTH  AMERtCA 

2  FLOSCULAPROMETHA.a/SNATURALSlZE.FROM     INDIAN    OCEAN 

3  CHRYSAORA    MEDITERRANEA,'/B    NATURAL   SIZE.  FROM    SMYRNA 

-*  CYSTALIA     MONOGASTRICA.  MAGNI  FIED    FOUR   TIMES. FROM    CEYLON 


MEEHAN.  27 

Advancement  of  Seieiiee,  lie  coutributej  to  their 
I'rufccdiiiys;  edited  tlic  (Jardciicrs'  Monthly 
from  ISJ'J  to  1S80,  and  Mcclutn's  Monthly  from 
1892  to  1001.  He  wrote  a  Handbook  of  Urna- 
inctilal  Tries  (1853),  and  The  Flowirs  and  Ferns 
of  the  United  States  (first  series,  1878;  second, 
1880;   tliird,   1887). 

MEEK,  Alexander  Beaufort  (1S14-G5).  An 
Aniciiian  journalist  and  jurist.  He  was  born  in 
Columbia,  S.  (.'.,  was  a  j,'raduatc  of  tlie  University 
of  Alabama,  and,  having'  studied  law,  was  ad- 
mitted to  tlie  State  bar  in  1835.  He  served  as 
a  lieutenant  of  volunteers  against  the  Seminoles 
in  1830,  and  was  afterwards  Attorncy-Cieneral 
of  the  State.  He  was  maile  county  judge  in 
1842.  In  18o3  and  1859  he  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature.  There  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  organizing  and  establishing  tlie  free-school 
system  in  Alabama.  From  1848  to  1852  he  was 
assoeiat<'  editor  of  the  Motiile  Kegister.  He  wrote 
and  published  several  volumes  of  poems  and 
sketches,  besides  compiling  a  history  of  Ala- 
bama. 

liEEK,  Fielding  Bradfoed  (1817-70).  An 
American  geologist  and  ])alcontologist,  born  at 
iladison,  Iowa.  In  1848  he  assisted  in  the  geolog- 
ical survey  of  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  ilinncsota, 
and  after  completing  tliis  work  was  atlaclied  to 
the  New  York  State  Ucohigieal  Survey  under  the 
leadership  of  James  Hall.  He  accompanied  F.  V. 
Hayden  in  1853  on  a  geological  expedition  to 
Dakota.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
was  engaged  in  describing  the  fossil  invertebrates 
collected  by  Government  expeditions.  His  larger 
works  are:  Paleontolofiy  of  the  Upper  Missouri 
(1805)  :  Check-List  of  the  Inverteljrute  Fossils  of 
Jiorth  America  (1804)  :  and  Report  on  the  In- 
vertebrate Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  Fossils  of  the 
Upper  Missouri  Country  (1870). 

MEEKS,  EuoEXE  (1843—).  An  American 
genre  and  historical  painter,  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  studied  there  under  Wust,  at  The 
Hague,  and  in  Antwerp  under  Van  I.crius.  De 
Keyscr.  and  Bource.  Afterwards  he  settled  in 
Florence,  where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Florence  Academy  in  1883  with  the  title  of  pro- 
fessor. His  works  include:  "Little  Xell  and 
Her  Grandfather"  (1870):  "Bridal  Chamber  in 
Palazzo  ^lanzi-Lucea  :"  "Gondola  Party — Ven- 
ice:" :iiid  "Fishing  Boats — Venice." 

MEERANE,  ma-r;l'nc.  A  flourishing  indus- 
trial town  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  situated 
27  miles  by  rail  west  of  Chemnitz  (Map:  Ger- 
many, E  3).  It  is  ;in  important  centre  of  the 
textile  industiy,  and  has  a  number  of  manu- 
factories of  woolen  and  semi-woolen  materials, 
spinning  and  dyeing  establishments,  machine  and 
boiler  works,  and  manufactures  of  footwear.  Its 
chief  educational  establishments  are  a  realschule, 
a  school  of  commerce,  and  a  textile  school.  The 
products  of  Moerane  are  extensively  exported  to 
foreij.ni  countries.  Populalion,  in  'l890,  22,440; 
in  lono.  23.797,  chielly  Pn.tcstnnts. 

MEER'KAT,  or  STJ'RICATE  (Dutch,  sea- 
cat  I .  A  small,  furry,  diurnal,  vegetable-eating 
and  burrowing  civet  iSurieata  telrndactyla)  of 
South  .\frica.  allied  to  the  mongooses.  It  is 
gregarious,  and  a  colony  makes  burrows  close  to- 
gether, like  a  prairu'-dog  'town.'  In  captivity 
it  becoiius  :iii  amusinj;  and  delightful  pet. 

meerschaum:,  mer'shiim  (Ger..  sea-foam) , 
or  Sepiolite.     A  compact,  earthy   mineral   hy- 


5  MEGALICHTHYS. 

diated  magnesium  silicate.  It  is  grayish  white 
or  white  with  a  faint  yellowish  or  reddish  tint. 
It  occurs  in  stratilied  earthy  or  alluvial  de- 
posits on  the  plains  of  Eski-Shehr  and  elsewhere 
in  Asia  Minor;  also  in  Greece,  at  Hrubsehilz  iu 
Moravia,  and  in  Morocco.  The  deposits  in  Asia 
Minor  arc  worked  by  pits  and  galleries  at  a 
depth  of  24  to  30  feet.  The  mineral,  when 
brought  to  the  surface,  is  so  soft  as  to  be  easily 
cut  with  a  knife.  It  is  scraped  to  remove  any 
adhering  material,  dried  in  the  sun  for  about  a 
week,  then  again  scraped  and  polished  with  wax. 
Meerschaum  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of 
bowls  for  tobacco  pipes,  and  factories  for  their 
production  exist  in  Austila  and  in  France. 

MEERUT,  or  MIRAT,  me'riit.     The  capital 

of  the  district  and  division  of  Meerut,  Agra,  India, 
39  miles  northeast  of  Delhi,  on  the  Northwestern 
Railway  (Map;  India,  0  3).  The  city  is  irregu- 
larly laid  out  with  narrow,  unclean  streets;  there 
are  several  mosques  and  temples,  of  which  the 
Juninia  JIusjid,  dating  from  1019,  is  the  most 
noteworthy.  The  military  cantonment  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  ini|)ortant  in  India.  The 
first  uprising  of  the  Indian  Mutiny  of  1857  oc- 
curred here.  Population,  in  1891,  119,390;  in 
1001,  118,642. 

MEES,  Artiil-r  (IS-jO— ).  An  American 
musical  conductor,  born  in  Columbus,  Ohio.  He 
was  graduated  from  Concordia  College,  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  and  after  a  course  of  thorough 
preparation  under  native  instructors,  he  studied 
from  1873  to  1870  at  Berlin  ipider  Kullak,  Weitz- 
niann,  and  Dorn  (the  latter  for  score-reading  and 
conducting).  He  was  conductor  of  the  Cincin- 
nati Jlay  Festival  Chorus,  assistant  conductor  of 
the  Chicago  Orchestra,  and  then  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  New  York  and  became  the  conductor 
of  important  choral  organizations.  In  1S9S  he 
was  elected,  on  the  resignation  of  MacDowell,  to 
the  conductorship  of  the  Mendelssohn  Glee  Club. 
He  published  iu  1901  Choirs  and  Choral  Musir, 
which  has  been  accepted  as  a  standard  authority. 
A  book  of  piano  studies  has  also  obtained  general 
recognition. 

MEG'ABAR'IE  (from  Gk.  /idyat,  mepas, 
great  +  /Sapiis,  barys,  heavy) .  The  practical 
unit  of  pressure  in  the  C.  G.  S.  system;  it  equals 
one  barie  X  10°.    See  Barie. 

MEG'ADAC'TYLUS  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
^^7as.  mcjros,  great  +  daKTvXot.  daktylos,  finger). 
A  Triassic  dinosaur.     See  AxcmsAVRfS. 

MEG.ffi'RA.    One  of  the  Eumenides. 

MEG'ALE'SIA,  or  MEG'ALEN'SIA  (Lat., 
from  Gk.  Me-yaXTjo-ia,  from  JIe-)'aXi},  Megale,  epi- 
thet of  the  Great  ilother.  fern.  sg.  of  u^z-oi, 
nicf/as,  great).  A  festival  at  Rome,  instituted 
in  honor  of  Cybelc  in  n.c.  204.  when  her  symbol 
was  brought  to  Rome.  The  celebration  included  a 
stately  procession  of  the  eunuch  priests  of  Cybele 
through  the  city  carrying  the  sacred  ensign, 
games  held  on  the  Palatine  and  in  later  times  in 
the  theatres,  and  a  great  carnival.  The  festival 
lasted  for  seven  days,  April  4th  to  10th,  and 
were  originally  under  the  charge  of  the  curule 
;vdilp.  later  of  the  pra>tor. 

MEG'ALICH'THYS.  A  genus  of  fossil  ganoid 
fishes,  characterized  by  their  great  size  and  for- 
midable appearance.  The  body  was  covered  by 
huge  bony  jilates,  and  the  teeth  attained  a  length 
of  four  inches  or  more.     The  remains  of  Mega- 


MEGAXICHTHYS. 


276 


MEGAIONYX. 


lichthys  are  found  in  the  Carboniferous  rocks  of 
Europe. 

MEGALITHIC  MONUMENTS  (from  Gk. 
Iidyas.  iiicgus,  great  +  Xi(?os,  lilhos,  stone). 
Gigantic  monuments,  tlie  materials  of  wliieli  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  industrial  development  were 
huge  undressed  stones,  and  also  associated  with 
tunuili.  Megalithic  monuments  arc  found  in 
both  hemispheres,  and  in  the  jirogress  of  culture 
they  marked  the  crude  beginnings  of  larger  cooper- 
ative ellort  as  well  as  of  engineering  and  of  mas- 
sive architecture.  The  most  instructive  limit  as 
to  the  manner  in  which  tlie  stones  were  set  on 
end  is  furnislicd  by  omf  of  the  Xorthern  trilies  of 
Hindustan  visited'by  \Vurml>rand.  These  people 
are  in  a  region  where  megalithic  monuments  have 
had  a  long  history.  A  slab  weighing  several  tons 
rests  on  a  number  of  stout  poles  laid  parallel  and 
just  far  enough  apart  to  allow  men  to  walk 
between  them.  The  ends  of  these  poles  are  lashed 
to  end  bars  and  a  firm  gridiron  frame  is  made 
beneath  the  slab.  The  whole  mass  is  then  lifted 
by  as  many  men  as  can  get  into  the  framework, 
and  carried  to  the  proper  place,  one  man  beating 
time  for  their  steps.  The  point  of  destination 
reached,  the  framework  is  laid  flat,  the  hole  dug, 
and  the  gridiron  set  upright  by  lifting  with 
the  hands  aided  by  shear  poles,  sliding  props, 
guy  ropes,  and  all  other  labor-saving  devices 
known  to  them.  As  the  angle  between  the  grid- 
iron and  the  earth  increases,  the  labor  of  erection 
decreases,  until  the  slab  is  let  down  carefully  into 
its  resting  place. 

Jlegalithic  monuments  really  belong  to  two 
classes,  monolithic  and  polylithie.  The  former 
is  a  simple  great  slab  or  boulder  stood  on  end; 
the  latter  consists  of  several  blocks  put  together 
to  form  a  chamber.  The  dilTerences  between  the 
two  classes  is  not  great,  and  there  are  mi.xed  ex- 
amples where  both  exist  side  by  side. 

Monoliths  receive  different  names  in  the  coun- 
tries where  they  are  found,  and  often  the  same 
name  applies  to  quite  different  things  in  different 
countries.  They  receive  names  alsij  from  the 
manner  of  grouping.  The  single  great  stone, 
weighing  perluips  hundreds  of  tons,  set  on  end, 
is  a  menhir:  if  a  number  of  these  stand  in  rows, 
they  become  an  avenue  or  an  aligniiu'nt :  and  a 
stone  circle  is  a  number  of  menhirs  arranged 
about  a  centre.  The  final  development  of  this 
simple  beginning  is  seen  in  the  Egyptian  obelisk, 
in  the  memorial  column  or  shaft,  or  in  the 
gigantic  statue.  The  enormous  size  of  many  of 
the  rude  monoliths  is  a  Tiiattcr  of  surprise.  The 
largest  one.  in  Brittany,  at  T.ochmariaquer. 
weighs  ^A7  tons.  Thousands  have  been  counted 
in  Brittanv  and  other  jiortions  of  France.  See 
Plate  of  Mk(;ai.itiiic  Moniments. 

The  polylithie  monument  also  receives  ilifferent 
names  from  its  associations.  If  a  number  of 
stones  are  built  into  a  memorial  pile,  or  over  the 
dead,  it  is  a  'cairn;'  a  tumulus  containing  a  dead 
person  is  in  Ireland  a  'galgal;'  and  if  a  passage- 
way I)e  formed  on  one  side  alliiwing  reent ranee 
to  a  vault,  it  l)ecomes  a  ehainbered  'barrow;'  a 
stone  box  in  a  barrow  to  Imld  linerary  urns  and 
relics  is  a  'cistvaen.'  The  lypii  iil  compo-iite  mon- 
ument of  great  stones  behmging  to  this  class  is 
the  dolmen  (locally  termed  'quoit'),  a  slab  of 
stone  laid  on  the  top  of  two  or  more  upright 
slabs,  forming  a  burial  chamber  from  which  the 
earth   has  been  removed  by  the  elements.     The 


word  'cromlech'  was  at  one  time  used  to  denote  a 
dolmen,  as  it  was  originally  covered  with  a 
tumulus  and  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  standing 
stones.  The  term  is  out  of  use  now  in  England, 
but  the  French  apjdy  it  to  one  of  the  former  ele- 
ments of  tlie  complete  dolmen,  the  .stone  circle. 
The  essential  part  of  all  is  the  stone  box  or 
capsule,  whether  luider  ground,  above  ground,  or 
covered  with  a  tunuilus. 

The  areas  of  greatest  abundance  of  megalithic 
monuments,  beginning  in  Asia,  are  to  be  found  in 
Burma,  Assam,  and  the  Deccan;  the  Persian  up- 
lands; Asia  Minor,  the  Crimea,  Syria,  Palestine, 
and  Arabia ;  across  Xorthern  Africa  to  the  At- 
lantic, and  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean :  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Western  France,  and 
Belgium ;  in  the  British  Isles  and  Scandinavia. 
Kxamjiles  of  huge  monuments  are  found  in 
Northeastern  Asia  also,  and  around  the  Pacific 
from  New  Zealaiul  to  Peru  and  Easter  Ishinds, 
the  great  wooden  totem  posts  of  the  North 
Pacific  containing  freqviently  the  same  motive. 

Stonehenge.  (ju  Salisbury  Plain,  near  Ames- 
bury,  county  of  Wills,  Southern  England,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  among  the  megalithic 
monuments  of  the  world,  since  it  not  only  is 
composed  of  immense  pieces,  but  combines  in 
itself  a  number  of  types.  In  the  centre  lies  a 
great  slab,  1.5  feet  in  length.  Just  otitside  of 
this  are  two  oval  rings,  the  larger  one  made  up 
of  five  pairs  of  trilithons,  which  increase  in  height 
toward  the  west.  The  smaller  oval,  containing 
nineteen  monoliths,  is  tapering  in  form:  outside 
these  ovals  and  inclosing  them  is  a  circle  of 
standing  stones,  nut  massive  in  size;  outside  of 
all  is  the  most  interesting  feature  of  Stonehenge, 
a  circle  ."iOO  feet  in  circumference,  made  up  of 
immense  standing  stones,  varying  in  height  from 
18  to  22  feet,  some  of  them  six  feet  in  diameter. 
On  the  top  of  them  are  blocks  of  similar  size 
joining  them  and  forming  a  scries  of  doorways 
or  trilithons.  On  the  outside  of  this  circle  is  a 
ditch  and  avenue,  in  which  is  a  crondech,  called 
the  'Friar's  Heel.' 

Not  the  least  interesting  feature  about  these 
remains  is  the  veneration  and  folk-lore  that  has 
gathered  around  them.  No  doubt  the  belief  that 
the  ghosts  of  the  dead  hover  about  them  aided  in 
the  i)reservation  of  many  of  them.  Their  author- 
ship has  puzzled  the  antiq\nirics  as  well  as  the 
folk,  by  whom  they  were  attributed  to  the 
Druids, "the  Celts,  and  other  historic  jieoples. 

Consult:  ;Me:idows-Taylor.  "Descriiitions  of 
Cairns,  Crondechs,  and  Kistvaens,"  in  Transac- 
tin)!.'!  of  the  Koijiit  Irixh  Acarlrnui  (  lH(i2-65)  : 
Betranil,  "De  la'  distribution  des  dohnens  sur 
la  surface  de  la  France,"  in  h'rnie  Archco- 
loiiiquc.  vol.  X.  (Paris.  18G4)  :  Clarke,  "Stone 
Monuments  of  the  Khasi  Hills,"  in  ./(lunml  of 
the  A)ithro])olofiicnl  Itislitulc.  iii.  (London, 
1873)  ;  Broea,  "Les  peoples  blonds  et  les  monu- 
ments mi'galithi(|ucs,"  in  /.'<  rue  </'  lii/Z/n./io/oflic, 
V.  (Paris,  1S7(!)  ;  Bertholon,  "Notice  sur  I'indus- 
trie  megalithi(pie  en  Tunisie,"  in  liiillctin  de  la 
Sorii'lc  dWiithroiioloijic  (E,vons,  1888);  Fftid- 
hei-be,  "Dolmens  d'.Xfrique,"  in  Ilullrtin  dc  la 
SocitU^'  dWnthrnpnloriie  de  Parh.  Ixix,,  1«. 
(PariO. 

MEGALON'YX  (NcoLat..  from  Ok.  /liyat, 
megas.  great  -f  «to|,  oiii/.r,  claw).  .'\n  cNtinct, 
edentate  mammal,  allied  to  Megatherium,  found 
in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee.   See  Meoathebium. 


1EGAL1TH1C    MONUMENTS 


1.       MERCHANT'S  TABLE"   NEAR  AURAY 


2.       LINES  OF  MENEC"  AT  CARNAK 


MEGALOPOLIS. 


277 


MEGARA. 


MEGALOP'OLIS  (Lat.,  from  (ik.iMeiaXiiroXis, 
tireat  Lity).  A  town  in  Southwestern  Arcadia, 
founded  in  B.C.  370,  by  Kpaniinondas,  who  desired 
to  make  it  the  capital  of  an  Arcadian  con- 
federacy. The  city  was  hiid  out  on  a  very  large 
scale,  liut  it  by  no  means  fulfilled  expectations. 
It  maintained  its  independence  against  frequent 
Spartan  attacks  until  B.C.  222,  when  it  was  sacked 
by  C'leomcnes  111.  Though  rebuilt,  it  never 
seems  to  liave  regained  its  importance.  It  was 
the  native  town  of  Philopremen,  the  great  general 
of  the  Acha-an  League,  and  also  of  the  liistorian 
Pulybius.  The  city  was  situated  in  a  fertile 
plain  on  both  banks  of  the  river  Helisson,  near 
its  junction  with  the  Alpheus,  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  about  five  and  one-half  miles 
in  length.  Excavations  which  were  conducted 
on  the  site  bv  the  British  School  at  Athens  from 
1890  to  18i"l3  laid  bare  the  theatre  and  the 
Thersileion,  or  great  hall  where  the  Arcadian 
Assembly  met,  and  on  the  other  si<le  of  the  river 
the  temple  of  Zeus  Soter,  a  long  colonnade,  and 
foundations  of  other  buildings  adjoining  tlie 
marketplace.  Consult  Excavations  at  Megalofi- 
olis  (London,  1802). 

MEGALOSATJ'RUS  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
lUtai,  mi'ijds.  great  -{•  <Tavpos,  sauros,  lizard).  A 
carnivorous  dinosaur  allied  to  Ceratosaurus 
(q.v. ),  found  in  the  .Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  de- 
posits of  Europe  and  India.  The  North  Ameri- 
can genus  Lielaps  of  Cope  from  the  Cretaceous 
formations  is  probably  identical.  The  animal 
was  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  long  with  a 
medium  sized  head,  the  jaws  of  which  were  pro- 
vided with  formidable  teeth.  The  skeleton  is 
liglit  and  the  bones  are  partly  hollow.  The  fore 
limbs  are  five-toed  and  small,  and  were  probably 
of  little  use  in  locomotion.  The  hind  limbs,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  large  and  strong,  and  ter- 
minate in  three  toes  armed  by  heavy  claws.  The 
tail   was  long  and  heavy.     See  Ceratosaurus; 

Dl.NOSAURIA. 

MEGANEURA,  meg'a-nu'ra  (Neo-Lat.,  from 
Gk.  M^7a!.  mcf/us,  great  +  vevpi,  iwiira.  sinew). 
A  fossil  dragonllj"  found  in  the  coal  measure  beds 
of  Commentry.  France.  It  was  perhaps  tlie 
largest  insect  ever  known,  with  a  body  about 
fifteen  inches  long  and  wings  that  had  a  spread 
of  about  twenty-seven  inches.  It  is  beautifully 
illustrated  and  described  by  Brogniart,  in  Rc- 
rhrrchcs  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire  dm  insectcs 
foxsilcs  (leu  femps  primaires  (2  vols.,  Saint 
Etienne,   1893). 

MEGAPHONE  (from  Gk.ij.iyas,  mefias.  great 
-\- (jiui'ri.  phone,  voice,  sound).  A  form  of  speak- 
ing-triMiipet  used  to  render  the  voice  audible  at 
oonsiderable  distances.  It  consists  of  a  large 
funnel  of  tin  or  papier-mache,  in  which  the  sound- 
waves are  so  reflected  that  they  issue  from  its 
mouth  in  approximately  parallel  direction.?.  The- 
oretically a  megaphone  of  paraliolie  section  would 
act  as  the  best  form  of  megaphone,  especially 
if  the  resonance  of  the  cavity  did  not  afl'eet 
the  propagation  of  sound  by  strengthening  cer- 
tain sounds  and  destroying  others  by  interference. 
(See  .Acoi'STics.)  The  size  and  shape  of  the 
megaphone,  however,  are  so  regulated  that  the 
usual  tones  of  the  voice  undergo  the  largest  pos- 
sible amount  of  strengthening.  For  this  reason 
a  niegajihone  to  be  used  witli  the  best  effect  by  a 
woman  would  be  different  in  size  from  that  suited 
to  the  deeper  notes  of  a  man's  voice.    The  mega- 


phone has  succeeded  the  old  speaking-trumpet  for 
use  at  sea,  and  is  generally  employed  by  naval 
ollicers  and  mariners  for  commimieating  with  the 
shore  or  with  a  distant  vessel. 

MEGAPODE.     See  Mou.nd  Bird. 

IVTEGAPOLEN'SIS  (Latinized  form  of  Ian 
ilekelcnhury),  Aouw^v.a  (1003-70).  The  first 
Protestant  missionary  to  the  North  American  In- 
dians. The  first  Patroon.  Van  Rensselaer,  brought 
him  to  this  country  from  llollan<l  in  1042.  so  that 
he  might  be  a  missionary  to  the  Indians  on  the 
frontier,  near  Albany,  and  in  this  capacity  he 
antedated  John  Eliot  by  several  years.  He 
learned  to  preach  in  the  Mohawk  language  and 
made  converts  among  them.  He  also  befriended 
the  heroic  .Jesuit  Fathers,  .Jogues,  Brcssani.  and 
Poncet.  From  1640  till  his  death,  .Tanuary  24, 
1670,  he  was  pastor  in  New  .\msterdam.  and  it 
was  he  who  urged  Peter  Stuyvcsanl  to  surrender 
without  bloodshed  in  1664.  His  Dutch  account 
of  the  Jlohawk  Indians  is  translated  in  the  New 
York  Historical  .Societv's  Collection.'!,  vol.  iii. 
(New  York,  1870). 

MEG'ARA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  'i.Uyapa) .  The 
capital  of  Megaris  (q.v.),  on  the  Isthmus  be- 
tween the  Peloponnesus  and  Northern  Greece.  It 
was  built  at  the  base  of  two  hills,  Caria  and 
Aleathous,  each  defended  by  a  citadel.  Two 
walls,  built  by  the  Athenians  during  their 
protectorate  over  Megara,  between  B.C.  461  and 
445,  connected  the  city  with  its  harbor,  Nisiea. 
In  the  time  of  Pausanias  the  city  contained 
many  temples  and  public  buildings,  but  of  these 
only  very  scanty  traces  are  now  visible,  of 
which  the  most  interesting  are  perhaps  the 
remains  of  the  aqueduct  and  fountain  built  by 
the  Tyrant  Theagenes.  The  origin  of  ilegara  is 
lost  in  legend,  but  as  early  as  the  eighth  century 
B.C.  it  was  a  flourishing  commercial  city,  and  sent 
out  many  colonies,  of  which  the  most  famous 
were  Byzantium,  Chalcedon,  and  the  Sicilian 
Jlegara.  Near  the  end  of  the  seventh  century 
we  find  it  engaged  in  a  fierce  and  protracted 
struggle  with  the  Athenians  for  the  island  of 
Salamis,  of  which  it  long  retained  possession. 
The  government  had  originally  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  Dorian  landed  aristocracy,  from  w-hom 
it  was  usurped  about  B.C.  020  by  Theagenes. 
who  led  the  popular  faction,  and  established 
himself  as  absolute  ruler  of  the  State.  Upon 
his  expulsion,  soon  after,  a  fierce  contest  took 
place  between  the  democratic  and  the  aristo- 
cratic parties.  After  the  Persian  wars  Jlegara 
carried  on  hostilities  with  Corinth,  against  which 
she  formed  an  alliance  with  .Vthens,  b.c.  461. 
Later  the  Athenians  were  compelled  to  surrender 
their  hold  on  the  city,  and  under  a  strict 
oligarchy  it  became  a  member  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  League.  It  was  easily  open  to  the  attacks 
of  the  Athenians,  and  was  by  the  "Megarian 
decree'  of  Pericles  deprived  of  all  markets  in 
.\ttica.  It  was  frequently  ravaged  during  the 
Peloponnesian  \Var.  and  almost  captured  at  one 
time  by  the  Athenians  aided  by  the  democratic 
party  within.  After  this  war  the  city  plays 
but  a  small  part  in  history.  A  democratic  form 
of  government  w'as  reestablished  in  B.C.  3.57 ; 
after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  the  city 
passed  under  the  control  of  Dcmetriiis  Poliorcetes 
and  Ptolemy  Soter  successively.  Demetrius,  the 
son  of  Antigonus  Gonatas.  captured  and  nearly 
destroyed   it.     It   was   afterwards   partially   re- 


MEGASA. 


278 


MEGATHERIUM. 


built,  and  finally  sunendered  to  the  Romans 
under  Alett'llus.  Alone  among  the  cities  of 
Greece,  it  was  not  restored  by  Hadrian;  Alaric 
still  I'urlluT  reduced  it,  and  in  1087  the  Vene- 
tians uoniplctely  destroyed  it.  Megara  was  cele- 
brated in  antii|uity  as  tlio  spat  of  the  Mogarian 
School  of  philosophy,  founded  by  Kuelid,  a  native 
of  tlie  city.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  a 
prosjierous  Greek  towTi,  bearing  the  ancient  name, 
with  a  |iopiilation  of  (ibout  G500. 

MEGARICr  SCHOOL.  A  school  of  Greek 
philosophers,  who,  as  partial  disciples  of  Socrates, 
expanded  one  side  of  tlieir  master's  teaching. 
While  the  Cynic  and  Cyrenaic  schools  developed 
his  ethical  teaching,  the  Mcgarie  devoted  itself 
rather  to  dialectical  investigations.  Their  prin- 
cipal leader  was  Euclid  of  Jlegara,  who  was 
probably  one  of  the  earliest  disciples  of  Socrates. 
He  united  the  ethical  principle  of  Socrates  with 
the  Elcatic  theory  of  one  immutable  substance. 

MEG'ARIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Meyapls).  In 
ancient  geography,  a  small  district  in  Greece, 
lying  lietwcen  the  Corinthian  Gulf  on  the  north 
and  northwest  and  llie  Saronic  Gulf  on  the  south- 
east. It  was  bounded  on  tlie  north  by  Bo'otia,  on 
the  northeast  by  Attica,  and  on  the  southwest  by 
the  District  of  Corinth.  The  capital  was  Megara 
(tA  yiiyapa)  (q.v.) . 

MEGASPORAN'GIUM  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
fi^a^,  Hi'i/'is.  great  +  airdpos,  si>07'0S,  seed  + 
d77£roi',  a)i(/('iOH,  vessel,  from  47705,  anjos,  jar), 
or  Mackospokaxgium.  The  spore-case  (sjio- 
rangium)  which  produces  the  megaspores.  For 
example,  the  ovules  are  the  mcgasporangia  of 
seed-plants.      See    HETimospoRY;    Spoa^vNciuM; 

aiEGASPOUi:. 

MEG'ASPOBE  (from  Gk.  ^^as,  megas,  great 
+  (TTripos,  Kjioros.  seed).  In  the  higher  plants, 
two  kinds  of  spores  are  produced,  and  the  larger 
ones  are  called  megaspores.  In  their  germina- 
tion they  give  rise  to  the  very  small  female 
plants  (female  gametophytes) .  In  seed-plants 
the  megaspore  germinates  within  the  ovule,  and 
has  been  called  the  'embryo-sac.'  'Macrospore' 
is  a  synonym.     See  Heterospoby  and  Spore. 

MEGASPOR'OPHYLL      (from     Gk.    iifyas, 

mrfjfin.  great  ~\-  (nrdpos^  sjioroa,  seed  -}-  tpjjKXoVj 
phi/llon.  leaf),  or  Macrosporophyll.  In  the 
higher  plants,  the  two  kinds  of  spores,  niicro- 
sporos  and  megaspores,  are  usually  borne  upon 
distinct  leaf-structures  (sporophylls) ,  1ho>e  bear- 
ing the  megaspores  being  called  megasporophylls. 
The  carpel  of  flowering  plants  is  a  megasporo- 
phyll.     See  IIeterospory  :  SpoBornYLL. 

MEGAS'THEICES  (  Lat..  from  Gk.  Meyaaein,,) 
(nourished  c.;!(ll)  ij.c. )  .V  Greek  writer  of  llie 
early  Alexandrian  period.  He  was  assigned  by 
Seleucus  Xicator  (u.c.  :i  12-280)  to  the  service 
of  tlie  Governor  of  .\rachosia,  by  whom  he  was 
sent  on  several  diplomatic  missions  to  the  Indian 
King  Sandrocnttus.  He  published  a  work  called 
Indica  ('IfJutd)  in  four  books,  in  which  he  dis- 
cussed tlie  (lora  and  fauna  of  India,  as  well  as 
many  of  the  eiistointi  of  the  Indians.  Like  Herodo- 
tus. Mesa  ■<tlienes  admitted  wonderful  stories  into 
his  niirralive,  and  tried  to  identify  foreign  myths 
with  those  of  (lie  Greeks.  Kecent  inve^itigations. 
however,  have  shown  the  general  tnistwortliiness 
of  the  work,  which  was  the  most  valiialile  account 
of  India  possessed  by  Europeans  down  to  the 
time  of  the  establishincnt  of  the  Bengal  Asiatic 


Society  in  17S4.  Hiodorus  (ii.  35-42)  gives  an  ab 
stract  of  the  contents  of  the  Indica,  and  there  are 
numerous  fragments  in  Slrabo  and  Arrian  which 
have  been  collected  by  Schwanbeck.  Mvgastliiiiis 
Indica  (Bonn.  1840),  and  by  ililller,  I'ray.  Uist. 
Urwc.  (Paris,  1S41-70),  ii.,  pp.  .397-43lt,  and  trans- 
lated t)y  .McCrindle,  Ancient  India  as  Described 
by  Meyasthcncs  and  Arrian    (Calcutta,   1877). 

MEG'ATHERI'ID.ffi  (Xeo-Lat.,  nom.  pi., 
from  Mcijatherium,  from  Gk.  u^as,  megas,  great 
-(-  Brjplov,  therion.  diminutive  of  8-fip,  IhCr,  wild 
beast).  An  American  family  of  edentate  mam- 
mals, of  which  the  genus  Jlcgatherium  is  the 
type,  comprising  a  number  of  fossil  ground- 
sloths  of  gigantic  size.  It  is  intermediate  be- 
tween the  modern  anteaters  (ilyrinccophagidie) 
and  the  true  slotlis  ( Bradypodida) ,  and  con- 
tains the  genera  Hapalops,  Hyiierleptus,  and 
others  of  the  Santa  Cruz  formation  of  Miocene 
age  in  Patagonia,  and  Megatherium,  Mylodon, 
Megalonyx,  and  Scelidotherium  of  the  Pleisto- 
cene of   Xorth   and   South  America.     See  AIeo- 

ATIIERIIM. 

MEG'ATHE'RIUM  (Xeo-Lat..  from  Gk. 
u^7as,  megas,  great  -f-  Srjphv,  thi'rion.  diminu- 
tive of  eip,  titer,  wild  beast).  A  gigantic  fossil 
edentate  mammal,  larger  than  a  rhinoceros, 
which  lived  in  comparatively  recent  geoloiiical 
time  in  South  America,  and  of  which  skeletons 
are  found  in  the  pampean  deposits  1  Pleistocene) 
of  Argentina,  Chile,  and  Brazil.  Its  skeleton, 
which  shows  jioints  of  resemblance  to  both  the 
anteaters  and  sloths,  is  of  very  massive  con- 
struction, indicating  a  most  powerful  animal, 
about  18  feet  in  length.  The  head  was  small, 
the  jaws  of  a  form  to  support  powerful  chewing 
muscles,  and  tlie  teeth,  of  which  there  arc  only 
ten  u[)i)er  and  eight  lower  molars,  are  of  a  pris- 
matic f(prm  ami  of  such  size  as  must  have 
rendered  them  most  eflective  grinding  organs. 
The  structure  of  the  forward  portion  of  the 
jaws  shows  the  lips  to  have  been  elongated  and 
prehensile,  and  the  grooved  inshlc  of  the  lower 
jaw  suggests  a  powerful  prehensile  tongue,  which 
sen'ed  to  pull  off  the  twigs  and  leaves  upon 
which  the  animal  fed.  The  neck  was  short  and 
strong,  the  trunk  heavy  an<l  round.  The  leg 
bones  are  extrain<linarily  massive  and  of  peculiar 
form.  Tlie  fore  limbs  are  longer  than  the  hind 
limbs,  and  the  form  of  their  joints  indicates 
considerable  ilexibility;  they  probably  served 
somewhat  as  arms.  The  very  heavy  hind-limb 
bones  and  the  tail  bones  indicate  that  the  greater 
portion  of  the  weight  of  the  animal  was  Ijonir 
by  these  parts,  and  it  is  reasona1)Ie  to  eoncliil 
that  the  favorite  position  of  the  beast  was  thai 
of  resting  upon  its  liaunchcs.  The  surfai'es  of 
the  bones  arc  provided  with  ridges  and  rough 
places  for  the  attachment  of  powerful  muscles. 
Tlie  size  of  the  animal,  its  evidently  very  great 
muscular  power,  and  the  structure  of  its  hind 
quarters,  indicate  that  it  squatted  beside  a  tree 
and  with  its  mobile  fore  limbs,  the  middle  lingers 
of  which  were  armed  with  strong  claws,  pulled 
down  and  broke  oil'  the  up))cr  trunk  and  brancliee 
from  which  it  derived  its  food.  The  liody  of 
tlie  animal  is  thought  to  have  licen  covered  by 
tough  hide  and  coarse  hair.  Megatherium  was 
one  of  the  first  fossil  inanimals  described.  A 
nearly  complete  skeleton  was  found  in  1780  nt«r 
Buenos  .-\yres  and  sent  to  the  museum  of  Madrid, 
where  it  was  described  and  named  by  Cuvier, 
Megatherium  Americanus. 


MEGATHERIUM. 


279 


MEHEMET  ALL 


Three  other  allied  genera  are  Seelidotheriimi, 
Jlegalonyx,  ami  Jlylodon.  all  of  Pleistocene  age. 
Of  these'  Scelidotherium,  from  South  America,  in 
the  structure  of  its  skull,  resembles  closely  a 
gigantic  anteater.  Megalonyx,  differing  slightly 
from  Jlegatherium  in  the  structure  of  its  teeth, 
has  been  found  in  the  cave  deposits  of  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee  and  in  the  Pleistocene  beds 
of  Cuba.  The  remaining  form,  Jlylodon,  re- 
mains of  which  have  been  found  in  Kentucky 
and  South  America,  is  the  only  member  of  the 
family  ilegatheriid*  in  which  the  skin  contains 
calcareous  plates  similar  to  those  of  the  other 
group  of  gigantic  edentates,  the  Glyptodontidie; 
anil  in  Myloilon  these  plates,  though  niuuerous, 
are  small  and  not  joined  to  each  other.  Consult 
\A'ood\vard.  Outlines  of  Yo'tcbrute  Paleontoloffy 
(Cambridge,   1898). 

MEGEBLE,  Ulkicii.  See  Abraiiasi-.\-Sant.\- 
Clara. 

MEGGIDDO,  me-gld'do.  A  fortified  city  of 
great  importance  in  ancient  Syria,  situated  in 
the  \'alley  of  Esdraelon,  probabh*  at  the  modern 
EILejjini.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  reign 
of  Tho'thmes  III.  (B.C.  1503-1449),  in  the  Amarna 
letters  (e.l400  B.C.),  in  a  papyrus  of  the  time 
of  Seti  I.  (B.C.  13.50-1347),  and  in  an  inscription 
of  Shishak  (B.C.  900-939),  and  is  also  referred  to 
in  Assyrian  inscriptions.  According  to  .Joshua 
xii.  21,  it  was  the  residence  of  a  Canaanitish  king 
at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  invasion.  From 
Judges  i.  27.  it  is  evident  that  it  did  not  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  tribes  invading  the  plain. 
David  possibly  conquered  it.  Solomou  fortified 
it  (I.  Kings,  i.x.  15).  King  Ahaziah  of  Judah 
found  a  refuge  there  when  fleeing  before  Jehu 
of  Israel  in  B.C.  843  (II.  Kings  ix.  27).  In  Ro- 
man times  it  was  known  as  Legio,  and  was  an 
important  place.  .Jerome  calls  the  Valley  of 
Esdraelon  'the  Plain  of  Jlegiddo.'  The  'waters 
of  ilegiddo,'  mentioned  in  Judges  v.  19.  probably 
refer  to  the  river  Kishon.  the  present  Xahr  el- 
Makatta.  At  ilegiddo  King  .Josiah  was  over- 
powered by  Pharaoh  Neeho  about  B.C.  609.  Cqn- 
sult:  Miiller.  Asien  und  Furopa  nach  ultiigiipt- 
ischen  Denknviilern  (Leipzig.  1893)  ;  Buhl,  Geog- 
rnphie  den  alten  Paliislina    (Freiburg,  1890). 

MEG  MER'BILIES.  A  very  tall,  masculine 
gypsy  woman  in  Scott's  Guy  Mannering.  She 
was  devoted  in  her  half-crazy  mind  to  the 
Bertrams,  and  died  while  establishing  the  iden- 
tity of  Harry  Bertram,  who  was  kidnaped  in 
childhood.  This  character  in  the  dramatized 
form  of  the  novel  was  a  favorite  role  of  Charlotte 
Cushman. 

MEG'NA,  or  MEGHNA.  A  deltaic  estuary 
of  Bengal.  Urilish  India,  fonning  the  outlet  of 
the  Brahmaputra,  of  the  easternmost  channel 
of  the  Ganges  (qq.v. ),  and  of  tributary  streams 
(Map:  India,  F  4).  It  flows  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  by  four  mouths,  which  inclose  three  large 
islands.  It  is  navigable  by  steamers  and  large 
river  craft,  which,  however,  are  often  imperiled 
by  the  tidal  bore,  which  ascends  at  the  rate  of  1.5 
miles  an  hour,  and  often  attains  over  18  feet  in 
height :  the  river  is  also  subject  to  cyclonic  storm 
waves,  which  at  various  times  have  caused  great 
destruction  of  proi)erty  and  loss  of  life. 

MEGRIM.     See  iliGBAiNE. 

MEGRIMS  (OF..  Fr,  minruhir.  It.  mirjrnna, 
cmifjrana,    from    Lat.     hemirraiiiinii.     from     Gk. 


ijfuKpaula,  hi'mikrania,  pain  in  one  side  of  the 
head,  from  iiiu-,  hfmi-,  half  +  KpaiLov,  kranion, 
head),  Hypek.kmia,  or  Ea-(;obgemext.  A  dis- 
ease of  the  horse.  It  is  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing symptoms:  The  animal  when  at  work  reels, 
and  then  either  stands  for  a  minute  dull  and 
stupid,  or  falls  to  the  ground,  lying  for  a  time 
partially  insensible.  The  eyes  are  staring,  breath- 
ing is  hurried  and  stertorous,  .and  the  nostrils 
are  widely  dilated.  Occasionallj-  these  symp- 
toms are  followed  by  eoina,  convulsions,  and 
death.  Jlore  frequently,  however,  the  animal 
gains  relief  in  a  little  while.  The  attack.s  come 
on  suddenly,  are  often  periodical,  are  most  fre- 
quent during  hot  weather,  and  when  the  animal 
is  drawing  up  a  hill,  or  exposed  during  heavy 
work  to  the  full  rays  of  a  hot  sun.  Liability 
to  megi-ims  constitutes  unsoundness,  and  usually 
depends  upon  the  circulation  through  the  brain 
being  temporarily  disturbed  by  the  presence  of 
tumors.  Horses  subject  to  megrims  are  always 
dangerous;  if  driven  at  all,  they  should  be  used 
with  a  breastplate  or  pipe-collar,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent, as  much  as  possible,  pressure  on  the  veins 
carrying  the  blood  from  the  head;  they  should 
be  moderately  and  carefully  fed,  and  during  hot 
weather  have  an  occasional  laxative. 

MEHADIA,  me-ha'de-6  (Lat.  Ad  ilcdmn). 
A  small  town  of  Tran.sylvania,  Ilungaiy,  magnifi- 
cently situated  among  the  Carpathians,  six  miles 
west  of  the  frontier  of  Rumania  (Jlap:  Hun- 
gary, H  4).  It  is  noted  for  its  old  cemetery 
with  Greek  and  Roman  inscriptions,  and  for  its 
Roman  ruins.  In  the  vicinity  are  coal  mines. 
Population,  in  1890,  2480,  mostly  Rumanians. 
About  three  miles  southeast  of  Melu'idia  is  the 
bathing  resort  of  Herkulesbad,  with  numerous 
hot  springs  (some  of  them  containing  sulphur), 
ranging  in  temperature  from  100°  to  143°  F., 
which  were  Icnown  to  the  Romans  as  Thermre 
Hereulis.  The  place  is  visited  by  about  7000 
guests  .annually. 

MEHEMET  ALI,  malie-met  ii'le  (1709- 
1849).  Viceroy  of  Egypt.  He  was  born  in  1709 
at  Kavala,  a  little  town  in  Macedonia.  Left 
an  orphan,  he  wa.s  taken  into  the  service  of  a 
captain  of  the  Janizaries.  He  learned  much  of 
military  matters  and  of  intrigue,  made  a  rich 
marriage  in  1787,  and  was  thus  able  to  obtain 
a  commission  as  an  olficer  in  the  irregular  troops 
of  the  Sultan.  Tlirough  relations  which  he 
formed  with  a  Marseilles  merchant  he  amassed 
wealth  in  trade.  He  received  a  command  in 
Egjpt  to  cooperate  with  the  British  against  the 
French  invaders,  and  at  length  became  com- 
mander of  the  Albanian  or  Arnaut  Corps.  In 
1805  he  was  recognized  by  the  Porte  as  Viceroy 
of  Egj'pt  and  Pasha  of  Three  Tails,  but  was  soon 
involved  in  disputes  with  the  Mamelukes  (q.v.), 
who  had  long  practically  ruled  Egjpt.  Tlie 
struggle  was  finally  terininated  in  1811  by  the 
massacre  of  the  greater  number  of  these  at 
Cairo.  The  rest  fled  to  L'pper  Egypt,  but  were 
expelled  by  Mehemet  in  the  following  year.  They 
then  took  refuge  in  Xuhia.  but  in  1820  he  fol- 
lowed them  tliere  and  completely  vanquished 
them.  From  1811  to  1818  he  carried  on  war 
against  the  Wahabis  in  Arabia,  who  were  sub- 
jugated by  his  adopted  son.  Ibrahim  Pasha. 
Shortly  after  he  conquered  Kordofan.  added  it  to 
his  dominions,  and  opened  a  great  trade  in  slaves 
from  the  interior  of  .Africa.  About  this  time  he 
began  to  reorganize  his  armv  on  something  like 


MEHEMET  ALL 


280 


MEIER. 


European  principles,  built  a  licet,  ami  erected 
fortresses,  inililarv  shop-works,  and  arsenals.  He 
sent  a  strong  force  to  assist  the  Sultan  in  sup- 
pressing the  Greek  revolt  in  1S24,  but  his  new 
lleet  was  destroyed  at  Xavarino  in  1827.  In  IS.W 
the  Porte  conferred  on  him  the  Government  of 
Crete,  but  this  did  not  satisfy  his  ambition.  He 
determined  to  annex  Syria  to  his  dominions,  and 
in  1831  despatched  an  army  luulcr  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  who  overran  the  country,  defeating  the 
Turks  at  Horas,  .July,  1832,  and  bv  his  victory 
at  Konieh  (December  20,  1832)  "brought  the 
Turkish  (Government  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  Rus- 
sia now  stepped  in.  and  a  treaty  was  concluded 
(May  4,  1833)  by  which  Syria  was  handed  over 
to  Mehemet.  Neither  of  the  belligerents  was 
satisfied,  and  Mehemet  continued  to  plot  till  Sul- 
tan itahnnid  II.  declared  war  in  1830  against 
his  dangerous  subject.  At  Xisib,  .Tune  24.  183!!. 
the  Turkish  army  was  crushed  by  the  forces  of 
Mehemet  Ali,  but  the  European  powers  again  in- 
terfered, and  ilehemet  was  compelled  to  give  up 
Syria  and  Crete  and  to  content  himself  with  the 
hereditary  vice-royalty  of  Kgyi>t  (1841).  Me- 
hemet was  at  once  a  remorseless  tyrant  and  an 
able,  progressive  administralor,  and  did  much  to 
develop  Egypt.  lie  cleared  his  dominions  of  rob- 
bers, executed  great  public  works,  and  may  be 
said  almost  to  have  introduced  the  cultivation  of 
cotton,  indigo,  and  sugar  into  the  country.  He 
also  established  a  system  of  national  education 
in  Egypt.  He  died  August  2,  1849.  See  Egypt. 
MEHEMET  ALI  PASHA,  pa-shii'  ( 1S27-78) . 
.V  Turkisli  soldier.  lie  was  born  in  Prussia,  and 
his  name  originally  was  Karl  Detroit.  In  1843 
he  ran  away  to  sea  and  embarked  for  Turkey. 
Aali  Pasha,  later  Grand  Vizier,  took  an  interest 
in  him,  and  in  1846  sent  him  to  a  military 
school.  He  received  a  commission  in  the  Otto- 
man army  in  1853,  and  fought  against  Russia. 
In  1805  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  and 
pasha:  in  1875-76  he  commanded  in  Bosnia,  and 
in  the  war  of  1877-78  against  Uussia  he  was  at 
the  head  of  the  Turkish  army  in  Bulgaria.  He 
was  successful  in  his  operations  on  the  River 
Lorn  (August-September.  1877),  but  was  after- 
ward forced  back  by  the  enemy.  He  failed  to 
effect  a  jimction  with  Suleiman  Pasha  and  was 
superseded  by  the  latter.  He  was  second  plenipo- 
tentiary at  the  Berlin  Congress,  and  on  his  re- 
turn was  sent  to  Albania,  where  he  was  mobbed 
and  killed  bv  insurgents  at  Diakova,  September 
7.  1878. 

MEHER'RIN.  A  small  tribe  of  Troq\ioian 
stock,  fiirnicrly  living  on  the  lower  course  of  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  on  the  VirginiaC'arolina 
border.  For  a  long  time  they  were  a  subject  of 
contention  between  the  two  colonies,  each  claim- 
ing them  as  within  her  own  jurisdiction.  They 
were  said  tr>  have  been  .a  remnant  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna or  Conestoga.  who  lied  southward  after 
their  expulsion  from  the  head  of  ChesajH-ake 
Bay  by  the  Iroquois  about  the  year  1676.  They 
made  some  tronlile  during  the  Tuscarora  W.ar  of 
1711-12.  but  soon  afterward  disappear  from 
notice,  having  apparently  been  absorbed  by  that 
tribe  or  by  the  Tntelo. 

MEHUIi,  mii'ul',  Etie.n.ne  Xiciiolas  (1763- 
1S17).  A  Krencli  operatic  composer,  born  at 
Givet.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  organist  of  his 
native  village;  in  1778  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
gained  the  interest  of  GUick.     .\fter  several  un- 


successful efforts  in  composition  his  Eiiiihrosine 
cl  Corradin  finally  achieved  fame  (1790),  and 
other  compositions  previously  written  \\ere  then 
brought  to  light.  Hirutonicc  appeared  in  1792; 
and  this  was  followed  by  patriotic  national 
hynuis  for  the  Army  of  the  Republic,  entitled  "Le 
chant  du  depart,"  "Le  chant  de  vietoire,"  "Le 
clumt  du  retour,"  which  won  him  high  popularity. 
Otlier  works  appeared  in  rapid  succession;  in 
1806  Vtjial;  previously.  Viic  folic,  ou  Ics  m-cuiilcs 
de  Tolcde  (1802)  ;  and  in  1807  .loseph,  his  most 
esteemed  composition.  In  1795  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy,  and  also  appointed  an 
inspector  of  the  Conservatory,  wliich  liad  but 
recently  been  established.  His  works  comprise 
every  form  of  music,  but  it  is  wholly  by  his 
operas  that  he  is  known  to  fame.  They  are 
marked  by  dramatic  truth,  noble  melodies,  and, 
though  his  work  constantly  shows  a  lack  of 
thorough  training,  he  was  one  of  the  first  French 
composers  adequately  to  express  the  meaning  of 
the  words  in  music.  Consult  Pougin,  liiographie 
(Paris,  1889). 

MEI,  ma.  Lev  (or  MAY,  Lyoff)  Alexaxdro- 
viTCii  (1822-62).  A  Russian  poet.  He  was  born 
in  iloscow  and  was  educated  at  the  Institute 
of  Tzarskoi  Selo.  He  attracted  a  great  deal  of 
attention  by  his  drama  TsarxLi/a  ycrinta  (The 
Bride  of  the  Czar)  (1849),  which  was  followed 
by  the  dramas  Scrviliii  and  I'skoviliaiikd  (The 
Woman  of  Pskov).  Besides  jniblishing  several 
minor  poems  on  classical  and  biblical  subjects, 
he  also  considerably  enriclied  Russian  literature 
by  his  translations  from  Jlilton,  Byron.  Schiller 
{Wallcnsteins  Lager  and  Demetrius) ,  Goethe, 
Heine,   Beranger,  and  Victor  Hugo. 

MEIBOM,  mi'bom,  Victor  VON  (1821-92).  A 
Germ;ni  jurist,  bom  at  Cassel.  He  studied  law 
at  Maiburg  and  Berlin,  and  was  for  several 
years  assistant  judge  at  triliunals  of  Rotenburg 
and  Marburg,  in  1858  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Gennau  law  at  the  I'niversity  of 
Rostock,  and  from  1866  to  1873  held  a  similar 
appointment  at  Tiiliingen.  lie  then  went  to  Bonn, 
where,  he  remained  till  1875,  when  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Eni])ire  in 
I^eipzig.  His  chief  work  is  Das  deitlxelie  Pfiiiid- 
recht  (1867),  a  thorough  and  historically  relia- 
ble discussion  of  the  laws  and  regulaliims  relat- 
ing to  mortgage  before  the  introduction  of  Roman 
law. 

MEIDERICH,  mi'der-iK.  .\n  industrial  town 
in  the  libine  Province.  Pnissia.  situated  15 
miles  norllii'ast  of  Krefeld  (.Map;  Prussia.  B  3|. 
It  contains  the  Rhine  Steel  Works,  employing 
over  2000  persons,  and  a  nmnber  of  otlier  iriui 
and  steel  works,  machine  shops,  phosphate  works, 
etc.  In  the  vicinity  are  extensive  coal  mines 
and  saline  springs.  The  trade  in  cattle  is  im- 
piu-tant.  The  industries  of  Jleiderieh  date  from 
1850.  but  the  place  was  not  raised  to  the  rank 
of  a  town  until  1894.  Population,  in  1890. 
20,410:   in   1900,  33.084,  largely  Protestants. 

MEIER,  mi'er,  .MoRiTZ  Hermann  EntABD 
(1796-1855).  A  (ierman  classical  philologist. born 
at  Glogau.  When  twenty-four  years  of  age  he  l)e- 
eame  professor  extraordiiiarius  at  the  I'niversity 
of  Greifswald.  and  in  1824  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor ordinarius  at  Halle,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  Kriedrich  .\ugust  Wolf,  and 
especially  Wolf's  great  pupil,  .\ugnst  Boeckh, 
whose   classic    work   on    the    public   economv  of 


MEIER. 


281 


MEILHAC. 


Athens  appeared  in  1817,  liad  a  great  influence 
on  Meier.  His  own  first  important  publication 
dealt  witli  a  i|uestion  in  tlie  legal  antiquities  of 
Athens,  Hisluria  Jiirix  Allici  dc  liunis  Vuiinia- 
tonim,  ete.  (I'.erlin,  ISl'J)  ;  but  his  greatest 
work  was  written  in  collaboration  with  G.  F. 
Schoemann,  Der  Attische  Process  (Berlin,  1824), 
and  was  crowned  by  the  Berlin  Royal  Acad- 
emy. This  treatise,  now  revised  by  J.  H. 
Lipsius  (Berlin,  188.3-87),  remains  the  standard 
work  on  Athenian  legal  procedure  to  the  present 
day.  Meier  also  prepared  an  edition  of  De- 
mosthenes, Against  Meidins,  and  published  many 
opuscula  on  subjects  relating  to  classical  an- 
tiquity. Jluch  of  his  energy,  however,  while 
resident  at  Halle,  was  spent  on  editorial  duties, 
as  lie  was  an  editor  of  the  Halle  Allgemeine 
Zeitung  for  many  years,  and  al.so  co-editor  of 
the  AUgemeine  Enri/clopiidie  der  Wisseyischaften 
und  Kihisic  from   18.30  to   18.55. 

MEIGGS,  megz,  Henry  (1811-77).  An  Ameri- 
can contractor.  He  was  born  in  Catskill,  N.  Y., 
was  engaged  in  the  lumber  business  in  1835.  and 
failed  in  the  commercial  crisis  of  1837.  It  was 
not  until  the  outbreak  of  the  gold  excitement  in 
California  that  he  again  became  prosperous.  He 
then  shipped  lumber  in  large  quantities  to  the 
Pacific  Coast,  and  his  trade  so  increased  that  he 
was  encouraged  to  Iniild  a  large  number  of  ves- 
sels. At  length  a  financial  stringency  in  the  San 
Francisco  money  market  drove  him  to  borrowing, 
and  eventually,  his  business  collapsing,  he  fled 
to  South  America.  He  settled  in  Cliile  and  en- 
tered into  the  business  of  bridge-building  con- 
tractor. Later  he  devoted  himself  to  railroad 
construction,  and  in  Peru  accomplisiied  engineer- 
ing works  which  are  objects  of  general  admira- 
tion. He  mnde  contracts  for  the  construction  of 
six  railroads  in  tliat  country — one  of  which,  the 
Callao,  Lima  and  Oroya  Railroad,  over  the  Andes, 
ranks  among  the  first  public  works  of  the  kind 
in  the  world. 

MEIGS,  Fort.     See  Fort  Meigs. 

MEIGS,  Montgomery  Cunningham  (1816- 
y-).  An  American  soldier  and  military  engineer. 
He  was  born  in  Augusta,  Ga..  studied  for  a 
short  time  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  183fi.  and  imme- 
diately afterwards  became  second  lieutenant  in 
an  artillery  companj'.  In  1837  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  in  which  he 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1838  and  captain  in  1853. 
From  183(1  to  1852  lie  was  employed  by  the 
War  Department  on  various  important  engineer- 
ing works.  Between  1852  and  1800  he  super- 
intended the  construction  of  the  Potomac  Aque- 
duct from  the  Great  Falls  in  JIaryland  to  \Yash- 
ington,  D.  C.  the  erection  of  the  Capitol  exten- 
sion in  Washington,  the  Post-Odice  extension, 
and  the  great  iron  dome  of  the  Capitol.  In  the 
winter  of  ISfiO-Cl  he  was  engaged  in  placing 
Fort  .TefTerson.  Fla.,  in  a  condition  for  defense, 
and  in  .-\pril;  1801.  organized  and  conducted  the 
Fort  Pickens  relief  expedition.  On  May  15th 
he  was  appointed  (Juartermaster-Oeneral  of  the 
United  Stales  Army,  with  tlie  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  In  this  important  position  be  had  the 
direction  of  the  supply  and  equipment  of  the 
United  States  forces  in  tlie  field  during  the 
continuance  of  the  war.  Tlmugh  generally  sta- 
tioned at  Washington,  he  frequently  made  per- 
sonal inspections  of  the  quartermaster's  depart- 


ments of  the  various  armies  during  siege  and 
field  operations.  On  July  5,  18G4,  he  was  brevetled 
major-general  for  'distinguislied  and  meritorious 
services  during  the  Rebellion."  After  the  war 
until  liis  retirement  in  1882,  lie  was  a  member 
of  many  important  boards  and  commissions  in 
connection  with  the  War  Department,  .\fter 
his  retirement  until  1887  he  was  employed  as 
architect  on  the  construction  of  the  Pension 
Bureau  Building  in  Washington. 

MEIGS,  Return  .JoxATii.vN  (1734-1823).  An 
-Vmerican  soldier  and  pioneer,  born  in  ^liddle- 
town.  Conn.  He  joined  the  Continental  troops 
before  Boston  shortly  after  tlie  battle  of  Lexing- 
ton, and  later  in  the  same  year,  as  a  major  of 
militia,  accompanied  Benedict  Arnold  on  the  lat- 
ter's  expedition  against  (^luebee.  He  became  a 
colonel  in  1777,  and  participated  in  Anthony 
Wayne's  storming  of  Stony  Point  in  1779.  Afterthe 
close  of  the  war  he  became  interested  in  scliemes 
of  Western  colonization,  was  one  of  the  promoters 
of  the  'Ohio  Company.'  and  cro.ssed  the  Al- 
leghanies  himself  in  1788  to  settle  at  ^Marietta, 
Ohio.  Later  he  was  interested  in  the  Muskingum 
settlement.  In  1704  he  was  commissary-general 
of  the  troops  in  General  Wayne's  expedition 
against  the  Indians,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Fallen  Timbers.  In  1801  he 
was  appointed  Indian  agent,  and  took  charge  of 
the  Cherokee  agency  in  Georgia,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death.  His  Journal  of  the 
Expedition,  to  Quebec  was  published  in  1804. 

MEIGS,  Return  .J0N.4THAN  (1705-1825).  An 
American  politician,  born  in  iliddletown.  Conn., 
son  of  Return  .lonathan  Meigs,  tlie  elder.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1785,  and  studied  law.  In 
1788  he  removed  with  his  father  to  Ohio  Ter- 
ritory, and  from  1803  to  1804  was  Chief  .lustice 
of  the  State.  He  was  judge  of  the  United 
States  Court  for  Michigan  Territory  in  1807 
and  1808 ;  served  as  L'nited  States  Senator  from 
Ohio  in  1808-10:  and  from  1810  to  1814  was 
Governor  of  Ohio.  His  services  during  the  War 
of  1812  were  particularly  efficient.  In  1814  he 
Avas  appointed  Postmaster-General  by  President 
iladison,  and  he  was  continued  in  this  office  until 
1823  by  President  Monroe. 

MEIKTILA,  mik-te'la.  A  central  division  of 
Upper  Biuiiia.  comprising  the  districts  of  Meik- 
tila,  Kyauske,  ilyingyan,  and  Yamethin.  Area, 
10,854  square  miles.  "Population,  in  1901,  994,- 
432.     Capital.  Meiktila. 

MEILHAC,  nia'yak'.  Henri  (1831-97).  A 
French  dramatist,  who  worked  chiefly  in  col- 
l.aboration  with  Ludovic  Halcvy  (q.v. ).  lie  was 
born  February  23.  1831,  in  Paris,  where  he 
studied  at  the  LycCe  Louis-le-Grand.  From 
working  in  a  book  shop  he  turned  to  writing 
for  the  stage.  Satania  and  Garde-toi,  Je  me 
garde,  pleased  the  critics,  who  discerned  ileilhae's 
cleverness  and  technical  knowledge.  He  suc- 
ceeded not  only  in  vaudeville,  but  in  higher  and 
more  delicate  comedy.  It  is.  however,  impos- 
sible to  tell  what  behmgs  to  Meilhac  and  what 
to  Halevy.  so  well  did  these  two  men  blend  their 
genius.  Meilhac  and  Hah'vy  excelled  in  operetta 
and  opera  lioufl'e.  as  well  as  in  more  dramatic, 
less  musical  composition.  Together  they  wrote 
Frou-frou,  and  the  librettos  of  La  hellr  Uelcne 
and  La  grande  diicTiesse  for  Offenbach's  music. 
Of  Meilhae's  work  before  1801,  La  vertu  de 
CHimetie  is  most  significant;  of  that  after  1881, 


MEILHAC. 


282 


MEISSONIEK. 


Dicori  (1888)  ;  and  Cruusc  fortune  (1896).  He 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Freiieh  Academy  in 
1888,  and  died  in  Paris,  July  U,  1897. 

MEINARDTJS,  mi-niir'dus,  LuDWiG  Sieg- 
fried (1827-00).  A  German  composer  and  writer 
on  musical  topics,  horn  at  llooksjcl,  01dcn1)urg. 
He  studied  at  tlie  Leipzig  Conservatory,  and  as 
a  pupil  of  Riecius  at  Leipzig,  of  Liszt  at  Weimar, 
and  of  Marx  at  Berlin ;  was  director  of  tlie  Glogau 
Singakadeniie  from  1853  to  1805;  and  from  1865 
to  1874  a  professor  in  the  Dresden  Conservatory. 
Subsequently  at  Hamburg,  and  from  1887  at 
Bielefeld,  he  was  a  composer  and  critic.  His 
musical  works  include  the  oratorios  (lidi'on  and 
Kiiniy  Hdloino,  the  Wandcrliid  for  cliorus  and 
wind  instruments,  a  sonata  for  violoncello  and 
pianoforte,  sonatas  for  violin  and  pianoforte,  a 
quintet  and  tliree  trios  for  pianoforte  and  strings, 
songs,  and  pianoforte  music.  He  also  published 
KuUurgeschichtUche  Briefe  i'lher  deutsche  Ton- 
kunst  (1872),  and  .1/ocar/,  ein  Kiinstlerleben 
(1882). 

MEINEKE,  mi'ne-ke,  August  (17901870). 
A  distinguished  German  philologist.  He  was 
liorn  at  f>oest,  in  Westphalia,  and  was  educated 
at  Leipzig,  where  he  studied  luider  G.  Hermann. 
He  was  director  of  the  .Toachimsthal  Gymnasium 
at  Berlin  from  1820  to  1857.  His  numerous 
works,  which  are  chiefly  critical  editions  of  the 
CJreek  authors,  include:  Frar/motla  Comiconim 
Gnccorum  (1839-43);  Anuhcta  Alcxandrina 
(1843K  containing  collections  and  admirable 
explanations  of  the  fragments  of  Euphorion, 
Rhianos,  Alexander  .Etolus,  and  others ;  tlie  lexi- 
con of  filcphanus  Biiznntiiis  (1849)  ;  and  text- 
recensions  of  Strabo(  185253)  ;  of  Horace(  1834) , 
in  wliich  the  so-called  four-line  strophe  law.  dis- 
covered bv  Jleineke  and  Lachmann,  is  applied; 
of  StobaMis  (18,55-04)  ;  of  Athemeus  (1S59)  ;  and 
of  Ai'istophanes  (1800).  Consult:  Ranke,  .U^rr? 
ileincke  (Leipzig,  1871)  :  and  Sauppe,  Ziir 
Ennytcrunfi  an  ihhicl-c  und  lielkcr  (Giittingen, 
1872). 

MEININGEN",  mi'ning-cn.  The  capital  of  the 
little  Duchy  of  Saxe-ileiningcn,  in  Central  Ger- 
many. It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Werra,  and  is  the  scat  of  the  provincial  c<mrts 
(Map:  Germany,  D  3).  Noteworthy  features  in- 
clude the  home  of  the  Hennelierg  Antiipiarian 
Society,  the  park  known  as  the  'Kiigli~h  (Jarden." 
and  the  parish  church.  The  Meiningen  stock  com- 
pany, which  for  10  years  enjoyed  a  Kuropean  rep- 
utation for  the  excellence  of  itsstagingamlacting. 
was  di^>olvicl  in  1890.  Population,  in  1900,  14.51H. 

3CEISSEN,  niT'sen.  An  interesting  old  town 
of  th"  Kingdom  of  Saxony.  Germany,  situated  on 
the  h'ft  bank  of  the  Elbe.  10  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  Dresden  (Map:  Germany.  K  3).  It  lies  in 
an  exceptionally  jiicturesque  region,  and  has  re- 
tained its  ancient  appearance.  Al)Ove  the  town 
rises  the  Schlossberg  (  100  feet),  with  the  Cathe- 
dral and  the  .Mhrechtsburg.  The  former,  a  notable 
specimen  of  Gothic  arcliileeture.  was  ereeled  in 
1200- 14.50.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  fine  spire  of 
openwork,  contains  many  monuments  and  tombs 
of  Saxon  rulers,  and  a  notable  altar-piece  by  an 
unknown  German  painter.  The  -Mbrechtsburg. 
an  extensive  castle  erected  in  1471-83  and  oc- 
cupied by  the  electoral,  afterwards  royal,  porce- 
lain factory  from  1710  to  lSrt4.  has  been  restored 
since  1S73.  and  some  of  the  halls  have  been  deco- 
rated with  fine  frescoes  hr  modem  artists.     The 


most  notewortliy  educational  institution  is  the 
Fiirstenschule  on  the  Afraberg,  foinidcd  in  1543, 
Lessing  and  (Jellert  attended  school  here.  There 
are  also  a  'real'  school  and  schools  of  commerce 
and  agriculture. 

ileissen  has  played  a  prominent  part  in  the 
porcelain  industry  of  Saxony.  It  was  here  that 
Biittger  established  in  1710  the  first  porcelain 
factorj-  in  Europe  and  produced  the  famous 
Meis.sen  ware.  (See  Bottger  and  Pottkry.)  The 
factory  was  transferred  in  1803  from  the  .\\- 
breclitsburg  to  Triebischthal,  a  sliort  distance 
from  Meissen,  and  now  employs  over  700  jiersons. 
^Meissen  has  a  number  of  other  porcelain  manu- 
factories, also  foundries  and  machine  works,  tex- 
tile mills,  and  manufactures  of  sewing  nuichines, 
pianos,  furniture,  etc.  In  the  vicinity  the  culti- 
vation of  fruit  is  carried  on  extensively.  The 
chief  articles  of  commerce  are  local  iiuinufactures 
of  wine. 

ileisscn  was  founded  in  928  by  the  Emiieror 
Henry  I.,  and  rose  to  great  imjiortance  as  the 
residence  of  the  m;irgravcs  of  Meissen,  the  direct 
ancestors  of  the  present  Royal  House  of  Saxony. 
The  bishops  of  Meissen  had  imtil  1581  the  rank 
if  princes  of  the  Empire.  Population,  in  1890, 
17.875;  in  1900  (including  Ciilln.  annexed  in 
1901),  20.12.3..  chiefly  Protestants. 

MEISSEN,  Heinricii  vox.  A  German  min- 
nesinger.    Scf  Fkauenlob. 

MEISSNER,  mis'nPr,  Alfred  (1822-85).  An 
Austrian  poet,  born  at  Tejilitz,  grandson  of  the 
following.  Wis  Gedichtc  (1S45)  attracted  much 
attention,  and  the  lyrical  epic  Zisk-a  ( 184<i)  shows 
the  influence  of  Byron  and  Lenau.  During  a 
stay  in  Paris  lie  wrote  his  I'cvoUitunuirc  Sliidien 
aiifi  Paris  (1849).  His  tr;igedies.  Dan  Weih  det 
T'rias  (1850)  and  f'rfiinald  Armstroiip.  odrr  die 
Melt  dcs  (Icldc.i  (1853).  were  not  very  success- 
ful. Better  are  his  novels,  chief  auKmg  which 
are:  Sansara  (1861);  Xeuer  Adel  (1801);  and 
Zur  F.hrc  flottrs.  The  last  named  is  an  inter- 
esting narrative  of  the  events  which  took  place 
in  .\ustria  during  the  reactionary  ]ieriod  of  18,50- 
54.  Consult  his  autobiography.  Gmchichle 
meines  Lchrns    (Tesehen.    1884). 

MEISSNER,  August  Gottlieb  (1753-1807). 
A  (uTiiKui  iMisccllaneous  writer,  born  at  Baut- 
zen. Ill'  studied  law  at  Wittenberg  and  Leip- 
zig, and  in  1785  was  ajipoiuted  to  the  chair 
of  belleslettics  in  the  t'nivcrsity  of  Prague. 
For  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  he  was  director 
of  (he  Fulda  High  School.  Best  known  of  his 
works  are  his  f<l;iz::c)i,  a  collection  of  miscel- 
laneous stories,  dialogues,  anecdotes,  and  essays. 
He  also  wrote  several  romances  and  historical 
novels,  such  as  AlcHiiaden  (17S1-8.S):  Bianco 
Caixlh,   (1785):  and  Epaminondas  (1708). 

MEISSONIEB,  nift'sAnya',  .Te.^n  Louis  Er- 
nest (1S15-91).  .\  French  military  and  genre 
painter,  born  at  Lyons.  February  21.  1SI5.  In 
1830  he  went  to  Paris  and  worked  for  a  short 
time  in  the  studio  of  Cogniet.  but  he  received  his 
most  valuable  training  in  art  from  his  study 
of  the  old  masters  in  the  Lotivre.  especinlly  those 
of  the  Dutch  School.  At  first  he  illiistratpH 
t)ooks  and  made  etchings  as  a  means  of  liveli' 
hood.  His  first  painting.  "The  Visitors."  w«i 
exhibited  at  the  Salon  in  1S30.  In  1S43  and 
1848  he  received  first-class  medals  from  the  Salon, 
and  in  the  expositions  of  1S55.  1S07.  and  1879 
the  grand  medal  of  honor.     In  1848  he  was  cap- 


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MEISSONIER. 


283 


MEISTERSINGER. 


tain  of  artilli'iy  in  the  Xntional  Guard.  He 
■was  with  Xaiiok'on  at  Solfeiino  in  1S.")I),  and 
during  tlic  siege  of  Paris  in  1S70  lie  was  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  infantry  in  the  National  Guard. 
He  was  ma<le  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in 
184<>  and  grand  olKcer  in  1878:  a  member  of  the 
Institute  of  France  in  1801,  and  president  in 
1876  and  18!)1.  He  died  in  Paris,  January  31, 
1891. 

His  subjects  are  historical,  military,  and 
scenes  frmii  everyday  life.  Many  of  his  [jictures 
are  on  small  canvases  and  studies  of  one  or  two 
figures.  His  characters  are  almost  entirely  men; 
in  very  few  of  his  pictures  do  women  or  children 
appear.  He  is  the  chief  of  a  school  of  genre 
painters,  among  the  most  prominent  of  whom 
are  his  son,  Jean  Charles  (1848 — ),  and  Detaille 
(q.v. ).  Evepi-  detail  in  his  pictures  is  as  faith- 
fully and  carefully  studied  and  portrayed  as  if 
it  were  of  sole  importance.  His  coloring  is  fresh 
and  realistic,  and  his  power  over  the  cflccts  of 
light  and  shade  masterly.  He  excels  in  his 
drawing  of  the  horse,  in  his  portrayal  of  action, 
and  in  his  power  to  depict  the  subtlest  shades 
of  expression  on  the  faces  of  his  characters.  Of 
his  military  pictures,  one  of  the  most  famous  is 
"Friedland,  1807"  (1875),  a  large  painting  in 
the  Jletropolitan  Museum.  New  York.  Other- 
famous  military  pictures  are:  "Cavalry  Charge" 
(1807)  ;  "Napoleon  III.  at  Solferino"  (1804),  in 
the  Luxembourg:  "The  Retreat  from  Moscow;" 
"Napoleon  Overlooking  a  Battle:"  "Napoleon  and 
His  Staff  in  1814"  (1804).  The  Catherine  Loril- 
lard  Wolfe  collection.  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York,  contains  three  pictures  by  Meissonier,  and 
the  Vanderbilt  collection  in  New  Y'ork  has  seven. 
In  the  Luxembourg  Museum  are  also  the  "Stand- 
ard Bearer"  (ISO-i)  ;  "Musketeer"  (1802)  ;  and  a 
portrait  of  Alexander  Dumas  the  younger.  Among 
his  best-known  genre  pictures  are:  "La  Rixe" 
(18.5.5)  ;  "Ballplayers  at  Antibes:"  "Amateurs  of 
Painting"  (184.3):  "The  Laugher;"  "The  Halt" 
(1860):  "The  Chess  Plavers"  (1836):  "Throw- 
ing Dice"  (1836)  :  "Mass  Reading"  (1840)  ;  "The 
Voyage"  and  "The  Farrier"  (1801).  For  his 
biography,  consult:  Claretie  (Paris.  1884)  ;  Lar- 
roumet  ('ib.,  1803)  :  Greard  (ib.,  1897)  ;  and  For- 
mentin.  (ib.,  1001). 

MEISTERSINGER,  mis'ter-stog-er.  The 
name  given  to  those  artistic  poets,  usually  not 
of  noble  birth,  who.  as  the  immediate  follow- 
ers of  the  minnesinger,  cultivated  artistic  poetry 
in  contradistinction  from  the  folk  song.  The 
word  meister  (derived,  like  English  'master,' 
from  Latin  viritjister)  means  a  poet  who  has 
studied,  as  all  la>mien  did,  in  church  schools. 
Accordingly  the  meistersingers  were  distinguished 
from  the  common  minstrels.  They  also  formed 
a  guild  or  caste.  The  meistersingers  were  wont 
to  trace  their  origin  back  to  'the  twelve  old 
masters.'  Various  legends  arose,  explanatory 
of  their  origin.  One  Spangenberg  even  thought 
Moses  was  a  meistersinger.  David,  also,  was 
looked  upon  as  a  patron  in  who.se  time  hun- 
dreds of  meisters  were  supposed  to  have  taught 
4000  scholars,  and  Solomon  also  was  reckoned 
in.  Furthermore,  the  minnesingers  were  reck- 
oned as  members  of  their  caste,  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  were  different  in  many 
ways.  Individual  meistersingers  out  of  modesty 
called  themselves  'lovers  of  art'  I  Liehhahrr  der 
Kunst).  and  the  whole  body  of  them  named 
themselves  the   'honorable'   or  'praiseworthy  so- 

VOL.  XIH,— 19. 


cietv.'  We  may  suppose  that  associations  existed 
as  early  as  1200.  Heinriih  von  Meissen,  Called 
Frauenlob,  may  have  had  a  school  of  song  at 
JIainz.  We  cannot  be  sure  of  a  regular  .school 
till  14.50  in  Augsburg.  But  the  meistergcsang 
had  nourished  in  the  fourteenth  century  at 
JIainz,  Strassburg,  Colmar,  and  Frankfort :  in 
the  fifteenth,  at  Nuremberg;  later  still  it  flour- 
ished in  Breslau,  Giirlitz,  and  Danzig.  In  149'2 
Strassburg  had  the  first  school  founded  by  writ- 
ten statutes,  and  Nuremberg  had  what  became, 
thanks  to  Richard  Wagner,  best  known  to  this 
generation.  The  last  school  died  out  at  Mcm- 
mingen  in  1844. 

Each  school  had  for  the  head  mastersinger  a 
chair  called  der  Kiinste  Htuhl  (chair  of  the  arts), 
or,  as  in  Nuremberg,  the  llcistcrxtuhl  (master's 
chair).  In  England  this  was  called  'the  bard's 
seat.'  Later  the  singer  seems  simply  to  have 
stood  in  the  midst  of  his  hearers.  To  enter  the 
guild  a  candidate  had  to  pass  an  examination 
before  four  markers,  usually  in  a  church.  He 
must  devise  some  new  arrangement  or  a  new 
melody  ( Weise )  without  infringing  any  rule. 
One  of  the  markers  determined  whether  tlie 
theme  was  right,  another  whether  the  versifica- 
tion was  right,  and  the  others  looked  to  rhyme 
and  melody.  One  need  hardly  add  that,  in  a 
school  wliose  whole  attention  was  given  to  tech- 
nicalities, the  possible  mistakes  were  limited  by 
set  rules.  The  success  of  a  mastersong  hung 
upon  its  conformity  with  these  rules.  Indeed,  the 
very  essence  became  a  formula  or  a  series  of 
formulas.  The  Tabiilattir  or  tablature.  a  term 
borrowed  from  music,  and  not  found  among  the 
earliest  documents,  signified  a  bit  of  music  writ- 
ten not  with  notes,  but  with  letters  or  figures, 
designed  to  initiate  the  student  into  vocal  or 
instrumental  music.  This  code  had  to  be  mas- 
tered by  whoever  wished  to  be  a  meistersinger. 
In  order  to  teach  scholars  more  easily  the  con- 
tent of  the  code,  it  was  drawn  up  in  short  poems. 
In  fine,  it  was  a  book  of  rules,  the  text-book  of 
the  meistergcsang. 

The  school  liad  inside  and  outside  members, 
called  by  divers  names.  There  were  patrons, 
servants,  and  masters  or  companions,  as  well  as 
learners  or  apprentices ;  often  there  was  a  di- 
rector. Meetings  were  held  on  festivals,  chiefly 
on  Sunday  after  service  and  in  the  church.  Very 
often  the  singers  met  at  an  inn.  Prizes  were 
awarded,  and  those  who  sang  ill  were  fined. 
The  prize  was  sometimes  money,  sometimes  a 
crown,  as  at  Nuremberg  in  the  time  of  Hans 
Sachs.  Flowers  had  also  an  important  part  in 
these  competitions.  Often  in  the  older  days  one 
singer  would  liang  up  a  wreath  as  a  challenge 
and  as  a  reward  for  victory.  Finally  may  be 
mentioned  the  fact  that  the  meistersinger  often 
wore  a  costume  which  was  not  seldom  motley 
and  which  was  often  sumptuous. 

The  TahnUitiir  dealt  with  three  matters:  (1) 
The  kinds  of  poems  and  the  parts  of  a  meistergc- 
sang; (2)  permissible  rhymes ;  (3)  the  mistakes, 
which  are  the  main  business,  and  have  to  do 
(a)  with  errors  of  delivery,  of  melody,  of  struc- 
ture and  of  opinion;  (b)  chiefly,  however,  with 
errors  of  rhyme  or  mangling  of  words  or  caco- 
phony. 

The  various  songs  were  divided  into  three 
strophes,  and  each  strophe  was  divided  into 
two  Stollen  and  a  discant  or  Ahgesang.  Plate 
gives    a    long    list    of    the    various    features    of 


MEISTERSINGER. 


284 


MEKONG. 


rliTtlim  and  rhyme  in  tliis  loinplioated  poetry, 
in  all  of  which  we  obs^erve  a  sinjjular  likeness 
to  the  technicalities  invented  or  slavislily  aped 
by  the  lesser,  and  indeed  often  enough  l)y  the 
better,  poets  two  centuries  earlier  in  Southern 
France.  The  best  feature  of  the  nieistersin-jer's 
art  was  that  it  throve  among  the  humbler  folk, 
refined  them,  gave  them  a  sense  of  nationality, 
opened  the  way  for  the  artistic  treatment  of 
better  themes,  and  spread  widely  the  lovd  of 
artistic  music  among  those  who  needed  most  a 
sense  of  form.  Consult:  Grimm,  Ucbcr  den 
alldeutsclien  ileistergesatig  (Giittingen,  1811); 
Plate,  '"Die  Kunstausdriicke  der  Meistersinger," 
in  Slrassburger  Studieii.  vol.  iii.  (Strassburg, 
1888)  :  Martin,  "Urkundliehes  iibcr  die  Meister- 
siinger  zu  Strassburg,"  in  i^trasxhtirgcr  Hiudtvn 
(ib.i  1882)  ;  Streinz.  "Der  Meistergesang  in  Miih- 
ren."  in  Sievers's  Bvitr'ige  (llalle,  18!)4)  ;  Cyri.a- 
eus  Spangenberg,  Von  dcr  Mitsica  uiid  den  Mcis- 
tcisiiiKjern,  written  in  1584,  ed.  by  A.  von  Keller 
(Stuttgart,  1801);  yUrnherycr  Meistersinger- 
prolokolle  157o-18(>9,  ed.  by  Dreschcr,  in  liiblio- 
ihck  des  litterarischen  Vereins  in  Shittyart 
(Stuttgart,  1808);  Mey,  Der  Meistergesang  iti 
(iesrhichtc  und  Kuiist   (Leipzig.  1001  i. 

MEISTERSINGER  VON  NURNBERG, 
nurnlifMK.  Die.  A  musical  comedy  in  three  acts  by 
Richard  Wagner;  first  produced  in  Munich.  June  21, 
1808.  The  scene  of  the  play  is  Nurend)erg  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  Walter  von  Stolzing.  a  young 
knight,  loves  and  is  loved  by  Eva.  the  daughter 
of  the  goldsmith  Pogner.  Her  father,  however, 
lias  otr<'red  her  hand  as  a  prize  in  the  forthcom- 
ing meistersinger  tournament,  and  to  avoid  losing 
her.  Walter  determines  to  qualify  for  and  take 
part  in  the  contest.  He  succeeds  in  being  ac- 
cepted as  a  candidate,  .and  with  the  help  of  Hans 
Sachs,  the  famous  cobbler  meistersinger.  defeats 
his  rival.  Beekmesser,  and  wins  the  girl.  The 
play  is  indirectly  a  satire  on  Wagner's  critics, 
the'  old  and  pedantic  Tieckmesser  typifying  the 
worst  elements  of  musical  conservatism,  while 
Walter  represents  Wagner  himself.  See  Meister- 
singer. 

MEITZEN,  mits'en,  August  (1822-).  A 
German  statistician,  born  in  Breslau  and  edu- 
cated at  Heidelberg  and  Tiibingen.  He  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  Statistical  Bureau,  and 
in  187.5  was  made  professor  of  the  science  of 
statistics  and  of  political  economy  at  the  Uni- 
versity' of  Berlin.  His  contributions  to  the 
science  of  statistics  include:  /*/(  inlernalionale 
land-  und  forsttnrtsclinflliehe  lilatistil:  (1873) 
and  flisriiirhir,  Theoric  und  Teehnil;  der  fyta- 
tistik  (1880)  ;  and  he  also  wrote  Die  Mitrerant- 
uorlli(Viheit  der  flcbildelen  fiir  das  M'ohl  der 
arlii  llriidrn    Klnssen    (1870). 

MEJERDA,  majer'da,  or  MEJIRDA.  A 
riviT  ill  Ndnliern  Africa.  It  risiv,  in  the  Great 
Atlns  Mountains  in  Algeria,  and  after  an  east- 
ern and  northeastern  course  of  over  200  miles, 
mainly  through  Tunis,  flows  into  the  Gulf  of 
Tunis  on  the  Mediterranean.  24  miles  north  of 
the  capital.  It  was  the  ancient  Bagradas,  with 
its  mouth  at  I'tiea,  now  Bu-C'hateur,  7  miles  to 
the   siMilh. 

MEjfA,  mft-iie'A,  Toma's  (e.l812-fi7).  A 
Mexican  general,  an  Indian  by  race.  He  took 
a  prominent  |iart  in  the  war  with  the  United 
State's,  and  served  with  Miram(<n  (q.v.)  and 
Zuloaga  against  Juarez  in   1858  and  1859.     On 


the  occasion  of  the  French  intervention  he  did 
good  sen'ice  on  the  Imjx'rialist  side.  He  was 
present  at  the  siege  of  Quen'taro  in  18G7,  was 
captured  with  other  officers  in  Maximilian's  army, 
and  was  with  them  court-martialed  and  shot.  See 
Maximilian. 
MEJIR'DA.     A  river  of  Northern  Africa.  See 

JlE.IKIillA. 

MEKHITARISTS,  mek'I-tar-ists.  A  congre- 
gation of  Armenian  Christians  who  reside  on  the 
island  of  San  Lazaro  at  Venice,  but  have  also 
obtained  a  footing  in  France,  Austria,  Turkey, 
Russia,  and  elsewhere.  They  derive  their  name 
from  Mekhitar  (i.e.  the  Comforter)  Da  Petro 
(born  1070.  died  1740),  who  in  1701  founded  at 
Constantinople  a  religious  society  for  the  purpose 
of  dill'iLsing  the  knowledge  of  tlie  old  .Armenian 
language  and  literature.  In  1702  the  society 
removed  to  the  Morea,  then  under  the  rule  of 
Venice,  and  founded  a  convent  at  ilodon.  Pope 
Clement  XI.  in  1712  confirmed  tlie  congregation, 
gave  it  the  Benedictine  rule,  and  made  .Mekhitar 
its  abbot.  The  war  between  Turkey  and  X'enice 
compelled  its  transference  in  1715  to  Venice, 
where,  on  the  island  of  San  Lazaro,  the  Mekhi- 
tarists  held  a  convention  in  1717.  In  1773  a  split 
in  the  congregation  occurred,  and  a  branch  is  now 
establishe<l  in  Vienna.  The  Mekliitarists  acknowl- 
edge the  supremacy  of  the  Koman  Pontill.  The 
most  useful  occupation  of  the  Venetian  liranch  is 
printing  the  classic  writings  of  .\rnieiiian  litera- 
ture, including  an  Armenian  translatiun  of  tlie 
Bible  (I7.'J4)  ;  their  editions  are  universally  ad- 
mitted to  be  the  best  and  most  correct.  They 
also  issue  a  journal,  which  is  much  read  through- 
out the  Levant.  Those  in  Vienna  conduct  a  Ger- 
man bookstore.  For  the  history  of  tlio.se  at 
Venice,  consult :  Bore.  Le  coureni  de  Haint  Lazare 
d  Venise,  ou  histoire  sueeinete  de  I'ordre  des 
Michitanstes  armeniens  (Paris,  1837);  also 
Langlois.  /.c  couient  arm^nien  de  Vcni.ie  (Paris, 
ISOO)  ;  for  those  at  V'ienna,  consult  Sclierer,  Die 
Mrrhiliirislrn  in   Wien    (5th  ed.,  Vienna,   1802). 

MEKLONG,  m:\-klong'.  An  imjiortant  port 
on  the  suulli  coast  of  Siain  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Meklong  River.  40  miles  southwest  of  Bangkok 
(.Map:  Siam,  D  4).  The  population  is  about 
10.000.  consisting  chiefly  of  Chinese  merchants 
and  Siamese  fishermen. 

MEK'NEZ.    A  city  in  Morocco.    Sw  yU:qv\yEZ. 

MEKONG,  ma-kong'.  or  CAMBO'DIA.  The 
largest  river  of  Indo-CI'hina.  Its  ultimate  source 
has  not  been  ascertained,  but  it  is  supposed  to 
rise  in  the  mountains  of  Central  Tilict.  not  far 
from  the  sources  of  the  Vang-tsekiaiig  (Map: 
Freneli  IndoChina.  E  ■">  I .  It  Hows  in  a  generally 
southeast  diri'ction.  first  thi.iUgh  the  Chinese 
Empire,  where  it  is  generally  called  Lan-tsang. 
;iiid  then  through  Indo-Chiiia,  where  it  furins  at 
first  the  boundary  between  Burma  and  Tongkinp, 
then  between  the  latter  and  Siam.  Its  lower 
course  is  through  Cambodia  and  Cochin-China. 
The  course  of  the  Mekong  after  it  enters  Indo- 
China becomes  very  crooked  and  interrupted  by 
rapids  ;ind  falls,  which  prevent  the  use  of  this 
great  river  as  a  waterway.  II  is  only  for 
the  insignificant  part  of  its  leiigtti  bclnw  Khong, 
a  town  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  Siam,  that 
the  river  bi'comes  navigable.  Here  its  How  be- 
comes less  turbulent  as  it  enters  its  great  alluvial 
plain.  Finally  it  divides  into  a  number  of  arms, 
forming  a  marshy  delta  which  occupies  almost  the 


MEKONG. 


283 


MELANCHTHON. 


whole  of  Cocliin-Cliiiia,  ami  through  which  the 
Mekong  enters  the  China  Sea  after  a  total  Mow  of 
aliout  2800  miles.  At  the  town  of  Piioni  Poiik, 
in  Ciimbodia,  an  arm  extend.s  northwestward 
from  tlie  Mekong  to  the  large  lake  Tonle  Sap, 
which  at  one  time  discliarges  into  tlie  Mekong 
and  at  anotlier  is  fed  by  it. 

METliA,  PoMPONius.  A  Latin  writer,  the 
first  to  compose  a  strictly  geographical  work. 
He  was  a  native  of  Spain,  and  is  helievcd  to  have 
lived  in  the  time  of  tlie  Emperor  Claudius,  hut 
nothing  whatever  is  known  concerning  him. 
Mela's  compendium  is  in  three  books,  and  is  en- 
titled Uc  aitu  Urbis.  The  text  is  greatly  cor- 
rupted, on  account  of  the  abundance  of  proper 
names;  but  the  style  is  good,  and  the  author 
shows  a  very  creditable  diligence  of  research  and 
discrimination  in  the  use  of  his  authorities.  The 
editio  princrps  appeared  at  ililan  in  1471,  and 
there  is  an  early  translation  by  Arthur  Golding 
(London.  1.583).  There  are  good  editions  by 
Tzsehucke  (Leipzig.  1807).  Parthey  (Berlin, 
1867).  and  Frick  (Leipzig,  1880). 

MELALEU'CA.      A   genus    of    plants.      See 

C.\.1KPI  T. 

MELAMTXJS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  MeXaAwroi;s,  il/e- 
■lam]ious\.  In  Greek  legend,  the  son  of  Amy- 
thaon;  his  mother  is  said  by  different  authors 
to  be  Aglaia,  Rhodope.  or  Eidomene.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  a  physician  and  prophet,  and  is  said 
to  have  acquired  his  powers  of  divination  from 
Apollo,  who  imparted  to  him  all  the  secrets  of  the 
art  of  medicine.  Melanipus  appears  in  two 
groups  of  legends.  In  one  he  and  his  brother 
Bias  came  from  Thessaly  to  Pylus.  where  Bias 
fell  in  love  with  Pero,  daughter  of  Neleus.  Her 
father,  however,  required  her  suitor  to  bring  to 
him  the  herds  of  Iphiclus.  Melanipus  went  on  this 
mission,  was  seized  and  thrown  into  prison,  but 
overheard  the  worms  in  the  beams  predict  the 
speedy  fall  of  the  building.  He  told  his  jailers, 
who  believed,  and  with  him  escaped  before  the 
Jail.  The  King,  hearing  of  his  gifts,  secured  his 
aid  in  curing  a  disease  of  long  standing,  and  as 
his  fee  gave  him  the  mucli-desired  cattle.  He  was 
also  said  to  have  left  Neleus  and  gone  to  Argos, 
where  he  cured  the  Argivc  women,  or,  according 
to  others,  the  daughters  ot  King  Proetus,  of  mad- 
ness sent  by  Dionysus  or  Hera.  As  a  reward  he 
received  for  himself  the  hand  of  one  of  the  daugh- 
ters, Iphianassa,  and  a  third  of  the  land  of  Argos, 
and  anotlier  third  for  Bias.  Thus  their  descend- 
ants, including  the  prophet  ."imphiaraiis,  ruled 
along  with  the  descendants  of  Prietus.  At  ^Egos- 
thena  in  Megaris  ilelampus  w-as  worshiped  as 
a  god.  having  a.  temple  and  apparently  games  in 
his  honor. 

MELANCHOLIA  (Lat..  from  Gk.  ij.e\ayxo\la, 
black  Idle,  from  lU^Xas.  iiielas',  black  -f-  x"'*'!. 
choir,  bile).  A  form  of  insanity  characterized  by 
depression  both  of  emotional  state  and  of  nerve 
functions.  The  essential  feature  of  this  disorder 
is  sadness,  dejection,  despondency.  The  melan- 
eholiac  is  gloomy,  full  of  foreliodings  and  fearful 
anticipations,  convinced  of  physical  inferiority 
and  of  moral  worthlessness.  and  often  contem- 
plates, even  if  he  does  not  commit,  suicide.  A 
number  of  delusions  arise  in  almost  all  ca.ses. 
He  may  even  commit  murder  to  save  himself  from 
his  own  expected  fate.  Disturbances  of  the  sense 
organs  may  cause  hallucinations  of  smell,  taste, 
and  sight.     In  some  cases,  overwhelmed  by  terror 


or  by  conviction  of  wrongdoing,  the  patient  bums 
or  mutilates  himself  in  a  paroxy.sm  of  fury  and 
during  a  reduction  of  cimsciousness.  This  cim- 
dition,  really  the  outcome  of  terror,  is  called 
melancliolic  frenzy.  This  frenzy  occurs  in  alco- 
holics as  a  result  of  the  familiar  hallucinations 
of  frightful  animals,  tires,  and  of  fearful  fore- 
bodings, in  melancholia  there  is  more  apparent 
bodily  disorder  during  the  attack  than  in  mania. 
Constipation,  drjness  ot  tongue  and  tliroat,  ab- 
sence of  appetite,  and  headache  are  prominent. 

There  are  .several  varieties  of  melancholia.  Mel- 
ancholia ayilata  occurs  when  the  patient  is  active 
and  excited,  restk'ssly  running  about,  weeping  and 
beseeching  and  wringing  his  hands.  Melancholia 
atlonita  occurs  when  the  patient  is  ])ractieally  mo- 
tionless, fastening  his  gaze  on  the  lloor,  lethargic 
and  rela.xed  with  'frozen  expression.'  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  arouse  the  atonic  melancholiac  to  take 
food,  or  to  answer  questions.  He  must  be  dressed 
and  undressed  by  an  attendant.  Mclancliolia 
simplex  has  been  described.  Melancholia  sine 
delirio,  less  happily  designated  'reasoning  melan- 
cholia,' is  a  form  of  the  disorder  in  which  there 
is  neither  delirium  nor  delusiim  nor  hallucina- 
tion. This  is  also  known  as  'affective  melan- 
cholia,' since  the  emotional  or  affective  sphere 
is  chiefly  at  fault. 

There  is  a  preliminary  period  during  which  the 
patient  complains  of  inability  to  tix  his  at- 
tention, faltering  memory,  and  slow  intellection. 
An  attack  of  melancholia  rarely  appears  without 
this  preliminary  period  except  when  it  follows 
an  emotional  shock  or  an  exhausting  fever.  An 
attack  of  melancholia  lasts  from  a  few  weeks  to 
about  eight  months  in  most  cases.  Some  attacks 
continue  for  over  a  year.  Accurate  figures  as  to 
the  percentage  of  cases  of  melancholia  to  the 
whole  number  of  insane  cannot  be  reached ;  but 
the  proportion  is  about  14  per  cent.  Sixty  per 
cent,  of  melancholiacs  recover.  The  treat- 
ment of  melancholia  consists  in  constant  surveil- 
lance, regular  and  ample  nourishment,  cardiac 
and  general  stimulants,  hygienic  measures,  and 
interesting  occupation.  Travel  benefits  many,  but 
unremitting  vigilance  is  necessary  to  prevent 
accident  or  suicide.     See  Ix.san'Ity. 

MELANCHOLY  JAQUES.  A  name  used 
of  ..T.  .J.  Rousseau  liecause  of  his  morbid  nature, 
and  su^'gested  by  .Taques  in  Shakespeare's  As 
You  Like  It. 

MELANCHTHON,  nif-lank'thon,  Gcr.  pron. 
mfi-liink'tun,  Philipp  ( 1497-1 5()0) .  The  associ- 
ate of  Luther  in  the  Protestant  Reformation,  and 
the  foremost  teacher  of  his  time,  in  the  words  of 
Hallam,  "far  above  all  others  the  founder  of  gen- 
eral learning  throughout  Europe."  He  sprang 
from  the  middle  class,  as  did  Luther  from  the 
lower.  His  father  was  an  armorer  in  favor  at 
Court,  his  mother  the  daughter  of  the  burgo- 
master of  Brettcn  in  Baden,  where  he  was  born, 
February  6,  1497.  By  the  advice  of  his  grand- 
uncle,  the  learned  Reuchlin,  he  changed  his  fam- 
ily name,  when  he  entered  the  University  of  Hei- 
delberg at  the  age  of  twelve,  from  Sehwarzerd 
( 'Ulack  earth')  into  its  Greek  equivalent,  Jlelanch- 
thon,  a  common  practice  among  scholars.  Having 
taken  the  bachelor's  degree  when  fourteen,  he 
took  the  master's  degree  at  Tiibingen  when  seven- 
teen and  at  once  began  to  lecture  on  Terence, 
Vergil,  and  rhelorie;  when  nineteen  he  published 
an  edition  of  Terence,  which  ran  through  seventy- 
three  editions  in  the  course  of  about  a  century. 


MELANCHTHON. 


286 


MELANESIANS. 


His   Latin   and    Greek    graminius    enjoyed   still 
larger  use  even  in   Catliolic   schools. 

Most  opportunely  for  Lutlier.  who  had  posted 
his  theses  tlie  year  hi't'orc,  Jlelanehthoii  was  now 
called  to  tlie  chair  of  (Jreck  at  \\  itlenbery,  and  in 
1518  delivered  his"  inaugural  upon  "Keforni  in 
the  Studies  of  Youth."  Those  who  had  depre- 
ciated him  for  his  boyish  appearance  immediately 
cliangcd  to  admiration.  The  next  year  Jlelanch- 
thon  took  tile  hachelor's  degree  in  theologj-,  but 
modestly  doclined  the  doctorate.  Never  ordained, 
never  preaching,  he  reinained,  like  Calvin,  a  lay 
tlieologian  to  the  end  of  his  days.  His  lectures 
were  thronged,  sometimes,  as  reported,  to  the 
numlier  of  two  thousand,  including  even  princes 
and  noblemen. 

From  his  classical  studies,  he  was  drawn  by 
Luther's  urgency  and  the  prevailing  ferment 
into  the  field  of  theologj-.  By  his  Loci  Com- 
munes, i.e.  general  outlines  of  theologj-,  he  made 
in  !.)21  his  lirst  great  contribution  to  the  Refor- 
nialion.  From  Melanch( lion's  architectural  and 
organizing  spirit,  according  to  Dorner's  view,  the 
truth  born  in  Luther"s  heart  received  its  object- 
ive form  and  the  stamp  of  validity.  Kipially  im- 
portant was  the  aid  he  gave  to  Luther's  Bible 
work,  in  which  the  accuracy  is  his,  while  its 
idiomatic  force  and  beauty  are  Luther's.  In  15'26 
he  became  professor  of  theologj-  in  name,  as  for 
years  he  had  been  in  fact. 

Among  the  Reformers,  llelanclithon  was  char- 
acteristicallv  the  iieacemnker.  The  Augsburg 
Confession,  presented  bj-  the  Protestants  at  the 
Diet  in  1530,  surprised  even  the  Catholics  bj"  its 
moderate  tone.  The  tone  was  !Melanclithon's,  who 
drafted  it  from  articles  drawn  up  liv  Luther.  In 
15.31  Melanchthon  published  his  Apology — a  vin- 
dication of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  the 
most  learned  of  the  Lutlieran  symbols.  After 
this  date  he  wrote  his  name  'Melanthon,'  as  eas- 
ier to  pronounce.  His  irenic  spirit  prompted  him 
to  issue  a  mudified  edition  of  the  Confession,  the 
Variatd  (1540),  generalizing  sjiecific  statements 
of  the  Lutherans  object icmable  to  the  Calvinists, 
■with  the  design  of  removing  impediments  to  the 
imion  of  the  two  parties.  But  such  etTorts  only 
brought  bitter  trouble  upon  Melanchthon.  He 
had  now  reached  the  limit  of  his  successes,  and 
his  remaining  jears  were  darkened  by  the  failure 
of  his  efforts  for  a  more  ethical  tlieology,  and 
for  the  union  of  the  Protestant  factions. 

Melanchthon's  treatises  on  ethics,  in  which 
Aristotle  was  his  master,  became  standard  text- 
books. These  ethical  studies  revealed  to  him 
defects  in  his  theological  masterpiece,  the  Lnci 
Commiinex,  whi<h  he  amended  bv  successive  re- 
visions in  1535  and  1543.  They  filso  occasioned 
a  serious  breach  between  the  'Philippists'  and 
the  strict  Lutherans,  whose  extreme,  denial  of 
the  freedom  of  the  will  made  Christian  ethics 
impossible.  Cries  of  hcresv  arose,  which  no  ex- 
jilanatiiins  could  still.  Another  breach  was 
caused  bj-  Melanchthon's  slow  but  sure  change 
from  the  Lutheran  conception  of  the  mode  of 
Christ's  presence  in  the  Lord's  Supper  to  the 
Calvinistie.  A  third  ground  of  odium  w-as  ife- 
lanehthon's  willingness,  for  the  sake  of  avoiding 
civil  war,  to  compromise  with  the  Catholics  by 
securing  tolerance  of  evangelical  doctrine,' but  re- 
taining most  of  till-  Roman  cercin<mies,  as  'adia- 
phnra'  (things  indifTerent) .  In  the  bitter  contro- 
versy which  ensued  the  Philippists  were  hoiinded 
as  'knaves,  Samaritans,  and  Baaliles.'     Melanch- 


thon's relations  with  Luther  were  strained,  but 
to  the  last  his  gentle  spirit  held  captive  tliat  fiery 
heart,  lie  looked  forward  to  death  as  "escaiie 
from  the  madness  of  theologians."  His  last 
prajer  was  "that  the  churches  might  be  of  one 
mind  in  Christ."     lie  died  April  I'J,  1500. 

.Mclani-htlion  seems  from  one  point  of  view  to 
have  been  born  before  his  lime,  and  has  been  long 
in  coming  to  his  rights.  In  a  period  of  fanatical 
strife,  he  earnestly  strove  to  bring  about  Chris- 
tian unity.  But  on  the  honor-roll  of  the  Refor- 
mation his  is  conspicuously  the  historical,  ju- 
dicial, progressive  spirit.  His  one  great  weak- 
ness was  his  consenting  with  Luther  and  others 
to  the  bigamj-  of  Philip  of  Hesse,  anil  his  regret 
for  it  threw  him  into  a  dangerous  illness.  De- 
clining invitations  to  other  German  cities,  to 
France,  to  Denmark,  to  England,  he  stood  un- 
flinchingly to  his  post  in  stormy  Wittenberg, 
The  churches  he  found  it  impossible  to  reconcile 
now-  unite  in  honoring  him.  Lacking  the  dra- 
matic element  which  draws  the  po|)ular  heart  to 
Luther,  his  blending  of  progress  and  tolerance,  of 
sw-eetness  and  light,  attracts  the  cultivated  mind. 

BlBLloGR.\PHY.  Melanchthon's  works,  includ- 
ing his  correspondence,  fill  volumes  i.-xxviii.  of  the 
Corpus  Ifcforinntortim,  edited  bv  Bretschneider 
and  Bindseil  (Halle,  1832-50).  The  Wittenberg' 
edition  of  his  works  was  published  in  15('i2-G4. 
His  Loci  CommiDirs.  editeil  bj-  Plitt  (  Erlangen, 
1864),  was  reijdited  by  Kolde"  (Erlangen.  1890). 
In  Gennan  consult  his  Lebcii  unil  Wirhcn,  bv 
Matthes  Altenbnrg  (1841;  2d  ed.  1841!):  his 
Lchen  und  Hchriftrn.  bv  C.  Schmidt  (Elberfeld, 
18til).  For  biography  consult  his  Life  (in 
Latin)  bv  his  friend  Camerarius  (Leipzig.  1506), 
edited  bv  Xcander  in  \  ita  Qunttuor  lieformn- 
torum  (Berlin,  1846)  ;  also  Krotel's  English 
translation  of  the  Life  bv  Ledderhose  (Philadel- 
phia, 1855).  .J.  W.  Richards,  PhUipp  MeUtnch- 
tlioii  (New  York,  1808)  is  botli  ]iopular  and  ac- 
curate. Vahialde  in  special  ])oints  of  view  are: 
Ilartfelder,  I'hilipp  Mrinnehlhoii  tils  I'rcrceptor 
(Ivrmaiiiw  (Berlin,  1880):  Herrlinger,  Uie  Tlir- 
oloijie  MeUntehlli<iiis(\je'\]>7,\<i,  1878)  ;  Galle,  Char- 
ahteristilc  Melaiiehlhons  (Halle,  1840).  Volumes 
vi.  and  vii.  of  Schaffs  Hisloii/  of  the  Cliristian 
Church  (Xew-  York,  1800)  and  volume  iii.  of 
Schaff"s  Creeds  of  Chri.itrn(U>m  CSew  York,  1890) 
contain  much  valuable  biograjihical  and  theolo- 
gical miittir  concerning  Melanchthon. 

MEL'ANE'SIA  (XeoLat.,  from  Gk.  /uAot, 
mclds.  black  +  vijaot,  ucsos,  island).  A  name 
ajiplied  to  that  division  of  Oceanica  in  which 
the  inhabitants  have  a  dark  skin,  as  distinguished 
from  those  of  Micronesia  and  Poljnesia,  who  are 
nuich  lighter.  (See  ilELANEsiANS.)  It  com- 
prises all  the  islands  Iving  between  New  Guinea 
and  the  Fiji  Islands,  and  between  the  Equator  and 
the  Tropic  of  Cajiricorn  (Map:  I'.ast  Indies,  H 
4).  If  includes  the  following  groups:  .\dniiralty 
Islands,  Bismarck  .\rchip(dago,  S(domon  Islands. 
Santa  Cruz.  New  Hebrides.  New  Caledonia.  Lny- 
altv  Islands,  and  Fiji  Islands.  The  last  are 
sometimes  classed  with  the  Polynesian  Islands, 
while  New  Guinea  is  sometimes  included  in  Mel- 
anesia. For  details,  see  the  articles  on  the  .sepa- 
rate groups. 

MELANESIANS.  The  natives  of  that  part 
of  Oceanica  known  as  Melanesia  (q.v.).  .Some 
authorities  consider  them  phj-sicallj-  and  lin- 
guistically a  compound  of  the  woolly-haired  black 
Piipiians.   who   may   Inive   been   the  aborigines  of 


MELANESIANS. 


287 


MELANISM. 


Melanesia,  with  the  smooth-haired,  light-colored 
Malays,  who  came  to  the  archipelago  as  adven- 
liirers  and  immigrants.  Of  all  the  islanders  of 
these  regions  they  present  in  individual  cases  the 
strongest  likeness  to  the  equatorial  African 
negro.  Other  scholars  recognize  a  "Melancsian 
race.'  divided  into  Papuans  and  ilelanesians 
proper,  the  latter  heing  taller  and  more  dolichoce- 
phalic than  the  former,  and  having  generally  the 
Targe  square  or  lozenge-shaped  lace  with  the 
straight  or  relroiisse  nose  of  the  Melanesian  race. 
The  Melancsian  is  the  most  primitive  form  of 
Oceanic  speech.  The  Melanesians  are  in  general 
sedentary  and  devoted  to  agriculture,  being  only 
occasionally  hunters  and  tlshers.  and  they  use 
the  pig  as  a  domestic  animal.  JIany  of  the  Mel- 
anesians make  pottery,  an  art  practicefl  In- 
few  of  the  Polynesiiins.  They  have  doulile 
canoes  and  outriggers,  but  are  not  given,  like  the 
Polynesians,  to  long  voyages.  With  most  of  them 
thecharacteristic  dwelling  is  built  on  piles  (see 
L.iKE-DwKi.UNGs),  and  often  artistically  deco- 
rated, while  communal  houses  are  found  all  over 
the  Melancsian  area.  The  bow  and  arrow 
(sometimes  poisoned)  are  in  use,  with  the  club 
and  spear,  which  lend  themselves  to  ornamenta- 
tion. Some  of  the  hafted  stone  axes  of  the  Jlel- 
ancsians  are  very  tine  specimens  of  their  kind. 
Kava,  tile  characteristic  drink  of  the  Polynesians, 
is  absent,  but  betel-chewing  prevails  generally  ex- 
cept in  New  Caledonia.  The  Solomon  Islands 
and  a  few  other  places  still  present  examples  of 
cannibalism,  while  head-hunting,  together  with 
the  ]>reservation  of  the  skulls  of  the  dead,  is  well 
known.  Taboo  assumes  in  Jlelanesia  a  less  clear 
form  than  in  Polynesia,  amounting  to  simple  in- 
terdii'tion  without  the  intervention  of  mysterious 
forces.  Tribes  projier  are  rare  in  Jlelanesia.  The 
regulation  of  "group  marriages'  is  ven'  strict. 
Secret  societies'  abound,  including  the  famous 
duk-diik  (q.v. ) .  which  corresponds  in  several  curi- 
ous respects  to  the  modern  club.  The  highest 
development  of  the  Melanesian  is  to  be  found  in 
the  Kiji  Islands,  now  a  British  colony,  the  low- 
est in  some  parts  of  Xew  Caledonia  and  the  Solo- 
mon Islands.  Consult:  Finseh,  Anfhropolor/ische 
E rfiflin iusc  rliwr  Rcise  in  der  SiUlsrc  (Berlin, 
1S84)  ;  Imhans,  Lcs  "Soueelles-Echrides  (Nancy, 
18!I0)  :  Guppy.  The  Solomon  Islands  and  Thrir 
yativcs  (London,  1887)  ;  Legrand,  Au  pai/s  dcs 
Canaqiics  (Paris,  180.3)  ;  Codrington,  The  Mela- 
ncsian Unu/uajics  (Oxford,  188.5)  ;  id..  The  Mela- 
nesians: Studies  in  Their  Anthropoloijt/  and  Folk- 
I.orc  (ib.,  185)1);  Parkinson.  Die  Volkerstiimme 
yeu-I'onnnerns  (Berlin.  1890)  ;  id..  Im  Bis- 
marcks-Aiehipel  (Leipzig,  1S87)  ;  Haddon.  Tlcad- 
Hiinlos.  Illark.  White,  and  Brown  (London, 
11I02)  ;  Gaggin,  Amonfi  the  Man-Eaters:  Fiji  and 
fohiiiion  Islands  (London,  1000)  ;  Melching. 
Slnatiiihihlfinfi  in  Melanesieii   (Leipzig,  1807). 

MEL'ANI'IDiE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
mrlania.  from  Gk.  fie'Aavia,  blackness,  from  ft^^^ac, 
melas.  black ) .  An  extensive  group  of  freshwater 
gastropod  mollusks  characterized  by  the  long 
spiral  shell,  with  the  whorls  more  or  less  knobbed 
or  tuberculated.  ribbed  or  striated,  and  a  horny 
operculum.  The  animal  has  a  broad  foot  or 
creeping  disk,  grooved  in  front ;  it  is  ovo- 
viviparous.  The  species  date  from  the  Cre- 
taceous period.  They  live  in  rivers,  and  the 
tubercles  protect  them  from  injure'  in  rapid 
rocky  streams.  The  species  are  distributed 
throughout    North    Africa,   Syria,   China.    India, 


the  Philippine  Islands,  Polynesia,  and  South 
America.  In  the  Southern  United  States,  mostly 
in  a  rough  square  formed  by  the  Tennessee,  the 
Mississippi,  the  Chattahoochee  rivers  and  the 
Gulf  of  Jle.xico,  occur  in  abundance  the  Pleuro- 
ceridie,  represented  by  the  genus  lo.  which  were 
formerly  associated  with  the  MelaniidiB. 

MEL'ANIP'PE.  (1)  In  Greek  mythology,  a 
dauglitcrof  Cliiron.  Being  about  to  bear  a  child, 
she  lied  to  Mount  Pelion  to  conceal  herself  from 
her  father,  and  was  changed  into  a.  mare  by 
Artemis  and  i)laced  among  the  constellations. 
She  is  also  called  Evipjie.  (2)  A  sister  of  Mel- 
eager,  who  died  with  grief  at  her  brother's  fate. 
( 3 )  A  sister  of  Ilippolyte  and  Queen  of  the 
Amazons. 

MEL'ANIP'PTJS.  In  Greek  mythology,  a 
Theban.  the  slayer  uf  Tydeus  in  the  expedition  of 
the  Seven  against  Thebes.  He  was  himself  killed 
by  Amphiaraus. 

MELANISM  (from  Gk. /itAaj,  mclas,  bLack), 
and  ALBINISM  ( from  Lat.  alhus,  white) .  Mel- 
anism is  a  phenomenon  d\ie  to  excess  of  pigment, 
while  albinism  is  due  to  its  absence.  Albinism  is  a 
pathological  condition,  while  melanism  is  usually 
normal.  Melanism  occurs  in  insects,  fishes,  rep- 
tiles, birds,  and  mannnals,  and  is  noticeable  in 
man.  While  in  animals  and  man  albinism  is  the 
result  of  disease,  it  may  occur  in  nature  as  a 
sport;  thus  we  have  albino  varieties.  The  ab- 
sence of  pigment  is  normal  in  such  Arctic  animals 
as  the  polar  bear,  the  northern  or  white  owl,  etc. ; 
others  turn  white  in  winter,  as  the  Arctic  fox, 
the  American  varying  hare,  the  ptarmigan,  etc. 
The  change  of  color  in  such  cases  is  apparently 
due  to  cold,  and  is  associated  with  the  develop- 
ment of  numerous  airbubblcs  in  the  hair;  in 
some  cases  there  is  no  loss  of  pigment,  which  is 
merely  concealed  by  the  air-bubbles   (Newl)igin). 

In  "man  the  dark  races  owe  the  color  of  their 
skin  to  a  black  pigment  deposited  in  the  deeper 
layers  of  the  epidermis,  this  pigment  in  the 
blonde  or  white  race  being  but  slightly  developed. 
As  the  darkest  negroes  inhabit  the  low  torrid 
coast  of  West  Africa,  the  pigmentation  seems  due 
to  light,  heat,  and  moisture  combined.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  cool  damp  climate  of  elevated  or 
mountain  regions  and  of  the  jiolar  lands  causes 
melanism.  It  is  well  known  that  the  insects, 
more  especially  moths  and  butterllies,  inhabiting 
Alpine  slopes  or  mountain  regions  are  darker 
than  individuals  of  the  same  species,  or  of  allied 
species,  living  on  the  drier  and  warmer  lowlands. 
Packard  has  called  attention  to  the  melanotic 
moths^n  the  summits  of  the  White  Jlouiitains  of 
New  Hampshire  and  along  the  coast  of  Labrador. 
I.eydig  was  the  first,  jierhaps,  to  point  out  that 
variation  toward  greater  darkness  of  coloring 
is  connected  with  the  action  of  moisture.  The 
temperature  experiments  of  Weismann,  W.  H. 
Edw-ards.  and  Merrifield  have  proved  that  be- 
sides moisture  and  elevation  cold  is  an  im- 
portant agent  in  excessive  pigmentation,  at  least, 
of  Lepidoptera  and  beetles.  But  melanism  is 
not  entirely  confined  to  northern  animals.  The 
bliick  leopard  of  Southern  Asia  is  a  melanotic 
variety  or  sport  of  the  common  leopard.  The 
varying  hare  is  infrequently  melanistic.  It  has 
been  noticed  that  the  butterllies  on  islands,  which 
are  always  damper  than  the  mainland,  are  in- 
clined to  be  darker,  whether  in  the  East  Indies 
or  in  Newfoundland. 


MELANISM. 


288 


MELBOURNE. 


The  prevailing  coloring  matters  in  the  pigments 
of  mammals  are  the  dull-colored  melanins.  The 
origin  of  these  melanins  is  wrapped  iu  doubt. 
The  dark  coloring  matter  of  silkworm  moths 
and  other  insects  is  probably  due  to  the  waste 
products  of  the  blood.  It  has  been  thought  that 
in  mammals  the  pigment  is  directly  derived  from 
the  ha'nioglobin  of  the  blood.  Floyd,  however, 
has  shown  tliat  the  skin  of  the  negro  contains 
about  twice  as  much  iron  as  the  white  skin,  ap- 
parently due  to  the  proteid  present  in  the  pigment 
granules.  Another  physiologist  (Delepine)  tliinks 
tluit  the  melanin  is  elaborated  out  of  the  plasma 
of  the  blood,  and  is  not  a  derivative  of  the 
hirmoglobin,  but  that  the  latter  may  itself  be 
manufactured  from  some  antecedent  variety  de- 
rivative of  melanin    (Newbigin). 

Bibliography.  Newbigin.  Color  in  Xature 
(London,  1808)  ;  Delepine,  "Origin  of  Melanin," 
in  Journal  of  Physiology,  vol.  xi.    (1890). 

MEL'ANITE  (from  Gk. //f?.af,  melas,  black). 
A  name  given  to  the  black  or  common  garnet 
(q.v.). 

MELANORBHCE'A  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
fii'/ac,  mi-las,  black  +  pnia,  rhoia,  a  flowing,  from 
pc'tv,  rhrin,  to  flow).  A  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Anacardiacea\  To  this  genus  be- 
longs the  black  varnish  tree  {Mrldiu/rrha'a  usi- 
tata)  of  Burma  and  the  northeast  of  India, 
called  Theet-see  or  Zitsi  in  Burma,  and  Klww  in 
Manipur.  a  very  large  tree,  attaining  a  height 
of  100  feet,  with  large,  leathery,  simple,  entire, 
deciduous  leaves,  and  a.\illary  panicles  of  flow- 
ers. It  yields  a  viscid,  rust-colored  jiiiee,  which 
liecomes  black  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere, 
and  is  excessively  acrid,  causing  swellings  with 
much  pain  and  fever  if  it  touches  the. skin.  It 
is  much  valued  as  a  varnish  for  painting  vessels 
intended  to  contain  liquids,  utensils,  and  also 
as  a  size-glue  lu  gildijig.  See  the  article  on 
Vabxisii  Trke. 

MELAPHYKE  (from  Gk.  ft;?.ag,  melas.  black 
4-  TTop-fvp-iriK,  por-phiir-itrs.  porphyry).  A 
term  formerly  much  employed  for  basalts  of  pre- 
Tcrtinry  age.     See  Basalt. 

MELAZZO,  ma-fal'sft.     A  city  of  Sicily.     See 

!MlLAZZ(). 

MEL'BA,  Xellie  (186.5—).  An  Australian 
operatic  soprano.  Her  family  name  is  Mitchell, 
and  Melba  is  an  adaptation  from  .Melbourne,  in 
which  city  she  was  born.  She  studied  under 
Marchesi,  and  made  her  first  pulilic  appearance 
.  as  Gilda  in  A'/f/o/c/^o  at  Brussels  in  1887.  A  bril- 
liant coloratura  singer  and  of  a  very  attractive 
personality,  she  hecamc  known  and  adnjjred  in 
every  great  city  of  the  world,  being  especially 
successful  in  grand  opera  in  America.  Her  first 
appearance  in  this  countrj'  was  at  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  New  York,  in  18!i;!.  in  hurin 
lit  liaiiitiK-rmoor.  She  gained  unusual  distinction 
in  the  roles  of  Ophelia.  N'edda  in  /  Pariliacri, 
.fiiliette.  T.ucia.  ami  Elisabeth. 

MELBOURNE,  mell.nrn.  The  capital  of 
Victoria,  .\ustralia.  situated  chiefly  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Yarra.  about  nine  miles  by  water 
and  two  miles  hv  land  above  its  outlet  in  Hobson 
Bay  (Map:  Victoria.  E  4).  The  bay  is  the 
northern  bend  of  the  spacious  inlet  near  the 
southeastern  extremity  of  the  continent,  known 
ns  Port  Phillip,  the  entrance  to  which  is  40  miles 
south  of  the  city.  Melbourne  occupies  the  first 
rank   among  British   colonial   ports,   and   is  the 


most  important  trading  town  of  the  Southern 
Hemisphere.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  dozen  converg- 
ing lines  of  railway,  several,  however,  being  only 
suburban  lines.  It  is  the  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop  and  of  a  Protestant  hisliop,  and  the 
seat  of  various  consuls,  including  a  United  States 
consul-general.  The  city  is  laid  out  with  straight, 
wide,  and  regular  streets,  well  paved  or  macadam- 
ized, and  supplied  with  gas,  electric  lighting, 
street  railways,  and  fresh  water.  Jlelhourne 
University  has  an  annual  State  endowment,  and 
possesses  valuable  scholarships  and  exliil)itions. 
Its  building  is  huge,  in  tlie  slia])e  of  a  parallelo- 
gram, surrounded  by  extensive  grounds.  The 
])ost-otlice,  a  magnificent  structure,  in  the  Italian 
style,  elaborately  ornamented,  was  built  in  1859. 
The  Tarliament  houses,  erected  in  18.").)-01.  cost 
$5,000,000.  The  town  hall  is  a  fine  building  with 
a  large  assembly  room  equipped  with  a  splendid 
organ.  The  chief  institutions  besides  these  are 
the  hospital,  the  benevolent  asylum,  the  immi- 
grants' home,  the  servants'  home,  the  orphan 
asylums,  the  lying-in  hospital,  ti-casury.  county 
and  city  courts,  public  library,  including  the 
National  Picture  Gallery  ami  Museum  of  Sculp- 
ture, custom-house,  barracks,  Scotch  College,  and 
many  other  educational  establishments,  literary 
and  scientific  institutions  and  societies.  There 
are  .several  theatres,  ]uil)lic  parks,  and  fine 
botanical  and  zoological  gardens. 

The  Yan-Vean  water-works,  by  means  of  which 
water  is  conveyed  from  a  distance  of  18  miles, 
were  opened  in  1857,  Water-works  and  street 
railways  are  iiiunici])al  property.  The  cliief  in- 
dustrial estahlisliments  are  flour  mills,  tallow- 
boiling  works,  tanneries,  woolen  and  cloth  fac- 
tories, breweries,  brass  and  iron  foundries.  The 
suburbs  included  in  the  metropolitan  area  extend 
for  over  10  miles  along  the  shores  of  the  spacious 
and  beautiful  liay  of  Port  Phillip,  which  is  35 
miles  long  by  about  25  miles  liroad.  The  entrance 
to  Port  Pliillip.  which  is  only  two  miles  wide, 
is  formed  by  two  projecting  an<l  strongly  forti- 
fied promontories,  called  the  Heaiis.  Vessels 
drawing  IG  feet  reach  Melbourne  at  ordinary 
tides.  About  one  mile  of  wharfage  extends  along 
the  north  side  of  the  Yarra.  In  the  outer  har- 
bor there  are  about  25.000  feet  of  berthing,  rang- 
ing in  depth  from  fi  to  27  feet  at  low  tide.  The 
chief  exjjorts  are  g'lld,  silver,  wo(d.  hides,  cattle, 
and  sheep.  Six-sevenths  of  (he  entire  commereeof 
the  State  is  carried  on  by  ^Melliourne.  For  further 
information   regarding  trade,  etc..  see  \'utoria. 

Melbourne  was  first  colonized  in  1835,  and  re- 
ceived its  name  in  18.'i7  from  Lord  Melbourne, 
then  the  British  Prime  Minister.  It  became  the 
see  of  a  bishop  in  1847,  and  in  1851  the  capital  of 
the  newly  formeil  colony  of  Victoria.  The  discov- 
ery of  gold  in  Victoria  in  1851  gave  an  extraor- 
dinary impetus  to  the  material  prosperity  of  Mel- 
honrne.  The  colonial  centenary  was  eonimenio- 
rated  at  Melbourne  in  18S8  by  an  iiilcriiational 
exhibition.  The  first  Federal  Parliament  of  the 
.\ustralian  Comnionwealtli  was  opened  in  the  Ex- 
hibition buildings  on  Wednesday.  May  S,  Iflftl. 
by  the  Duke  of  York,  Mell)ourne  lieing  chosen  as 
the  temporary  capital  pending  the  choice  of  a 
seat  on  federal  territory  in  New  South  Wales, 
Population,  within  municipal  limits,  in  1001, 
fi8.:!7!':  including  suburbs,  which  comprise  sixteen 
municipalities,  in  1800.  400,000:  in  1001,  404.- 
100.  Consult  Finn.  Chronicles  of  Earhj  Mel- 
bourne (Melhourne.  1880). 


MELBOURNE. 


289 


MELCHIZEDEK. 


MELBOURNE,  \\illiam  Lamb,  second  Vis- 
count ( 177',)-1S4.S).  All  English  statosnian.  He 
was  i-cluLatfil  at  Kton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  graduated  in  170ti,  and  at  Glas- 
"ow  (ITtt'J),  where  he  studied  jurisprudenee  and 
polities  under  Millar.  One  year  after  his  ad- 
mission to  the  bar  (1804)  he  entered  tlie  House 
of  Commons  for  Leominster  and  joined  tlie  Whig 
opposition,  under  the  leadership  of  Charles  James 
Fox.  As  a  consequence  of  his  favoring  Catholic 
cnianci|)ation,  he  lost  his  scat  in  lsi:2,  hut 
when  he  returned,  a  few  years  later,  he  came  back 
a  fcilinwer  of  Canning,  and  in  1S27  aeeeiUed  the 
chief  secretaryship  of  Ireland  in  Canning's  Gov- 
ernment. This  partial  alienation  from  the 
Whigs  was  increased  when  he  not  only  took 
oftiee  under  Lord  Goderich,  but  remained  for  a 
short  time  in  the  Government  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  In  1828  the  death  of  his  father 
transferred  him  to  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1830 
he  accepted  the  seals  of  the  home  office  in  the 
Government  of  Earl  Grey,  but  his  administration 
was  by  no  means  popular  or  successful.  In  July, 
18."U.  Earl  Grey  retired  and  William  IV.  sent  for 
Melbourne.  In  November,  however,  on  a  slight 
pretext,  the  King,  who  had  become  entirely 
alienated  from  the  Whigs  and  INIelbourne,  invited 
Sir  Robert  Peel  to  form  a  Conservative  Ministry. 
On  Peel's  arrival  in  England  he  dissolved  Parlia- 
ment and  appealed  to  the  country,  but  was  defeat- 
ed; the  new  Commons,  resenting  the  interference 
of  the  King,  made  Peel's  task  an  impossible  one,  so 
early  in  1835  Jlelbourne  again  became  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury  and  Premier.  On  the  accession  of 
Queen  Victoria  in  1837,  it  became  the  duty  of 
Melbourne  to  instruct  the  young  sovereign  in  the 
various  duties  of  her  high  station.  In  1841  his 
Government  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel.  Henceforward  Jlelbourne  took  little  part 
in  public  afl'airs.  His  administrations  advocated 
reform  of  Church  tithes,  in  both  England  and 
Ireland,  of  municipal  corpnratiijns.  ta.\ation, 
criminal  law,  postal  rates  ami  education,  yet  he 
himself  cared  little  for  reform.  Personally  he 
was  not  interested  in  change  of  any  kind.  He 
had  little  of  the  oratorical  faculty,  and  was  in- 
effective as  a  speaker,  but  possessed  a  cheerful 
tenii)er  and  cordial  frankness  of  manner  which 
made  him  man.y  friends.  He  married  (180.5)  a 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Bessborough,  who.  under 
the  litle  of  Lady  Caroline  Lamb,  attained  some 
celelirity  as  a  novel-writer  and  a  corres|)ondent 
of  Lord  Byron.  For  the  life  of  Lord  Mell)ourne, 
consult:  Torrens,  Memoirs  of  Lord  Melbourne 
(London,  1875)  ;  Sanders,  Lord  Mrlhoiinw's  Pa- 
pers (London,  1880)  ;  Hayward,  "Essay  on  Lord 
Melbourne,"  in  Celebrated  Statesmen  ami  Writ- 
ers. 

MELCHERS,  melK'ers,  Paulus  (1813-95).  A 
German  canlinal.  He  was  born  at  Miinster, 
Westphalia,  studied  law  at  Bonn,  and  afterwards 
theolog;v  at  Munich  and  at  tlie  theological  semi- 
nary of  Miinster.  In  1841  he  was  ordained  priest 
and  in  1857  was  made  Bishop  of  Osnabriick.  In 
1805  he  was  nominated  Archbishoj)  of  (Vdogne 
by  Pius  IX.  At  the  Vatican  Council  Melehers 
at  first  opposed  the  doctrine  of  infallibility,  but 
afterwards  acknowledged  it,  when  the  majority 
decided  in  favor  of  it,  and  even  excommunicated 
professors  who  were  against  its  proclamation. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Kultiirkriiiipf, 
and  thereby  frequently  came  into  conflict  with 
the   Government   authorities,   and   was   removed 


from  office  in  lS7ii.  He  heeame  cardinal  in  1885. 
He  wrote:  /vine  inlcni-eisting  fiir  das  heitiije 
Altarsakramcnt  (1878);  Die  kathotische  Lelire 
des  Uerrii  (1883)  ;  and  Das  Leben  der  allerselig- 
sten  Jungfrau   und  Gottesmutter   (1884). 

MELCHIADES,  niel-kl'jl-dez.   See  Miltiades. 

MELCHITES,  mel'klts  (MGk.  UeXxlr^,  Mel- 
eliiles.  from  Syr.  iiialkuye,  roval,  from  melek, 
king).  Originally  a  niekmuiie  given  by  the  Mono- 
physites  in  the  tifth  century  to  the  Christians 
wlio  remained  orthodox  in  tlie  patriarchates  of 
.Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch — the  name, 
in  the  sense  of  'Court  jiarty,'  implying  that  they 
did  so  luider  Imperial  pressure.  Since  the  thir- 
teenth century,  however,  the  name  has  been  ap- 
plied to  the  Christians  of  Eastern  rite  in  .Syria 
and  Egypt  who  are  in  communion  with  Rome. 
They  have  had  a  patriarchate  of  their  own.  tak- 
ing'its  title  from  Antioch.  since  1744.  Besides 
Damascus,  which  the  patriarch  rules  immediate- 
ly by  a  sufl'ragan,  there  arc  twelve  other  <lioeeses 
subject  to  his  authority,  with  between  300  and 
400'  priests  and  over  100,000  lay  people.  See 
Eastern  Rite,  Churches  of;  Uniates. 

IffELCHIZEDEK,  or  MELCHISEDEC,  mel- 

kiz'e-dek  ( lieb.  J/'///.  ;-m//.7,-.  king  of  righteous- 
ness). A  personage  introduced  in  Gen.  xiv.  18, 
as  'king  of  Salem'  and  "priest  of  the  most  high 
God.'  This  chapter,  while  probably  resting  on 
some  obscure  reminiscences  in  which  Babylojiian 
history  has  been  brought  into  artificial  connec- 
tion with  tribal  quarrels  in  Eastern  Palestine,  is 
regarded  by  many  scholars  as  a  late  production  in 
the  manner  of  the  post-exilic  Midrash — i.e.  a  half 
homiletical  and  half  legendary  elaboration  of  an 
historical  tradition.  The  narrative  states  that 
after  Abraham's  return  from  the  successful  pur- 
suit of  Chedorlaonier  (q.v. ).  King  of  F.lam,  and 
his  allies,  which  he  had  undertaken  in  order  to 
rescue  Lot,  he  was  met  by  ilcMchizedek;  the  lat- 
ter oft'ered  the  patriarch  bread  and  wine  and 
blessed  him;  whereupon  Abraham  gave  Mel- 
chizedek  tithes  from  the  spoil.  The  Midrashic 
character  of  the  story  is  made  evident  by  the 
names,  which  are  symbolical.  Salem — probably 
a  disguise  for  Jerusalem,  which,  as  the  Tell  el- 
Armarna  tablets  show,  is  to  be  interpreted  as 
Ur-Salim  ('city  of  Salim') — signifies  'peace'  and 
Melchizcdek  means  'king  of  righteousness.'  It  is. 
therefore,  quite  natural  to  find  that  Mclchizedek 
became  a  favorite  personage  for  further  elabora- 
tion, both  with  .Jews  and  Cliristians.  In  the 
Haggada  he  is  identified  with  Sheni ;  the  refer- 
ence to  Melchizcdek  in  Psalm  ex.  4  is  late  and 
obscure,  but  points  to  otlier  conceptions  current 
about  this  mysterious  personage.  In  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  (vi.  20;  vii.  1-21)  he  is  taken  as 
typifying  Christ.  Various  other  views  arose 
with  regard  to  Melchi/cdek.  So  Jerome  records 
an  old  notion  that  the  royal  priest  was  an  angel. 
A  small  sect  in  the  fourth  century  called  after 
his  name,  ilelchizedekians.  taught  that  he  was 
a  power  or  incarnati<in  of  God  greater  even  than 
Christ.  Others  reganled  him  as  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Eiiiphanius  says  that  some  in  his  day  believed 
that  ilelchizedek  was  the  Son  of  God  in  human 
form;  to  this  opinion  ..\mbrose  seemed  inclined, 
and  this  view  harmonized  with  a  .Jewish  belief 
that  he  was  the  Messiah.  It  is  of  some  import- 
ance to  note,  as  throwing  perhaps  some  light  on 
the  origin  of  the  'Melchizcdek'  tradition,  that  in 
his    famous    code.    King    Hammurabi     (q.v.)    of 


MELCHIZEDEK. 


290 


MELEMA. 


Babylon  gives  himseli  ihf  title  "King  of  Right- 
eousness,' as  the  lawyer  of  his  people. 

MELCHTHAL,  nielK'tUl,  Arnold  vox.  A 
U'giiulary  hero  of  the  Swiss  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence against  Austria  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  He  was  called  Jlelchthal 
from  the  village  of  his  birth  in  the  Canton  of 
Unterwalden,  but  his  name  was  Arnold  an  der 
Halden.  Arnold  killed  the  servant  of  an  Aus- 
trian baililV,  who  had  come  to  ilelchtlial  to  seize 
the  oxen  of  Alelchthal's  father,  a  well-to-do  pro- 
prietor in  Unterwalden.  In  revenge,  tlie  Aus- 
trian put  out  his  father's  eyes.  When  Jlelch- 
thal  heard  of  his  father's  blindness,  he  met  his 
friends  Fiirst,  of  the  Canton  of  Uri,  and  Stauf- 
facher.  of  the  Canton  of  Schwyz.  on  the  banks  of 
Lake  Lucerne,  and  all  three  took  an  oath  to  do 
all  in  their  power  to  liberate  the  three  cantons 
from  Austrian  rule.  This  was  in  1307,  and  the 
next  year  the  mountaineers  of  the  three  cantons 
successfully  waged  war  against  the  Austrians. 
The  story  is  presumably  a  myth.  It  is  fotind  in 
the  Chi-cDiicon  Helvelkiim  of  -Egidius  Tschudi 
(1505-72). 

MELCOMBE,  niel'kum.  George  Bubb  Dod- 
INOTOX,  Huron.     See  Domxgton. 

MELCOMBE  REGIS  AND  'WTEYMOUTH, 
nu^rkuni  re'jis  and  wa'muth.  A  seaport  of  Eng- 
land.    See  Wevmoi'TH. 

MELDE'NITJS,  RrPERTr.s.  Tlie  real  or  more 
probablj-  pseudonymous  author  of  the  Par(encsis 
Vo/i'ra,  ;jro  Pace  Ecclesicr,  ad  Thcologos  Aii- 
gustanm  Coufcssionis,  which  appeared  in  Ger- 
many about  IG30.  without  place  of  pxiblication 
or  date.  It  is  a  plea  to  the  Lutheran  theologians 
to  lay  a^ide  their  acrimonious  controversy. 

MELEA'GEE(  Lat..fromGk.  Mf?ia)|)of,  Mcle- 
agros) .  In  (ireek  legen<l,  the  hero  of  the  C'aly- 
donian  boar-hunt.  In  the  earliest  known  form 
of  the  legend,  which  is  found  in  the  Iliml.  he  is 
the  son  of  (l^neus.  King  of  .Ktolia.  and  .\lth:ea, 
daughter  of  Thestius.  When  the  Calydonian 
boar  (q.v.)  laid  waste  the  land,  he  gathered  a 
band  of  heroes,  and.  after  a  hard  struggle  and 
much  loss  of  life,  slew  the  monster.  A  strife 
arose  between  the  .Etolians  and  Curetes  over  the 
spoils  of  the  hunt,  in  which  .Meleager  led  his 
people  to  victory,  imtil  he  killed  liis  mother's 
brothers.  Altluea  then  cursed  her  son  and  prayed 
the  Furies  and  gods  of  the  lower  world  to  pun- 
ish him.  The  hero  in  anger  withdrew  from  the 
fight,  and.  knowing  his  fate,  refusid  to  retiirn. 
until  the  Curetes  had  actually  stormed  the  town, 
when  he  yielded  to  the  jirayers  of  his  wife  and 
went  fortii  to  save  his  people,  and  met  his  death, 
seemingly  at  the  hand  of  Apollo.  A  later  and 
more  popular  version  introduced  many  altera- 
tions. When  Meleager  was  seven  days  old  the 
Fates  fold  his  mother  that  the  child  would  live 
till  a  brand  then  on  the  hearth  should  be  con- 
sumed. Althiea  thereupon  <|uenelied  the  brand, 
and  put  it  in  a  chest.  I.ater.  on  the  news  of  the 
death  of  her  brothers,  she,  in  her  grief  and  rage, 
put  the  brand  again  up(m  the  lire,  and  the  hero 
at  once  wasted  away.  This  story  appears  in  an 
Ode  of  I?acrbylides'.  Later  still,  new  features 
were  introduced.  The  hunt  brought  together 
many  heroes,  and  among  them  the  wild  .Arcadian 
maiden  Atalanta  (q.v.).  with  whom  Meleager 
fell  In  love.  She  first  wounded  the  boar,  and 
received  from  her  lover  the  bead  and  hide.  These 
the  sons  of  Thestius,  in  their  jeaUnisy.  took  from 


her,  and  were  killed  by  their  nephew,  whereupon 
Altha?a  consumed  the  brand.  Altluea  was  said 
to  have  killed  herself  in  remorse,  while  the  lam- 
entations of  his  sisters  and  the  women  of  Pleu- 
ron  so  moved  the  gods  that  they  changed  them  into 
guinea-hens  (jie?.eaypici:() ,  with  the  e.xception  of 
the  two  sisters,  Deianira,  later  the  wife  of  Hercu- 
les, and  Gorge.  This  story  seems  due  to  Sophocles. 

The  Calydonian  Hunt  was  a  favorite  subject 
with  the  vase-painters  from  early  times,  and  was 
also  taken  by  the  great  artist  Scopas  as  the  sub- 
ject for  one  of  the  pediments  of  the  temple  of 
Athena  Alea  at  Tegea.  Fragments  of  these  sculp- 
tures are  now  in  Athens.  A  statue  of  ileleager, 
copied  from  a  work  of  Scopas,  is  now  in  the  \'ati- 
can  at  Rome,  and  a  finer  copy  of  the  head  and 
torso  in  the  Fogg  Art  Museum  of  Harvard  l^ii- 
versity. 

MELEAGER  (flourished  c.fiO  B.C.).  A  Gri>ck 
philosopher  and  epigranniiatist,  born  at  Gadara 
in  Syria.  He  compiled  the  first  known  Greek 
anthology,  a  colleetion  called  the  Garland  (  £rf. 
<pavn(),  which  contained  epigrams  by  40  authors, 
as  well  as  130  epigrams  of  his  own,  mostly  of 
an  erotic  character.  These  are  preserved  in  the 
later  collection  of  Constantinus  Cephalas.  known 
as  the  Palatine  Antholoyy  (q.v.).  Consult:  Sy- 
monds,  Htudics  of  the  Greek  Poets  (London, 
1893),  c.  -il:  Ouvre,  Mclegre  de  (ladara  ( I'aris, 
1804):  Radinger,  Meleagros  (Innsbruck.  1895); 
Pomcroy,   Mtbaycr,  etc.    (London.    1805). 

MELEAGER,  House  of.  A  larije  house  in 
Ronipiii.  s(i  1  iillccl  from  a  picture  of  Meleager  and 
Atalanta  wliicli  it  ccjutains.  Its  walls  bear  nu- 
merous frescoes  and  a  number  are  now  preserved 
in  the  Naples  Muse\im.  The  oecus  was  in  the 
Corinthian  style,  with  a  colonnade  about  the 
sides  and  a  vaulted  central  portion. 

MELEAGER,  St.\tle  of.  A  celebrated 
marble  in  the  Vatican,  representing  the  hero 
with  his  dog  and  a  boar's  bead.  The  statue  be- 
longs to  the  Imperial  period  and  was  found  near 
the  Porta   Portese  at  Rome  about  1500. 

MEL'EA'GRIS  ( I.at..  from  Gk. /jf/to)pif,  sort 
of  guinea-fowl,  named  after  Mt/fo^pnc  Mrlcngros, 
Meleager).  The  genus  of  the  pheasant  family 
that  contains  the  American  turkey  (q.v.)  :  but 
the  term  belonged  originally  to  one  of  the  guinea- 
fowls   ( q.v. ) . 

MELEGNANO,  nul'lft-nyii'nft  (formerly  .l/«ri- 
ijnaiio).  .\  town  of  Northern  Italy.  10  miles 
southeast  of  Milan,  with  a  population  (1901) 
of  CUCO  inhabitants.  It  is  famous  as  the  scene 
of  a  great  victory  won  by  Francis  I.  of  France 
over  the  Swiss  and  Milanese,  September  1314. 
1815.  The  defeat  at  Melegnano  did  much  to 
destroy  the  prestige  of  the  Swiss  pikemen.  who 
for  a  long  time  had  enjoyed  the  reputation  of 
being  the  best  soldiers  in  Kurope.  Francis  ac- 
cepted the  honor  of  knighthood  on  the  field  from 
the  Chevalier  Hayard.  After  the  battle  Francis 
I.  made  a  treaty  with  the  Swiss,  which  lasted 
until  the  French  Revolution.  A  second  battle 
was  fou;;lit  here  .Tune  8.  1859.  between  a  I'rench 
force  of  Ifi.OOn  men.  under  Marshal  Haraguay 
d'lTilliers.  and  a  somewhat  larger  body  of  Aus- 
trian troop*,  the  bitter  being  routed. 

MELEGUETTA  (mPl'*get'ti\)  PEPPER. 
See  CiiMNs  (II    Pauahise:  GfiXEA  PElTiit. 

MELEMA,  mrla'ma.  Tito.  In  George  Eliot's 
liomola,  a  pleasure-loving  and  unprincipled  young 
Greek,  the  husband  of  Romola, 


MELENA  ELPIS. 


291 


MELI. 


MELE'NA  EL'PIS.     A  psciulonyui  of  Espe- 
rance  von  Selnvartz   (([.v. ). 

MELENDEZ     VALDES,     ma-lan'dath     vul- 
das',  JlaN    (1754-1817).     A  Spanish  poet,  born 
at  Ribera  del  Fresno,  in  Estreniadura,  March  11, 
J7a4.     He  studied  at  Salamanca,  and  began  his 
poetical    career   with    some    compositions    in   the 
manner  of   Lobo,   but  soon   came  under   the  in- 
fluence of  the  elder  iluratin  and  other  members 
of   the    so-called    French    school    of    writers.      In 
1780  he  won  the  prize  of  the  Spanish  Academy 
for  an  ode.    (.'oming  to  Madrid  in  17S1,  ^Nlelendez 
there  enjoyed  tlie  favor  of  the  minister  and  au- 
thor, Jovellanos,  wlio  appointed  liim  to  a  chair 
at  the  L'niversity  of  Salamanca.     In  this  intel- 
lectual centre  he  became  the  chief  figure  of  the 
Salaniancan  circle  of  lyric  poets,  who  played  an 
important    part   in   the   regeneration    of    Spanish 
literary  production.     Witli  his  coraed.y,  Los  bodas 
de  CiniKiclio.  he  won  a  prize  offered  by  the  city 
1    of  Madrid   in   1784;   but  the  play  failed  on  the 
,    stage.     The  next  year  he  published  his  first  vol- 
I    UMie  of  collected  poems,  wliich  marked  a  decided 
improvement  over  the  methods  both  of  contemiio- 
raries  and  of  most  lyric  poets  who  liad  written 
since  the  sif/lo   de  oro.     Melendez  now  entered 
upon  a  political  career  that  was  to  lead  to  his 
ruin.     At  his  own  request,  he  was  made  a  judge 
of  the  court  of   Saragossa   in    1789;    two  years 
later  he  was  promoted  to  the  chancer.y  of  Valla- 
dolid ;   and   in    1707   he  was  given  a  post   at  the 
royal     Court.     In      1798     Melendez's     constant 
friend,     Jovellanos.     fell     from     favor     and     the 
former  was  in\olved  in  his  ruin.     He  was  exiled 
for   a    while,    but    in    1802    he    was    allowed   to 
settle  in  Salamanca,     He  identified  himself  with 
the  endeavors  of  the  Napoleonic  Government  in 
Spain.      Serving    this    cause,    he    incurred    the 
hatred  which  his  coinitrymen  felt  for  the  Afrance- 
smhis:.  and  on  several  occasions  he  nearly  lost  his 
life  at  the  hands  of  the  excited  populace.     With 
the  end  of  .Joseph   Bonaparte's   rule,  he   had  to 
leave  Spain,  and,  going  into  exile  in  France,  he 
died  at  Montpellier,  May  24,  1817.     During  this 
last  period  of  exile  he  prepared  a  final  edition 
of   his   lyrics,   which   did   not   appear,    however, 
until  1820,     Melendez  was  one  of  the  few  genuine 
poets   that   Spain   produced   during  the   decadent 
period  of  the  eighteenth  century.     Consult  the  life 
of  Melendez  by  Qnintana,  prefixed  to  the  edition 
of  his   poems   of   Madrid    (1820),   and   also  pub- 
lished  with   Quintana's   prose   works   in   volume 
xix.  of  the  Bihliotcca  de  autores  espaitoles;  and 
see,   also,   the   edition   of   his   poems   in   the   Bih- 
lioteca.  vol.  Ixiii.,  and  E.  Mfiriraee's  essay  on  him 
in  the  Reriie  hisjjiitiiriiie.  vol.  i. 

MELETIUS,  mele'shi-iis  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Meh'/Tiiir),  Bishop  of  Lycopnlis  in  the  Thebais 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  and  found- 
er of  the  sect  of  the  ileletians.  According  to 
Epiphanius,  during  the  persecution  under  Diocle- 
tian and  Maximiuus,  many  Christians  were  led 
tliniMgh  torture  to  renounce  their  faith;  .after- 
wards repenting  of  their  sin.  they  repaired  to 
the  bishops  to  receive  absolution,  and  to  he  recon- 
ciled to  the  Church.  Peter.  Archbishop  of  Alcx- 
andria,_  was  willing  to  receive  the  backsliders. 
on  their  doing  penance,  but  ilclctius  refused  to 
have  any  intercourse  with  them  until  the  close 
of  the  persecution.  This  caused  a  schism,  and 
Meletius  became  the  leader  of  the  disaffected. 
He  traveled  through  the  patriarchate,  ordaining 
and  excommunicating  according  to  his  own  will, 


obtaining  many  followers,  and  disregarding  the 
protest  of  the  Egyptian  bishops.  This  proselvling 
tour  was  extendecl  to  Palestine.  But  in  32"5  the 
Council  of  Nicica  checked  his  career,  compelling 
liim  to  remain  at  Lycopolis  as  a  mere  titular 
bishop  without  active  jurisdiction.  He  died  soon 
after  this.  The  :Meletians  afterwards  allied 
themselves  with  the  Ariaus  against  Athanasius, 
continuing,  however,  a  distinct  sect  until  the 
fifth  century. 

MELETIxrS  OF  Antioch  ( ?-381 ) .  A  famous 
Greek  ecclesiastic.  He  was  born  in  the  beginnings 
of  the  fourth  century  at  Mclitene  in  Armenia 
ilinor.  His  first  important  appointment  was  to 
the  bishopric  of  Sebaste,  but  he  soon  resigned  this 
and  retired  to  Beraja  (Aleppo)  in  Syria.  In  .'JOO 
he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Antioeh.  The  Church  in 
that  city  was  rent  in  twain  by  the  Arian  con- 
troversy, but  ileletius,  whose  position  was  not 
well  understood,  was  accepted  by  both  ])arties. 
He  was  generally  respected  for  his  virtues  and 
the  Arians  believed  him  on  their  side.  He  dis- 
appointed their  expectations,  however,  and  the 
dispute  raged  more  fiercely  than  ever.  Meletius- 
was  several  times  banished  and  recalled.  The 
Council  of  Alexandria  sent  representatives  to 
Antioeh  to  settle  the  dispute,  but  Lucifer  (q.v.) 
of  Cagliari  by  his  hot-headed  advocacy  of  the 
orthodox  cause  defeated  the  plan.  'Meletius 
died  at  an  advanced  age,  while  presiding  over  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  in  381.  His  body 
was  taken  to  Antioeh  and  buried  with  great 
honor.  His  funeral  oration  was  pronounced  by 
Gregory  of  Xyssa.  A  part  of  the  inaugural  dis- 
course of  Meletius  at  Antioeh  is  printed  in  tlie 
fifth  volume  of  Galland's  Bibliotheca  Patnim 
I  Venice,  1765-81). 

MELEI,  mel'fe.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Potenza,  Italy.  41  miles  south  of  Foggia 
(Map:  Italy,  K  7).  It  is  situated  on  one  of 
the  old  craters  of  the  extinct  volcano  Monte  Vul- 
ture. The  frequent  earthquake  disturbances  to 
which  it  has  been  subjected  have  destroyed  most 
of  its  ancient  buildings;  the  cathedral,  dating 
from  115,5,  and  the  castle  in  which  the  Norman 
rulers  lived,  alone  remain,  both  having  under- 
gone modern  restoration.  The  soil  of  the  vicinity 
is  extremely  fertile,  and  produces  grain,  wine, 
and  olives.  ^Mclfi  is  a  very  ancient  city,  and  is 
mentioned  as  early  as  the  fourth  century".  It  was 
the  capital  of  Apulia  at  the  time  of  the  Norman 
occupation ;  was  pillaged  by  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa  in  11(37;  and  in  1528  was  captured  by  the 
French  general  Lautrec,  who  put  to  death  thou- 
sands of  its  inhabitants.  Population,  in  1901 
(commune).  14.049. 

MELGAREJO,  mePga-ril'iio,  Mari.ino  (1818- 
72).  A  P.(divian  revolutionist.  He  was  born  of 
illegitimate  parentage  at  Cochabamba,  and  was 
]ioorly  educated,  but  rose  rapidly  in  the  army 
and  soon  became  a  power  in  politics.  In  1865 
he  became  President,  after  deposing  Ach.'i,  and 
held  this  post  through  six  stormy  years,  in  whicb 
he  defeated  Belzi'i.  head  of  the  insurgents  ( 1S60) , 
joined  the  alliance  against  Spain,  and  attempted 
to  settle  the  Chilean  boundary.  He  was  deposed 
in  1871  by  a  revolution  under  the  leadership  of 
Augustin  Jlorales,  who  succeeded  to  the  presi- 
dency. Melgarejo  fled  to  Peru  and  was  theie 
killed  in  a  brawl  with  Sanchez,  his  son-in-law. 

MELI,  ma'U'-.  Giovaxni  (1740-1815).  An 
Italian  poet,  horn  at  Palermo.  Sicilv.  He  studied 
and    practiced   medicine,   and    in    1787    was   ap- 


HELI. 


292 


MELILOT. 


pointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  University 
of  I'ak'riMO.  Meli  wrote  a  number  of  can:onctte, 
odes,  and  epigrams,  many  of  them  Sicilian  dia- 
lect, and  made  collections  of  Sicilian  proverbs. 
Especial  mention  may  be  made  of  his  ISucolica, 
the  I'uhi  yuhinte,  the  Oriyini  di  lit  mannu,  the 
mock-heroic  Don  Cliisciotii  e  Sanciu  I'anza,  and 
the  Fai^olc  morali,  in  virtue  of  which  he  may  be 
.styled  a  Sicilian  La  Fontaine.  His  I'ocsic  are 
included  in  the  Pai)iaso  siciliuiio  (Palermo, 
(1874).  Consult:  Natoli,  Giovanni  Mcli,  Hliidio 
crilico  (Palermo,  18S3)  ;  Sanctis,  '•(iiovanni 
^leli,"  in  his  \uoci  saggi  critici. 

TtLE'liIA'CEM  (Xeo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  melia, 
from  Gk.  fit'/.ia,  ash-tree;  so  called  because  the 
leaves  resemble  those  of  the  ash).  A  natural 
order  of  mostly  tropical  dicotyledonous  trees  and 
shrubs,  containing  about  40  genera  and  600 
species,  natives  of  warm  climates.  Many  of 
the  species  possess  bitter,  astringent,  and  tonic 
properties;  some  are  used  in  medicine;  the  seeds 
of  some  yield  useful  oil:  some  are  poisonous; 
some  yield  pleasant  fruits;  and  the  wood  of  some 
is  valuable.  (See  CzVRap.\.)  The  cape  ash 
{Ekeheryia  aipensis)  deserves  notice  among  the 
timber  trees  of  this  order.  It  has  a  trunk  two 
feet  in  diameter,  and  yields  excellent  tough  tim- 
ber, useful  for  many  purposes.  Melia  Azrdaiach, 
a  tree  about  forty  feet  high,  with  large  bipinnate 
leaves  and  large  spikes  of  fragrant  (lowers,  a 
native  of  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  has 
long  been  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  is  now  common  in  Cali- 
fornia and  the  Southern  United  States.  The  fruit 
is  of  the  size  of  a  cherry,  somewhat  elongated, 
pale  yellow,  containing  s\  brown  nut.  The  nuts 
are  bored  and  strung  for  beads  in  Koman  Cath- 
olic countries,  whence  the  tree  is  often  called 
bead  tree.  It  is  also  known  as  the  pride  of 
India,  and  is  sometimes  erroneously  called  Per- 
sian lilac.  The  fruit  is  sweetish,  and  not  poison- 
ous, although  generally  rejjuted  so.  The  bark 
of  the  root,  which  is  bitter  and  nauseous,  is  used 
as  an  anthelmintic.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit  of 
the  neem  tree  or  margosa  tree  iMrlia  A:adi- 
rachia)  yields  a  bitter  fixed  oil.  The  mahogany 
and  Spanish  cedar  are  both  members  of  this  or- 
der. The  chief  genera  are  Cedrela,  Sweitenia, 
Carapa,  and  ^lelia. 

MEL'IBCE'A  (Lat..  from  Gk.  Mf?.;,?o/n,  \[rU- 
hoia) .  (  1  )  .\  daughter  of  0<eanus.  and  mother, 
by  I'elasgus.  of  I.yeaon.  (2)  One  of  the  daugh- 
ters of  N'iobe. 

MELIBCETJS  (Lat..  from  Gk.  McAi'/^oioc.  .l/c!i"- 
Itoios) .     \  shepherd  in  the  first  eclogue  of  Vergil. 

MELIBCETJS,  T.\I.E  of.  A  prose  tale  in  Cbau- 
oer's  f^fiiiti  iliiiry  Tales,  taken  probably  from  the 
Jjiire  dr  Mclihcr  it  de  Dnmr  Priidrncc.  a  French 
Tendering  of  Alhertano  da  Brescia's  Latin  work, 
J.ihrr  Coiisnlatiotiix  ct  Concilii. 

MEL'ICEB'TES  (Lat..  from  Gk.  UtlmfpTJiq, 
Mrlihiilr\).  Sun  of  Ino  (q.v. ).  who  leaped  with 
him  (or  his  dead  body)  into  the  sea.  Thereupon 
both  were  changed  to  gods.  Ino  to  l.eucottiea.  and 
ilelieertes  to  Pnliemon.  who  was  the  g\iardian  of 
tempest-tossed  "hips.  He  was  worshiped  at  Cor- 
inth, especially  in  connection  with  the  Isthmian 
games.  It  is  said  that  (he  name  is  the  Greek 
transcription  of  the  Semitic  Melkartlor  Moloch), 
meaning  'the  king,'  and  thus  a  Plnrnician  origin 
of  the  cult  has  been  assumed.  Tlie  Greeks  scorn 
rather  to  have  identified  Hercules  with  the  Tyr- 


iau  Melkarth,  and  il  Melicertes  is  derived  from 
the  Plnenician  word,  it  is  more  probable  that  it 
is  the  title  which  PhiEnicians  gave  to  the  Greek 
divinity,  misunderstood  as  a  proper  name  by  the 
Greek  worshipers. 

MELIC  GRASS  i  from  Xeo-Lat.  Mclica,  from 
It.  nii-lic'i.  yriul  millet,  from  Lat.  mil,  honey; 
connected  witli  Gk.  fie/.i,  meli,  Goth,  mclip, 
honey,  OH(j.  mili-ton,  AS.  mile-deaiv,  Eng. 
mildew,  literally  honeydew),  Melica.  A  genua 
of  grasses  of  which  nearly  half  of  the  species 
(about  30)  occur  in  the  United  States.  The 
others  are  found  in  temperate  climates.  They 
are  ])erennials  of  small  economic  importance,  with 
soft  flat  leaves  and  rather  large  spikelets  in  open 
or  dense  panicles.  Mclica-  nniflora  is  a  common 
species  growing  in  woods  in  (^ireat  Britain  and 
Europe,  and  Mclica  mutica  and  Melica  diffusa  in 
similar  situations  in  the  United  States.  Most 
of  the  American  species  are  found  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  westward. 

MELICOC'CA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fiih,  meli, 
honey  +  kukku^,  AoA/.os,  berry).  A  genus  of 
trees  or  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Sapinda- 
cea-,  cml)racing  five  en'  si.x  species,  one  of  which, 
Melicocca  hijiiya,  a  native  of  the  West  Indie-S, 
where  it  is  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  known  as  the 
honev  berrv,  .Jamaica  hullace  plum,  and  genip. 
It  is"  from  20  to  40  feet  high.  The  fruit  is  about 
the  size  and  shape  of  a  i)lum,  yellow  or  green  in 
color,  with  a  very  agreeable  flavor.  It  has  been 
successfully  grown  in  southern  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia. The  seeds  are  roasted  and  eaten  like 
chestnuts,  Ctlier  siH'cies  of  Melicocca  yield  eat- 
able fruits. 

MELIKOFF^  meryi-kof.  LoRis.  A  Russian 
soldier  anil  statesman.     See  Loris-JIelikoff. 

MELILLA,  m?l-le'!y:'i.  A  Spanish  presidio  on 
the  ninth  cciast  of  Morocco  (ilap:  Africa,  D  1). 
It  is  l>uilt  on  a  rocky  ])eninsula  extending  into 
the  Mediterranean  and  ending  in  the  Cape  of  Tres 
Forcas.  It  is  protected  on  the  land  side  by  a 
circle  of  forts,  and  a  citadel  commands  the 
harbor,  which  in  1002  was  opened  as  a  port  of 
commerce.  The  population  in  1900  was  I0.l.'<2, 
including  the  Spanish  garrison.  Melilla  was  oc- 
cupied without  resistance  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1496.  The  Kabyles  have  made  several  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  to  capture  it.  the  last  being  made  in 
1893.  after  which  a  n<>utral  zone  was  established 
outside  the  fortifications. 

MEL'ILOT,  Mei.ii.otus  (Xeo-Lat..  from  OF. 
mclili/l.  I- 1.  iiiclilot,  from  Lat.  melilotos,  from 
Gk.  fie?J?.uToi,  melilotos.  fitVikuTov.  melilolon,  a 
kind  of  clover,  from  fie?u,  mcli,  honey  +  >mt6(. 
lotos,  lotus).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  order 
T.eguminiisa'.  natives  of  the  Old  World  and  wide- 
ly disseminaled.  The  species  have  upright  stems, 
bear  trifoliate  leaves  re-embling  those  of  alfalfa, 
and  small  white  or  yellow  thuvers  fnnii  early 
summer  until  frost.  They  often  take  )>ossession 
of  waste  grcmnd.  especially  if  composed  largely  of 
elav.  All  the  species  contain  an  ethereal  "il 
known  as  cuinarin.  which  givfs  them  a  strong, 
peculiar,  sweetish  odor,  especially  when  drying. 
The  white  melilot  (Mrlilotiis  aiha) .  also  known 
as  sweet.  Hokhnra.  or  tree  clover,  is  a  common 
weedy  biennial  from  three  to  six  feet  high,  which 
is  cuUivatcd  as  a  honey  plant,  and  also  to  some 
extent  for  forage.  For  plowing  under  as  green 
manure  it  is  of  some  importance,  especially  upon 
heavy  soil.     Its  roots  perforate  the  substratum, 


MELILOT. 


293 


MELLO. 


and  when  lliey  decay  leave  drainage  tubes.  In 
this  way  it  may  l)e  used  two  or  more  years  before 
being  turned  under  as  green  manure.  Another 
species  which  has  become  naturalized  in  the 
United  States  is  the  common  yellow  nielilot 
{Meliloliis  officinalis) ,  an  annual  growing  two 
to  three  feet  high  and  occurring  in  swamps  and 
wet  meadows.  Its  llowers  are  used  in  the  maiui- 
facture  of  perfumery.  The  blue  nielilot  ( Meli- 
loliis cariilvii  or  Triijoncllii  cocniica),  a  native 
of  Northern  Africa,  is  cultivated  in  Europe,  and 
was  formerly  much  used  in  medicine  as  an 
anodyne. 

Melilotus  is  useful  for  pasturage  and  for  hay. 
The  gieen  crop,  cut  when  in  bloom,  has  the  fol- 
lowing average  percentage  composition;  water, 
70.5 ;  protein,  2.8 ;  fat,  0.4 :  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, 12.1;  crude  fibre,  0.6;  and  ash.  1.0. 
!Melilotus  must  be  cured  with  care,  as  too  much 
sun  causes  shedding  of  the  leaves.  At  first  ani- 
mals commonly  refuse  to  eat  it,  but  later  relish 
it;  its  hay  is  especially  valuable  for  home  con- 
sumption. It  has  not  been  found  as  salable  as 
some  other  kinds  of  leguminous  hay. 

MELINE,  ma'len',  F£ux  Jules  (18.38—). 
A  Freneli  statesman.  He  was  born  at  Remire- 
mont,  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  in  1800  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  His  earliest  political  activity 
was  in  the  democratic  opposition  to  the  Empii'e. 
In  1871  he  refused  an  election  to  the  Commune, 
but  in  the  following  year  was  returned  to  the 
National  Assembly,  where  he  upheld  Tliiers  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Republican  Union.  For 
a  few  months  in  1870  and  1877,  he  was  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  in  Jules  Simon's  Cabinet,  and 
in  1880  made  himself  prominent  by  his  able 
advocacy  of  the  policy  of  protection.  Eight 
years  afterwards,  as  president  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  JleUne  carried  through  his  great 
protective  measure  which  went  into  force  in  1802. 
Mi'line  refused  to  form  a  ^Ministry  in  180.3 ; 
undertook  the  management  of  the  Repuhliqiic 
Frani^aisc.  which  he  carried  on  until  1890;  and 
in  the  winter  of  1804  was  reelected  president  of 
the  Cliambcr.  In  1800  he  was  made  Prime 
Jlinister  and  again  took  the  portfolio  of  Agri- 
culture, wliich  he  had  held  under  Ferrv  from 
1883  to  1885.  The  Jlay  elections  of  1808  forced 
the  Cabinet  out.  however,  and  Meline  returned  to 
the  Chamber  of  De[)uties.  There  he  acted  as  the 
leader  of  the  Conseivative  branch  of  the  Repub- 
lican Party  in  opposition  to  the  Radical  wing 
which,  with  the  aid  of  the  Socialists,  had  come 
into  power  under  Waldeek-Rousseau. 

MEL'INITE.     See  Explosives. 

MELIS'MA  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fteAiafia. i-ong, 
from  unAiCrn-j  mrlizein.  to  sing,  from  y-e'or, 
melos.  song).  A  term  applied  in  modern  music 
to  melodic  groups  of  notes  executed  u]ion  one 
syllable  of  a  word.  It  is  particularly  employed 
to  give  Oriental  color.  The  songs  of  Rubinstein 
dealing  with  Oriental  subjects  (Dcr  Asra), 
Verdi's  A'idii.  and  Goldmark's  Kiinifiin  von  Saha 
otTer  fine  examples  of  melismatic  writing. 

MELIS'SA.    A  genus  of  plants.    See  Balm. 

MELISSA.  ( 1 )  Tn  Greek  mythology,  a  nymph 
by  whom  the  use  of  honey  was  said  to  have  been 
discovercil,  whence  bees  were  called  /i(?.iaaai.  The 
actual  derivation  is  from  fir?i.  honey.  (21  Tlie 
daughter  of  Procles  and  wife  of  Periander.  who 
killed  her  by  a  blow  while  she  was  with  child. 


1 3)  In  Arioslo's  Orlando  furioso.  a  kindly  fairy 
wlio   protects  Kogero  and   Bradamant. 

MEL'ITA,     The  Latin  name  of  Malta   (q.v.). 

MEL'ITO  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  iiairuv,  Meliton). 
IJishop  of  Sardis,  in  the  second  half  of  the  second 
century.  He  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  as  an 
upholder  of  Catholic  orthodoxy,  and  is  known  to 
have  written  many  works,  only  fragments  of 
which  are  extant.  Among  those  mentioned  by 
Eusebius  are  an  Apologia  addressed  to  Aurclius 
concerning  the  pa.schal  controversy,  and  Evlogw, 
containing  the  catalogue  of  "the  books  of  the  Old 
Covenant.'  Consult:  Otto,  Corpus  Apoloi/flarum 
Christ iaiianim  Swculi  Secinuli,  vol.  ix.  (Jena, 
1842-72)  ;  Harnack,  Textc  und  Viitersuclnini/cii, 
v(d,  i.  (Leipzig,  1882)  ;  and  the  translation  in  the 
AiiU-Xicciic  Falliers,  vol.  viii. 

MELITOPOL,  ma'le-to'pol-y'.  A  town  in  the 
Government  of  Taurida,  South  Russia,  situated 
on  the  river  jMolotchna,  150  miles  north-north- 
east of  Simferopol  (Map:  Russia,  E  5).  It  has  a 
gymnasium  and  a  realschule  and  carries  on  some 
trade  in  agricultural  products  and  salt.  It  was 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury.    Population,  in  1897,  15,120. 

MELTCARTH.  A  PlKcnician  divinity  identi- 
fied with  the  Greek  Melicertes.  He  was  the  god 
of  Tyre,  where  he  had  a  magnificent  temple.  He 
represents  the  olu  Chaldean  sun-hero,  and  in  his 
adventures,  strength,  and  labors  appears  as  the 
original  type  of  Hercules. 

MELILITE  (from  Lat.  »nei,  honey),  or  Ho2«et 
Sto>'e.  a  complex  mineral  silicate  of  sodium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  aluminum,  and  iron.  It 
crystallizes  in  the  tetragonal  system,  has  a  vitre- 
ous lustre,  and  is  white  or  of  light  shades  of 
yellow,  green,  brown,  and  red  in  color.  It  occurs 
in  various  rocks,  certain  varieties  of  which  are 
loiown  as  melilile  basalls.  Melilite  is  found  in 
Wiirttemberg,  Germany,  in  Italy,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  in  several  localities  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  also  produced  in  furnace  slags.  The 
name  is  also  given  to  a  group  of  minerals  in- 
cluding the  one  described  above  and  gehlenite. 

MELLO,  mal'16,  Cxtstodio  Jost  de  (c.I845- 
1902).  A  Brazilian  admiral,  of  whose  early  life 
little  is  known.  For  his  services  to  the  republi- 
can cause  in  1889,  he  was  made  admiral  and  Min- 
ister of  Marine.  But  in  1803,  siding  with  the 
Federals  and  the  navy  against  the  Administration 
and  the  anny,  and  fearing  Peixoto's  reelection,  he 
seized  practically  the  whole  navy  and  xuidertook 
the  blockade  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  bombardment 
was  stopped  by  the  Powers,  especially  the  United 
States  of  America.  Mello  left  the  fleet,  estab- 
lished a  provisional  government  in  Santa  Cata- 
rina,  an<l  captured  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  Rut  a 
quarrel  with  Saraiva  made  success  impossible, 
and  hearing  that  the  navy  had  surrendered  to  the 
new  fleet  bought  by  Peixoto,  ]\fello  gave  himself 
up  to  the  Argentinian  authorities  in  April,  1804. 
Jlello's  alleged  purpose  throughout  had  been 
merely  to  purify  the  Republic.  I)ut  in  1001  he 
was  suspected  of  a  prominent  ])art  in  an  imperial 
plot,  and  was  arrested  and  confined  in  the  island 
of   Cobras. 

MELLO,   or   MELO,   Francisco  Manoei,  de 

(1011-00).  A  Portuguese  poet  and  historian, 
born  at  Lisbon  of  a  noble  family,  and  there 
trained  by  the  Jesuits.  He  became  an  army 
officer,  first  serving  with  the  Spanish  fleet,  and 


MELLO. 


294 


MELODY. 


then  in  the  Portuguese  service  wlien  liis  na- 
tive louiilrv  asserted  its  independence.  Uespite 
his  loyalty,  he  was  imprisoned  by  order  of 
Julin  1\'.,  and,  after  an  ineareeration  that  lasted 
from  1(144  to  1053,  he  was  banislied  to  Brazil. 
There  he  remained  six  years,  until  the  death  of 
tlie  monarch  permitted  his  return  to  Portugal. 
Wello  is  one  of  the  best  Portuguese  poets  of  the 
seventeenth  ccntuiy,  conimendably  free  from  most 
of  the  mannerisms  of  the  time.  His  numerous  po- 
etical compositions,  collected  under  the  title  of 
Miisas  de  Melodino,  fall  into  two  divisions,  of 
which  the  first  comprises  his  Spanish  verse,  and 
the  second — bearing  the  sub-title  of  .Is  sccju/tdtis 
trcs  jHH.so.? — his  Portuguese  poems.  These  latter 
reveal  him  as  a  true  poet  and  are  not  without 
popular  and  patriotic  elements.  Of  Hello's  other 
works  in  Portuguese  may  be  mentioned  certain 
prose  compositions:  the  HoapHal  das  Leitras,  a 
dialogue  containing  much  sound  literary  criti- 
cism; the  Dialogos  apoloffacs:  and  the  Carta  de 
giiia  dc  casados  { 16.51 ) ,  in  which  the  autlior  gives 
a  picture  of  Portuguese  family  life  of  the  period. 
Xot  the  least  meritoriinis  of  .\Icllo"s  producticms 
is  the  historical  work,  Historia  dc  los  moriniicit- 
ios,  separacion,  y  guerra  de  Catalui'ia  (1045), 
which  is  in  Spanish.  An  historical  treatise  in 
Portuguese  is  the  Epanaphnras  de  raria  historia 
portugucza  (1060).  Consult:  the  Obran  metri- 
cas  de  D.  Francisco  Manoel  and  his  Obras  in 
general  (Lyons,  1065)  ;  the  Fidalgo  Aprciidiz 
in  the  Musas,  and  also  separately  in  1070  (cf. 
T.  Braga's  essay  on  it  in  his  Thrairo  Portuguez 
no  sectilo  AT//".,  1870-71)  ;  P.  Chasles,  Voi/agcs 
d'lin  erili(iae  (Paris,180i))  ;  Branco  in  the  edition 
of  the  Carta  dc  giiia  de  casados  (Oporto,  187.'?). 
MELLONI,  mel-lo'nf,  .MACEnoMO  (1708- 
1S.')4|.  An  Italian  experimental  physicist,  famous 
for  his  researches  on  the  s\ibject  of  radiant  heat. 
He  was  born  in  Parma.  In  1824  he  was  called  to 
the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Parma;  and  afterwards  he  was  appointed  by 
the  King  of  Naples  director  of  the  meteorological 
observatory  on  Mount  Vesuvius.  He  discovered  the 
existence  of  heat  in  lunar  light,  and  the  results  of 
his  investigations  of  invisilile  heat — i.e.  beat  emit- 
ted by  bodies  at  a  lower  temperature  than  (bat  at 
which  they  become  incandescent — have  formed 
contributions  of  the  utmost  importance  to  phys- 
ics. He  published  numerous  memoirs  on  various 
topics  in  natural  philosophy,  and  the  volume  La 
thcrmriclirosr.  nu  la  coloration,  calorifiqiie  (  KSoO). 
MELMOTH,  CorRTXEY.  The  pen-name  of  the 
Knglish  miscellaneous  writer,  Samuel  Jackson 
Pratt    (q.v.). 

MELODEON.  The  early  American  organ,  in 
wliii  li  an  i\baust  or  suction  bellows  draws  the 
air  inward  through  the  reeds.  About  1830  J. 
Carhart  made  a  number  of  improvements  in  the 
melodeim.  and  upon  the  application  of  still  fur- 
ther inventions  by  K.  P.  Xeedliam  and  E.  Hamlin 
the  instrument  became  widely  pijpular.  The 
supply  of  wind  for  tlie  reeds  is  dbtaini'd  liy  means 
of  a  pair  of  treadles,  worked  by  the  performer. 
and  the  reeds  themselves  are  controlled  by  stops 
nnd  slider  mechanism.  The  tone  of  the  instru- 
ment has  been  steadily  improved,  and  now  suc- 
cessfully imitates  a  number  of  orchestral  in- 
struments.     Scp   H.VRMOXHM;    Onr.AN. 

MELODRAMA  (from  Ok.  fie?or.  mctns.  song 
4-  fifiapa,  drama,  action,  play).  Properly  a  half- 
musical   drama,   or   a   dramatic   performance    in 


which  the  dialogue  is  interspersed  with  music. 
Rousseau's  Pygmalion  is  connuonly  cited  as  the 
lir.st  French  melodrama,  and  some  of  the  earlier 
English  operas  are  of  this  type.  In  Italy,  how- 
ever, the  name  was  first  applied  to  the  opera, 
by  its  inventor,  Ottavio  Rinuccini,  near  the  end 
of  the  si.xtecnth  century.  In  Germany  the  term 
has  been  particularly  used  to  designate  a  decla- 
mation witli  instrumental  accompaniment  (as 
distinguished  fiom  the  recitative,  which  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  regular  opera,  q.v.).  The  ob- 
ject of  the  music  is  to  intensify  the  emotions 
evoked  by  the  spoken  words,  wliicli  may  be  a 
poem  like  Schiller's  Lied  von  der  Ulovke,  or  a 
regular  drama;  but  the  cesthetie  value  of  the 
practice  has  been  much  disputed,  and  it  has 
almost  fallen  into  disuse  in  serious  works.  Our 
present  use  of  the  word  melodrama  appears  to 
have  originated  in  France,  where,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  came  to  be 
apidicd  to  the  style  of  iiojuilar  tragedy  in  which 
were  presented  the  conventional  types  of  stage 
villains,  persecuted  innocent  heroines  and  their 
kind,  along  with  elements  of  comedy  as  well  as 
of  music  and  dancing,  and  with  a  regularly 
happy  ending  in  deference  to  well-known  popular 
preferences  in  this  respect. 

MELODY  (Lat.  melodia,  Gk.  /le^.i^iia,  from 
/li'/.vg,  nulos,  song  -+-  iji'''}.  Ode,  song),  A  suc- 
cession of  tones  constituting  a  musical  phrase. 
That  this  succession  be  pleasing  is  not  absolutely 
essential.  Whereas  harmony  considers  all  the 
tones  sounded  simultaneously  in  the  various 
voices  or  parts,  melody  primarily  considers  the 
various  tones  of  only  a  single  voice  or  pari.  i.e. 
in  relation  to  every  |)receding  or  succeeding  tcne. 
Broadly  speaking,  it  has  been  stated  that  a 
melody  rising  in  jiitch  corres|ionds  to  the  more 
violent  emotions,  sucli  as  determination,  desire, 
longing,  striving;  while  a  melody  falling  in 
pitch  corresponds  to  the  more  passive  states,  as 
resignation,  contem])lation,  sadness.  But  in 
reality  a  melody  can  never  be  considered  abso- 
lutely by  it.self. '  The  character  of  every  musical 
phrase  is  iletermined  by  a  combination  of  tliree 
vital  and  fundamental  elements,  melody,  har- 
mony, an<I  rhythm,  each  of  wliicdi  alVects  the 
others.  This  is  easily  seen  by  examining  any 
of  Wagner's  leading  motives,  where  tlie  same 
melodic  phr:ise  is  rendered  capable  of  great  emo- 
tional v.iricty  by  changes  in  the  harmonic  or 
rhythmic  elements.  In  fact,  the  same  succes- 
sion of  nol<'s  may  sound  noble  or  trivial,  accord- 
ing to  the  choice  of  refined  or  commonplace 
harmonics  supporting  it.  There  is  an  endless 
variety  in  the  sticcession  of  musical  tones  form- 
ing a  melody;  some  being  so  easily  iiitidligible 
that  even  peojile  of  little  musical  taste  can  dis- 
tinguish them,  as  is  the  case  with  some  popular 
dance  forms.  The  term  melody  is  by  no  means 
synonymous  with  cantilena,  as  many  seem  to 
tliink.  The  former  term  is  infinitely  broader 
than  the  latter.  Xo  special  course  in  melody  is 
given  in  conservatories,  although  in  recent  years 
several  theoretical  treatises  on  the  subject  have 
appeared.  The  pupil  almost  unconsciously  ac- 
q\iires  the  practical  elements  of  melodic  forma- 
tions while  pursuing  the  study  of  harmony  anil 
the  higher   forms  of  composition. 

I'pon  any  harmonic  basis  a  practically  endless 
n\nuber  of  melodies  may  be  written,  and,  vice 
versa,   all  melodies  can  be  reduced  to  a  simple 


MELODY. 


295 


MELON. 


harnioiiic  basis.  To  illustratu  lliis  let  us  take 
the  ippcMiing  tlionio  of  the  famous  aiulatite  of 
Beethoven's  f''ifth  Symphony.  Tlie  harmonic  pUin 
is  as  follows: 


^iPi^plplili 


Upon  this  basis  Beethoven  wrote  the  nu4ody 
originallv  in  this  form:  ^ 


When  he  came  to  write  the  full  score  the  mas- 
ter felt  that  his  theme  was  oommonplaee.  By 
retaininj;  the  harmonic  basis  and  only  altering 
the  melodic  intervals  the  following  noble  melody, 
such  as  we  know  it,  arose: 


,  The  following  is  a  reduction  to  the  simplest 
harmonic  basis  of  the  principal  themes  of  the 
well-known  Sonata  op.  53  (Waldstein)  : 


of  eipial  value.  And  vice  versa,  all  melodies  can 
be  reduced  to  a  monotonous  succession  of  inter- 
vals, it  is  the  composer's  individual  genius  that 
imparts  its  character  to  each  melody.  Within 
recent  years  several  theorists  have  attempted  a 
scientilic  exposition  of  the  principles  of  melodic 
formations  with  practical  hints  toward  their 
invention.  Among  the  best  works  of  thi.-  kind 
are:  Bussler,  Elemcnturmelodik  (Berlin,  1870); 
Riemann,  A'e«e  Schule  der  Mctoilik  (Hamburg, 
1883). 

MELOGRAPH  (from  Gk.  fieXoypaipoc,  melo- 
graphos,  song-writing,  from  |UfAof,  melos,  song 
-\- }lid(i>cn',  graphein,  to  write).  A  mechanical 
device  for  making  a  record  of  music  as  it  ia 
played  on  a  pianoforte.  It  is  supposed  to  repro- 
duce on  pa])er,  by  means  of  characters,  all  the 
notes  struck  on  the  keyboard    (with  their  dura- 


5i?^^Sa£t^ 


^ 


tion),  so  that  there  may  be  a  readable  record 
of  any  music  which  a  player  may  improvise. 
Since     1747     numerous    nielographs    have    been 

J-,— J- 


Comparing  this  with  the  original,  it  will  be 
seen  how  Beethoven  constructs  his  melody.  The 
reader  should  examine  in  the  score  the  successive 
melodic  changes  which  the  theme  of  the  third  ex- 
ample undergoes  in  the  course  of  the  movement. 
Wagner  in  the  Prelude  to  Die  iliistersinger  re- 
duces the  ilastersinger's  motive  and  the  second 
theme  from  Walter's  Prize  Song  to  a  common 
harmonic  basis  (slightly  different  from  that  of 
either  of  the  themes  in  its  original  form),  and 
thus  is  enaldcil  to  make  bolli  themes  resound 
sinuiltancously  on  dill'erent  instruments.  ( Piano 
score,  p.  7.)  Without  making  the  slightest  altera- 
tion in  Bach's  G  major  prelude  from  the  M'ell- 
tempcivd  Chn^ichord,  Gotinod  writes  an  addition- 
al melody  to  the  harmonic  basis,  which  has  be- 
come  famous   as   Gounod's  Ave  Maria. 

The  following  examples  show  how  a  mere  suc- 
cession of  intervals  can  be  changed  by  the  in- 
fusion of  the  rhythmic  element  into  a  distinctive 
melody.  In  Wagenseil's  book,  ^'on  der  Meister- 
singcr  Jioldicligcn  Kitnst,  we  find  the  following 
two  tunes  of  prize-crowned  master-songs : 
(a)  „  (h) 


1^ 


$ 


Both    these    simple    tunes    Wagner   uses    in    the 
Processional  March  of  Die  Meislersingcr,  where 
they  occur  in  these  forms : 
(a) 


I     I     f 

patented,  but  with  the  exception  of  Fenby's  'elec- 
tric melograph'  or  'phonautograph'  none  has 
given  lasting  satisfaction.  In  the  phonaiitograph 
under  each  key  is  placed  a  stud :  when  the  kej' 
is  depressed  an  electric  connection  is  formed, 
and  the  particular  note  struck,  and  its  duration, 
are  recorded  on  paper. 

MELOIDjE,  me-lO'i-de.  A  family  of  moder- 
ate-sized l)ectles,  with  the  head  constructed  behind 
the  eyes,  the  prothorax  at  its  hinder  edge  nar- 
rower than  the  el^-tra,  the  legs  long,  with  front 
haunches  large  and  conical,  the  feet  with  the  last 
segment  but  one  not  liilobed,  and  the  claws  s]ilit 
to  the  base.  The  larv;e  of  several  undergo  meta- 
morphosis, as  explained  imder  JIet.vmori'iiosis  ; 
and  most  of  the  species  exude  an  odorous  oil.  high- 
ly serviceable  in  medicine.  ( See  Bli.stek  Beetle.  ) 
Consult:  Le  Conte,  "Synopsis  of  the  Jleloids  of 
the  United  States,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  .Ic/irf- 
emiy  of  Natural  ficience,  vol.  ti.  (Philadelphia. 
1853)  ;  Horn,  "Revision  .  .  .  Meloida-  of  the 
United  States,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  American. 
Philosophical  l^oeielg,  vol.  xiii.  (Philadelphia, 
1873)  ;  Horn,  "Studies  Among  the  Meloida',"  in 
Transactions  of  the  American  Entomological  «S'o- 
ciet;/   (Philadelphia.  1885). 

MELON  (OF.  melon,  millon,  Fr.  melon,  from 
Lat.  melo,  for  melopepo,  from  Gk.  p.7i?.oTt^7rav, 
melopepon,  melon,   from    fif/lov,  melon,  apple  -+- 


j      AH   melody   can   be   conceived   as   a   rhythmic     ■n-eirov,   pepon,  melon,  so  called  from  the  shape). 
I  evolution  from  a  succession  of  intervals  in  notes    A  name  given  to  the  fruit  of  Cucumis  Melo  and 


MELON. 


296 


MELOS. 


CitniUiis    vulgaris   of   the   family   Cucurbitaceae. 
See  MusKMELOX;  Watermelon. 

MELON  CATERPILLAR  MOTH.  See 
Melon  Insects. 

MELON  INSECTS.  :Most  of  the  insects 
which  attack  iiichiiis  also  feed  upon  certain  other 
cucurbitaceous  plants.  Thus  the  squa.sh  vine 
borer  {Mclittia  ceto)  also  bore.s  in  the  stems  of 
melons.  The  striped  squash  beetle  (Uiabrotica 
vittala)  also  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  melons,  as 
does  the  cucumber  llea-bcetle  (Crtqiidoikra  cu- 
cumeris).  The  melon  caterpillar  {Margaronia 
hyalinata)  is  a  widely  distributed  insect  found 
through  the  greater  part  of  North  and  South 
America,  and  is  particularly  destructive  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  United"  States.  Tlie  cater- 
pillars of  the  first  generation  feed  upon  the 
leaves,  arid  those  of  the  second  generation  eat 
into  the  fruit  of  melons,  cucumbers,  and  pump- 
kins. The  wings  of  this  moth  are  pearly-white 
with  a  peculiar  iridescence,  are  bordered  with 
black,  and  measure  about  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip. 
A  similar  and  closely  related  caterpillar,  the 
larva  of  Margaronia  nitidalis,  also  feeds  in  the 
fruit  of  melons  and  cucumbers.  Poisoning  the 
foliage  with  some  ar.senical  mixture  to  destroy 
the  larvie  of  the  first  generation  is  the  standard 
remedy.  The  melon  plant-louse  is  perhaps  the 
most  destructive  insect  enemy  of  this  plant.  This 
insect  has  a  wide  range  of  food  plants,  but  is  an 
es[)ecial  enemy  of  melons,  and  feeds  on  the  under 
sides  of  the  leaves.  Under-spraying  with  a  kero- 
sene-soap emulsion  is  the  only  remedy  in  large 
fields,  but  in  small  gardens  carbon  disulphide 
may  be  used  irader  inverted  tubs  or  paper  cover- 
ings.    See  Colored  Plate  of  MoTiLS,  AMERICAN. 

MELONITES,  mel'o-ni'tez  (Neo-Lat.  nom. 
pi.,  from  Gk.  /i^Aov,  melon,  apple).  A  fossil  sea- 
urchin  found  in  the  Sub-Carboniferous  rocks  of 
North  America  and  Europe.  The  test  is  melon- 
shaped  with  vertical  grooves,  is  four  to  si.x 
inches  in  diameter,  and  made  up  of  numerous 
thick  hexagonal  or  pentagonal  plates  that  are 
regularly  arranged  in  vertical  series  and  that 
are  covered  by  minute  tubercles  and  small  needle- 
like spines.  Large  slabs  of  limestone  on  the 
surfaces  of  which  are  several  finely  preserved 
specimens  of  this  sea-urchin,  have  been  obtained 
from    the    vicinity    of    Saint    Louis,    JIo.      See 

ECIIIN'OUERMATA  ;    SeA-URCIIIN. 

MELOPLASTE,  mft'h'/plast'  (from  Gk.  /i('>»f, 
mihis.  s<iTig  -f  TT/iinriir.  plantfs,  niolder,  from 
irf.Arraeiv,  iitnssrin.  to  form).  A  peculiar  method 
of  teaching  children  the  rudiments  of  music,  orig- 
inated by  Pierre  Galin  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  order  not  to  confuse  the 
beginner  with  the  various  nuisical  characters. 
Galin  used  a  slate  with  only  the  five  lines  of  the 
statr  drawn  upon  it.  He  then  sang  familiar  airs 
to  his  pupils;  but  instead  of  singing  words  he 
used  the  syllabh's  do.  rr,  mi.  etc.,  at  the  same 
time  pointing  out  the  place  of  each  note  upon  the 
stafT.  Rhythm  he  taught  by  means  of  a  double 
metronome  which  marked  the  beginning  of  n 
measure  ns  well  as  each  beat  within  that  measure. 

ME'LOS  fUat..  from  Gk.  Mr/zor).  or  MiLO. 
The  soutlnvc-ternm'Kt  island  of  the  Cyclades  in 
the  Grecian  .\rchipelago.  or  .Kirean  Sea.  about 
70  mile-i  northeast  of  Crete,  nml  C't  miles  east  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  ft  is  14  miles  long  and  S  broad, 
and  has  on  its  northern  coast  one  of  the  best 


and  safest  natural  harbors  in  the  Levant.  The 
island  is  crescent-shaped  and  seems  to  be  part  of 
the  rim  of  the  crater  of  an  old  volcano.  The 
highest  eminence  is  Mount  Saint  Elias  (2539 
feet),  in  the  southwestern  part.  The  island 
shows  many  traces  of  its  volcanic  character,  and 
contains  hot  mineral  springs  and  considerable 
deposits  of  sulphur.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
produces  good  crops  of  grain,  as  well  as  wine 
and  oil.  The  chief  town  is  Plaka,  in  the  northern 
part  of'the  island  near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
capital,  Melos,  of  which  extensive  remains  are  to 
be  seen.  Near  the  sea  the  grounil  is  marshy,  and 
the  air  is  unwholesome  in  summer.  In  pre- 
historic times  the  island  seems  to  have  been 
of  some  importance,  on  accoinit  of  the  obsidian, 
used  in  the  Stone  Age  for  knives  and  arrow- 
heads. The  chief  settlement  was  on  the  northeast 
coast  near  the  modern  Phylakopi.  where  are  re- 
mains of  three  successive  towns,  extending  from 
the  Stone  Age  to  the  end  of  the  Myeeuiean  pe- 
riod. There  are  traditions  of  Phn-nician  occupa- 
tion at  a  later  time,  but  during  the  classical 
period  Melos  was  inhabited  by  Dorians,  and  dur- 
ing the  Peloponnesian  War  was  one  of  the  few 
islands  not  in  the  Athenian  League.  Though  the 
inhabitants  were  willing  to  remain  neutral,  the 
Athenians  in  B.C.  416  seized  the  island,  killed 
the  men  and  sold  the  women  and  children  into 
slavery.  With  the  fall  of  .\thens,  however,  the 
Athenian  colonists  Avcre  expelled  and  the  former 
inhabitants  brought  back  so  far  as  possible. 
Melos  fell  successively  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans,  the  Byzantine  emperors,  Venice, 
and  the  Turks:  it  is  now  a  part  of  (Jreece.  Dur- 
ing the  later  classical  period  the  island  evidently 
enjojed  considerable  prosperity  and  was  enriched 
with  many  works  of  art,  s(mie  of  which  have  been 
recovered  from  time  to  time.  Notable  among 
these  are  the  fine  "Poseidon"  in  the  National  Mu- 
seum at  Athens,  and  especially  the  "Venus  of 
Milo,"  discovered  in  1820  by  a  jjeasant,  and  now 
one  of  the  chief  treasures  of  the  Louvre.  From 
ISilti  to  1809  excavations  Avere  conducted  on  the 
island  by  the  British  School  at  Athens,  which 
led  to  the  discoverj-  of  the  hall  of  the  "Mystie* 
or  'Initiated.'  and  some  foundations  at  the 
site  of  the  ancient  capital,  near  the  modern  vil- 
lage of  Klinia  on  the  great  bay.  The  chii'f  re- 
sult, however,  was  the  recovery  of  the  prehistoric 
settlements  at  Phylako])i,  with  a  wealth  of  early 
pottery  and  some  very  interesting  frescoes.  Tlie 
preliminary  reports  may  be  found  in  the  Annual 
of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  vols,  ii.-v.  (Lon- 
don, 1807-1000)  and  The  Journal  of  Hrllcnitt 
Sliidicn.  vols,  xvi.-xix.  (London,  ISOriOO).  A 
complete  publication  is  promised  shortly. 

MELOS  (Neo-Lat..  from  Gk.  /jOoc.  song). 
A  nuisical  term  denotitig  the  continuity  of  the 
melodic  outline  in  any  single  movement  of  • 
composition.  A  symphonic  movement,  for  in- 
stance, consists  of  several  themes  complete  in 
themselves.  In  the  movement,  however,  they  do 
not  appear  as  .«o  many  independent  musical 
phrases  with  a  full  cadence,  but  follow  one  an- 
other in  a  certain  order,  one  leading  either  ilirect- 
ly  or  by  means  of  a  transition  passage  into  (In 
next — so  that  their  connection,  unbroken  by  .any 
full  cadence,  forms  n  continuous  melodic  chain 
from  the  first  bar  to  the  last.  This  chain  or  ag- 
greg.ite  of  melodie  phrases  ecju'-t  itnte-;  the  melM 
of  the  movement.  The  term  melos  was  first  used 
in  this  sen.se  by  Wagner  in  his  theoretical  works. 


MELOS. 


297 


MELTING-POINT. 


Every  act  of  liis  musical  dramas  resembles  a 
syuipluiiiic  movement  in  so  much  that  the  me- 
lodic outline  is  never  interrupted  by  a  full  ca- 
dence. Tlie  leading  motives  are  treated  and  de- 
velopeil  exactly  like  the  themes  in  a  symphony. 
Wagner  is,  therefore,  justiticd  iu  speaking  of 
his  'endless  melinly.'  In  the  opera  every  number 
closes  with  a  full  cadence.  An  act  consists, 
therefore,  of  a  collection  of  several  numliers,  each 
complete  in  itself,  having  no  connection  whatever 
with  the  preceding  or  following  number.  Al- 
though each  number  has  its  nielos,  the  act  can 
have  none,  and  consequently  no  artistic  unity,  be- 
cause the  fundamental  principle  of  unit}'  is  con- 
tinuity. See  also  Leitmotiv;  Musical  Drama; 
Recitative. 

MELO'SA.     A  C'liilean  plant.     See  IVLadia. 

MELOZZO  DA  FORLI,  mi-lot'so  da  for-le'. 
An  Italian  painter  of  the  fifteenth  century.     See 

FORLi,  ilELOZZO   IlA. 

'  MELPOMENE,  mel-p6m'e-ne  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  MiA-ofiti'i/.  the  Singing  One,  pres.  part,  of 
fiHtrcaBai,  mclpesthm,  to  sing).  In  Grecian 
mythology,  one  of  the  Xine  JIuses.  When  the 
individual  muses  were  assigned  specific  functions, 
Melpomene  was  called  the  muse  of  tragedy.  In 
ancient  art  she  was  represented  with  a  mask  in 
her  right  hand  and  a  roll  of  a  part  of  a  play  in 
her  left.     See  MusES. 

MEL'EOSE.  A  city,  including  the  villages  of 
Melrose  Higlilands,  Fells,  and  Wyoming,  in  Jlid- 
dlesex  County,  Mass.,  seven  miles  nortli  of  Bos- 
ton; on  the  Boston  and  JIaine  Railroad  (ilap: 
Massachusetts,  E  3).  It  is  a  popular  residential 
suburb  of  Boston,  attractive  for  its  fine  site,  has 
a  public  library  and  a  public  park,  and  is  en- 
gaged to  some  extent  in  manufacturing,  the  prin- 
cipal products  being  rubber  boots  and  shoes. 
Prominent  features  of  interest  are  Middlesex 
Fells,  a  State  reservation  of  1800  acres,  and  a 
large  natural  reservoir,  S])ot  Pond.  The  gov- 
ernment is  administered,  ruider  the  charter  of 
1900,  by  a  mayor  annually  elected,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council,  one-third  of  whose  members  are 
elected  at  large.  The  council  elects  the  city  clerk, 
treasurer,  and  collector,  and  confirms  tlie  execu- 
tive's nominations  of  other  subordinate  officials. 
The  school  board  is  independently  clioscn  by  pop- 
ular vote.  Population,  in  1890!  8.519;  in"  1900, 
12,962.  Melrose  was  settled  probably  as  early 
as  1033,  and  formed  a  part  of  Charlestown  until 
!649,  and  of  Maiden  from  1640  until  Melrose 
was  incorporated  in  16.50.  In  1900  it  received  a 
city  charter.  Consult  Drake,  History  of  Middle- 
sex Count  ii  (Boston,  1880). 

MELKOSE.        A    village    of    Roxburghshire, 

Scotland,  on  the  Tweed,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Eildon  Hills.  29  miles  southeast  of  Edinburgh 
(Map:  Scotland.  F  4).  Population,  in  1901, 
2195.  It  is  noted  for  the  remains  of  its  Cister- 
cian abliey,  celebrated  in  history  and  literature, 
and  one  of  the'  finest  of  fJothie  ruins.  Its 
erection  dates  from  132G.  after  the  destruction 
by  the  English  in  1322  of  the  Abbcv  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  built  by  David  I.  between  1126  and  1146 
at  Old  Melrose  on  a  promontory  overlooking  the 
river  two  miles  to  the  nortlieast.  The  abbey  was 
built  finm  a  fund  supplied  by  King  Robert  Bruce 
and  his  snn  David  II.  and  was  not  finished  until 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  much 
mutilated  and  despoiled  by  the  English  in  1385 


and  in  1545.  The  present  remains  arc  the  major 
portions  of  the  abbey  church,  the  choir,  the 
transept,  part  of  the  nave,  and  the  soutliern 
aisle  with  its  eight  small  chajjcls,  and  fragments 
of  the  cloister,  a  square  of  150  feet.  The  church 
is  258  feet  long,  width  of  transept  137  feet, 
height  of  central  square  tower  84  feet.  It  is  a 
composite  of  late  lUuuboyant  Gothic  areliitec- 
ture,  rich  in  tlie  elaborate  ornamentation  of  that 
style,  traceried  windows,  shafts,  capitals,  vault- 
ings, and  Hying  buttresses  being  its  distinctive 
features.  Abbotsford  (q.v.),  the  home  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  is  about  three  miles  south  of  Mel- 
rose Abbey. 

MELTING-POINT.  The  temperature  at 
which  a  given  suljstance  passes  from  the  solid 
into  the  liquid  state.  Diti'erent  substances  gen- 
erally have  diflercnt  melting-points.  Thus, 
mercury  if  solidified  by  cold  would  melt  at  a 
temperature  of  40-'  below  0°  C.  ( — 40°  F.)  ;  ice 
melts  at  0°  C.  (32°  F.);  sulphur  at  115°  C. 
(239°  F.);  tin  at  230°  C.  (446°  F.)  ;  lead  at 
324°  C.  (615°  F.);  zinc  at  418°  C.  (784°  F.)  ; 
aluminum  at  727°  C.  (1341°  F.)  ;  silver  at  968° 
C.  (1774°  F.)  ;  gold  at  1072°  C.  (1862°  F.)  ; 
copper  at  1082°  C.  (1980°  F.)  ;  pure  iron  at 
1704°  C.  (3099°  F.);  platinum  at  1777°  C. 
(3231°  F. )  ;  etc.  The  presence  of  more  or  less 
impurity  in  a  given 
substance  generally 
causes  a  corresponding 
depression  of  its  melt- 
ing-point, and  hence 
the  latter  is  often  de- 
termined when  it  is 
required  to  ascertain 
whether  a  given  sub- 
stance, especially  a 
carbon  compound  of 
known  melting-point 
is  perfectly  ])ure.  Such 
determinations  ma,y  be 
conveniently  carried 
out  by  means  of  the 
apparatus  shown  in 
the  accompanying  fig- 
ure. 

The  apparatus  con- 
sists of  an  ordinary 
round-bottomed  flask 
of  about  2.50  cubic 
centimeters  capacity, 
with  the  greater  part 
of  the  neck  cut  off:  in 
this  is  an  ordinary 
test-tube  widened  in 
one  place  so  as  to  be 
readily  held  by  the 
ilask  without  touching  its  bottom  ;  both  contain,  to 
about  the  same  level,  some  liquid  (say.  strong  sul- 
phuric acid)  that  may  lie  heated  to  a  somewhat 
higli  temperature  without  boiling.  To  carry  out  a 
determination,  a  snuill  amo\int  of  the  given  sub- 
stance is  introduced  into  a  capillary  tube  of 
glass,  the  latter  is  tied  on  to  a  thermometer  so 
that  the  substance  is  very  near  the  mercury  bulb, 
the  thermometer  with  the  capillary  tube  is  im- 
mersed in  the  liquid  of  the  test-tube,  the  tem- 
perature is  allowed  to  rise  very  slowly,  and  the 
))oint  is  carefully  noted  at  which  the  contents  of 
the  capillary  tube  begin  to  change  color  and  be- 
come transparent.  For  very  preci.sp  determina- 
tions, however,  this  method  cannot  be  employed. 


MELTING-POIXT    APPARATCB. 


MELTING-POINT. 


298 


MELTJSINA. 


Instead,  the  investigator  uses  much  larger  quan- 
tities of  substance,  reduces  the  hitter  to  a  fine 
powder,  and  immerses  the  thermometer  directly 
into  it.  While  it  is  known  that  different  niodi- 
fieations  of  one  and  the  same  chemical  sub- 
stance may  have  ditTerent  melting-points,  and 
hence  the  melting-point  caimot  be  considered  as 
strictlj'  characteristic  of  a  given  chemical  spe- 
cies, it  is  so  easy  to  determine  with  great  pre- 
cision, that  it  is  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
useful  constants  and  is  very  frequently  em- 
ployed by  chemists  for  the  purpose  of  identify- 
ing substances,  and  as  already  mentioned  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  tlieir  purity.  Further,  in  spite 
of  but  too  many  exceptions,  certain  interesting 
relations  liave  been  shown  beyond  doubt  to  exist 
between  the  melting-points  of  organic  substances 
and  their  molecular  weights  and  constitution. 
See  article  Boilixg-Poixt. 

Under  Feeezing-Poixt  that  point  has  been 
defined  with  reference  to  the  vaijor-tension  of 
the  given  substance  in  tlie  solid  and  liquid 
states.  The  same  definition,  and  for  precisely  the 
same  reasons,  is  of  course  applicable  to  the  melt- 
ing-point. For  the  "latent  heat  of  fusion,'  see 
Fbeezixg  MiXTi  kes  and  Heat. 

Influence  of  External  Pressuke  ox'  Melt- 
iNG-PoiNTS.  Strictly  speaking,  the  melting-point 
of  a  solid  substance,  just  as  the  boiling-point 
(q.v.)  of  a  liquid,  depends  upon  the  external 
pressure.  In  the  case  of  the  melting-point,  how- 
ever, the  influence  exercised  by  the  external 
pressure  is  so  very  slight  that  it  may  generally 
be  safely  left  out  of  account  altogether.  The 
subject  was  first  theoretically  investigated,  from 
the  standpoint  of  thermodynamics,  by  .lames 
Thomson,  who  found  that  for  a  given  substance 
the  change  of  melting-temperature  caused  by  an 
increase  of  one  atmosphere  in  pressure  must  be 
represented  by  the  formula, 
T(V  — V) 
r 
where  T  denotes  the  melting-point  (on  the  abso- 
lute scale,  i.e.  the  centigrade  temperature  in- 
creased by  27.3)  corresponding  to  some  given  pres- 
sure; V  denotes  the  volume  occupied  by  one 
gram  of  the  liquid  substance  at  the  melting-tem- 
perature; V  denotes  the  volume  occupied  by  the 
solid  substance  at  the  same  temjierature:  and  r 
denotes  the  mechanical  equivalent  ( in  terms  of 
Miter-atmospheres')  of  the  heal  absorlied,  at 
the  same  temperature,  during  the  melting  of  one 
gram  of  the  substance.  (By  a  'liter-atmospliere' 
is  meant  the  minimum  mechanical  work  required 
to  cause  a  dimiiuition  of  <me  liter  in  any  volume, 
against  the  constant  resistance  of  a  pressure  of 
one  atmosphere.)  Tt  will  be  observed  that  if 
V  is  greater  th.nn  V,  i.e.  if  the  melting  is  accom- 
panied by  an  increase  in  volume,  the  above  expres- 
sion is  positive,  and  hence  an  increase  of  pres- 
sure causes  the  melting-temiierature  to  rise.  On 
the  contrary,  if  V'  is  greater  than  V,  the  ex- 
pression is  negative,  and  hence  nn  increase  of 
pressure  causes  the  melting-temperature  to  fall. 
These  theoretical  results  are  in  perfect  agree- 
ment with  experimental  obsen-ation.  In  the  case 
of  iee.  melting  is  accompanied  by  a  eontrnction 
in  volume,  i.e,  V  is  greater  than  V,  and  the 
above  formula  leads  to  the  result  that  while  im- 
der  normal  atmospheric  pressure  ice  melts  at 
0°  C.  (32°  F.),  the  melting-point  under  a  pres- 
sure of  two  atmospheres  would  be  — 0.0077°  C. 


(31.9801°  F.).  As  far  back  as  1851  William 
Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin)  obtained  practically  the 
same  result  by  direct  observation,  and  the  for- 
mula has  since  been  found  to  hold  similarly  good 
in  the  ease  of  all  substances  examined, 

EiTECTic  MiXTiKES.  It  Was  shown  in  the 
article  Freezixg-Poixt  that  if  a  solution  happens 
to  be  saturated  at  its  freezing-point,  the  solid 
gradually  separating  out  by  freezing  and  the 
liquid  remaining  unfrozen  cannot  but  have  the 
same  composition,  and  hence  the  freezing-tem- 
perature must  remain  constant.  It  is  perfectly 
obvious  that  the  solid  mixture  thus  obtained 
nmst  entirely  melt  at  the  same  constant  tem- 
perature. ^Mixtures  of  salts  thus  obtained  from 
solutions  are  termed  "cryohydrates.'  More  gen- 
erally, and  whatever  its  origin,  a  mechanical  mix- 
ture that  melts  at  a  constant  tem|)eratuie  lower 
than  that  of  any  other  mixture  of  the  same  sub- 
stances, is  termed  a  'euteetic  mixture.'  Follow- 
ing are  a  few  examjiles  of  euteetic  alloys:  an 
alloy  containing  55.58  per  cent,  of  bismuth  and 
44,42  per  cent,  of  lead  melts  at  the  constant  tem- 
perature of  122.7°  C,  (252.80°  F.)  ;  an  alloy  of 
40.70  per  cent,  of  bismuth  and  53.30  per  cent, 
of  tin  melts  at  133°  C.  (271.4°  F.)  :  an  alloy  of 
59.19  per  cent,  of  bismuth  and  40.81  per  cent,  of 
cadmium  melts  at  144°  C.  (291.2°  F.)  ;  an  alloy 
of  92.85  per  cent,  of  bisnuith  and  7.15  per  cent. 
of  zinc  melts  at  248°  C.  (478.4°  F.)  ;  an  alloy  of 
47.75  per  cent,  of  bismuth,  18.30  per  cent,  lead, 
13,31  per  cent,  of  cadmium,  and  20.00  per  cent,  of 
tin  melts  at  71°  C.  (159.8°  F.).  See  Freeziso- 
Point;  Fisible  Metals. 

MELTON-MOWBRAY,  mel'ton  mo'brft.  A 
market-town  in  Leicestershire.  England.  10  miles 
northeast  of  Leicester,  on  the  Eye,  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Wreak  (llap:  England,  F  4),  Stil- 
ton cheese  and  pork, pies  are  extensively  made  for 
the  London,  Manchester,  and  Leeds  markets.  It 
has  large  quarries  of  iron  ore.  and  smelting  f\ir- 
naces,  and  an  important  cattle  market.  It  is  the 
Midlands  "metroiiolis  of  fox-hunting.'  with  numer- 
ous hunting  seats,  and  in  the  winter  is  crowded 
with  sportsmen.  It  is  a  very  ancient  town  and 
in  1044  was  the  scene  of  a  defeat  and  slaughter 
of  the  Parliamentarians.  Population,  in  1891, 
03(12:  ill   1901.  7.500. 

MELUN,  me-lex'.  An  ancient  town  of 
France;  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Seine- 
et-M:une;  built  on  an  island  and  on  both  banks 
of  the  Seine,  28  miles  southeast  of  Paris  (Map: 
France,  J  3).  The  town  is  an  important  rail- 
road centre.  The  manufactures  are  carriages,  cot 
ton  and  woolen  goods,  earthenware,  and  chiK'n 
late;  and  there  is  trade  in  yrain,  flour,  cattle. 
and  fowls.  Population,  in  1901,  13.059.  ^Iclun 
was  taken  five  times  during  the  ninth  century  l>y 
the  Northmen,  It  fell  into  the  hand<  of  the  l^n:;- 
lish  in  1419,  and  was  held  by  them  for  ten  viMr-. 

MELUSITJA.  A  powerful  water  fairy,  half 
woman  and  half  fish,  in  French  folklore.  She 
l)ecame  the  wife  of  Count  Raymond  of  Poitier- 
nnd  built  a  castle  which  from  her  own  name  wn- 
calliMi  I.u-^inia,  the  present  Lusignan.  When  hei 
husband  surprised  her  in  her  double  form  in  th- 
bath  she  disappeared.  When  the  death  of  a 
member  of  the  family  or  of  the  Kins  '^f  France 
was  about  to  occur  sbe  appeared  in  a  high  tower 
of  the  castle,  in  mourning  garments,  and  an- 
nounced the  approaching  event  by  three  shrill 
cries.     The   legend  was  used   in    1387   by  Jean 


MCELUSINA. 


299 


MELVILLE. 


d'Arras  as  the  basis  of  a  romance,  which  was 
reiulered  into  French  verse  by  Concdoette  in 
1401,  and  in  translations  and  other  forms  made 
the  character  of  Jlelusina  famous.  Consult  Koh- 
Icr,  Der  UrsjyrKiig  der  Melusincnsage  (Leipzig, 
1895). 

MEL'VIL,  JIelvile,  or  Melville,  Sir  .TAirES, 
of  Hallhill  (1535-1017).  A  Scotch  soldier,  diplo- 
mat, and  historical  writer.  He  was  the  tliird  son 
of  Sir  John  Jlelvil  of  ilelville  of  Raith.  Scotland, 
who  was  convicted  and  executed  at  Stirling  on 
charges  of  higli  treason  on  account  of  liis  devo- 
tion to  the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  Young 
Jilelvil  was  sent  to  France  and  became  page  of 
honor  to  the  Bishop  of  Valence,  and  Avas  after- 
wards attached  to  the  service  of  Constable  Jlont- 
morenci.  Under  him  he  saw  his  first  military 
service  in  Flanders  in  1553,  and  in  1557  was 
taken  prisoner  at  tlie  battle  of  Saint  Quentin. 
Two  years  after  he  obtained  his  release  and  was 
dispatched  to  Scotland  on  a  secret  mission.  Dur- 
ing his  absence  occurred  the  tournament  in  which 
Montmorenci  killed  Henry  II.;  and  at  ^Melvij's 
return  he  judged  it  best  to  turn  his  steps  toward 
Gcrinany,  where  he  was  employed  by  the  Elector 
Palatine.  Wliile  on  a  visit  to  France  in  15(U  he 
met  Queen  Jlary  of  Scotland,  to  whom  he  tendered 
his  allegiance  and  Sword.  In  1504  he  returned 
to  his  native  land  and  presented  himself  to  Mary 
at  Perth.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  sent  to 
England,  as  ambassador  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Again  in  1500  he  was  sent  to  l<]ngland  to  bear 
the  news  of  the  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  Scottish 
throne.  He  adhered  to  the  Queen  so  long  as 
there  appeared  to  be  any  hope  of  her  ultimate 
success,  hut  after  she  was  committed  to  Loch- 
leven  Castle,,  was  sent  by  the  nobles  to  ofTer  the 
regency  to  the  Earl  of  Murray.  During  ilorton's 
regency  he  retired  from  Court,  but  when  James 
began  to  reign,  was  received  with  favor.  He  was 
knighted  and  appointed  Privy  Councilor  and  Gen- 
tleman of  the  Bedchamber  to  Queen  Anne.  On 
James's  accession  to  the  Englisli  tlirone.  Melvil 
retired  into  private  life  and  died  at  Hallliill, 
November  1.3.  1017.  The  Memoirs  of  ffir  Jnmcs 
Melvil  of  ndUhill ;  Containing  an  Impartial 
Account  of  the  Most  Femarkahle  Affairs  of  I'ttate 
Dvring  the  Last  Age,  etc.,  accidentally  discovered 
in  Edinburgh  Castle  in  1600,  were  publislied  in 
1G83  by  his  grandson,  George  Scott,  but  in  an 
incomplete  form.  An  accurate  edition  was 
printed  in  1827-33  at  Edinburgh,  by  the  Ban- 
natyne  Club,  and  is  of  great  historic  value. 

MEL'VILLE,  or  MELVILL,  AxnnEw  (154.5- 
lfi'22).  A  Senttisli  reformer.  He  was  liorn  Augtist 
1.  1545.  at  Baldovie,  near  Jlontrose,  Forfarshire. 
He  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  Mont- 
rose, whence  he  removed  in  his  fourteenth  year  to 
the  University  of  Saint  .\ndrews.  Here  he  re- 
mained four  years,  and  then  proceeded  to  Paris, 
where  he  continued  his  studies  for  two  years.  In 
1500  he  was  chosen  regent  in  the  College  of  Saint 
Marceon,  Poitiers,  whither  he  had  gone  to  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  law.  From  Poitiers  he  proceeded 
to  Geneva,  where,  by  the  influence  of  his  friend 
Beza.  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  hiimanity 
in  the  academy.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1574, 
and  was.  iu  the  course  of  tlie  same  year,  ap- 
pointed principal  of  the  University  of  Glasgow. 
In  1580  Melville  was  chonen  principal  of  Saint 
Mary's  College,  Saint  Andrews.  In  15S2  he 
preached  the  opening  sermon  before  the  General 
Vol.  XIII,— 20. 


Assembly,  and  boldly  "inveighed  against  the 
bloody  knife  of  absolute  authority,  whereby  men 
intended  to  pull  the  crown  off  Christ's  head,  and 
to  wring  the  sceptre  out  of  his  lumd."  Tlie  A.s- 
senibly  applamled  his  intrepidity,  drew  up  a  rc- 
numstrance  in  a  similar  spirit,  and  appointed 
I\Ielville  and  otlicrs  to  present  it.  In  1584  Jlelville 
Mas  sumnuined  before  the  rri%y  Council.  He 
maintained  tluit  whatever  a  jireacher  might  say  in 
the  pulpit,  even  if  it  should  be  called  treason,  he 
was  not  bound  to  answer  for  in  a  civil  court, 
until  he  luul  been  first  tried  in  a  chiircli  court. 
For  this  denial  of  secular  jurisdiction  he  was 
condemned  to  imprisonment,  l)Ut  escaped  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  remained  till  the  downfall  of 
Arran  in  the  following  year.  After  an  absence 
of  twenty  months  he  returned  to  Scotland  and  re- 
sumed his  oflice  at  Saint  Andrews.  In  160G  Mel- 
ville was  called  to  England  to  attend  the  famous 
conference  at  Hampton  Court.  Having  ridiculed 
the  service  in  the  chapel  royal  in  a  Latin  epi- 
gram, he  was  twice  summoned  before  the  English 
Privy  Council,  and  on  the  second  occasion  his 
temper  gave  way,  and  he  broke  out  into  a  torrent 
of  invective  against  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury for  encouraging  popery  and  superstition, 
profaning  the  Sabbath,  etc.  The  King  imme- 
diately sent  him  to  the  Tower,  where  he  re- 
mained for  more  than  four  years.  In  1611  he 
was  released  on  the  solicitatiiui  of  the  Duke  of 
Bouillon,  W'ho  wanted  hi%  services  as  a  professor 
in  his  university  at  Sedan  in  France,  Melville 
died  in  London,  in  1022,  but  neither  the  exact 
date  of  his  death  nor  tlie  events  of  his  last  years 
are  ascertained.  He  published  much  in  prose  and 
verse,  in  Latin  and  English.  Consult  his  Life  bv 
McCrie  (2  vols.,  London,  1819;  revised  ed,  18.50). 

MELVILLE,  George  Jon>r  Wiitte  (1S2I- 
78).  An  English  author.  He  was  born  near 
Saint  Andrews,  Scotland,  and  entered  the  armv  in 
1839.  In  1846  he  became  captain  in  the  Cold- 
stream Guards,  and  during  tlie  Crimean  War 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  tlie  Turkish  cavalry. 
Melville  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  tlie  fashionable  novel  of  the  high-life  sporting 
variety.  In  describing  the  hunting  field  he 
aroused  much  interest,  as  shown  by  the  i)0[)u- 
larity  of  his  score  or  more  of  novels  from  Kate 
Coventnj  in  1856  to  Black  hut  Comely  in  1878, 

MELVILLE,  George  Wallace  (1841  —  ). 
An  American  naval  engineer,  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  educated  in  New  York  and  at  the 
Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute,  and  entered  the 
LTnited  States  Navy  as  an  engineer  in  1801, 
Among  his  contributions  to  the  building  up  of 
the  new  navy  are  his  designs  for  the  triple  screw 
machinery  for  the  two  cruisers  f'oluniliin  and 
Minneapolis.  Melville  sailed  in  1879  under  Lieu- 
tenant De  Long  on  the  ill-fated  Jeannette  expedi- 
tion to  discover  a  northeast  passage  across  the 
Polar  Sea.  After  the  loss  of  the  Jeannette  he 
brought  to  safety  the  crew  of  his  own  boat,  and 
subsequently  conducted  the  search  which  dis- 
covered the  Jeannette  records  and  the  bodies  of 
De  Long  and  his  companions.  The  details  of 
this  perilous  experience  are  related  in  his  In 
the  Lena  Delta  (1885).  He  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  the  Greely  Relief  Expedition  (1884). 
He  was  appointed  chief  engineer  in  1881,  engi- 
necr-in-chief  in    1887,   and   rear-admiral  in   1899, 

MELVILLE,  Herman  (1819-91).  An  Ameri- 
can novelist,  born   iu  New  York  Citv,  and  note- 


MELVILLE. 


300 


MEMBBANE. 


•worthv  for  his  stories  of  the  sea.     He  was  edu- 
cated nt  tlic  Albany  Classical  School,  and  in  New 
York  Citv,  and  went  to  sea  in  18.37  in  a  niercliant 
vessel  lioiind  for  Liverpool.     In  1841  he  rounded 
Ca])e  Horn  on  a  whalinj:  cruise,  and  was  so  ill- 
treated  that  iu  the  ue.xt  year  he  and  a  companion 
niaile  their  escape  from  the  ship  and  were  taken 
captives  by  the  Typccs,  a  warlike  tribe  of  Nu- 
kahiva.  one  of  theMarquesas  Islands.     His  com- 
panion soon  escaped  and  Melville  was  finally  res- 
cued after  four  months  by  the  crew  of  an  Aus- 
tralian   whaler,      lie   spent    the    next    two   years 
(18-I2-44)    in  and  about  the  Paeilic  Islands,  and 
on  his  return  to  Xew  Vork  told  the  story  of  his 
experiences  at  sea  and  his  romantic  captivity    in 
Tiipcc,  a  I'ccp  at  Poli/iicfian  Life  Durinii  a  Four 
AJoiiths'  Jfrsidoicc  in  a  Vallcn  of  the  Marquesas 
(lS4tn.    which    enjoved    a    sensational    and    not 
undeserved   success.  "  In   1847    Melville   married 
the  daujrhter  of   Chief  .Justice   l.enuiel   Shaw  of 
Massachusetts.     In  1850  he  moved  with  his  fam- 
ily to  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and  returned  in  ISC'?  to 
New    York,   where   he   occupied   a    place   in   the 
cuRtoni-house   continuously    from    18<i0   till    188.5, 
when  because  of  failing.'  bcallh  he  resijrned.     The 
period  of  his  popularity  is  embraced  in  the  years 
184Go2,  and  was  one  of  rapid  production  of  such 
stories  as   Omoo    (1847):    Mnnli    (1849):    licd- 
hiini.  His  First  VomKje  ( 1840)  :  ^^hite  Jaelcet,  or 
ihr  World  in  a  Man  of  War  (18r)0).  in  which  the 
horrors  of  tlof;<.'in<i  in  the  navy  were  so  -rraphi- 
cally  set  forth  that  the  abolition  of  the  practice 
soon   followed:    Mohii  Dirk,  or  the  White  Whale 
(1S.51):  and  Pierre,  or  the  .\mhiquitics   (18,V2). 
After   1852  he  published  three  other  volumes  of 
fiction,   luruel   Potter.  His  Fifty   Years,  of  Exile 
(1855);    Piazza   Tales    (1856):    and   The  Confi- 
denec  Man    (1857);   and  later  several  books  of 
poems,  lyric  and  epic,  such  as  Hnttle  Pieces  and 
Aspects  of  the  War  (1800)  :  Clarrl.  a  Pihjrimage 
in  the  Hoi,/  Land   (1870)  ;  John  Marr  and  Other 
Sailors     (1888):     and     Timolron     (18!)1).     His 
T'lpee.  Omoo.  Mohii  Diet:,  and  White  Jaelcet  were 
recilited  in  1802  with  an  introduction  by  Arthur 
Sledman. 

MELVILLE,  nr  MELVILL,  .T.\mes  (1556- 
101 1 1.  .\  Scott i-ii  nicinner.  iicpliew  of  .\ndrew. 
He  was  born  at  .Mayton.  near  Montrose,  .Inly  26, 
1.550:  •;'■'>"•>>••''<''•  '*-^-  "*  ^"'"t  ■\ndrcHs  in  1571; 
liecame  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  was  a  zeal- 
ous defender  and  assistant  of  his  uncle.  He  was 
professor  at  niasgow  (1575-8n):  at  Saint  Ati- 
drews  (1580-84)  :  held  various  ecclesiastical  posi- 
tions, and  was  nuich  respected  anil  employed  by 
James  VI.  till  hi<  <iiiira'.'i'(ius  opposition  to  the 
Kind's  schemes  in  l)ehalf  of  i.piscopacy  after  he 
became  Kin-;  of  ICnpland  cost  him  his  favor.  He 
died  at  Berwick.  .Ianunr\-  H.  1014.  His  published 
•works  include  prose  and  poetry,  hut  his  title  to 
fame  re«ts  upon  his  diary  (15501010).  printed 
by  till-  Woiidrow  Society  (Edinburgh.  1842). 

MELVILLE,  VisrofN-T.  A  British  states- 
man.     Sir    Dl   MlVS.    IIIMIV. 

MELVILLE  ISLAND.  One  of  the  Parry 
Tslanils  of  .Arctic  Xorth  America,  situatcil  in 
latitude  74°  to  77°  X..  north  of  Melville  Sound 
nnd  between  Rnthnrst  and  Prince  Patrick's  Isl- 
ands, the  latter  beinsr  the  westinnnoit  island  of 
the  RToup  (Map;  Xorth  America.  O  2).  ^Melville 
Island  is  verv  irreiniliir  in  mitline.  200  miles 
Ions  and  about  100  miles  broad:  it  is  of  car- 
boniferous  lime   and    sandstone    formation,    nnd 


contains  coal-beds.     It  was  discovered  by  Parry 
in  1810. 

MELVILLE  PENINSULA.  A  projection  of 
the  niirtli  slii.ic  nI  North  America,  extending 
north  of  Htulsun  Hay,  and  beloiif.'in<r  to  the 
Canadian  Territory  of  Kccwatin  (Map:  Xorth 
America.  K  .'i ) .  It  is  connected  with  the  main- 
land by  Kae  Isthmus,  and  bounded  on  the  west 
by  Coiiiniitlee  liay.  It  is  separated  from  Cock- 
burn  Island  on  the  north  by  Fury  and  Hecla 
Strait,  from  Baflin  Land  on  the  east  by  Fox 
Channel,  and  from  Southampton  Island  on  the 
south  by  Frozen  Strait. 

MELVILLE  SOUND.  One  of  the  numerous 
passajics  bi-twi'cn  the  islands  of  Arctic  Xorth 
America  (Map:  North  America.  H  2).  It  lies 
between  Melville  Island  on  the  north  and  Prince 
Albert  Land  on  the  south,  and  extends  from 
Prince  of  Wales  Island  in  the  east,  where  it 
communicates  throuuh  Barrow  Strait  and  Lan- 
caster Sound  with  liiiHin  P.ay.  to  Banks  Land  in 
the  west,  where  Banks  Strait  opens  into  the  Arc- 
tie  Ocean.  Its  lenprth  is  225  miles;  its  southern 
shore  is  still  larf-ely  unknown,  bttt  its  width  is 
from  50  to  abntit  175  miles. 

MEMBERED  (from  memler.  OF.,  Fr.  mem- 
hre,  from  I.at.  niemhrum.  limb).  A  term  in 
heraldry  api)lied  to  a  bird  havinj:  its  beak  and 
lejrs  of  a  dilfiient  color  from  its  body:  it  is  then 
said  to  be  mcmbered  of  that  color. 

MEMBRA 'NA  PU'PILLA'RIS  (  Lat..  pupil- 
lary membrane).  The  name  pivcii  to  a  very  thin 
membrane  which  closes  or  covers  the  central 
aperture  of  the  iris  in  the  fietus  durinjr  an  early 
period  of  gestation:  it  begins  to  disappear  in  the 
seventh  mmitli. 

MEMBRANE     (Lat.    memhrniia.    from    mem- 
hrnm.  limb)   ix  An'.\tomv.     The  term  applied  to 
dcsirrnato  those  textures  of  the  animal  body  which 
are  "arranged   in  the  form  of  lamin.'P,  and  cover 
organs,  or  line  the  interior  of  cavities,  or  take 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  walls  of  canals  or 
tul)es.     The  structure  and  special   uses  of  some 
of  the  most  important  of  the  animal  membranes 
are  noticed  in  separate  articles,  such  as  MixotLS 
JIemur.vne,    Skhois    MKMnR.\NE.   etc.:    and    the 
membranes  iu  wliiih  the  fo'ttis  is  inclosed — com- 
monlv  called  the  fictal  membranes— are  described 
in  the  article  Pi.acf.nta.     The  membranes  which 
cover  and  protect  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are 
commonly  termed  meniniirs.  from  the  Creek  word 
»iifiii»,T,  a  membrane.     Simple  membranes  are  of 
three  kinds,  mucous,  serous,  and  fibrous.     ^Mucous 
membranes  line  the  cavities  wliich  communicate 
externally  with  Hie  skin,  as  the  mouth,  intestinal 
canal,   genitourinary    i)assages.   internal    surface 
of    the    eyelids,    anil    the    ramifications    of    the 
respiratory  passages,  the  F.ustachian   tubes,  and 
middle  ear.    Mucous  membrane  has  three  layers: 
a    fibro-vascular    layer,    composed    nf    bloodves- 
sels, nerves,  and  connective  tissue,  wliieli   is  con- 
tinuous  with   the  tissue  beneath   and   interlacing 
with    it:    a    more    superficial    layer,    called    base- 
ment membrane,  which  is  described  as  structure- 
less, and   uiion  which   rests  the  superficial  layer, 
or   epithelium,    the    latter    presenting    a    variety 
of  stniitiire  in  different  parts  of  the  body.     Tins 
Toembrane    is   at    limes   elevated    into   papillic   or 
villi,   or   else    depressed    in    the    form    of   ghinds. 
The  nuieous   membranes  secrete  mucus   to  Inhn- 
cate  the  various  passages,  and  also  other  fluids 


MEMBRANE. 


301 


MEMMINGEN. 


for  special  physiolufiical  |iuii)oses.  The  saliva, 
the  gastric  and  pancreatic  juices  which  aid  di- 
gestion are  examples  of  special  secretions.  The 
serous  membranes  are  of  two  kinds:  those  lining 
visceral  cavities,  such  as  the  pericardium,  pleurie, 
and  peritoneum  ;  and  those  lining  joint  cavities 
(synovial  membranes).  The  third  species  of  sim- 
ple membrane  of  Bichat  is  the  fibrous,  divided 
into  two  sections:  enveloping  aponeuroses,  the 
fibrous  capsules  of  joints  and  the  sheaths  of 
tendons:  and  the  enveloping  membrane  of  bone, 
the  periostemn,  the  dura  mater  (the  internal 
periosteum  of  the  skull),  the  fibrous  membrane 
of  the  spleen  and  of  other  glandular  organs.  See 
Splee.n. 

MEMBRANOLOGY  (from  Lat.  incmbiaiia, 
membrane  +  Gk.  -/.oyia,  -logia,  accoimt,  from 
/.r)itr,  h-yein,  to  .say).  The  study  of  the  part 
of  anatomy  relating  to  membranes.  See  ilEll- 
BKAXE. 

MEMBRE,  miixbra',  Zexobius  (1045-87). 
Aji  early  missionary  to  Canada,  born  at  Ba- 
paiime,  France.  He  became  a  recoUet  of  the 
Franciscan  Order,  and  went  as  a  missionary  to 
Canada  in  1G75;  accompanied  La  Salle  upon 
his  expedition  to  the  ilississippi  in  1670,  stop- 
ping at  Fort  Cr&vecceur,  on  Lake  Peoria,  where, 
with  Father  Gabriel  do  la  Ribourde.  he  conducted 
a  mission  among  the  Illinois  until  driven  by  the 
Iroquois  to  the  Jesuit  settlement  at  Green  Bay. 
He  descended  the  Mississippi  with  La  Salle  in 
1G82,  and  returned  the  same  year  to  France, 
where  he  published  an  account  of  tlie  expedition. 
After  acting  for  a  time  as  warden  of  a  convent  at 
Bapaume,  he  came  again  to  America  with  La 
Salle  in  his  final  e.xpedition  by  sea  to  Texas  in 
1G84.  and  remained  in  Fort  Saint  Louis,  where, 
with  his  companions,  he  was  massacred  by  the 
Indians.  Consult  Shea.  Discovery  and  Ejcplora- 
tiun  of  the  ilississippi  Valley  (Xew  York.  1852). 

MEMEL,  ma'niel.  A  river  emptying  into  the 
Baltic.     See  Xiemex. 

MEMEL.  A  town  of  Prussia,  in  tlie  Province 
of  East  Prussia,  the  most  northern  town  of  Ger- 
man}' and  an  important  seaport,  situated  near 
the  Russian  border  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Dange  into  the  northern  end  of  the  Kurisches 
HafI,  58  miles  by  rail  north-northwest  of  Tilsit 
(Map:  Prussia,  .J  1).  It  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor protected  by  two  lighthouses  and  a  fnrt,  and 
is  of  great  importance  in  tlic  Baltic  lumber  trade. 
The  logs,  sawed  in  the  local  mills,  arc  brought 
down  from  the  forests  of  Russia  by  the  Konig- 
Wilhelm  Canal  and  by  the  Xiemen.  here  known 
as  the  Jlemel.  ilemel  is  the  seat  of  a  con- 
siderable transit  trade  in  agricultural  products 
imported  from  Lithuania,  as  well  as  in  coal, 
petroleum,  herrings,  chemicals,  etc.  The  local 
manufactures  consist  of  machinery,  chemicals, 
etc.  The  educational  institutions  include  a  gym- 
nasium, a  seminary  for  teachers,  and  a  school 
of  navigation.  Memel  was  founded  in  1252  by  the 
Teutonic  Order.  It  joined  the  Hanseatie  League 
in  1254  and  soon  rose  to  a  position  of  considerable 
commercial  importance.  It  was  held  by  the 
Swedes  for  some  time  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  was  the  residence  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.,  after  the  battle  of  .lena  in  1807.  Here 
also,  in  1807,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
between  England  and  Prussia.  Population,  in 
1890,  19,282;  in  1900,  20,174,  chiefly  Protestants. 


MEMLING,  mem'ling.  H.\NS  (c.1430-94). 
An  eminent  jiainter  of  the  early  Flemish  school, 
which  may  be  said  to  have  attained  in  his  works 
the  highest  delicacy  of  artistic  development.  He 
was  born  at  iUimlingen,  near  AsclialVcnburg, 
Bavaria,  and  appears  permanently  established  at 
Bruges  in  1478,  but  was  probably  active  there  a 
few  years  earlier.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rogier  van 
der  Weyden  at  Brussels,  but  his  work  bears  little 
resemblance  to  that  master,''whom  ho  surpasses. 
His  style  is  more  akin  to  that  of  .Jau  van  Eyck. 

Mcmling's  works,  of  which  a  large  number  sur- 
vive, may  be  best  studied  at  Bruges.  In  the  Hos- 
pital of  Saint  John  are  the  following:  "The 
Epiphany"  (1479),  representing  the  adoration 
of  the  Magi,  and  the  "Presentation  in  the  Tem- 
ple," the  best  example  of  the  master's  early 
manner;  a  triptych  called  the  "ilarriage  of  Saint 
Catharine:"  the  portrait  of  "Catharine  Morecl" 
(14S0);  a  diptych  (1487)  with  the  Madonna, 
and  on  the  other  wing  the  donor,  Martin  van 
Xieuwenhoven,  the  best  of  Mcmling's  portraits; 
and  the  "Shrine  of  Saint  Ursula"  (1489),  a 
reliquary  in  the  shape  of  a  Gothic  chapel.  Its 
fourteen  scenes  are  the  master's  finest  achieve- 
ment, being  remarkable  for  the  freedom  and 
grace  with  which  he  treated  groups  and  figures 
of  small  proportions.  A  triptych  (1484)  with 
"Saint  Christopher  and  the  Infant  Christ"  in 
the  centre,  in  the  JIuseum  at  Bruges,  also  ranks 
high  among  his  works.  The  Museum  at  Brussels 
contains  a  fine  "Crucifixion;"  and  that  of  Ant- 
werp possesses  "Christ  as  King  of  Heaven,"  a 
large  triptych,  purchased  in  1896  for  240.000 
francs.  Other  authentic  pictures  of  Memling 
are:  A  triptych,  containing  more  than  two  hun- 
dred figures,  the  centre  occupied  by  the  Cruci- 
fixion (1491),  in  the  Cathedral  at'Liibeck;  the 
"Seven  Joys  of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  Pinakothek, 
ilunich :  the  "Seven  Sorrows  of  the  \'irgin,"  in 
the  Gallei-y  of  Turin :  the  "iladonnas,"  in  the 
Ullizi.  Florence,  the  Louvre,  the  Berlin  Museum, 
and  the  Xational  Gallery,  London :  a  large  altar- 
piece  with  the  "Last  Judgment"  (1467),  in  the 
Church  of  .Saint  Mary  at  Danzig.  Examples  of 
his  portraits  are  in  the  galleries  of  Brussels,  Ant- 
werp. Frankfort,  and  Florence. 

Consult:  Michiels.  Memliiiy,  sa  vie  et  ses  ou- 
vragcs  (Verviers,  1883)  ;  Wauters,  Sept  etudes 
pour  scrrir  a  Vhistoire  de  Hans  Memlinc  (Brus- 
sels, 1894):  Kaemmerer,  Memling  (Bielefeld, 
1899)  :  and  Weale,  Hans  ilcmlinn  (London, 
1901)  :  also  Bock.  Memling-Studien  (Diisseldorf. 
1900).  and  Gaederiz.  Der  Allarschrcin  ron  H. 
Mcmlinii  iiii  Dum  zu  Liiheck   (Leipzig,  1901). 

MEMMINGEN,  mem'mlng-cn.  An  ancient 
town  of  the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria.  Germany,  situ- 
ated near  the  right  bank  of  the  I  Her.  33  miles  by 
rail  south-southeast  of  Ulm  (ilap:  Bavaria.  D 
5).  It  is  still  partly  surrounded  with  walls,  and 
its  principal  church  has  fine  late  Gothic  choir- 
stalls  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
Roman  Catholic  churcli  with  its  fine  altar-pieces, 
the  fift<'enth-ccntury  Renaissance  Rathaus,  and 
the  Fuggcrhau.  in  whi<h  Wallenstein  received  his 
dismissal  from  the  command  of  the  army  in  1030, 
are  also  noteworthy.  The  educational  institutions 
of  the  town  include  a  realschule.  a  seminary  for 
teachers,  a  theatre,  and  a  library.  There  is  an 
important  collection  of  archives.  Meramingen 
manufactures  woolens  and  linen,  cordage,  vari- 
ous kinds  of  machinery,  leather,  soap,  etc.,  and 
trades  in  agricultural   products,  wool,  and  live 


MEMMINGEN. 


302 


MEMNONITJM. 


stock.  The  town  is  first  mentioned  in  1010  and 
became  a  free  city  of  the  Empire  in  1281).  It  was 
a  member  of  tlie  Schmalkaldic  League;  it  became 
Bavarian  in  1802.     ro|)uh\tion,  in  1900,  10,809. 

KEMMINGER,  nicni'min-jer.  C'hri.stoi'IIEu 
Oi'.sTAVi  s  (1S03-88).  An  American  political 
leader,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  tlie  Govern- 
nient  of  the  Confederate  States,  lie  was  born 
in  Wiirttemberg,  Gesinany.  l)ut  was  brought  at  an 
oarly  age  to  Soiitli  Carolina  by  his  molher,  who 
<lied  not  long  after  their  arrival.  He  was  for  a 
time  in  an  orphan  asylum  in  Cliarleston.  and  was 
then  adopted  by  Thomas  Hcnnctt,  afterwards 
Governor.  Jlemminger  graduated  from  South 
Carolina  College  in  1820,  studied  law,  and  prac- 
ticed in  Charleston.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Cal- 
houn, and  in  1832  wrote  the  Book  of  yiilUfica- 
lion,  a  satire  in  biblical  style  upon  that  leader's 
favorite  doctrine.  He  was  for  many  years  a  mem- 
ber of  the  suite  Legislature,  and  for  nearly 
twenty  years  was  the  head  of  the  finance  com- 
mittee. In  January,  18(iO.  he  was  sent  as  a 
special  conunissioner  to  Virginia  in  order  to 
induce  that  State  to  enter  a  scheme  for  obtaining 
redress  of  Southern  grievances.  Some  months 
later  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  convention 
which  declared  that  the  connection  of  Sovith 
Carolina  with  the  United  States  was  dissolved. 
Upon  the  formation  of  the  Confederacy,  he  was 
made  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  wliich  office  lie 
held  until  .June,  18G4,  when  he  resigned.  lie  was 
respcm-.ilile  for  the  disastrous  financial  policy  of 
the  Confederate  Government.  For  an  account  of 
liis  administration,  consult  Schwab,  The  Confed- 
erate iitales  of  America,  IHHl-Go:  A  Financial 
ami  Industrial  History  of  the  South  Durinri  the 
Civil  War   {New  York,   1901). 

MEMTSrON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  W/ivuv).  Tn 
Greek  hgiTnl.  a  son  of  Tithonus  and  Eos  (the 
dawn).  King  of  the  Ethiopians,  who  led  an  army 
to  aid  Priam.  King  of  Troy.  Clad  in  armor 
made  by  Ilepha*stus  (or  Vulcan),  he  made  great 
slaughter  among  the  (Jreeks,  and  finally  killed 
Antilochus.  who  was  defending  his  father.  Nestor. 
Over  the  body  of  Antilochus  be  met  .\cliilles  and 
fell  before  him.  His  mother  obtained  from  Zeus 
his  immortality,  and  bis  body,  or.  in  another 
story,  bis  ashes  were  carried  to  his  native  coun- 
try. The  river  Paphlagonius  was  said  to  flow 
blood  yearly  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death.  His 
comrades  were  clianged  to  birds,  and  it  was  said 
they  returned  yearly  from  the  south  and  fought 
around  the  funeral  mound  erected  for  their  leader 
nt  Troy.  In  the  earlier  writers  Memnon  leads 
bis  forces  from  the  extreme  East,  or  Assyria; 
later  the  native  land  was  sought  in  Syria,  and 
not  earlier  than  the  end  of  the  fifth  century 
ii.r.  was  it  liK'alized  in  Kg>pt  and  .Ethiopia. 
'Memnonia  were  said  to  exist  at  Susa  in  Persia, 
and  at  -Miydos  and  Thelies  in  Eg>-pt.  Indeed,  in 
Ploleniaic  times  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  at 
Thebes  was  the  Memnonium.  as  the  ea.st  wa? 
Piospidis.  Near  by  are  two  colossal  statues  of 
King  .\nienhotep  III.  of  the  K]igliteentli  Dynasty, 
the  southern  one  of  wbicli  was  said  to  give  forth 
a  sound  when  struck  by  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun. 
a  sound  probably  due  to  the  sudden  expansion  of 
the  sandstone  conglomerate  from  which  the 
statue  is  hewn.  Strabn  (c.20  n.c.)  does  not 
mention  the  name  of  Memnon  in  ilescribing  tliis 
phenomenon,  but  early  in  the  first  century  of  our 
era  the   story  gained   currency   that   the   statue 


represented  Memnon,  who  thus  greeted  his  mother 
iu  the  morning.  Erom  the  time  of  the  Flavian 
emperors  to  that  of  Septimius  Severus,  the  world 
seems  to  have  been  fond  of  visiting  this  place, 
and  the  sides  of  the  figure  are  covered  with  names 
and  verses  referring  to  the  legend.  Among  the 
visitors  were  Hadrian  and  his  wife,  Sabina,  in 
A.n.  130.  At  some  time  before  Strabo's  visit,  the 
upper  part  of  tlie  statue  had  been  overthrown  by 
an  earthquake  (popular  tradition  said  by  Cam- 
byses),  and  when  it  was  rebuilt  by  Severus  the 
.sounds  ceased. 

In  art  the  combat  of  Memnon  and  Achilles  in 
presence  of  Eos  and  Thetis,  and  the  removal  of 
the  body  of  JMeinnon  by  his  mother  or  by  sleep 
and  death,  were  favorite  subjects  with  the  Attic 
vase  painters.  Consult:  .lacobs,  Vebcr  die 
driiber  dcs  Memnon  (I8;50)  ;  Thirlwall,  in  /'/ii7o- 
loffical  Museum  (Cambridge,  1832)  ;  Letronne, 
'"La  statue  vocale  de  Jlemnon,"  in  Mentoires  de 
VInstitut  lOjijal  de  France  (Paris,  1833);  Cur- 
zon,  in  Edinburfili  Review  (1880). 

MEMNO'NIUM  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Meuvdviov). 
The  name  a]>plied  in  Ptolemaic  times  to  an 
Egj'ptian  temple  about  S\->  miles  from  the  Nile, 
near  Abydos.  The  geographer  Stralio  (c.30  B.C.) 
mentions  it  with  admiration  and  compares  it 
with  the  celebrated  Labyrinth  (q.v.).  In  18o9 
Maricttc,  with  tlio  financial  aid  of  the  Egyptian 
Government,  cleared  away  the  sand  ami  rubbish 
which  covered  the  building  and  made  it  accessible 
to  visitors  and  students.  The  temple,  begun  by 
Seti  I.,  and  completed  by  his  son,  Rameses  II., 
was  dedicated  to  the  gods  of  Abydos  anil  to  the 
manes  of  Seti  and  of  his  predecessors  on  the 
throne  of  Egypt.  Among  the  numerous  reliefs 
that  adorn  its  walls  are  some  of  the  finest 
s])ecimens  of  Eg\-])tian  s<'ulpture.  A  wing  run- 
ning at  right  angles  to  the  rear  of  the  main 
building,  which  abuts  upon  a  rocky  hill,  gives  the 
ground  plan  of  the  structure  the  form  of  the 
letter  L.  Of  the  two  courts  which  gave  entrance 
to  the  temple,  the  first  with  its  pylon  and  walls 
is  completely  destroyed,  and  only  a  portion  of 
the  wall  of  the  second  court  remains.  At  the 
upper  cnil  of  this  court  is  a  portico  with  twelve 
sculptured  columns;  its  rear  wall  was  originally 
pierced  by  seven  doors,  corn'siionding  to  the 
seven  chajiels  within  the  temple,  but  six  of  these 
doors  were  walled  up  by  Kameses  11.,  and  only 
the  central  door  was  left  open.  Upon  the  wall  is 
an  inscription  of  Rameses,  in  ninety-five  vertical 
lines,  describing  the  completion  and  dedication 
of  the  building.  The  central  door  gives  entraiiCB 
to  a  wide  hall,  its  roof  supported  by  twenty-four 
columns,  and  from  the  rear  of  this  hall  seven 
doors  lead  to  a  second  hall  contnining  thirty-six 
columns  arranged  in  three  parallel  rows.  The 
last  row  stands  upon  a  raised  platform,  and  its 
twelve  columns  have  been  left  without  capitals 
in  order  to  bring  their  tops  on  a  level  with  the 
tops  of  the  other  two  rows.  Roth  halls  are  richly 
adorned  with  reliefs  representing  Seti  and 
Rameses  paying  worship  to  various  divinities; 
The  raised  platform  at  the  back  of  the  second 
liall  forms  a  sort  of  poilico,  and  upon  this  open 
seven  chapels  devoted  respectively  to  the  deities 
Horns.  Isis.  Osiris,. \mmon.  llarmachis.  and  Ptah, 
and  to  King  Seti  himself.  The  chapel  of  .Vninion 
occupies  the  centre.  A  door  at  the  back  of  the 
chapel  of  Osiris  gives  access  to  a  covered  portico 
supported  by  ten  columns,  having  on  the  right 
three    additional    chapels    dedicated    to    Horu% 


MEMNONIUM. 


303 


MEMORY. 


Osiris,  ami  Isis,  and  on  tlic  left  a  small  vestibule 
leading  to  three  small  ehambers.  The  reliefs  on 
the  walls  of  the  chapels  represent  ceremonies  in 
honor  of  the  respective  gods.  The  wing,  which 
runs  to  the  southeast  at  right  angles  to  the  rear 
of  the  main  structure,  contains  a  numlier  of 
chanihers,  but  many  of  them  are  in  ii  liad  state 
of  preservation.  The  most  important  is  a  long 
gallery  known  as  the  Gallery  of  Kings.  On  the 
right  wall  of  tliis  room  arc  depicted  King  Seti  I. 
and  his  son  Rameses  adoring  their  royal  an- 
cestors whose  cartouches  are  inscribed  in  two 
long  lines.  The  list  contains  the  names  of  sev- 
enty-six kings  of  Egypt,  beginning  with  Menes 
(q.v.)  and  ending  with  Seti  I.  (q.v.).  but  it  is 
far  from  complete.  It  does  not  contain  the  names 
of  monarchs  regarded  as  illegitimate  or  unim- 
portant, and  it  omits  all  the  rulers  from  the 
Thirteenth  to  the  Seventeenth  Dynasty.  C'opies  of 
the  list  are  to  be  found  in  Meyer,  Oeschichte  des 
alten  Aegyptens  (Berlin,  1887),  and  in  Flinders 
Petrie,  A  History  of  Eijypt  (New  York,  1807). 
Similar  lists  exist  at  Karnak  and  at  Sakkaran 
(q.v.).  Consult:  Mariette,  .4?«/(/o,<!  (Paris.  ISG'J- 
80)  ;  The  Monuments  of  Upper  Egypt  (London, 
1877)  ;  Baedeker,  Aegypten  (4th  ed.,  Leipzig, 
18!»7). 

MEM'OBABIL'IA  (Lat.,  memorable  things). 
Something  worthy  of  being  remembered  or  noted 
down,  especially  the  Latin  title  of  Xenophon's 
Memoirs  of  Socrates. 

MEMORY  (OF.  memorie,  mcmore,  memoire, 
Fr.  memoire,  from  Lat.  memoria,  from  memor, 
mindful;  connected  with  Gk.  /ifp/iepug,  mcrmeros, 
anxious,  Skt.  smar,  to  remember).  The  con- 
scious representation  of  past  experience.  To  say 
that  a  man  has  'a  good  memory'  means  that  he  is 
able  to  recall  past  events  fully  and  accurately. 
The  term  is  also  used,  more  broadly  and  loosely, 
to  include  the  capacity  of  retention.  Thus  mem- 
ory is  figuratively  called  a  storehouse.  This  im- 
plies that  'within  memory'  are  preserved  bits  of 
experience  which  may  reappear  in  consciousness 
from  time  to  time  in  the  form  of  recollections. 
It  is  well  to  keep  distinct  the  terms  retention, 
which  properly  considered  is  a  physiological  fact, 
a  matter  of  cerebral  mechanics,  and  conscious 
representation,  or  recollection — memory  in  the 
strictly  psychological  sense. 

Recollection  involves  no  new  or  peculiar  men- 
tal processes.  The  core  of  a  recollection  or  'a 
memory,'  as  it  may  be  called,  is  tlie  'nu^morj'- 
idea.'  This  may  appear  either  as  an  image — ■ 
visual,  auditory,  tactual,  etc.  (see  Imaoination) 
■ — or  as  a  word  or  a  .series  of  words.  The  thing 
that  brands  the  image  or  word  as  a  memory-idea 
is  its  reference.  One  may  have  the  visual  imago 
of  a  castle,  which  is  no  particular  castle;  or  of  a 
pin,  which  is  no  particular  jiin;  this  is  merely  a 
mental  image  withoiit  a  setting:  or  one  may  have 
a  visual  image  of  a  recent  event  which  comes  to 
mind  as  'a-part-of-yesterday'  or  'a-thing-that-oc- 
cnrred-last-spring.'  The  latter  images  refer  to 
the  past  as  'my  own  past.'  They  bear  the  marks 
of  private  ownership.  The  onl.v  way  in  which 
the  memory-idea  is  unique  is,  then,  in  its  func- 
tion, its  office  in  joining  items  of  experience 
which  have  different  temporal  localization.  In- 
termediate steps  between  the  ])erception  and  the 
memory-idea  are  furnished  by  (1)  the  after- 
image (q.v.)  ;  (2)  the  memory  after-image  (i.e. 
the  event  that  persists  in  'standing  before  the 
mind'  after  the  external  stinuilus  has  ceased  to 


act,  as  Lady  JIacbeth's  horror  of  the  King's 
blood)  ;  and  (3)  the  feeling  that  'I  have  known 
this  thing  before;'  finally  comes  (4)  the  free 
memory-idea.  The  "reference'  in  the  memory- 
image  is  given,  first,  by  the  setting,  i.e.  by  the 
associations  which  cluster  around  the  idea;  sec- 
ondly, by  the  degree  of  clearness  and  stability  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  image;  and,  thirdly,  by 
the  'at  home"  mood  or  the  mood  of  familiarity 
(see  F.\MiLiAKiTY)  which  attaches  to  whatever 
'fits  in'  with  one's  own  list  of  experiences.  The 
verbal  memory-image  or  idea  came  in,  of  course, 
after  the  acquisition  of  language;  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  more  direct  'intuitional'  inuxges 
of  sense  also  appeared  (|uite  late  in  the  life- 
series.  The  complete  disjunction  of  'present'  and 
'past'  demands  an  advanced  stage  of  mental  de- 
velopment. 

Memory  is  intimately  related  to  recognitioa 
(q.v.).  Indeed,  one  often  says  to  an  acquaint- 
ance "I  remember  3"ou;"  meaning  that  the  ac- 
quaintance is  recognized,  that  his  face  is  famil- 
iar. ■  But  recognition  need  not  imply  a  reference 
to  a  definite  past  at  all ;  it  may  rest  simply  on 
the  feeling  of  familiarity  that  is  aroused  by  the 
meeting.  Recognition  starts  from  a  present  per- 
ception ;  memory  or  recollection  from  an  image 
or  idea. 

Recollection  is  either  active  or  passive.  The 
effort  to  'call  up'  a  name  or  a  situation  in  which 
a  known  event  occurred  is  an  instance  of  active 
recollection ;  whereas,  in  passive  recollection, 
memories  'come  of  themselves,'  as  in  the  case  of 
a  reverie  or  in  the  successive  appearance  of  the 
words  and  music  of  a  remembered  song.  The 
former  demands  active  attention,  the  latter  pas- 
sive. Almost  any  phase  of  consciousness  may 
initiate  recollection :  the  perception  of  a  color 
may  do  it,  or  that  of  a  sound,  or  a  shiver  of  cold, 
a  feeling,  a  'bracing  effort,'  etc.  See  AssociA- 
Tiox  OF  Ideas  for  the  incentives  to  recollection. 

Retention  rests  u])on  some  modification  of  the 
cortex  during  excitation.  The  most  acceptable 
theory  of  retention  is  the  theory  of  'functional 
dispositions'  (Wundt).  Excitation  so  disposes 
nerve  elements  (probably  in  their  molecular  ar- 
rangement) that  their  functions  are  more  or  less 
permanently  altered.  In  this  manner,  a  reexcita- 
tion  'renews'  a  function  which  has  alread.v  been 
impressed  upon  the  nervous  substance.  The  con- 
cept of  physical  memory  has  been  extended  to 
cover  all  changes  in  organic  matter  which  outlast 
the  operation  of  their  causes.  It  is  thus  made 
.synonymous  with  ])hysiological  habit.     See  Habit. 

Experiment  has  attacked  most  of  the  major 
problems  of  memory  within  the  last  fifteen  years. 
Three  general  methods  have  been  used:  (1)  re- 
production: the  observer  'reproduces,'  e.g.  a  line 
of  poetry  or  a  tone  that  he  has  heard  previously; 
(2)  recognition:  e.g.  a  color  is  shown  twice  in 
succession,  and  the  observer  reports  whether  he 
recognizes  it  the  second  time  as  the  same  color 
or  whether  it  looks  'lighter'  or  'greener'  or 
'paler';  (3)  comparison:  emphasis  is  laid  on  the 
niemorv-image,  which  is  compared  with  a  similar 
perception.  The  first  important  work  was  done 
by  H.  Ebbinghaus  in  ISS.'i  under  the  first  method. 
Series  of  'nonsense-syllables'  (e.g.  bul.  rom,  cil) 
were  read  over  and  over,  and  then  an  attempt  was 
made  to  write  them  from  memory.  The  investi- 
gator found  that  as  the  interval  between  learning 
and  reproducing  was  gradually  lengthened,  the 
amount  remembered  fell  off  at  first  rapidly  and 


MEMORY. 


304 


MEMPHIS. 


then  more  and  more  slowly.  The  inlluence  of 
len^;th  of  scrie<,  order,  repetition,  rhythm,  etc., 
was  also  studied.  Ebliinphaus's  method  has  been 
repeated  with  many  modiliealions.  Other  subjects 
related  to  memory  which  have  been  investigated 
are  the  character  of  the  stimulus,  combination 
of  sense  modalities,  association  and  arrangement, 
the  etVeets  of  disease,  of  age,  race,  and  individual 
dillerenecs.     The  present  tendency  is  aw-ay  from 


J.VSTBOW  8  MEMORY   APPARATDS. 

From  Titcliener,  Experimeotal  P8,vchology. 

quantitative  determinations  of  capacity  and  to- 
Avard  a  qualitative  analysis  of  the  memorial  con- 
sciousness. 'Ihe  part  played  by  feeliii<;  and  mood, 
and  the  characteristics  of  the  image,  are,  e.g. 
attracting  more  attention  than  the  answer  to  the 
question  "How  much  can  one  remember  of  an 
event  after  an  interval  of  an  hour  or  a  day?" 

Each  sense-department  has  its  own  memory. 
There  are,  i.e.  auditory,  vis\ial,  tactual,  gustatory 
'memories,'  ami  not  one  single  'memory.'  The 
manner  in  which  these  memories  are  combined  in 
a  single  mind  is  known  as  the  individual's  'mem- 
ory '.vpe'  or  "ideational  type.'  There  arc  four 
chief  memory  types;  visual  (predominance  of 
'picture-ideas'),  auditory  (predominance  of 
'sound-ideas'),  tactual  or  motor  (predominance 
of  "touch'  and  'strain-ideas'),  and  a  mixed  type 
in  which  the  various  sense  memories  are  more  or 
less  evenly  balanced.  When  'object-images'  pass 
intfl  'word-images'  three  stibtyjies  are  formed: 
verbal-visual,  verbalauilitory.  and  verbal-tac- 
tual: i.e.  words  are  seen,  heard,  or  felt  in  the 
throat.  In  most  minds  there  are  several  mem- 
ories, with  one  (usually  the  visual)  appearing  in 
excess  of  the  others.    See  Imagination. 

The  systematic  attempt  to  improve  the  cfli- 
cieney  of  menmry  is  known  as  the  art  of  mnc- 
mnnirD,  which  is  said  to  have  originated  with  the 
Ori-ek  poet  Simonides.  Most  nuiemonic  devices 
include  the  formation  of  artificial  associations 
ns  an  aid  to  recollection.  A  common  device  for 
remembering  dales,  e.a..  is  the  association  of  the 
digits  with  letters.    Then  the  letters  correspond- 


ing to  the  figures  iu  a  date  are  brought  together 
in  a  word  which  is  associated,  in  turn,  with  the 
event  whose  date  is  to  be  retained. 

Memory  is  subject  to  many  disturbances  or 
'diseases,'  most  of  which  fall  under  the  head  of 
amnesia,  or  'loss  of  memory.'  Amnesia  may  be 
eitlier  general  or  partial.  In  general  aumesia.  a 
greater  part  of  niemoiy  disappears,  (I)  tempo- 
rarily, as  in  epilepsy,  or  (2)  periodically,  as  in 
altered  personality,  or  (3)  progres-iively  (e.g. 
proper  names  are  forgotten  before  adjectives  and 
verbs).  Partial  amnesia  covers  loss  of  memory 
for  colors,  sounds,  numbers,  proper  names,  etc. 
(.See  Al'UA.siA).  A  less  frequent  disorder  of 
memory  is  liypermnesia,  or  exaltation  of  memory. 
A  person's  geneial  memory,  or  his  memory  for  a 
language  or  for  some  event  of  his  childhood,  is 
remarkably  clarified.  Finally  come  illusions  of 
memory,  or  paramnesias,  in  which  the  subject  be- 
lieves that  a  new  exix-rience  has  been  passed 
through  before  (illusion  of  familiarity),  or  as- 
signs to  a  recent  date  experiences  which  have  oc- 
curred at  a  remote  time. 

BinLiOGBAPiiY.  Killpe,  Outlines  of  Ps;/chnlogy 
(London  and  New  York,  1895)  ;  Titchener, 
Primer  of  I'sychology  (New  York  and  London, 
1899);  Fuller,  Art' of  Memory  (Saint  Paul, 
1S9.S)  ;  Wundt.  /'/ii/sio/of/i.s'c/ip  Psi/choUxjie  (4th 
ed.,  Leipzig,  18SK})  ;  Kbbinghaus,  i'cber  das  Oe- 
d-iichtiiiss  (Leipzig.  188.^));  Sully,  Ilumnii  Mind 
(London,  1S1I2J;  Hering.  Veb^r  dax  (Icd'ichtniss 
als  einc  iilliicincinn  Function  der  orijnnischcn 
Materie  (2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1876)  ;  Ferrier,  Func- 
tions of  the  lirain  (2d  ed.,  New  Y'ork,  1886); 
Ribot,  Diseases  of  Memory  (New  York.  1882); 
(ialton.  Inquiries'  into  Ih(man  Faculty  (London, 
1883)  ;  .James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New 
Y'ork,  1890)  ;  Fechner,  Elcmente  der  Psychophy- 
sik    (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,   1889). 

MEM'PHIS.  A  city  of  ancient  Egypt,  situ- 
ated about  12  miles  south  of  modern  Cairo,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  (Map:  Egypt,  E  3). 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Menes.  the  first 
historical  King  of  ancient  Egypt,  but  this  is  as 
little  probable  as  the  .statement  in  Herodotus 
that  Jlenes  gained  the  ground  for  building  Mem- 
phis by  diking  off  the  Nile.  King  ITchoreiis, 
whom  Diodorus  calls  the  founder  of  Memphis, 
cannot  be  iilentified.  It  is  certain  that  a  city 
called  "the  White  Wall'  stood  on  the  spot  from 
jirehistonc  times;  this  name  (Leukon  Teichos) 
was  still  attached  to  the  citadel  and  the  neighbor- 
ing quarter  of  Mcni])his  in  the  (Jreek  epoch.  The 
kings  of  the  Fourth  to  the  Sixth  Dynasty  built 
their  residences  not  very  far  from  Memphis,  and 
their  pyramids  are  in  the  vicinity,  but  .Memphis 
proper  received  its  name  and  importance  from  the 
.second  King  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty  ( I'epy  or  Apopi 
I.),  who  built  his  pyramid  and  residence  not  far 
west  of  the  small  ancient  city  of  "the  Whit* 
Wall.'  The  name  of  that  )>yramid.  Mennofcr, 
'good  abode.'  extended  to  the  whole  city.  and.  cor- 
rupted to  Menfc,  came  down  to  the  classical 
writers.  In  the  seventh  century  n.c.  the  Assyri- 
ans called  the  city  Mempi;  in  the  Bible  the 
name  has  been  corrupted  to  Moph  and  Noph. 
Jlemphis,  which  had  a  very  favorable  situation, 
near  the  head  of  the  Delta,  became  the  capital  of 
Egypt.  In  later  times,  several  dynasties  jireferrcd 
oilier  capitals,  but  Memphis  always  remained  at 
least  the  second  capital  of  Egypt,  and  (he  second 
city  of  the  land  in  wealth  and  population.  The 
conquests    by    the    Ethiopians,    Assyrians,    and 


MEMFHIS. 


305 


MEMPHIS. 


Persians  do  not  seem  to  have  affected  it 
much,  and  the  writers  of  the  earlier  Roman 
period  still  describe  it  as  tilled  with  temples  and 
palaces  of  amazing  size  and  lx>auty,  the  Iseuni, 
the  Serapeum.  and  others.  The  decline  of  the 
city  was  rapid  after  the  Arab  conquest  (at  which 
time  it  was  still  the  seat  of  a  tiovernor),  when 
Fostat  (Old  Cairo)  was  erected  in  the  neifjlilior- 
hood.  Fostat  and  subsequently  Cairo  were  built 
of  stones  taken  from  the  deserted  buildings  of 
Jlemphis,  and  thus  it  came  about  tliat  the  ancient 
city  entirely  disappeared.  The  only  remarkable 
monuments  left  there  at  present  are  the  two 
colossal  statues  of  Rameses  II.  (originally  42 
feet  high),  lying  on  the  mound  near  the  modern 
village  of  Mit-l!ah!neh,  and  marking  the  entrance 
to  the  principal  and  earliest  temple  of  Jlemphis, 
that  of  I'tah  (Greek  Hepluestus),  and  the  centre 
of  the  'White  Wall.'  Abd-ul-Latlf.  as  late  as  the 
thirteenth  century  a.d.,  found  remarkable  ruins 
on  the  site  of  old  ilemphis.  The  insignificant 
rubbish-mounds  (of  Mit-Rahlneh,  Bedrashen,  En- 
nagiziyeh,  etc.)  extend  three  or  four  miles  from 
north  to  south.  The  classical  writers  give  very 
exaggerated  accounts  of  the  size  of  the  city.  The 
immense  necropolis  west  of  it,  including  the  pyra- 
mids and  tombs  of  Saqqara,  still  bears  testi- 
mony, however,  to  the  former  importance  of  Mem- 
phis. The  principal  god  of  the  city  was  Ptah,  the 
'master  craftsman'  among  the  gods,  who  was 
believed  to  have  formed  the  world;  afterwards 
the  conception  of  this  deity  was  called  Ptah- 
Sokar  (a  combination  of  Ptah  and  Sokar,  the 
god  of  the  western  suburb),  embodied  in  the 
Apis  hull  and  others.  The  numerous  Phoenician 
merchants  had  a  quarter  of  their  own  w'ith  a 
temple  of  Astarte.  Consult:  Description  de 
I'Egypte,  vol.  v.  (Paris,  1820-30)  :  Lepsius,  Denk- 
miiler  jaus  Aeifypteii  unci  Acthiopicn  (Berlin, 
1849-58)  ;  Mariette,  Le  Serapeum  de  MempMs 
(Paris,  1882)  ;  Diimichen,  Knrte  des  Htadtge- 
bietes  von  Memphis  (Leipzig,  1895).  See  also 
Egypt. 

MEMPHIS.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Scotland  (uunty.  Mo.,  45  miles  west  of  Keokuk, 
Iowa;  on  the  Keokuk  and  Western  Railroad 
(Map :  Missouri,  D  1 ) .  It  is  a  shi|)ping  centre  of 
some  importance  for  the  adjacent  farming  and 
stock-raising  district.  There  are  deposits  of  coal 
in  the  vicinity.  Population,  in  1890,  1780;  in 
1900,  -2195. 

MEMPHIS.  The  largest  city  of  Tennessee 
and  tlic  county-seat  of  Shelby  County,  situated 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  454  miles  below  Saint 
Louis  and  818  miles  above  New  Orleans  (Map: 
Tennessee,  Bo).  It  is  at  the  head  of  navigation 
for  large  steamers,  and  has  exceptional  railway 
facilities,  being  on  the  line  of  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral; the  Saint  Louis  and  San  Francisco;  the 
Missouri  Pacific;  the  Louisville  and  Nashville; 
the  Nashville,  Chattanooga  and  Saint  Louis;  the 
Rock  Island;  the  Southern;  the  Saint  Louis 
Southwestern;  the  Saint  Louis,  Memphis  and 
Southwestern;  the  Kansas  City,  Memphhs  and 
Birmingham;  and  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Val- 
ley. 

The  city  rises  on  the  Chickasaw  BlufTs,  40  feet 
above  high  water;  a  broad  levee  overlooks  the 
river,  and  there  are  stone-paved  wharves.  It  is 
laid  out  with  broad,  regular,  well  paved  and 
shaded  streets  and  has  handsome  residences  and 
substantial  business  buildings.     In  the  heart  of 


the  city  is  a  public  park  filled  with  magnificent 
old  trees.  In  all,  there  are  about  1000  acres 
of  public  parks  of  great  natural  beauty.  Among 
the  notable  structures  are  the  United  States  Cus- 
tom House,  Cotton  Kxchange,  Cossitt  Library- 
building.  Uosi)iLal  Medical  College,  Lyceum  The- 
atre, Grand  Opera  House,  Auditorium,  Odd  Fel- 
lows' building  and  Masonic  Temple,  Gayoso 
Hotel,  Scimitar  (newspaper)  building,  Equitable 
building,  and  the  Porter,  Randolph,  Loweustcin, 
Southern  Express,  Napoleon  Hill,  and  Woman's 
buildings.  There  are  in  Mem]iliis  a  marine  hos- 
pital, a  large  city  hospital,  and  Saint  .Joseph's 
Hospital;  and  its  educational  institutions  include 
the  Christian  Brothers'  College  (Roman  Cath- 
olic), opened  in  1871;  the  iMemphis  Hospital 
Medical  College,  Le  Moyne  Normal  Institute, 
and  Hannibal  Medical  College,  the  last  two  for 
colored  students;  besides  several  private  second- 
ary institutions  and  the  schools  of  the  public 
school  system,  in  which  are  enrolled  about  11,000 
pupils.  In  addition  to  the  public  library  and 
those  in  connection  with  the  educational  insti- 
tutions, there  are  Bar  and  Law,  and  Odd  Fellows' 
libraries.  A  steel  railroad  bridge  across  the 
Mississippi,  consisting  of  five  spans  and  nearly 
1900  feet  in  length,  was  opened  in  1892;  and  the 
city  has  two  fine  race  tracks.  Five  miles  distant 
is  a  National  Cemetery,  in  which  are  14,039 
graves,  8822  of  unknown  dead. 

Its  facilities  for  transportation  by  water  and 
rail  have  made  Memphis  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant commercial  and  manufacturing  centres  in 
the  South.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  cotton  mar- 
kets in  the  United  States,  and  carries  on  a  large 
wholesale  and  jobbing  trade  in  groceries,  dry 
goods,  foodstulVs,  shoos,  hardware,  and  agricul- 
tural implements.  Its  industrial  interests  are 
undergoing  remarkable  development,  the  city  be- 
ing noted  particular!}'  for  its  wood-working  in- 
ilustries,  chiefly  of  hard  wood,  and  for  the  manvi- 
facture  of  cottonseed  products.  There  are  large 
cottonseed  oil  mills,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
car  works,  furniture  factories,  flour  and  grist 
mills,  saw  and  planing  mills,  carriage  and  wagon 
shops,  clothing  factories,  saddlery  and  harness 
factories,  brick  and  tile  plants,  confectionery  and 
cracker  factories,  tobacco  and  cigar  fatories,  pat- 
ent medicine  works,  cold  storage  fibre  plants  for 
the  manufacture  of  pulp  for  paper  mills,  and 
many  other  establishments. 

INleniphis  spends  annually  in  maintenance  and 
operation  about  $1,000,000,  the  principal  items  of 
expenditure  being:  for  the  fire  department,  $127,- 
500;  for  the  police  department  (including 
amounts  for  police  courts,  jails,  reformatories, 
etc.),  $100,000;  for  the  health  department  (in- 
cluding garbage  removal,  crematories,  etc.), 
$100,000;  for  charitable  institutions,  $100,000; 
for  schools,  $80,000;  for  municipal  lighting,  $50,- 
000.  Population,  in  18:30,  8S41;  in  1800,  22,623; 
in  1870,  40.220:  in  18S0,  33,592;  in  1890,  64,495; 
in  1900,  102,320,  including  5100  persons  of  for- 
eign birth  and  49,900  of  negro  descent. 

On  the  site  of  Memphis, 'forts  were  built  by 
the  French  (1698)  and  by  the  Spaniards  (1794). 
hut  no  regular  settlement  was  made  until  1819, 
when  a  small  company  arrived  under  the  auspices 
of  Andrew  .Jackson.  .John  Overton,  and  .Tames 
Winchester,  proprietors  of  the  land  in  this  vicin- 
ity. In  1826  the  settlement,  with  a  population  of 
500,  was  incorporated  as  a  town,  and  in  1849, 
South  Memphis  having  been  just  annexed,  a  city 


MEMPHIS. 


306 


MENAI  STBAIT. 


charter  was  scoured.  ()n  .Jutif  G,  1802,  a  Confed- 
erate licet  under  Commodore  Jlont^oniery  was 
defeated  near  Jlcmpliis  by  a  Federal  Meet  under 
Commodore  Davis,  and  Memphis  was  thereafter 
until  tRc  elose  of  the  war  licld  by  the  Federal 
forces,  though  in  August,  1864.  the  Confederate 
General  Forrest  raided  it  and  carried  off  several 
hundred  prisoners.  In  1870,  on  account  of  the 
city's  inability  to  meet  its  financial  obligations, 
its  charter  w.-is  revoked,  and  until  1891,  when  it 
was  reincorporated,  ileuiphis  was  merely  the 
•Ta.xing  District  of  Shelby  County,'  governed  by 
three  commissioners  and  a  board  of  public  works. 
Yellow  fever  epidemics  occurred  in  1855,  1SG7, 
1873,  1878.  and  187'J.  those  in  1873  and  1878 
being  especially  disastrous.  Since  1880,  however, 
the  city  has  built  210  miles  of  Waring  sewers; 
and  tliis  improvement  in  the  sewerage  system, 
together  Avith  the  discovery  of  pure  artesian 
water,  has  resulted  materially  in  improving  the 
healtlifulness  of  the  city.  Consult:  Keating  and 
Vedder,  flislory  of  the  Cit)/  of  Memphis  (Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y..  1888)  ;  Davis,  History  of  the  City  of 
MeiiipliiK    I  Memphis,   1873). 

MEMPHIS,  Ancient  and  Primitive  Order 
OF.     See  M.\S0N's,  Fkle. 

MEM'PHREMA'GOG.  A  lake  situated  in  the 
Province  of  Quehee,  Canada,  and  extending  a 
short  distance  into  Vermont  (Map:  Quebec, 
D  5).  It  has  an  elongated,  irregular  shape,  is 
35  miles  long  by  from  two  to  five  miles  wide,  and 
diseh.arges  its  waters  northeastward  through  the 
Magog  River  into  the  Saint  Francis.  Along  the 
west  shore  is  a  range  of  mountains  reaching  a 
height  of  3500  feet;  the  lake  is  noted  for  its 
picturesque  scenery.  It  is  a  favorite  summer 
resort;  numerous  handsome  villas  dot  its  shores, 
and  in  summer  a  line  of  steamers  runs  from  New- 
port. Vt..  at  the  south  end,  to  the  Canadian  vil- 
lage of  Magog  at  the  northern  extremity. 

MENA,  nuVnil,  Ju.\N  i)E  (c.l411-.5fi) .  A 
Spanisli  poet,  born  at  Cordova.  He  studied  at 
Salamanca  and  afterwards  went  to  R(mie.  Here 
he  became  an  admirer  of  the  works  of  Dante  and 
Petrarch,  and  from  then  continued  to  be  inftu- 
enecd  by  them.  He  was  secretary  to  King  .John 
II.  of  Castile,  and  Court  historian.  His  juineipal 
work  is  El  laheriiito  (149G),  a  poem  modeled  on 
the  Diriiie  Comedy,  which  is  also  called  Las 
ires  cicntns,  from  the  original  number  of  its 
verses — 300.     It  is  an  elaborate,  tedious  allegory. 

MENABREA,  ma'nA-bra'A,  Lrioi  Federiro, 
Count  (1800-96).  An  Italian  general  and  states- 
man. He  was  born  at  Chambi'rv.  in  Savoy, 
September  4,  1800.  and  was  educated  for  an 
engineer.  On  completing  his  studies  he  entered 
the  Sardinian  army  as  lieutenant  in  the  engineer 
corps,  but  was  soon  called  to  a  professorship  of 
applied  mathematics  in  the  military  academy 
and  at  the  University  of  Turin.  In  1848  he  was 
promoli'il  to  tli<'  rank  of  captain,  served  in  the 
war  against  .Austria,  and  was  then  employe<l  on 
diplomatic  business.  As  a  member  of  the  Cham- 
ber, he  inclined  to  believe  in  the  possibility  of 
an  neenrd  of  the  Papacy  with  Italian  unity; 
but.  influenced  by  Cavour,  he  soon  abandoned 
that  hone  and  ranged  himself  with  the  radical 
rni<ini,><'s.  During  the  war  of  1850,  Menabrea 
aeteii  as  chief  ot  stall  in  the  Sardinian  army. 
After  the  defeat  ot  the  Austiians  liy  tlie  Kri-nch 
and  llie  handing  over  of  Savoy  to  France,  he  left 
the    province    to   retain    his    Italian   citizenship, 


and  was  created  a  Senator  by  Victor  Emmanuel, 
and  made  chief  of  the  Department  of  Engineers. 
In  18G0  he  became  a  lieulenunt-general,  and 
was  director  of  the  siege  0])erations  against 
Gaeta,  where  the  King  of  Naples  had  taken 
refuge.  It  surrendered  after  a  three  months' 
siege,  for  which  success  he  was  made  a  count. 
In  IStil  lie  succeeded  Rieasoli  as  ilinister  of 
Marine,  to  which  he  added  in  1862  the  duties  of 
Minister  of  Public  Works.  He  assisted  in  fram- 
ing the  Treaty  of  Prague  in  1866,  which  gave 
Venice  to  Italy.  He  was  called  in  1867,  on  the 
retirement  of  Rattazzi,  to  form  a  new  Cabinet. 
He  continued  to  carry  on  the  Government  until 
near  the  close  of  1SG9,  and  in  the  two  years  of  his 
Premiership  did  much  for  Italian  stability,  both 
at  home  and  abroad.  After  resigning,  Menabrea 
was  appointed  Italian  Ambassador  to  London 
(1S7G)  and  Paris  (1882).  He  remained  at 
Paris  for  ten  years.     He  died  at  Chanibery,  May 

25,  1806.  Among  the  works  he  wrote  are: 
Etudes  siir  la  serie  de  hugrunge  (Turin.  1844- 
47)  ;  he  genie  italien  dans  la  e(imi>agne  d'Ancdne 
et  de  la  Basse-Italie  (Paris,  180G)  ;  Republique 
et  monarehie  dans  I'etat  actiiel  dc  la  France  (ib., 
1871). 

MENAC'CANITE.     See  Ilmexite. 

MENADO.  ma-nii'd6.  The  capital  of  the 
Dutch  Residency  of  Menado,  in  Xorthern  Celebes. 
It  is  situated  near  the  extremity  of  the  north- 
eastern peninsula  of  the  island,  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Tondano  (Jlap:  F.asl  Indies,  F  4).  It 
has  an  ethnological  museum  and  is  defended  by 
the  old  Fort  Amsterdam.  Its  unsafe  roadstead 
detracts  greatly  from  its  commercial  importance. 
Population,  in  1895,  8996,  including  over  50O 
Europeans. 

MEN.a:CHMI,  nie-nek'nie.  One  of  the  best 
coniedics  of  Plautus,  so  called  from  the  twin 
brothers  whose  resemblance  to  each  other  and  the 
amusing  situations  arising  from  their  confusion 
form  the  plot  of  the  (day.  The  comedy  is  one  of 
the  earliest  preserved  plays  of  Plautus.  It  sug- 
gested in  part  the  plot  of  Shakespeare's  Comedy 
of  Errors.  William  Warner  translated  the  com- 
edy  into  English   in    1595. 

M^INAGE,  ina'niizh',  Gilles  de  (iEoiDICS 
MEN.\Girs)  (  161302).  A  French  lexicographer 
anil  linguist,  born  at  Angers.  Disliking  the  pro- 
fessiiin  of  an  advocate,  be  renounced  it,  entered 
the  Church,  and  fixed  his  residence  in  the  Con- 
vent of  Notre  Dame.  His  Uielionnaire  elymolo- 
giquc.  oil  Origines  de  la  lunguc  fran^aisc  ( Paris, 
1G50-04;  best  ed.  by  Jault.  2  vols.,  Pans.  1750), 
and  his  Origini  delta  Itngiiu  italiana  (1669)  are 
erudite  and   valuable  works. 

MENAGERIE.     See  Zoiii.OGiCAL  Park. 

MENAI  (mfn'i)  STRAIT.  The  channel 
wbich  separates  the  island  of  Anglesey  from  the 
mainland  ot  Wales  (Jlap:  England,  B  3),  It  js 
l:i  miles  long  and  varies  in  width  from  about  2.50 
yards  to  two  miles,  widening  out  north  of  liangor 
into  Beaumaris  Bay.  Navigation  of  it  is  hazard- 
ous, but  the  strait  is  nevertheless  much  used  by 
vessels  under  100  tons  in  order  to  save  time.  At 
the  entrance  of  the  strait  the  tides  soiiiilimes 
rise  to  a  height  of  30  feet,  and  the  ordinary 
neap-tide  rises  from  10  to  12  feet.  The  strait 
is  spanned  by  a  suspension  bridge,  built  in  1819- 

26,  and  by  the  Britannia  Bridge. 


MENAM. 


307 


MENCIUS. 


MENAM,  manUm'.  Tlie  chief  river  of  Siam. 
It  rises  in  the  northwestern  part  of  that  country, 
and  ttows  southward,  emptying  by  several  arms 
into  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  after  a  course  of  about 
700  miles,  or  UUO  miles  if  its  len.yth  is  measured 
from  the  source  of  its  large  tributary,  the  Mei 
Ping  (Map:  Siam,  D  4).  The  Menam  is  nav- 
igable for  large  steamers  to  Bangkok,  15  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  for  small  vessels  for  about 
250  miles.  The  river  divides  itself  several  times 
by  arms  rejoining  farther  down,  and  from  June 
to  November  it  overflows  a  large  part  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  leaving  an  alluvial  deposit  of 
extraordinary  fertility. 

MENAN'DER  (Lat.,  from  Gk,  MimvUpog, 
Uciiiiiulios)  ( B.C.  342-c.2!ll ) .  One  of  the  greatest 
poets  of  the  Attic  New  Comedy,  bom  at  Athens 
of  a,  distinguished  family.  By  his  uncle,  Alexis, 
the  eminent  poet  of  the  Middle  Comedy,  he  wa^ 
initiated  into  the  dramatist's  art; 'his  philosoph- 
ical education  he  received  from  association  with 
Theophrastus  and  Epicurus.  He  was  handsome 
and  fond  of  luxury.  The  greater  part  of  his 
time  he  spent  at  his  villa  in  the  Peirseus  with  his 
beloved  Glycera.  When  Ptolemy  Soter  gave  him 
a  nattering  invitation  to  his  Court,  Jlenander 
declined,  preferring  his  native  city  and  easy  in- 
dependence to  royal  favor.  Aliout  B.C.  201  he 
was  drowned  while  swimming  in  tlie  harbor  of  the 
Peirseus.  Menander  is  said  to  have  won  a  vic- 
tory on  the  comic  stage  at  the  age  of  twenty-one. 
Yet  during  his  lifetime  he  was  less  a  favorite 
than  his  contemporary  Philemon  (q.v.).  Of  his 
105  or  108  plays  but  eight  won  the  highest  place. 
After  his  death,  however,  he  became  the  favorite 
above  all  other  comic  poets  of  his  time,  and  was 
nmch  read  and  quoted  far  into  the  Christian  Era. 
We  are  unfortunately  obliged  to  form  our  opin- 
ions of  his  comedies  chiefly  from  the  adaptations 
of  them  by  Plautus  and  Terence.  According  to 
ancient  critics  he  was  distinguished  for  his  wit, 
the  refinement  and  perfection  of  his  language, 
and  his  ingenious  plots.  Over  a  thousand  frag- 
ments of  his  plays  remain  and  a  considerable  col- 
lection of  gnomes  attributed  to  him.  The  latter 
collection  has,  however,  sufl'ered  greatly  from 
additions.  The  fragments  are  best  published  by 
Kock,  Vomicnrum  Atticum  Firtrjmrnld,  vol.  iii. 
(Leipzig,  1888).  Two  leaves  of  paj)yrus  contain- 
ing new  fragments  were  published  by  Nicole,  Le 
liibonitciir  dc  Meiiutidre  (Basle,  1898),  by  Gren- 
fell  and  Hunt   (Oxford,  1898). 

MENANDER.  A  powerful  Groeco-Bactrian 
King,  who  ruled  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
centurj-  B.C.  Strabo  refers  to  some  of  his  eon- 
quests  and  Plutarch  records  that  on  his  death, 
B.C.  115,  varidus  towns  contended  for  the  honor 
of  cherishing  his  ashes.  The  large  nunilier 
of  coins  that  bear  his  name  and  the  wide- 
extended  territory  over  which  they  are  found 
seem  to  point  to  a  long  reign  and  to  a  domain  of 
considerable  influence.  He  appears  in  Buddhistic 
literature  as  ililinda   (q.v.). 

MENANT,  me-niiN',  Joachim  (1S20-1899). 
A  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Cherbourg.  He 
showed  great  skill  in  deciphering  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  and  on  account  of  his  valuable  con- 
tributions to  Assyrian  literature  he  was  made  a 
mcnibcr  of  the  Acadi'mie  des  Inscriptions.  His 
numerous  writings  include:  Expotf^  dns  i^lt^ments 
de  la  rirnmtnnire  <iss;/rieiine  (1808)  ;  Inxcriptinns 
assi/riciutcs  des  hriques<  de  Babi/lonc  (18G0)  ;  Les 


(critures  cuneiformcs  (1860-G4);  and  Lemons 
dVpigraphie  assyriennc  profcssies  atix  libres  de 
la  Harbonne  (1873).  He  also  published  a  collec- 
tion of  texts  translated  by  Assyriologists:  An- 
nciles  desi  rois  d'Assyrie  (1874),  and  liabylone  et 
la  ChakUe   (1875). 

MEN'APHON,  or  Camilla'.s  Alarm  to 
Slumbering  Eupiiues  in  His  Melanciioi.ie  Cell 
AT  Silexedra.  a  story  by  Robert  (irecne  pub- 
lished under  the  title  Arcadia  in  1589,  the  year 
before  the  publication  of  Sidney's  Arcadia.  It 
contains  some  of  the  author's  finest  poems. 

MENARD,  mA'niii-',  Michel  BRANAMorK 
(1805-50).  A  pioneer,  born  of  French  parentage 
at  Laprairie,  Lower  Canada.  At  an  early  age 
he  entered  the  service  of  a  fur-trading  company 
at  Detroit,  and  afterwards  went  to  Jlissouri  as 
an  Indian  trader  for  his  uncle.  He  became  a 
chief  of  the  Shawnee  Indians,  and  gained  much 
influence  over  other  tribes.  About  the  year  1833 
he  went  to  Texas,  and  engaged  in  trading  with 
the  Mexicans  and  Indians.  Owing  to  his  influ- 
ence over  the  Indians,  he  was  able,  upon  the  re- 
volt of  the  Texans,  to  prevent  the  Indians  from 
assisting  the  Mexicans.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  that  declared  Texas  inde7K-ndpnt.  and 
afterwards  served  in  the  Congress  of  that  State. 
In  1836  he  bought  a  square  league  of  land  that 
included  most  of  the  site  of  the  present  city  of 
Galveston,  and  became  in  effect  the  founder  of 
that  city. 

MENASH'A.  A  city  in  Winnebago  County, 
Wis.,  88  miles  north  by  west  of  Milwaukee;  on 
Lake  Winnebago,  at  the  mouth  of  Fox  River, 
on  the  L'nited  States  Government  Canal  of  the 
Fox  and  Wisconsin  River  Improvement,  and  on 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  Saint  Paul,  and  the  Wisconsin  Cen- 
tral railroads  (Map:  Wisconsin,  E  4).  It  has 
a  public  library,  and  there  are  paper  mills,  a 
woodenware  factory,  flour,  saw,  and  woolen  mills, 
machine  shops,  brick  yards,  and  manufactories 
of  various  lumber  |iriiducts.  Lake  Winnel>ago  is 
popular  as  a  place  of  summer  resort.  Settled  in 
1847,  Menasha  was  incorporated  first  in  1874. 
The  present  government  is  administered  under  a 
charter  of  1892,  which  provides  for  a  m.iyor.  an- 
nually elected,  and  a  unicameral  council.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  4581;  in  1900,  5589. 

MENCIUS,  men'shiis  (Latinized  form  of 
Chinese  Mf:NG-TSE  or  Mijng-t.se)  (c. 371-287  B.C.) . 
A  Chinese  sage,  ranking  next  after  Confucius  in 
the  estimation  of  the  Chinese.  He  was  born  about 
B.C.  371  ( 108  years  after  the  death  of  Confucius) , 
in  the  small  Principality  of  Tsow  in  the  Province, 
of  Shan-tung,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  birth- 
place of  Confucius.  As  a  youth  he  was  known  as 
Meng  K'o.  His  father  died  when  the  future 
philosopher  was  only  three  years  old.  The  widow 
gave  the  fatherless  boy  every  attention,  and  in 
due  course  he  went  to  school,  but  does  not  seem 
at  first  to  have  been  specially  diligent  or  enthu- 
siastic in  his  studies.  It  is  said  that  he  stuilied 
later  with  the  disciples  of  Tszu-tse — the  grand- 
son of  Confucius — and  from  (hem  learned  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Master,  of  whom  he  liecame  an 
enthusiastic  admirer.  When  he  was  forty  he  ap- 
peared as  a  public  teacher  w'ith  a  large  following 
of  disciples.  Like  Confucius,  he  moved  about 
from  State  to  State,  inculcating,  expounding,  and 
amplifying  the  Confucian  teaching.  He  was  more 
courageous   and  outspoken   than   Confucius,  and 


MENCIxrS. 


ao8 


MENDELEEFF. 


was  fearless  in  followinj;  liis  teachings  to  their 
logical  consequences.  Ue  taught  that  man's 
nature  is  good,  though  it  may  appear  othor- 
wise.  anil  that  all  his  vire^  and  all  his  mis- 
fortunes are  due  to  evil  influences  from  without. 
Humanity,  righteousness,  propriety,  and  knowl- 
edge are  as  natural  to  man  as  liis  four  limbs. 
What  is  wanted  is  a  return  to  this  original  good- 
ness, and  this  can  be  accomplislied  only  by  the 
reel ifica lion  of  the  heart.  He  laid  special  stress 
on  humanity  and  righteousness,  one  the  comple- 
ment of  the  other,  as  the  two  main  elements  in 
man's  moral  being,  humanity  representing  the 
fullness  of  virtue  in  the  individual,  and  right- 
eousness the  due  observance  of  all  man  owes  to 
his  fellow  men.  "Humanity  is  internal."  he 
sa.vs;  "righteousness  external."  "There  has  never 
been  a  man  trained  to  Inimanity  who  neglected 
his  parents;  nor  one  who,  having  been  trained 
to  righteousness,  made  his  sovereign  an  after 
consideration."  In  politics  he  taught  tliat  gov- 
ernment is  from  God.  but  is  far  the  people,  whose 
■welfare  is  of  supreme  importance:  and  he  em- 
phatically inculcated  the  application  of  these 
two  principles — Humanity  and  Righteousness — 
to  the  conduct  of  rulers.  And  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  indicate  the  duty  of  the  subject  in 
regard  to  the  'removal'  of  oppressive  rulers 
or  wicked  men  in  high  places,  when  asked 
if  a  subject  might  put  his  sovereign  to  death. 
"He  who  outrages  the  humanity  proper  to  his 
nature,"  he  said,  "is  called  a  robl)er;  he  who 
outrages  righteousness  is  called  a  rullian.  The 
robber  and  the  ruffian  we  call  a  mere  fellow.  I 
have  htard  of  the  cutting  off  of  Chow  Sin  [the 
ferocious  tyrant  of  the  Shang  dynasty,  B.C. 
112:!1.  but  I  have  not  heard  in  his  case  of  putting 
a  sovereign  to  death ;" — only  a  cruel  monster,  a 
mere  fellow. 

Jlencivis  died  at  eighty-four,  after  passing  the 
last  fifteen  years  of  his  life  in  retirement,  during 
which  he  edited  the  Boo/,-  of  H  islori/  und  tlie  ISdoI.- 
of  I'oetiji,  and  prepared  with  the  aid  of  some 
of  his  disciples  a  record  of  his  sayings  and  of 
liis  conversations  with  the  Princes — a  fact  which 
may  account  for  their  greater  fullness  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  Confucius.  It  is  the  last  of 
the  Four  Books  which  form  the  basis  of  the  Con- 
fucian philosophy.  He  was  buried  near  the 
present  Tsow  liiin.  in  Slian-tung.  where  there  is 
a  temple  in  his  honor,  and  where  his  descendants 
still  dwell.  It  was  not  till  the  second  century 
A.n.  that  his  writings  were  fully  studied  and  ap- 
preciated. In  1083  he  was  created  Dnke  of 
Tsow;  in  1088  he  was  admitted  into  the  Temple 
of  Confucius  as  nn  Associate,  and  titles  were 
conferred  on  his  father  and  mother. 

Bim.iofmAriiY.  l^egge,  Chinese  ClaxxicK,  vol.  ii. 
(London  and  Hong  Kong,  1801),  containing  the 
Chinese  text  of  the  Mencian  discourses,  with  a 
translation  in  Knglish,  Critical  Notes,  Prolego- 
mena, and  a  Life;  Ui'nuisat.  Xourrriux  mvlaiifien 
o»i<//i(/i(i'«,  vol.  ii.  (Paris.  1820);  Faber,  IJinr 
flliinlslrhre  auf  rthischrr  flrinirllnrir,  oder  Lrhr- 
hcfjriff  dr.H  rhivraisrhrn  rhilofinphrn  ^fn^1ciu^ 
( KIberfeld,  1877).  or  llutcliinson's  transhitinn. 
The  Mind  of  Mcnciiis  (I^ondon  and  Hong  Kong, 
1880)  ;  .Johnson.  "China."  vol.  ii..  in  Oriniliil 
Jlrliflionn  and  Thrir  Relation  to  VnirrrKnl  Ue- 
lifrinn  (Boston.  1878)  :  and  Walters.  A  Cliiiile  to 
the  Tablets  in  a  Temple  of  Confucius  (Shanghai, 
1870).  ■ 


MENDANA  DE  NEYRA,  man-da'ny4  dft 
n:'i'e-ru,  Alvabo  (15-11-95).  A  Spanish  navi- 
gator, born  in  Saragossa.  He  went  to  Peru  in 
1505,  and  liad  resided  some  time  at  Lima  when 
his  uncle,  Lojjc  Garcia  de  Castro,  the  Viceroy 
of  the  country,  in  1507  put  him  in  conunand  of 
an  expedition  for  purposes  of  discovery  among 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Among  liis  discoveries 
was  that  of  a  group  of  islands  wliich  he  named 
Solomon  Islands,  in  the  belief  tliat  here  Solomon 
obtained  the  gold  used  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem. Returning  to  Lima  in  1508.  he  circulated 
reports  of  the  wealth  of  these  islands,  which  led, 
twenty-seven  years  later,  to  an  expedition  for 
their  colonization,  of  whicli  he  took  the  conunand. 
Sailing  from  Callao  .\])ril  11,  1505.  lie  discovered 
another  group  of  islands,  which  he  named  the 
.Marquesas,  after  the  wife  of  the  Viceroy  of 
Peru,  the  Marchioness  Jlendoza.  Other  groups 
of  islands  were  visited,  but  Mendana  died  with- 
out hixving  reached  the  end  of  his  vovage.  Men- 
dana's  narrative  of  his  expeditions  is  in  the 
National  Library  at  Paris.  Tliis.  with  otlier  con- 
temporary accounts  of  the  expedition,  is  trans- 
lated in  the  Hakluyt  Society  volume  for  I'JOl, 
edited  liy  Lord  Amherst  of  Hackney. 

MENDANA     ISLANDS.       See    MabquesaS 

Islands. 

MENDE,  niaNd.  A  town  of  Southern  France, 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Loz^re.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lot,  110  miles 
southwest  of  Lyons,  and  at  the  foot  of  a  cliff 
rising  1000  feet  above  tlie  town  (Map:  France, 
K  7).  It  has  a  cathedral  founded  in  the  four- 
teenth and  rebuilt  in  the  seventeenth  ccnturv, 
with  two  towers,  280  and  210  feet  high. 
In  front  of  it  stands  a  bronze  statue  of  Pope 
I'lban  v..  a  native  of  the  town.  The  town  has 
also  a  communal  college  and  a  library.  Tlie 
chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  textiles. 
Popnlaticm,  in  1001,  5201;  of  eoinmune,  7319. 

MEN'DEL,  Greoor  Joiiaxx  (1822-84).  An 
.\ustrian  liotanist.  He  was  born  in  .\ustrian 
Silesia  in  Heinzendorf.  near  Odrau.  and  in  1843 
entered  the  .Viigiistinian  Kiiiiii/iiikloster  at 
Briinu.  He  became  a  priest  in  1847:  studied  at 
Vienna:  returned  to  the  cloister  in  1853:  taught 
at  Briinn  and  became  abbot.  His  ex])eriments 
ill  hyliridlzation.  reprinted  under  the  title 
Versiiehc  iiber  Pflanzenhithriden  (in  an  F.nglish 
translation  in  the  Jourixil  of  the  Royal  Horti- 
cultural Society,  xxvi..  1001).  were  originally 
made  public  in  1805.  They  ilciilt  especially  with 
ex|ieriments  on  Pi.iuin  and  Uirriiriitin  made  in  his 
cloister  garden:  advanced  the  idea  of  heterogy- 
goiis  form:  attempted  to  show,  under  certain  con- 
<litions,  the  ratio  of  dominants,  cross-breeds,  and 
recessives;  and  after  thirty-five  years  of  obscurity 
attracted  the  attention  of  biologists  after  their 
rediscovery  and  confirmation  by  l)e  Vries.  Cor- 
reus,  and  Tsehermak.  Consult  Bateson.  Mendel's 
Prineiples  of  Urredilil   (Cambridge.  Eng.,  1002). 

MENDELEEFF,  myen'dr-le'yef.  niMiTiti 
IvAsnxinii  ilS34 — ).  .\  Russian  chemist.  l>orn 
in  Tobolsk.  Siberia.  He  grailuated  from  the  local 
gj-mnasium.  and  in  1850  eiitcrcil  the  Institute 
of  Pediigogy  of  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  ap- 
plied liiniself  to  the  study  of  natural  sciences. 
In  1850  he  was  :ippointed  docciit  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  .Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  185001  he 
worked  in  Heidelberg  and  published  a  monograph 
On  the  Capilhniti/  of  Gases.    Shortly  afterwards 


MENDELEEFF. 


309 


MENDELSSOHN-BABTHOLDY. 


he  published  his  Organic  Chemistry.  He  was 
iiiiule  professor  of  flieniistry  at  the  Saint  Peters- 
burg Institute  of  Technology  in  1803.  anil  three 
years  later  at  the  university,  la  1871-73  he 
made  extensive  studies  on  the  compression  of 
gases,  embodied  in  his  On  the  Elasticity  of  Uuscs. 
la  1870  he  «'as  conunissioned  by  the  authorities 
to  study  the  petroleum  industry  in  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Caucasus.  His  work  on  Aqueous  Solu- 
tions (1880)  was  received  by  chemists  as  a 
notable  contribution  to  experimental  chemistry, 
althou^'h  Ills  'theory  of  .solutions.'  according  to 
which  stilvents  invariably  form  definite  or  'in- 
definite' dicmical  compounds  with  the  substances 
dissolved  in  them,  has  been  strongly  criticised  by 
physical  chemists  of  the  miMlern  tJerman  schools. 
As  member  of  the  Council  of  Commerce  and  In- 
dustries, MendelOelT  became  the  champion  of  pro- 
tection of  home  industries,  and  the  policy  of 
Russia  in  that  direction  dates  practically  from 
the  jJublication  of  his  Tariff  Elucidated  (1890). 
He  worked  out  the  formula  for  tlie  pyroeoUodial 
smokeless  powder,  serviceable  for  all  firearms, 
when  Russia  undertook  to  rearm  her  forces.  In 
1893  he  was  made  conservator  of  weights  and 
measures  in  the  new  Chamber  of  Weights  and 
Measures  established  in  the  Department  of 
Finance. 

His  Elements  of  Chemistry  (1808-70,  5th  ed., 
Saint  Petersburg,  1889)  is  a  standard  work  and 
has  been  translated  into  English,  CJernian,  and 
French.  In  it  he  first  set  forth  the  theory  later 
embodied  in  La  loi  periodique  des  elements  chi- 
miqttes  (Paris,  1879),  now  known  as  the  periodic 
law  (q.v. ),  in  the  following  formula;  "The 
properties  of  the  elements,  as  well  as  the  forms 
and  ]n'operties  of  their  compounds,  are  in  periodic 
dependence  on.  or  form  a  periodic  function  of,  the 
atomic  weights  of  the  elements."  This  law  en- 
abled Mendeleett'  to  foretell  the  existence  and 
even  the  jiroperties  of  several  unknown  elements, 
whidi  have  since  lieen  actually  discovered. 

Mcndeleeff's  scientific  contriliutions.  dealing 
mostly  with  physical  chemistry,  and  numbering 
upward  of  150,  have  appeared  in  several  (icnnan 
and  French  scientific  periodicals.  Consult  T.  E. 
Thorpe,  Essays  in  Historical  Chemistry  (London, 
1894). 

MENDEL'S  LA"W.     See  HYBRiniTT. 

MENDELSSOHN,  men'dcl-son,  ilosEs  (1729- 
86),  A  (ierman  ]jhiloso])her  of  Jewish  pai'entage. 
He  was  born  September  0,  17"29,  at  Dessau.  From 
his  father,  a  schoolmaster  and  scribe,  he  received 
his  first  education;  and  in  his  thirteenth  3'ear 
procceiled  to  Berlin,  where,  amid  very  indigent 
circumstances,  he  contrived  to  learn  Latin  and 
modern  languages,  and  to  apply  himself  to  the 
study  of  philosophy.  After  many  years  of  com- 
parative poverty  he  became  part  heir  to  a  rich 
silk  manufacturer,  whose  children  he  had 
educated.  The  intimate  friend  of  men  like  Les- 
sing — whose  yathan  der  ^Veise  had  its  jirototype 
in  him — Sulzer,  and  Nicolai,  he  contributed  in  a 
vast  degree  to  the  mitigation  of  the  brutal  preju- 
dices against  the  .Jews.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
broadeneil  the  outlook  of  his  own  co-religionists. 
He  died  .lanuary  4,  1786.  His  principal  works  are : 
Pope,  fill  Mrtdjihysiker  (with  Lessing)  (1755); 
Briefe  iiber  die  Empfindunqen  (1755)  ;  TJeber  die 
Eridenz  in  den  metaphysischen  Wissenschaften  : 
Pluidnn,  oder  Uber  die  Unsterblichkeit  der  Keele 
(I7fi7):  Jerusalem,  oder  iiber  reliyidse  Maeht 
iind    -/udenthum      (1783);     and     Morgenstunden 


( 1785) ,  His  works  have  Ijeen  collected  and  edited 
by  6.  B.  Mendelssohn  (7  vols.,  Leipzig,  1S43- 
45).  Consult:  llensel.  Die  Eamilie  Mendelssohn 
(9th  ed.,  Berlin,  1898;  Eng.  trans.  London, 
1882);  Kayscrling.  Moses  Mcndelssuhn  (Leipzig, 
1882)  ;  Ritter,  Mendelssohn  und  Lessing  (Ber- 
lin, 188C)  ;  Dessauer,  Der  dcutsche  Plato  (ib., 
1879),  His  philosophy  was  of  a  rather  super- 
ficial popular  sort,  whose  aim  was  to  find  good 
reason  for  opinions  currently  regarde<l  as  cor- 
rect. 

MENDELSSOHN  -  BARTHOLDY,  men'del- 
son-blir-tol'di,  Fklix  (lH()9-47).  A  famous  Ger- 
man composer.  He  was  born  at  Hamburg,  Febru- 
ary 3.  1809.  the  son  of  Abraham  ilendclssohn  and 
Leah  Salomon.  The  hitter's  brother,  after  embrac- 
ing Christianity.  as.sumed  the  name  Bartholdj', 
which  the  Mendelssohns  then  added  to  their  fam- 
ily name.  The  family  was  wealthy  and  highly 
refined.  Felix's  grandfather  was  the  celebrated 
Moses  Mendelssohn  (q.v.).  His  children  were 
brought  up  in  the  Protestant  faith.  Felix  re- 
ceived piano  instruction  first  from  his  mother; 
afterwards  Ludwig  Berger  became  his  teacher. 
His  instructor  in  counterjioint  and  musical  com- 
position was  Zelter:  and  the  finishing  touches  to 
his  skill  as  a  pianist  were  given  by  Moscheles. 
His  eldest  sister,  Fanny,  shared  this  instruction. 

Mendelssohn  began  to  compose  before  he  was 
twelve  years  of  age,  and  also  showed  great  taste 
in  drawing,  and  was  rapid,  yet  accurate,  in  his 
general  studies.  Notwithstanding  his  remark- 
able achievements  for  one  so  young,  his  education 
continued  on  broad  lines,  jluch  of  the  charm 
which  he  exerted  through  life  was  due  to  his 
combining  witli  musical  genius  the  tastes  of  a 
man  of  high  culture.  \Vhen  eleven  years  old  he 
paid  a  visit  to  Goethe,  who  was  delighted  not 
only  with  his  musical  accomplishments,  but  with 
his  modesty  and  refinement. 

Tlie  home  of  the  ilendclssohns  was  the  centre 
of  a  cultured  circle.  At  the  Sunday  concerts 
which  were  given  there  the  most  eminent  people 
residing  or  visiting  in  Berlin  were  met — musi- 
cians like  Weber,  Spohr.  Paganini,  Liszt,  Schu- 
mann; painters  like  Ingres,  Vernet.  Verboeck- 
hoyen,  Kaulbach ;  singers  like  Lablaehe,  Grisi, 
Pasta;  and  in  addition  to  these,  actors,  sculptors, 
poets,  and  scientists,  among  tlie  latter  the  Hum- 
boldts,  Bunsen,  and  Jakob  (Jrimm.  One  can 
imagine  the  rich  life  which  unfolded  itself  within 
such  a  circle,  and  its  iiufluence  upon  Felix's 
development.  One  of  the  intimates  of  the  circle 
was  Hensel.  the  portrait  painter,  who  married 
Fanny,  herself  scarcely  inferior  to  Felix  at  the 
piano.  Notwithstanding  his  pronounced  musical 
gifts,  Feli.K's  father,  in  order  to  make  sure  that 
he  was  acting  wisely  in  the  choice  of  a  musical 
career,  took  him  in  1825  to  Cherubini  in  Paris. 
After  examining  several  of  the  boy's  composi- 
tions, Cherubini  gave  an  allirmative  answer.  In 
the  same  year  Mendelssohn  composed  his  o<'tet 
(Opus  20).  In  February,  1827.  Iiis  Midsummer 
Kifiht's  Dream  overture  was  ]ilaycd  at  Stettin, 
and  was  received  with  great  applause.  April  of 
the  same  year  saw  the  production  of  his  opera. 
The  Wedding  of  Camacho,  in  Berlin,  but  it  was 
not  a  success. 

In  1828  he  composed  his  overture  to  Goethe's 
poem,  A  Calm  Sea  and  a  Happy  Voyage;  and  a 
letter  from  Fanny.  December  8,  1828,  to  his 
friend,  the  poet  Klingemann,  refers  to  his  com- 
position of  Songs  Without  Words.     One  of  Men- 


MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY. 


310 


MENDENHALL. 


delssoliii',--  lim->t  ailiiiveimiils,  tin-  lii>l  pciform- 
aiK-c  since  l!aih"s  dt-ath  of  the  .Saint  Matthew 
J'li.ssiuii.  tiiok  plate  in  Uerlin  in  1S2!I.  The  great- 
est dillioulties  liad  to  be  overcome,  not  the  least 
being  the  indifference  of  musicians  and  public, 
but  Mendelssohn  brought  the  all'air  to  a  tri- 
uniplianl  issue,  and  thus  gave  the  tirst  impetus 
to  the  great  ISach  revival  through  which  that 
composer  at  last  obtained  due  recognition.  In 
April,  1S2'.I,  Mendelssohn  made  the  first  of  sev- 
eral visits  to  England,  where  his  former  te.icher, 
Moscheles.  was  settled.  He  was  well  received 
socially,  and  his  concert  apjiearances  both  as 
pianist  and  composer  were  highly  successful. 
He  made  a  tour  of  Scotland  and  visited  the 
Hebrides.  During  a  visit  to  the  ruined  palace  of 
Holyrood.  with  its  traditions  of  Queen  Mary, 
he  iiit  upon  the  beginning  of  his  Sailch  Sym- 
phoiiif:  and  his  trip  to  the  islands  inspired  his 
Bcbriihs  or  Fiiiyars  Care  overture.  The  germ 
of  his  Itcformation  iti/iitjihoni/  also  dates  from 
this  time.  The  ,Scotch  Hymphony,  however,  was 
not  completed  until  many  years  later,  having 
its  first  ])erfonname  in  Leipzig  in  March,  1842, 
and  in  London  at  a  Philharmonic  concert  in  June 
of  the  same  year. 

In  1830  he  declined  an  ofTered  professorship  of 
music  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  traveled  to  Italy.  In  Home  he 
began  one  of  his  most  important  works,  the  can- 
tata to  Goethe's  I'irst  Walpiiriiis  Sii/lit,  and  in  a 
letter  to  Faimy,  dated  from  Rome,  in  February, 
1831.  he  writes  that  the  Italian  Symphony  is 
making  great  progress.  After  various  travels,  in- 
cluding visits  to  Paris  and  Lon<lon,  where  his 
ai)pearances  again  were  highly  successful,  he  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  to  conduct  a  music  festival 
at  Diisseldorf.  This  led  to  his  taking,  in  1833, 
the  post  of  musical  director  of  the  city,  where  he 
remaincil.  (|uickcning  the  musical  life  of  the  place 
and  engaging  in  the  composition  of  tlu-  greater 
part  of  his  oratorio  of  Saint  Paul,  until  1835, 
when  he  became  conductor  of  the  famous  (Jewand- 
haus  concerts  in  Leipzig.  Here  his  activity  was 
of  the  utmost  importance.  He  not  only  brought 
the  orchestra  to  a  high  state  of  perfection,  but  he 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  founding  of  the 
Leipzig  Conservatory. 

His  oratorio  of  Saint  Paul  was  brought  out 
at  the  Lower  Rhenish  Musical  Festival  (q.v. ),  at 
Diisseldorf.  under  his  own  direction,  in  May, 
1836.  In  1837  he  married  Cecile  .lean-Kenaud, 
the  daughter  of  a  French  clergj-man  in  Frank- 
fort. Their  union  was  a  most  happy  one.  Dur- 
ing fiis  incumbency  at  Leipzig  he  made  frequent 
tours,  and  in  1841  went,  at  the  invitiition  of 
Frederick  William  IV..  to  Berlin,  and  at  his 
instigation  composed  the  music  to  (FiliiHis, 
(KilipiiM  Cnl'inos,  and  Aniiiinnr :  ithaliv;  and  the 
rest  of  his  music  to  the  Miilsanimrr  yiyht's 
Itrram.  Late  in  1S42  he  returned  to  Leipzig. 
Previously  during  that  year  he  had  visited  Eng- 
land for  the  seventh  time,  and  by  invitation  had 
played  for  Queen  Victoria  and  the  Prince  Consort 
nt  llui'kinghani  Palace.  In  1844  he  was  again 
in  England,  and  in  August,  184fi.  brouglit  out 
with  oviTwhelining  success  at  the  Birmingham 
festival  his  onitorii>  Elijah.  In  1847  the  sudden 
death  of  his  ludoved  sister  Fanny  came  as  a 
great  shock  to  him.  and  his  system,  weakened 
by  overwork,  snccunibod.  In  September,  in 
Leipzig,  while  listening  to  his  own  recently  com- 
posed Night  Song,  he  swooned  away.     Xcrvous 


prostration  followed,   and   on  November  4th  he 
died. 

Probably  no  composer  ever  was  so  feted  during 
his  lifetime  or  lost  so  much  ground  after  his 
death  as  Mendelssohn.  He  was  the  idol  of 
the  public  and  a  large  circle  of  friends.  In 
England  his  popularity  amounted  to  a  Men- 
delssohn worship.  His  music,  polished  like  him- 
self, perfect  in  form,  melodious,  easily  under- 
stood, and  not  too  dillicult  technically,  inune- 
dfately  became  poiiular  in  concert  and  drawing 
rooms.  It  presented  no  problems  and  solved 
none.  He  was,  as  a  rule,  a  rapid  producer;  the 
music  to  Antigone  was  composed  in  eleven  days. 
But  the  very  quality  which  made  his  music 
attain  such  immediate  popularity,  a  certain  su- 
perficial prettiness,  has  caused  much  of  it  to 
be  laid  aside.  His  oratories  still  are  given,  and 
the  Elijah  especially  holds  its  own:  tin-  violin 
concerto  is  an  admirable  composition;  the  Mid- 
summer yight's  Dream  overture  has  fairylike 
grace ;  certain  Songs  Without  Words  and  the 
Variations  scrieuses  have  a  definite  value  in  the 
pianoforte  curriculum;  and  several  of  his  choral 
works  are  highly  valued.  But  the  bulk  of  his 
product  is  less  and  less  heard  of.  As  a  conductor 
his  attitude  toward  new  departures  was  not  , 
friendly.  Wagner's  Tannhiiuser  overture  he 
played  at  a  Gewandhaus  concert  'as  a  warning 
example.'  But  for  Bach  and  the  appreciation  of 
Beethoven's  later  works  he  did  much. 

Consult:  Lampadius,  Life  of  Mendelssohn 
(English  translation  by  Gage,  London,  1876), 
a  standard  work:  Kockstro,  Mcndels.'iohn,  "Great 
Musicians  Scries"  (London.  1890).  an  excellent 
short  life;  Hensel.  The  Mendelssohn  Familg, 
1720-lS.i7,  from  Letters  and  -Journals  (English 
translation  by  Carl  Klingemann.  Xevv  York, 
1881);  Schubring.  h'eminiscenres  of  Felix  Men- 
delssohn, in  the  Lonihm  Miisieal  World  for 
May  12  and  10.  18ti(J:  lliller,  Mendelssohn, 
Letters  and  Itecolleetions  (London.  1874)  ;  and 
an  exhaustive  biogra|)hy  in  (^rove.  Dietionary  of 
Music  (iiid  M usiriiiiis    I  T.ondon.  1800). 

MENDELSSOHN     SCHOLAKSHIP.       The 

most  valualile  musical  |irize  in  (ireat  Britain, 
which  entitles  its  liolder  to  a  course  of  study 
abroad.  The  movement  for  founding  such  a 
scholarship  began  in  1848.  when  the  proceed* 
from  a  performance  of  Elijah  were  set  aside  for 
the  pur])Ose.  In  ISoO  the  first  scholar.  Arthur 
Sullivan,  was  elected.  The  capital  has  been 
gradually  added  to  until  the  annuity  now  con- 
sists of  "about  five  hundred  dollars.  There  is 
also  a  Mendelssohn  scholarship  in  Berlin,  whose 
value  is  about  seven  hundred  and  twenty  dollars, 
half  of  which  is  awarded  to  composers  and  half 
to  virtuosos. 

MENDENHALL.  menMrnhnl.  Thomas  Cob- 
wi.\  (1811  —  I.  An  .\merican  physicist,  born 
near  Ilanoverton,  Ohio.  He  received  a  common 
school  education,  became  professor  of  physics 
and  me<4ianics  in  the  Ohio  State  Tniversity  in 
1873.  and  in  1878  accepted  the  chair  of  physics 
in  the  Imperial  I'niversity  at  Tokio.  .lapan.  llis 
labors  there  were  later  incorporated  into  the 
Goveniment  meteorological  system:  and  he  was 
also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Tokio  Seis- 
mological  Society,  lie  returned  to  Ohio  in  1881, 
perfected  the  Ohio  St.ate  weather  service,  and  in 
1884  was  called  to  the  United  States  Signal  Ser- 
vice   at    Washington.     In    1886    he    was    mad» 


MENDENHALL. 


311 


MENDICANCY. 


president  of  tlie  Ro.-*  rulyU't-linic  Institute, 
Teire  Haute,  Iiui.;  in  1S80  lie  became  superin- 
tenUeiil  of  tlie  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey;  and  in  1894  became  president  of  the 
Polyteelmic  Institute  at  Worcester,  Mass.  He 
has  made  s<neral  important  contributions  to 
physical  science,  and  is  tlie  autlior  of  .1  Century 
of 'I'Jcct  licit  ;i   (1887). 

MENDERES,  men'der-6z.  Tlie  modern  name 
of  tile  Maaiuler  (q.v.),  a  river  of  Asia  Jlinor. 

MENDES,  maN'das',  Catulle  (1841  —  ), 
A  French  ])oet  and  novelist,  born  in  Bordeaux, 
May  22,  1841.  He  founded  (1849)  the  Revue 
Fanlaisisle,  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  'Par- 
nassian' poetic  group  and  to  "art  for  art's  sake.' 
His  verses,  dramas,  novels,  and  short  stories  are 
beautiful  in  form,  but  often  ba.se  in  morals. 
Noteworthy  among  many  volumes  are:  Poesies 
(1878);  the  dramas  Le  ctipitaine  Fracasse 
(1870),  Le  chiitiment  (1887),  and  Fiiimmette 
(1889)  :  the  novel  La  femme-enfant  (1891)  ;  and 
the  short  Folies  amoureuses  (  1877),  all  of  which 
show  morbidity  and  most  of  them  eroticism. 

MENDES  LEAL,  man'dush  la-iil',  Josfi  da 
SiLVA  (1818-8U).  A  Portuguese  dramatist  and 
diplomat,  born  at  Lisbon.  He  produced  a  num- 
ber of  plays  wliich  have  been  veiy  successful.  Tlie 
following  are  the  best:  Os  dous  reneyados 
(1839);  Eyus  iloniz  (1801);  iladre  Hilva 
(1847)  ;  A  pohre  das  ruinus  (1846)  ;  Os  homens 
de  marmore  ( 18.54)  ;  Os  homens  de  vidro  { 1855)  ; 
Pedro  (1857);  A  escala  social  (1858);  and 
especially  the  comedies  0  tio  Andre  que  rem  do 
Brazil  (1855),  and  Receita  para  eurar  saudades 
(1857).  He  was  a  member  of  the  Portuguese 
Academy  (1840)  and  director  of  the  National 
Library. 

MENDES-PINTO,  maN'desh-peN'tu.  Fernao. 
See  PiXTo.  Ferxao  Mexde.s. 

MENDIBUE.TT,  men'de-BoT/roo,  Manuel  de 
(1805-S.ii.  A  Peruvian  historian,  born  at  Lima. 
He  studied  at  the  Universitj-  of  San  Marcos; 
entered  public  life  in  1819  as  a  clerk;  and  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  of  1821  joined 
the  patriot  forces.  He  was  captured  by  the 
Spanisli  troops,  but  was  released  at  the  end 
of  the  war.  and  held  various  posts  under  the 
Peruvian  Oovcrnment.  His  great  collection  of 
materials  for  a  history  of  Peru  was  published 
as  a  Diccionario  histdrico-biorrrdfico  del  Peru 
(1874  sqq.),  which,  although  complete  only  for 
the  early  and  colonial  [lericKl,  is  a  most  valuable 
work. 

MENDICANCY  (from  mendicant,  from  Lat. 
mendicnns,  pres.  part,  of  mcndicare,  to  beg,  from 
mendicus.  poor).  The  practice  of  begging.  A 
beggar  is  one  who  seeks  to  get  his  living,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  by  soliciting  alms.  The  word 
lieggar  is  probably  derived  from  the  Beghards.  a 
religions  order  of  the  Miildlc  Ages  corresponding 
to  a  similar  order  among  women,  the  Beguines 
(q.v.).  Small  communities  of  the  Bfig^iines  still 
exist  in  Belgium. 

In  primitive  societies  beggars  have  little  chance 
for  existence.  Whenever  and  wherever  a  sur- 
plus results  from  labor,  there  appears  a  class 
of  the  economically  unfit  ready  and  anxious  to 
live  as  parasites  on  the  labor  of  others.  If, 
through  the  influence  of  religion  or  other  causes, 
almsgiving  comes  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  virtue, 
mendicants  will  rapidly  increase.     Such  a  condi- 


tion existed  in  ICuropc  in  the  iliJdle  Ages,  and 
beggars  became  so  numerous  that  they  threatened 
to  overrun  the  Continent.  The  Ciiurcli  inculcated 
almsgiving  ami  emphasized  it  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  future  liappiness.  The  great  success  of 
the  orders  of  the  'liegging  friars,'  the  Francis- 
cans, Dominicans,  Carmelites,  and  Augustinians 
encouraged  begging  among  the  laity.  Meantime 
there  was  a  gradual  development  of  monasteries, 
hospitals,  guilds,  and  private  benevolence,  entirely 
independent  of  each  other,  yet  all  giving  alms, 
and  this  without  any  thought  of  investigation  as 
to  the  worthiness  of  the  recipient. 

In  l.'i49  England  began  to  forbid  begging. 
France  followed  in  1350,  and  later  some  of  the 
German  towns,  as  Esslingen  (1384)  and  Bruns- 
wick (1400).  Such  legislation  was  of  little  effect. 
During  the  fifteentli  century  the  idea  gradually 
gained  ground  that  the  able-bodied  poor  must 
be  set  at  work.  The  adoption  of  this  view  in- 
volved the  overthrow  of  the  old  theory  of  alms- 
giving, and  it  was  steadily  opposed  by  the  Church. 

The  si.xteenth  century  marks  a  great  change. 
Luther  said  that  one  of  the  most  crying  needs 
of  Christian  countries  was  the  prohibition  of 
begging,  and  measures  to  this  efl'ect  introduced 
in  the  'Regulation  of  a  Common  Chest'  became 
the  basis  for  subsequent  reforms.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  Zwingli,  Zurich  prohibited  begging  in 
1525.  The  Catholic  Vives  wrote  Ue  Suhcentione 
Pauperum  (Bruges,  1520),  which  led  to  the 
breakdown  of  the  old  system  in  Catholic  Eviro])e, 
in  the  North  at  least,  for  in  Spain,  through  the 
inlljience  of  the  Dominican  monk  Soto,  the  pro- 
hibition was  not  decreed,  and  Italy  has  only 
partially  forbidden  the  custom. 

Germany  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War  made 
more  stringent  regulations,  but  the  various 
States  were  not  in  harmony,  and  the  root  of  the 
evil  was  not  reached.  Frankfort  (1020),  Anhalt 
1770),  Hesse  (1777).  forbade  begging  entirely. 
Hamburg  followed  in  1788  and  forbade  also 
gifts  to  beggars.  Here  was  introduced  more 
efl'ective  investigation  of  the  individual  cases,  and 
other  cities  copied  the  plan.  By  1791  it  is  re- 
ported that  open  begging  had  been  stopped.  The 
general  German  law  is  that  vagabonds  (Land- 
streicher,  best  translated  tramps)  may  be  im- 
prisoned. Beggars,  those  who  ask  alms  either 
in  person  or  througli  letters,  may  be  put  to  hard 
work.  In  some  of  the  States  appeals  for  assist- 
ance may  not  be  published  in  the  papers  without 
special  permission.  Bavaria  made  a  statistical 
investigation  of  mendicancy  between  1870  and 
1880  which  showed  that  some  20,000  persons  were 
convicteil  each  year.  In  Saxony  between  1880 
and  1887  of  those  convicted  47  per  cent,  were 
Saxons.  42.7  from  other  German  States,  and  10.3 
foreigners.  In  many  towns  there  is  a  Verein 
gegen  Verarmung  und  Bettelei. 

France  forbade  mendicancy  in  1500,  but  the 
efforts  made  to  enforce  the  law  were  inelTective. 
In  1027  it  was  ordered  that  beggars  be  impressed 
into  the  nax-y.  Later,  beggars  were  commanded 
to  leave  Paris  under  penalty  of  being  sent  to  the 
galleys.  After  the  Revolution,  however,  penal 
colonies,  depots  de  mendicite,  were  established. 

Italy  prohibited  begging  in  1805.  but  local 
authorities  may  issue  permits  (permissi  di  men- 
dicare).  and  begging,  licensed  or  not.  abounds, 
particularly  in  the  southern  provinces. 

The  practice  has  also  been  prohibited  in  other 
countries—Denmark  (1789,  1803,  1800),  Nonvay 


MENDICANCY. 


312 


MENDOZA. 


(1863),  Russia  ( 1 804) ,  Sweden  (1885).  In  Mo- 
hanuiiednn  lands,  where  almsgiving  is  still  a 
religious  oliligation,  lieggars  al)ound. 

England  in  1530  decreed  that  an  able-bodied 
beggar  should  \te  wliipped  for  tlie  first  ofl'ense, 
have  his  ears  cropped  for  the  seeond,  and  be 
e.xeeuted  as  a  felon  and  eoninion  enemy  for  the 
third.  In  1547  he  was  to  be  branded  and  become 
the  slave  of  any  one  who  would  care  for  him 
for  two  years.  In  the  act  of  15;j(i  "conunon  and 
open  doles'  were  prohibited,  and  the  parish  au- 
tliorities  instructed  to  care  for  the  worthy  poor. 
The  civic  authorities  were  still  trying  various 
schemes.  Oxford  had  four  'be<iclls  of  the  beggars' 
who  "took  a  ward  ever^'  Friday  to  gather  the 
devotion  of  the  houses,"  and  on  other  days,  "daily 
the  streets  to  walk,  to  look  what  other  beggars 
or  vagabonds  do  come  into  the  city  and  then  to 
give  notice  to  the  constables."  In  Southampton 
in  1540  a  'master  of  Ix-gg.irs'  with  a  silver  gilt 
badge  and  small  annual  fee  is  mentioned.  York 
(loIiS)  decided  that  "from  henceforth  no  Head- 
beggars  shall  be  chosen,"  and  by  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  the  other  towns  had  followed 
her  example.  In  1502  compulsory  lat>or  was 
made  possil)le.  In  ICOl  came  the  famous  poor 
law  of  Elizabeth  (4.3  Eliz.,  c.  2)  which  em- 
phasized the  necessity  for  work:  1G70  marked 
the  establisliment  of  the  first  workhouse  at  Bris- 
tol, and  with  these  changes  the  modern  system 
is  inaugurati-d.  Yet  begging  was  not  abolished. 
and  in  Scotland  (see  The  Antiijiiarii.  Walter 
Scott)  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  'Hedesmen'  or  'lUue  (iown-;'  were  licensed. 
The  present  English  law  is  that  of  1S24.  Habit- 
ual begging  is  a  criminal  oircnse.  punishable  in 
a  summary  manner,  that  is,  without  trial  by 
jury.  (See  V.\(iRAN'T. )  For  the  first  ofTense  one 
may  be  committed  as  'idle  and  disorderly'  to 
one  month  at  hard  labor;  for  the  second  oilcnse 
as  a  'rogue  and  vagabond'  for  three  months;  for 
a  third  as  an  'incorrigible  vagabond'  for  one 
year.  One  who  s(dicits  charitable  contributions 
by  lying  letters,  false  writings,  or  any  other 
cheat,  is  liable  to  punishment  for  obtaining  money 
under  false  pretenses  (q.v.).  If  begging  be  ac- 
companied by  threats  of  violence,  it  may  subject 
the  olTender  to  punishment  for  robbery   (q.v.). 

In  the  United  States  mendicancy  has  been 
looked  upon  as  bad,  and  is  generally  forbidden. 
The  laws  have  been  very  leniently  enforce<l.  and 
in  many  places  are  almost  de;ul  letters.  Only 
one  State.  .Massa<liusetts,  has  provided  a  farm 
colony  to  which  beggars  may  be  sent  and  made 
to  work.  In  some  cities  energetic  steps  are  being 
taken  to  make  l)egging  unprofitable,  and  special 
attention  is  being  paid  to  parents  who  send  young 
ehililren  out  to  beg.  or  who  cover  their  begging 
by  pretense  of  selling  odds  and  ends. 

The  ex|M'rienee  of  all  countries  has  shown 
that  mendicancy  will  llirive  wherever  indis- 
criminate al?n-giving  prevails.  In  modern  society 
it  may  practically  be  stopped  if  steps  are  taken 
to  care  [jpiperly  for  the  worthy  i>oor  and  to 
compel  others  to  work  or  else  go  h\ingrv. 

For  an  aeeoimt  of  the  general  development  of 
the  care  of  the  poor,  see  Pattperism.  See,  also, 
CiiAUiTY  Ohoamzation  SOCIETY;  'Tramps;  So- 
cial Dkiitor  f 'i.a.s.ses. 

Consult  :  liibtonTurner,  fli.tlorii  of  Vaqrants 
and  Vnqrnnni  (London,  1887)  ;  I.uther,  Hook  of 
Rcfffiam.  Eng.  trans.  (I^ondon,  1800)  ;  Hender- 
son. Drprndrnts,  Defectives,  I)clin<iurnls  (Boston, 


1001).  Tliis  work  contains  an  excellent  theoreti- 
cal discussion  of  the  subject,  .\sldey,  EiiijHsh 
Economic  History  (New  Y"ork,  lSil3),  contains  a 
chapter  on  the  development  of  jjoor  relief.  Kat- 
zinger,  Hcxrliiclitc  der  kirctilicticn  Arincnitllege 
(2  ed,,  Freiburg  ira  B.,  1884).  discusses  me- 
diivval  pour  relief  from  a  Catholic  standpoint; 
Keitzenstein.  Hie  Armcngesetzgcbuiui  t'raitlcreichs 
(Leipzig,  1881),  gives  an  historical  account  of 
its  development;  Biihmert,  Suchsische  liettler- 
und  Vagubiindcnstutistik  ran  i.SiS'O-.ST  (Dresden, 
1888),  gives  an  account  of  the  investigations  into 
the  (piestion  of  mendicancy;  Lannners.  Die  Hctlel- 
plage  (Berlin.  1870)  ;  Proceeding!,'  of  the  Xutional 
('oiifcrcncc  of  ('harilicx  and  Correction  (Boston), 
yearly  reports  of  Charity  Organization  Societies 
and  similar  organizations;  Hugo,  Xotrc  Dame  de 
Paris,  and  Keadc,  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth, 
contain  accounts  of  the  organizations  of  beggars; 
Ehrle,  licitriigc  zur  tlcschichte  der  Armenpflege 
(Freilnirg.  1881),  discusses  the  media'val  theory 
of  almsgiving. 

MENBOCINO,  men'diVse'n.'i,  Cape,  See  Capb 
Mkxdocino. 

MENDOZA,  nien-do'sa.  A  province  of  Ar- 
gentina, situated  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Kepublic.  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Province  of  San  .hum.  on  the  east  by  San  Luis, 
on  the  south  and  southeast  by  the  territories 
of  El  Pampa  and  Xeguen.  and  on  the  w'est  by 
Chile  (Map:  .-\rgentina,  D  10).  Its  area  is 
estimated  at  55,000  scpiare  miles.  With  the 
exception  of  the  portion  adjoining  the  Andes,  the 
surface  of  the  province  is  practically  occupied 
by  an  extensive  plain  mostly  sandy  and  only 
indiirercntly  fertile.  The  western  portion  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  slope  of  the  Andes  Range,  which 
rises  on  the  boundary  to  a  height  of  over  22,000 
feet  in  Moinit  Aconcagua.  Several  lofty  i)asse3 
lead  from  the  jirovince  into  Chile.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  province  are  engaged  chiefly  in  agri- 
culture and  stock-raising,  and  cattle,  hides,  and 
wool  are  among  the  chief  exports.  Wheat,  corn, 
and  lucerne  are  the  chief  agricultural  juoducta, 
but  vine-culture  and  the  production  of  wine  have 
of  lale  become  an  importiinl  industry.  Owing  to 
the  dry  climate  and  the  scarcity  of  water,  artifi- 
cial irrigiition  is  usually  necess;iry.  The  mineral 
deposits  of  Mendoza  are  of  importance,  but  min- 
ing is  still  in  a  backward  state.  Population,  in 
18!)5,  lUi.l.'JO.     The  capital  is  .Mendoza. 

MENDOZA.  The  capital  of  the  Province 
of  .Mendoza.  .Vrgentina,  situated  at  the  east- 
ern ba.se  of  the  .Andes,  1(>0  miles  east  of  Val- 
paraiso, on  the  railroad  between  that  city  and 
Buenos  .\yres  (Map:  .Argentina,  D  10).  The 
town  has  a  national  college,  an  agricultural  in- 
stitute, normal  schools  for  both  sexes,  and  a 
street  railway.  Population.  20,000.  Mendoza 
was  founilcd  in  1500.  It  was  the  scene  of  a 
terrible  c(irth(|uake  in  1801.  which  destroyed  the 
city   :ind    killed    10.000   people. 

MENDOZA,    men-do'th;i,    Ax.\A    DE,    Princess 

of    Elioli.       Sic    EliOI.I. 

MENDOZA,  Antonio  de.  Count  of  Tendilla 
(c.l  (S.'i  1552  I .  .\  Spanish  administrator,  born 
in  Oranada.  He  was  a  member  of  an  illustrious 
family  and  became  a  great  favorite  with  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  Constant  quarrels  in  Xcw 
Spain  between  the  Governor,  the  nobility,  and 
the  .\udiencia  (the  commission  representing  the 
Emperor)   led  to  the  determination  to  appoint  in 


MENDOZA. 


313 


MENELAUS. 


each  territory  n  iH'i^mal  rcprcsoiitativp  of  the 
Emperor's  aiitliority.  and  -Meiuloza  «as  appointed 
the  first  Vieerov  ol  .Mexieo.  He  arrived  tliere  in 
1535.  Witli  liini  he  brought  a  printing  press  on 
wliich  was  printed  the  next  year  La  escala  de 
San  Juan  Vlimucu,  the  first  book  printed  in 
Mexico.  A  mint  was  establislied  the  same 
year,  sehools  and  hospitals  were  built,  and  a 
college  was  founded.  The  breed  of  sheep  was 
improved,  silk  culture  was  encouraged,  anil  better 
nietlKHls  of  agriculture  were  inlrodnced.  In  1542 
a  forniidal)le  insurrection  of  the  Indians  was 
suppressed.  An  expedition  under  ^'asquez  de 
Coronado  was  sent  to  discover  the  mythical  eity 
of  Ciluila  and  the  no  less  mythical  Quivira,  and 
explored  nnieh  of  what  is  now  Xew  Mexico  and 
Colorado.  Mendoza  was  not  able  to  carry  into  ef- 
fect the  prohibition  of  further  enslavement  of  the 
Indians,  but  succeeded  better  tlian  miglit  have 
been  ex]icctcd.  In  I.toO  he  was  appointed  Vice- 
roy of  I'eni.  He  was  an  amiable  but  dignified 
and  just  man,  a  striking  contrast  to  many  of  the 
Spanisli   rulers. 

MENDOZA,  Diego  Hurtado  de  (150.3-75). 
A  Spanish  statesman  and  man  of  letters,  born 
at  Granada.  Trained  at  Salamanca  for  the 
Church,  he  entered  instead  u])on  a  militaiy  career 
and  passed  through  the  Italian  campaigns  of 
Charles  V.  The  latter  sent  him  as  Ambassador 
to  V'enice.  whence  he  passed  (in  1547)  to  Siena  as 
the  Imperial  Governor.  He  had  (in  1545)  repre- 
sented his  Imperial  master  at  theCouncil  of  Trent; 
and  in  154!l  he  went  to  Rome  to  carry  out  Charles's 
policy  of  bullying  tlie  Papacy.  In  1554  he  re- 
turned to  Si)ain.  As  a  poet  Mendoza  has  left 
compositions  in  the  older  conventional  Spanish 
manner,  and  some  that  show  the  influence  of  his 
classical  attainments;  he  gained  greatest  repute 
in  his  own  time,  however,  as  one  of  the  leaders 
in  the  movement  which  accomplished  the  Italian- 
izing of  Spanisli  lyric  poetry.  Mendoza's  prose 
work  of  the  most  importance  is  his  Oiierra  de 
flraiiiidii,  dealing  with  an  insurrection  of  the 
Moors.  His  aci|uaintancc  with  Araliic  equipped 
him  admirably  for  the  perfonnanee  of  this  his- 
torical task,  but  his  outspoken  honesty  prevented 
the  appearance  of  a  complete  edition  of  the  work 
until  1730,  for  the  editions  of  Madrid  ( 1010)  and 
Lisbon  (l(l'i7)  arc  defective.  Consult  his  verse 
in  vol.  xxxii.  of  the  Bihlioteca  de  autores  espit- 
I'liilcf!.  and,  in  vol,  xxi.  of  that  same  collection,  an 
edition  of  tlie  (lurrra  dr  Ornntida:  J.  D.  Fesen- 
mair.  D.  Iliirtadn  dc  Mcndo::n,  cin  spniiificher 
Hiimiiiii.it  (IcK  llileii  Jtilirhundcrts  (Jlunich, 
1SS2)  ;  Foulche-Belbose.  in  the  Revue  Hispanique 
i.,  101,  and  ii.,  208. 

MENDOZA,  Inigo  Lopez  de,  Marquis  de 
SantilhiiKV.  See  Santillana  Inigo  Lopez  de 
Mendoza.  Jlarqufs  de. 

MENDOZA,  .TuAN-  Gonzalez  de  (c.l540- 
1C17).  A  Spanish  prelate,  born  at  Toledo.  He 
joined  (lie  army,  but  after  some  years  resigned 
to  enter  the  Order  of  Saint  Augustine.  In  1580 
he  was  sent  by  Philip  IT.  to  China,  where  he 
spent  three  years  in  gaining  information  as  to 
the  politics,  commerce,  and  customs  of  the  coun- 
trj\  He  spent  two  years  in  Mexico  before  return- 
ing to  Spain,  He  was  afterwards  Bishop  of  the 
Lipari  Islands,  of  Chiapas,  and  of  Popayiin. 
where  he  died.  He  published  an  account  of  his 
observations  in  China  in  a  work  entitled  Historia 
dc  Uis  cosa.1  mds  notables,  rito/s  y  costumbres  del 


gran  rcijno  dc  la  China.  An  English  translation 
appeared  in  1588,  and  was  rejirinted  by  the 
Hakluyt  Society  in  1853-54. 

MENDOZA,  Pedko  de  (c.1487-1537) .  A 
Spanish  cxjdorer.  He  was  of  a  noble  family 
high  in  the  favor  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  In 
1529  he  oll'ered  to  explore  South  America  at  his 
own  expense  and  establish  colonies.  He  was  made 
military  Governor  of  all  the  tcrritorj'  between 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan, and  the  Emperor  gave  2000  ducats  and 
advanced  2000  more  on  the  condition  that  within 
two  years  Jlendoza  should  transport  one  thou- 
sand colonists,  build  roads  into  the  interior,  and 
build  three  forts.  He  was  to  have  half  the  treas- 
ure of  the  chiefs  killed  and  nine-tenths  of  the 
ransom.  The  office  of  Governor  was  also  made 
hereditaiy.  In  1534  with  a  considerable  licet  he 
set  sail,  but  a  terrible  tempest  scattered  it  ofT 
the  coast  of  Brazil.  Here  his  lieutenant,  Osorio, 
was  assassinated,  according  to  some  authorities 
by  the  orders  of  Mendoza  himself.  He  sailed  up 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  founded  Buenos  Ayres  in 
1535.  Pestilence  broke  out,  and  the  natives  be- 
came unfriendly.  His  brother  Diego,  who  led  a 
force  against  the  hostile  tribes,  was  killed  with 
three-fourths  of  his  men.  A  general  conspiracy 
of  the  natives  was  formed,  and  tlie  city  was  cap- 
tured and  bvirned.  Anotlier  brother,  Cionzalo,  ar- 
rived with  reenforcements  and  founded  the  city 
of  Asuncion  in  Paraguay  in  1530.  Mendoza,  dis- 
appointed and  broken  in  health,  embarked  for 
Spain,  but  died  a  maniac  during  the  voyage,  in 
1537. 

MEN'EDE'MUS  (Lat.,  from  CJk.  Me^Sijuos) 
(  ?-c.277  U.C.J.  A  t4reek  philosopher,  a  native  of 
Eretria.  According  to  some  authorities,  he 
studied  under  Plato;  according  to  others,  under 
Stilpo  at  Megara.  He  founded  the  Eretrian  School 
of  philosophy,  and  was  also  one  of  the  leading 
men  in  the  political  affairs  of  his  vState.  All  that 
is  known  of  the  philosophy  of  Menedemus  is  that 
it  closely  rcsemlded  that  of  the  Megarian  School. 

MEN'ELA'US  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  -iUvilaoc) . 
In  ancient  Cireck  legend,  a  King  of  Laceda>inon.  the 
younger  brother  of  Agamemnon  and  husliand  of 
the  famous  Helen.  Tlie  abduction  of  his  wife  by 
Paris  is  represented  as  the  cause  of  the  Trojan 
War.  In  the  Iliad  he  appears  most  prominently 
in  the  duel  with  Paris,  when  the  life  of  the 
latter  is  saved  only  by  the  divine  interposition  of 
-\|)hrodite,  and  in  the  battle  oveT  the  body  of 
Patroelus,  where  he  is  one  of  the  foremost  com- 
batants, and  eventually  carries  the  corpse  from 
the  field.  After  the  capture  of  Troy  he  slew 
Deiphobus,  who  had  wedded  Helen  after  the 
death  of  Paris,  and  in  some  versions  intended  to 
kill  his  wife,  but  was  disarmed  by  her  beauty. 
After  the  fall  of  Troy  he  sailed  with  Helen  for 
his  own  land ;  but  his  fleet  was  scattered  by  a 
storm,  and  he  wandered  for  eight  years  about  the 
coasts  of  Cyprus,  Phaniicia,  Eg^'pt,  and  Libya. 
After  his  return  lie  lived  at  Sparta  with  his  wife. 
Helen,  in  great  happiness.  Both  ilenelaus  and 
Helen  were  worshiped  as  gods  at  Therapne.  near 
Sparta,  and  it  is  probable  that  here,  as  so  com- 
monly in  Grecian  heroic  myths,  we  have  two 
local  deities  who  have  been  reduced  to  hero  and 
heroine. 

MENELAUS.  A  Greek  mathematician,  who 
lived  c.  100  A.n.  He  wrote  a  book  on  the  calcula- 
tion of  chords,  not  now  extant,  and  a  work  in  three 


MENELAUS. 


314 


MENEPTAH. 


books,  under  the  title  Sphwrica.  The  latter,  al- 
though not  now  extunt  in  Greek,  is  known  in  Ara- 
bic and  Hebrew,  and  in  several  Latin  translations. 
It  is  a  treatise  on  spherical  triangles,  with  respect 
not  to  their  solution,  but  to  their  geometric 
properties.  One  of  the  most  interesting  proposi- 
tions is  that  concerning  a  spherical  triangle  cut 
by  a  transversal,  the  corresponding  i)roposition 
for  plane  triangles  being  stated  a.s  a  lemma.  This 
theorem,  known  by  the  name  of  Jlenelaus,  as- 
serts that  if  the  lines  of  the  three  sides  of  a 
triangle  be  cut  by  a  transversal,  the  product  of 
three  segments  which  have  no  common  extremity 
is  equal  to  the  prodiict  of  the  other  three.  For 
spherical  triangles  "the  chords  of  three  segments 
doubled'  replaces  "three  .segments.'  The  proposi- 
tion was  often  called  in  the  Middle  Ages  the 
regula  scjc  (juantitatum. 

KEIT'ELEK,  or,  more  correctly,  ^Ie.mlek 
(1844 — ).  A  King  of  Abyssinia,  born  in  Anko- 
bar,  where  his  father.  Ailu  Jlalakoth,  was  crow^^ 
prince  of  the  Kingdom  of  Shoa.  After  his  fath- 
er's death  in  lS.i.5,  Menelek  was  for  ten  years 
interned  in  Gojam  by  his  father's  rival,  Theodore, 
■who  attempted  to  make  peace  with  him  by  giving 
him  his  daughter  to  wife.  But  in  1805  he  es- 
caped to  Shoa,  where  he  managed  to  establish  him- 
self.tluinks  to  England's  interference  in  Abyssinia, 
and  as  King  (or  Ras)  of  Shoa  had  little  trouble 
in  defeating  the  son  of  John,  Ras  of  Tigr^,  in 
1880  and  in  coming  to  the  -Vbyssinian  throne,  to 
■which  he  claimed  a  family  right  by  his  descent 
from  King  Solomon.  For  the  mo.st  part  friendh' 
to  Enropcan  civilization,  Menelek  was  in  many 
respects  a  savage.  But  he  showed  remarkable 
ability  in  bringing  his  army  to  a  high  pitch  of 
boldness.  England's  intervention  between  Italy 
and  Abyssinia  had  already  checked  an  open  break, 
but  when  Italy  claimed  a  prntcctorate  Itv  the 
Treaty  of  Ucliali,  ilenelek  jirotested  in  18!1.'3.  and 
in  18'.I0  by  the  victory  at  .Vdowa  forced  Italy  to 
sign  the  Peace  of  Addis  Abeba,  thus  giving  up  all 
claim  to  a  protectorate.  He  came  to  a  complete 
understanding  with  Great  Britain  in  1808.     See 

AllYSSIMA. 

MENENDEZ  DE  AVILES,  nu'inanMAth  dA 
a'v*-las',  Pedro  (1510-74).  The  founder  of 
Saint  Augustine,  Fla.  He  was  born  at  Avi- 
lOs,  in  .\st>irias.  Spain.  Philip  II,  placed  him 
in  coMunand  of  the  llect  which  escorted  the 
treasure  vessels  to  and  from  the  West  Indies. 
Scouring  a  grant  of  Florida  with  the  title  of 
Adclantado  or  fiovernor.  he  set  sail.  .Tune  20, 
15(;5.  willi  nineteen  vessels  carrying  fifteen  hun- 
Urcil  settlers,  with  orders  to  occupy  the  country 
and  expel  the  French,  who  were  making  this  their 
headquarters  for  privateering.  On  Saint  Augus- 
tine's day,  August  28th,  Menendez  discovered 
the  harbor,  on  whose  shores,  on  September  0th, 
he  began  to  build  a  fort,  around  which  the  present 
city  of  that  name  has  grown  up.  Here  the  French 
llngnenols  under  Ribaut  (q.v.)  attacked  him.  but 
n  hurricane  <Irove  them  olT,  and  before  they  could 
retnni  to  Iheir  setdeinenl  at  Fort  Caroline  on 
the  Saint  .lohn's  River.  Menendez  attacked  that 
post  and  massacred  one  hundred  and  forty-two  of 
the  garrison.  The  French  fleet  meanwhile  had 
^>fim  wrecked,  and  the  crews  were  forced  to  sur- 
render to  Menendez,  who  put  a  hundred  and 
eighty  of  them  to  death.  In  1507  Menendez  re- 
turned to  Spain,  and  during  hi-i  absence,  in  .\pril, 
15C8,  his  colony  was  attacked  bv  a  French  fleet 


under  Dominique  de  Gourges.  who  hanged  a  num- 
ber of  Spaniards.  Meanwjiile  Jlenendez  had  al- 
ready started  back,  sailing  from  San  Lucas  on 
March  lythwitli  supplies  and  reinforcements. with 
which  he  reestablished  Saint  Augustine.  He  had 
been  appointed  Governor  of  Cuba,  anil  his  eli'orta 
during  the  next  few  years  were  mainly  devoted 
to  that  island  and  the  gulf  mainland.  In  1570 
he  sent  an  expedition  to  the  Chesapeake,  which 
ascended  the  Potomac  and  built  a  chapel  on  the 
Rappahannock,  where  the  party  were  killed  by 
the  Indians.  In  1572  Menendez  revisited  Florida 
and  went  on  to  the  Chesapeake,  where  he  cap- 
tured several  Indians  supposed  to  have  taken 
part  in  the  massacre  of  his  colony  two  years 
previously,  and  lianged  tliem.  Philip  II.  soon 
after  this  recalled  him  to  Spain,  where  he  died  at 
Santandcr.  September  17.  1574. 

MENENDEZ  Y  PELAYO,  raa-ni\n'dath  « 
pu-Ui'vo,  iLvacELi.xo  (1850 — ).  A  Spanish 
man  of  letters,  born  in  the  District  of  Santander, 
November  .3.  1850;  he  studied  there  ami  at  the 
imiversities  of  Barcelona  and  iladrid.  When  but 
twenty-two  years  old  he  was  apjiointed  to  a  chair 
of  philosophy  and  letters  in  the  University  of 
Madrid,  and  at  the  age  of  twcnty-tive  he  wa» 
admitted  into  the  Spanish  Academy.  He  relin- 
quisheil  his  chair  at  the  university  after  more 
than  twenty  years'  service  to  become  director 
of  the  Bil)lioteca  Xacional.  ilenendez  y  Pelayo 
is  a  humanist  in  letters  and  one  of  the  most 
capable  critics  that  Europe  has  produced  in 
modern  times.  His  works  are  as  remarkable  for 
their  finish  of  form  as  they  are  for  solidity  of 
content,  and  give  amjjle  proof  of  the  author's 
I)alriotism  and  respect  for  the  institutions  and 
traditions  of  his  country.  Menendez  y  Pelayo's 
literary  activity  began  with  the  Estiirlios  critirot 
sohre  cscritorcfi  mnntaHefies  (Santander,  1876), 
and  the  treatise.  Horacio  en  Efipnuti  (2d  ed. 
Madrid,  1885).  The  volume  Calderon  ;/  xu  tcatro 
(Madrid,  1881)  contains  lectures  delivered  upon 
the  occasion  of  the  centenary  of  the  great  dram- 
atist. Various  essays  that  had  done  iluty  as 
prefaces  to  books  or  as  critiques  were  gathered 
together  into  the  volume  entitled  Esliidiox  (It 
crilica  lilcrnria  (Madrid.  1884).  Religious  dis- 
cussiims  play  no  small  part  in  the  nolewnrthy 
Historitt  dc  los  hctrrodo.rnfi  fspaTiolcfi  (1880-81), 
and  his  aesthetically  critical  temperament  U 
nowhere  better  exhibited  than  in  the  series  of 
volumes  constituting  the  Hiatoria  de  las  idma 
est(!tieas  en  K.iiiitiin  (1884-01).  His  verse,  which 
is  graceful,  also  dis])lays  well  the  erudition  of 
the  man,  as  may  be  se<>n  in  the  collection  Odai, 
epifiiohtfi  1/  li'dtrrfliits   (18S.1). 

MENEP'TAH.  or  MERNEPTAH  (Egyp- 
tian Merien-Pliih,  'Beloved  of  Ptah':  Lat.  Am- 
enephlhes  :  Gk.Wiifitye(p$lt.  Ammenephthis),  A  king 
of  Egypt,  the  son  and  successor  of  Rameses  il. 
fq.v. ).  He  reigned  for  some  twenty  years  about 
the  miilille  of  the  thirteenth  century  n.c.  and.  in 
the  fifth  year  of  his  n-ign,  repelled  a  formidable 
invasion  of  Libyans  and  pirates.  He  built 
largely  at  Tanis,  and  left  monuments  in  various 
parts  "of  Egypt.  Formerly  there  seemed  to  he 
gooil  grounds  for  identifying  this  King  with  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  but  an  inscription,  dis- 
covered in  1800.  mentions  Israel  as  settled  in 
Palestine  in  the  fifth  year  of  Meneptah's  reign, 
and  the  identification'  is  therefore  impossible. 
The   text  of  this   interesting  inscription,   which 


MENEPTAH. 


315 


MENHADEN. 


contains  the  only  mention  of  Israel  to  be  found 
on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  was  publislied  with 
a  tiernian  translation  by  Spiegelberg,  in  the 
Zeitsclirift  fiir  ixgyiitischv  Spravhc,  vol.  xxxiv. 
(Leipzig,  181)0),  under  tlte  title  "Der  Sieges- 
hymuus  des  Merneptah  au£  der  Flinders  Petrie 
Stele."  The  mummy  of  ileneptali  was  found  at 
Thebes  in  1808,  and  is  now  in  tlie  JIuseum  of 
Cairo.  Consult  Budge,  .1  History  of  Egypt  (New 
York,  1902).     See  also  Egypt. 

MENES,  me'nOz  (Egj-ptian  Meni;  Gk.  M-qv, 
Men,  ilr}vris,  ilCnCs) .  A  king  of  Egj'pt  whom 
the  Egyptians  regarded  as  their  first  histori- 
cal monarch.  His  name  invariably  stands  at 
the  head  of  all  monumental  lists  of  Egyptian 
kings,  but  little  is  known  in  regard  to  him. 
According  to  Jlanelho  he  was  a  native  of  This, 
and  reigned  for  sixty-two  years.  Herodotus  and 
other  urcek  writers  attribute  to  him  the  founda- 
tion of  Memiihis,  and  rehite  many  other  fables 
concerning  him.  In  modern  times  certain  schol- 
ars have  believed  that  he  was  the  Pharaoh  who 
united  L'pper  and  Lower  Egj'pt  under  a  single 
nionareliy,  Init  recent  discoveries  indicate  that 
the  union  took  place  at  an  earlier  date.  At  pres- 
ent there  is  a  tendency  to  identify  Menes  with 
an  early  king  of  whom  many  small  memorials 
have  been  found  near  This.  Two  large  tombs — 
one  at  Naggadah,  near  Coptos,  the  other  near 
Abydos — are  Idled  with  objects  bearing  the  name 
of  this  King.  The  reading  of  tlie  name  is,  how- 
ever, not  altogether  certain,  and  the  proposed 
identifieation  is  therefore  doubtful.  Consult: 
Budge,  .1  History  of  Egypt  (Xew  York,  1902)  ; 
Hiizungsberichte  der  Berliner  Akadcmie  der  IT'w- 
senschaften  (Berlin,  1897);  Revue  Critique 
(Paris,  1897);  Zeitschrift  fiir  <igyptisehe 
^pnwhc,  vol.  xxxvi.  (Leipzig,  1898).  See  also 
Egypt. 

MENFI,  men'fe.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Girgenti,  Sicily,  30  miles  south  by  east  of  ilar- 
sala  (llap:  Italy,  H  10).  It  exports  corn,  bar- 
ley, cotton,  and  wine.  The  quarries  of  the  vicin- 
ity are  supposed  to  have  furnished  the  building 
material  for  the  temples  of  ancient  Selinus. 
Population,   in   1901    (commune),   10,281. 

MENGKER,  IvARL  (1840—).  An  Austrian 
economist,  born  at  Neu-Sandez,  in  Galieia.  He 
studied  law  and  political  science  in  Vienna  and 
Prague,  and  in  1873  became  professor  of  political 
economy  at  the  University  of  Vienna.  Since  1900 
he  has  been  a  member  of  the  Austrian  House  of 
Peers.  He  was  the  leader  of  a  reaction  against 
the  historical  method  in  economics,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  prominent  leaders  of  the  so-called 
Austrian  school  of  political  economy.  His  most 
important  work,  from  a  theoretical  standpoint, 
is  (lri(iidsiit::e  der  Volksirirfschaftnlehre  (1871). 
Other  important  works  of  his  are:  Vntersuchun- 
gen  iiher  die  Methode  der  Sozialwissenschafteii 
und  der  politischen  Oekonomie  inshesondere 
(1883):  Die  Irrt timer  des  Hisfniismtis  in  der 
deutsehen  Nationalokonomie  (1884);  and  Bei- 
triige  xur  Wnhrungsfraqe  in  Oesterreich-Unnarn 
(1892).  ' 

MENGS,  mengs,  Raphael  (1728-79).  A  Ger- 
man historical  and  portrait  painter.  He  was 
born  at  Aussig,  Bohemia.  Jlarch  12,  1728,  the 
son  of  Ismael  Mengs,  a  miniature  painter  of  some 
repute,  who  in  1741  took  him  to  Rome.  On  his 
return  to  Dresden  in  1744  he  was  appointed  Court 
pamter  by  the  Elector  Augustus  III.,  who  per- 

Vot,.   XIII.— 21. 


mitted  him  to  continue  his  studies  at  Rome. 
There  he  painted  the  first  of  his  larger  compo- 
sitions, a  "lloly  Family,"  now  in  the  Gallery 
of  Vienna,  and  of  additional  interest  because 
the  model  for  the  Madonna  was  Marguerita 
Guazzi,  a  beautiful  peasant  girl  whom  he  mar- 
ried, and  for  whose  sake  he  embraced  Cadioli- 
cism.  The  financial  distress  occasioned  by  the 
Seven  Y'ears'  War  caused  .his  pension  to  be 
stopped,  and  he  was  in  distress  at  Rome,  but  his 
fortune  turned  when  the  Duke  of  Northumlierland 
employed  him  to  paint  a  copy  of  Raphael's 
"School  of  Athens."  In  1754  he  was  made  direc- 
tor of  the  new  Art  Academy  on  the  Capitol;  in 
1757  he  painted  the  ceilingin  San  Eusebio,  and 
soon  after  the  "Mount  Parnassus"  in  the  Villa 
Albani. 

On  a  visit  to  Naples  he  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  King,  who,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne 
of  Spain  as  Charles  III.,  invited  Mengs  to  Madrid. 
During  this  first  sojourn  at  Madrid  (1761-09) 
he  executed  several  frescoes  in  the  royal  palace, 
of  which  "Aurora  and  the  Four  Seasons"  is  the 
best.  Intrigues  against  him  and  feeble  health 
caused  his  return  to  Italy,  but  he  was  summoned 
back  to  Madrid  in  1772  to  complete  his  work  in 
the  royal  palace.  He  painted  there  the  "Apothe- 
osis of  Trajan,"  his  most  important  fresco,  and 
the  "Temple  of  Fame."  In  1775  he  returned 
to  Rome,  where  he  died,  June  29,  1779. 

His  fresco  paintings  are  superior  to  his  can- 
vases. Good  examples  of  the  latter  are  a  "Na- 
tivity" in  Madrid,  and  an  "Annunciation"  in 
the  Vienna  Gallery.  Mengs  was  an  eclectic  who 
endeavored  to  blend  the  beauty  of  antique  art 
with  that  of  the  great  Italian  masters.  Living  at 
a  time  of  extreme  degradation  in  art.  he  com- 
manded great  admiration  by  liis  skill  in  composi- 
tion and  his  thorough  knowledge  of  technical 
processes.  He  exercised  a  profound  inlluence 
upon  his  contemporaries,  and  trained  numerous 
pupils.  Consult  Woermann,  Ismael  und  Raphael 
Mengsi  (Leipzig,  1893). 

MENG-TSZE,  meng'tse'.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Yiin-nan,  China,  situated  amid  mountains 
at  an  elevation  of  about  4600  feet,  about  40  miles 
from  the  frontier  of  Tongking  (Jlap:  China,  B 
7).  It  is  a  well  built  city  with  traces  of  its 
splendor  and  importance  before  the  Taiping  Re- 
bellion. It  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce  in 
1S89  in  accordance  with  the  French  Treaty  of 
Tien-tsin  of  1886.  The  trade  is  mostly  tninsit 
and  with  Hong  Kong.  The  merchandise  is  trans- 
ported by  the  Red  River  as  far  as  Man-has,  a 
village  on  the  left  side  of  the  river  about  40  miles 
from  ]Meng-tsze,  and  from  tliere  is  carried  by 
coolies  and  pack  animals  inland.  The  chief  ex- 
ports arc  tin  from  the  adjacent  mines  and  opium ; 
textiles  and  tobacco  are  imported.  Tbe  total 
trade  amounted  in  1900  to  over  .$4,000,000.  ;Meng- 
tsze  is  connected  Iiy  telegraph  lines  with  Y'un-nan- 
fu  and  the  frontier  of  Tongking.  The  French 
Government  has  obtained  a  concession  for  the 
construction  of  a  railway  line  from  Lao-kai  on 
the  frontier  to  Yim-nan-fu  via  Meng-tsze.  Popu- 
lation, about  12,000, 

MENHADEN,  men-h:Tdrn  (corrupted  from 
Narragansett  Indian  nntinunrhntternig.  fertilizer; 
in  allusion  to  its  use  as  a  fertilizer  in  the  corn- 
fields), .\  small  fish  (Breronrlin  fi/ranHH.'s) ,  close- 
ly related  to  the  shad  (q.v, ).  which  is  caught  in 
great  quantities  on  our  eastern  coast  during  the 


MENHADEN. 


316 


MENINGITIS. 


summer  months.  Its  length  varies  from  12  to  18 
inches;  tlie  color  of  tlie  upper  p.irts  is  greenish 
briiWM  with  a  black  spot  on  the  shoulder,  the 
belly  silvery,  ami  the  whole  surface  iridescent. 
The  llcsh  is  not  highly  esteemed  as  food  and  is 
very  full  of  small  bones;  but  it  is  rich  in  oil  and 
nitrogen. 

Economic  Uses.  The  menhaden  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  valuable  of  American  sea- 
tishes,  and  its  catching  and  utilization  give  oc- 
cupation to  a  large  amount  of  capital  and  number 
of  men  and  vessels.  (See  Fisiiehies.)  It  is  ex- 
tremely irregular  in  its  movements  and  num- 
bers, migrating  into  deep  water  or  to  warm  lati- 
tmles  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  and  re- 
appearing north  of  Cape  llattcras  with  advancing 
warm  weather.  In  some  years  it  has  been  ex- 
tremely numerous  as  far  north  as  Nova  8cotia; 
while  there  have  been  periods  when  the  fish 
seemed  to  have  forsaken  America  altogether.  It 
appears  aUmg  shore  in  schools,  which  may  con- 
tain a  million  or  two  o1  fishes,  swimming  near 
the  surface.  With  ordinary  care  such  a  school 
may  be  surrounded  by  a  net,  operated  from  two 
row-boats,  and  then  hauled  to  the  shi])'s  side, 
where  the  net  is  pursed  and  the  fish  are  dipped 
out  and  thrown  into  tlie  hold.  A  catch  of  half 
a  million  is  not  unusual.  Formerly  small  sail- 
ing vessels  were  altogether  used,  but  since  abmit 
1875  high-powered,  tug-like  steamers  have  most- 
ly replaced  them.  All  along  the  shore  from  the 
Carolinas  to  eastern  Slaine  are  'factories'  where 
these  loads  of  menhaden  are  sold.  Their  bwlies 
yield  oil  of  a  superior  sort,  useful  for  every 
])urpose  to  which  any  fish  or  whale  oil  may  be 
applied.  This  is  obtained  by  boiling  and  press- 
ing. ( See  Oil.  )  From  the  residue  is  made  a 
nutritious  animal  food  called  "fish  meal,'  and  a 
highly  nitrogenous  ingredient  of  artificial  guanos. 
In  early  times,  following  the  example  of  the  In- 
dians, the  fish  themselves  used  to  lie  spread  ujion 
the  farms  near  shore,  and  jilowed  into  the  soil : 
but  it  waii  found  that  ajiart  from  the  extremely 
disagi-eeable  taint  this  gave  to  the  air  of  the 
whole  region,  the  soil  wa.s  injured  by  saturation 
with  oil. 

Great  quantities  of  menhaden  are  also  used  as 
bait  in  the  Banks  fisheries;  are  sold  fresh  in  the 
markets,  very  cheaply:  and  are  salted  for  do- 
mestic use  or  to  be  exported  to  the  West  Indies; 
and  the  young  are  extensively  canned  in  oil  as 
'American  sardines'  and  'shadines.'  The  fish 
has,  however,  a  still  higher  economic  value  in 
serving  as  the  food  of  other  fishes  imjiortant  to 

us.     It  itself  sub- 
sists mainly  upon 
minute    vegetable 
material   con- 
fiKH.LopBE  OF  TOE  MENiiAPEx.       taiued      in      the 
A  iIi'KrnrliMl  I'litoiiiiiKtrni'ftn  parn-   mud  of  bays  and 
Hit..  (Lrrrn'on^wj,   rmImM:   tlio   ^^ft    j,],orcs,    and 
*  rooted    lieau  Is  ut  tbe  rlKlit.  .  ,    ^ 

IS  enormously  fec- 
und. Every  predaceous  animal  in  the  sea  eats 
menhaden.  Ooode  estimated  that  the  total  niim- 
lier  of  menhaden  devoured  by  fishes  annually 
could  only  be  counted  by  millions  of  millions; 
and  he  declared  that  were  tbe  menhaden  to  dis- 
appear three-fourths  of  the  value  of  the  Ameri- 
can  fisheries   would   instantly  vanish. 

The  menhaden  is  known  by  an  extraordinary 
number  of  different  names:  as  'pogj'.'  in  Maine; 
'bony  fish'  in  eastern  Connecticut;  'white  fish'  in 
western  Long  Island  Snund  :   'bunker,'  a  shorten- 


ing of  'mossbunker'  ( q.v. ) ,  about  Xew  York  and 
New  Jersey ;  "bugfish'  or  "btighead'  in  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays,  referring  to  a  parasitic 
crustacean  (  see  P.^rasite.  .\mmai.  )in  the  mouths 
of  the  southern  menhaden ;  ami  farther  south  as 
'fatba<-k.'  'yellowtail,'  and  "savcga' — the  last  the 
Portuguese  term  in  South  America.  The  men- 
haden of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  a  variety  locally 
called  'alewife,'  'herring,'  etc. ;  and  other  varieties 
extend  the  range  of  the  species  to  Brazil. 

BiBLiOGRiU'iiY.  Goode,  "The  Menhaden,"  an 
elaborate  memoir,  in  Report  of  the  Viiilcd  )<taies 
Fish  Commission,  part  v.  (Washington,  1877); 
and  a  more  condensed  accinuit  in  Fishiii;/  Indus- 
tries,  sec.  i.  (Washington,  1884).  F(n'  a  pictur- 
esque account  of  catching  menhaden,  see  ".\round 
the  Peeonics,"  in  Harper's  Magazine,  vol.  Ivii. 
(New  York,  1881).  See  Plate  of  Herring  ahd 
Shad. 

MENIN,  nu-n;"iN'.  A  frontier  town  of  West 
Flanders,  Belgium,  situated  30  miles  southwest 
of  Ghent,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lys,  which  here 
forms  the  French  boundary  (Map:  Belgium,  B  ; 
4 ) .  It  has  a  handsome  church,  a  seminary, 
manufactures  of  lace  and  cotton  textiles,  and  a 
famous  old  brewery.  It  was  formerl.v  fortified, 
but  its  works  have  been  demolished.  Population,  ( 
in  18110,  13.700:  in  1000,  19,312. 

MEN'INGI'TIS.  An  inflammation  of  the 
meninges,  the  membranes  covering  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord.  These  are  three  in  number:  the  pia 
mater,  lying  in  contact  with  the  sulistancc  of  the 
brain  and  cord:  the  dura  mater,  lining  the  cra- 
nial cavity  and  spinal  canal;  and  tlie  nrnchnoid, 
a  delicate  wcb-likc  structure  lying  between  the 
pia  and  dura.  The  term  meningitis  is  specifical- 
ly applied  to  an  inflammation  of  the  pia  mater  of 
the  brain,  described  in  this  article  under  the 
heading  of  Cerebral  Meiiin!iili.i.  Inlhunniation  of 
the  dura,  whether  of  the  brain  or  cord,  is  called 
pachi/meningitis,  and  of  the  pia.  leptomeningitis. 
The  term  arachnitis  was  formerly  used  on  the 
s>i]))Kisition  that  the  arachnoid  might  be  the  seat 
of  an  independent  inlliininiatnry  |)rocess.  but  this 
is  no  longer  believed  to  be  possible,  .An  inflam- 
mation involving  the  meninges  of  both  the  brain 
and  cord  is  termed  eerehro-spinal  meningitis. 
For  convenience  of  descrijition  the  subject  may 
be  arranged  under  the  following  heads:  Pachy- 
meningitis, involving  the  dura  of  the  brain  and 
cord;  cerebral  meningitis,  of  which  two  forms  are 
recognized:  ttibercular  and  simple;  spinal  men- 
ingitis, anil  epidemic  cerebrospinal  meningitis. 

PAniVMENixoiTis.  The  dura  becomes  inflamed 
on  its  outer  surface  from  injuries,  or  by  extension 
from  adjacent  structures,  hi  the  head  a  conunon 
cause  is  suppurative  disease  of  the  middli'  ear(sce 
Ear,  section  Diseases),  and  in  the  spinal  dura 
a  very  frequent  cause  is  caries  of  tbe  vertebrx. 
The  interuid  surface  of  the  dura  is  the  .seat  of  a 
peculiar  hemorrhagic  inflammation,  ha'matoma  of 
the  dura  mater,  characterized  by  the  formation 
of  adventitious  membranes,  whieli  appear  to  ix 
repetitions  of  the  ar:iclinoid,  having  blood-vessels 
whieh  rupture, the  extravasated  binod  collecting  in 
the  form  of  cysts  containing  from  an  ounce  to  a 
pound  of  blood.  The  symptoms  of  this  hemor- 
rhagic form  of  pachymeningitis  are  jirimarily 
those  of  inflammation  and  secondarily  due  to 
pressure.  There  is  some  fever,  irregularity  of 
the  pulse,  headache,  giddiness,  somnolence',  gradu- 
ally deepening  to  coma  :  and  there  may  be  twitch- 


MENINGITIS. 


317 


MENINGITIS. 


Ing  and  convulsions,  followed  by  nnisculnr  weak- 
ness and  paralysis.  The  disease  affects  the  dur.a 
of  both  brain  and  cord,  but  the  symptoms  refer- 
able to  the  latter  are  often  overshadowed  by  the 
cerebral  effects.  The  diagnosis  is  very  diflicult 
and  the  termination  almost  invariably  fatal. 
The  case  may  be  treated  as  one  of  apoplexy 
(q.v. ),  but  nothing  materially  alters  the  course 
of  the  affection.  A  chronic  hypertrophic  form 
of  internal  pachymeningitis  occurs  in  the  spinal 
dura,  producing  an  extensive  thickening  of  the 
membrane.  This  in  turn  causes  severe  compres- 
sion of  the  cord  and  spinal  nerve-roots.  After  a 
tirst  stage  of  shooting  pains  along  the  course  of 
the  nerves  affected,  with  muscular  twitchings 
and  spasms,  there  gradually  supervene  ana-s- 
thesia,  paralysis,  and  atrophy.  As  the  compres- 
sion increases,  paraplegia,  secondary  degenera- 
tion, and  rigidity  of  the  pai-alyzed  parts  appear. 
This  form  of  pachymeningitis  is  due  to  syphilis, 
alcoholism,  or  injury,  and  is  thought  by  some 
writers  to  follow-  the  hemorrhagic  form.  Treat- 
ment consists  of  counterirritation  over  the  spine, 
with  remedies  for  the  pain  and  spasms.  When 
the  trouble  is  syphilitic  great  improvement  may 
be  derived  from  mercurials  and  potassium  iodide. 

C'EREBEAL  JIexingitls.  Acutc  inllammation  of 
the  pia  mater  of  the  brain  occurs  chiefly  in  two 
forms — tubercular,  and  simple  or  punilent.  Tlie 
arachnoid  takes  part,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
in  the  inflammatory  process. 

Tuhercular  ineninffitis  occurs  at  all  ages,  but 
is  more  common  in  children  than  in  adults.  The 
disease  is  caused  bythe  ?/oci7/H.?  tiibrrciiJosisiind  is 
usually  secondary  to  a  tuberculous  process  in 
some  other  portion  of  the  body,  for  example,  pul- 
monary phthisis,  hip-joint  disease,  or  caries  of 
the  spine.  Primarv  cases  are  said  to  occur,  but 
it  is  usually  found  after  death  that  caseous 
tubercular  glands,  or  other  latent  or  previously 
imrecognized  forms  of  tubercular  infection,  are 
present.  The  characteristic  lesions  of  the  dis- 
ease are  found  in  the  pia  mater  at  the  base  of  the 
brain,  or  over  the  optic  chiasm,  crura,  or  pons. 
Tubercles  are  deposited  along  the  vessels  of  the 
pia.  which  becomes  thickened,  opaque,  and  studded 
witli  grayish  white  granules.  There  is  an  exuda- 
tion of  lymph,  gray  or  grayish  yellow,  biit  rare- 
ly purulent,  into  the  meshes  of  the  membrane  in 
the  same  portions  in  which  the  tubercles  exist 
and  extending  along  the  fissure  of  Sylvius  and  the 
middle  cerebral  artery.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
hemispheres  is  only  slightly  affected,  so  that  the 
disease  is  sometimes  called  basilar  meningitis. 
The  ventricles  are  generally  distended  with  fluid 
(whence  the  old  name,  acute  hydrocephalus), 
clear,  milky,  or  even  bloody.  The  symptoms  of 
tuliercular  meningitis  are  very  comiilcx,  and  a 
case  fully  developed  presents  a  painful  clinical 
picture,  particularly  in  children.  The  onset  of 
the  disease  is  often  preceded  by  a  period  of  gen- 
eral ill  health.  The  child  is  peevish,  irritable. 
and  experiences  a  complete  change  of  disposition, 
together  with  loss  of  appetite  and  constipation. 
The  first  or  irritative  stage  then  sets  in  sud- 
denly, with  a  convulsion,  or  more  commonly  with 
vomiting,  headache,  and  fever.  The  headache  is 
severe  and  continuous,  and  the  child  moans  and 
occasionally  utters  a  sharp  cry — the  so-called 
Tiydrocepbalic  cry.'  Sometimes  the  patient 
screams  until  utterly  exhausted  and  has  to  be 
kept  under  the  influence  of  powerful  sedatives 
all  the  time.    There  is  moderate  fever  and  exces- 


sive sensitiveness  to  light  and  sound.  In  the 
second  period  of  the  disease,  the  stage  of  de- 
pression, the  irritative  s^ymptom.s  subside.  The 
child  no  longer  complains  of  headache,  but  is 
dull  and  apathetic,  drowsy  or  slightlj'  delirious. 
Pulse  and  respiration  are  irregular,  and  fever 
continues.  The  head  is  retracted  and  the  neck 
stiff.  If  the  finger-nail  is  drawn  across  the  skin 
of  the  forehead  or  abdomen  a  broad  red  streak 
appears,  the  tdchc  cerebrate,  which  may  last  for 
five  minutes.  In  the  last  or  paralj-tie  stage,  all 
these  symptoms  are  intensified;  the  drowsiness 
increases  to  coma ;  paralysis  of  various  parts  of 
the  body  occurs,  and  death  takes  place  in  from  ten 
days  to  three  weeks  after  the  onset  of  i)ronounced 
symjitoms.  Few  ca.ses  recover.  Treatment  is 
entirely  symptomatic  and  palliative.  An  ice  cap 
is  put  upon  the  head,  and  sedatives  are  given  in- 
ternally. 

Simple  acute  meninrfitis  is  as  a  rule  purulent 
or  suppurative.  It  may  be  caused  bj'  inflamma- 
tion of  neighboring  tissues,  e.g.  otitis,  suppura- 
tive phlebitis,  or  abscess  of  the  brain;  or  may 
occur  as  a  complication  of  pyemia,  septicoemia, 
malignant  endocarditis,  or  the  specific  fevers,  par- 
ticularly smallpox,  typhoid,  and  scarlatina.  The 
pia  mater  and  arachnoid  become  infiltrated  with 
purulent  material,  and  the  brain  beneath  them  is 
commonly  softened.  The  symptoms  resemble  in  a. 
general  way  those  of  the  tubercular  form  just  de- 
scribed, but  the  onset  and  course  of  the  malady 
are  much  more  rapid.  When  simple  meningitis 
occurs  in  the  course  of  other  acute  illnesses,  its 
features  may  be  ma.sked  to  a  certain  extent,  but 
in  other  cases  the  s_vmptoms  begin  acutely  with  a 
chill,  severe  pain  in  the  head,  and  vomiting,  and 
the  ease  passes  on  to  convulsions,  paralysis, 
coma,  and  death,  as  in  the  tuliercular  form.  A 
fatal  termination  is  the  rule,  but  some  recoveries 
occur  after  a  long  period  of  convalescence. 

Spixal  Meningitis.  The  membranes  of  the 
spinal  cord  may  be  affected  separately,  but  it  is 
common  for  inflammation  to  spread  from  one  to 
the  others.  Inflammation  of  the  dura,  pachy- 
meningitis, has  already  been  described.  Acute 
leptomeningitis,  or  acute  spinal  meningitis  as  it 
is  called,  involving  the  pia,  is  often  of  obscure 
origin,  but  is  known  to  lie  due  to  exposure  to 
cold,  sunstroke,  and  injuries  to  tlie  spine ;  and 
it  sometimes  complicates  pneumonia,  scarlatina, 
typhoid  fever,  and  septic;T?niia.  Not  infrequently 
a  tubercular  inflammation  accompanies  a  like 
process  in  the  cerebral  pia  mater.  The  attack 
begins  with  the  usual  symptoms  of  meningeal 
inflammation,  namely,  vomiting,  chill,  fever,  and 
pain.  The  pain  is  in  the  back;  it  may  be  local 
or  general,  and  it  is  increased  by  movement  or 
pressure.  There  are  also  shooting  paro.xysmal 
pains  radiating  along  the  course  of  the  nerves 
arising  in  the  affected  area,  and  extreme  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  skin  and  muscles  to  which  those 
nerves  are  distributed.  Irritation  of  the  anterior 
nerve-roots  leads  to  spasms  of  the  muscles,  pro- 
diicing  rigidity  of  the  spine  with  sometimes  ex- 
treme arching  (opisthotonos).  In  addition  there 
is  the  usual  accompaniment  of  fever.  After  a  few 
days  the  symptoms  of  irrital  ion  give  way  to 
paralysis  and  insensibility,  and  the  disease  either 
proves  fatal  from  exhaustion  and  failure  of  tlie 
respiratory  muscles  or  lapses  into  a  chronic 
condition  with  wasting  and  shortening  of  the 
muscles.  Some  patients  recover  after  several 
months,  while  others   ultimately  die   from  bed- 


MENINGITIS. 


318 


MENINGITIS. 


sores,  or  from  renal  or  vesical  complications.  In 
this  form  of  meningitis  the  i)ia  mater  is  reddened 
and  congested  and  small  hemorrhages  may  occur. 
An  exudation,  at  first  grayish  in  color,  but 
later  purulent  and  yellow  or  greenish-yellow, 
takes  place  into  the  meslies  or  upon  the  surface  of 
the  pia,  and  the  spinal  fluid  is  rendered  turbid 
and  opaque.  The  iullanmiatory  process  may  ex- 
tend to  the  substance  of  the  spinal  cord  (causing 
myelitis),  or  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  dura 
mater,  involving  of  course  the  arachnoid  and 
gluing  the  three  membranes  together.  Treat- 
ment comprises  rest  in  bed,  upon  the  side  or 
face,  active  purgation,  and  cups  or  leeches  along 
the  spine,  followed  by  the  application  of  ice.  In- 
ternalh-  drugs  are  given  to  relieve  pain  and 
diminish  sensibility.  In  the  chronic  stage  coun- 
tcrirritants  are  applied  along  the  spine,  and  mer- 
curials or  iodides  are  administered.  During  con- 
valescence tonics,  massage,  cold  douches,  and 
the  electric  current  are  of  great  service. 

C/iroiiic  Icplomeniitflitis  may  be  a  continuation 
of  the  acute  form  or  it  may  be  chronic  from  the 
beginning,  and  has  been  attributed  to  cold  and 
exposure,  sy|)hilis,  chronic  alcoholism,  and  in- 
jury. It  often  occurs  in  connection  with  de- 
generative processes  of  the  cord  itself.  The  con- 
dition is  one  of  gi-adual  thickening  of  the  pia 
mater  with  compression  and  atrophy  of  the  nerve- 
roots.  The  symptoms  are  the  same  as  in  the 
acute  form,  with  the  diflTorence  that  they  come 
on  gradually'  and  there  is  no  fever.  Muscular 
spasm  and  rigidity  are  less  marked. 

Epidemic  C'erebro-Spinal  Memxgitis  lias 
been  known  only  since  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  being  first  recognized  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland.  It  made  its  first  appearance  in 
America  in  Massachusetts  in  1802.  JIany  severe 
epidemics  have  since  occurred  both  in  Europe 
and  .America.  The  disease  visited  Ireland  in  a 
very  fatal  form  in  1840  and  again  in  1800-08.  It 
is  a  specific  infectious  disease  due  to  a  micro- 
organism, perhaps  the  diplococcus  intraccllularis, 
although  this  is  not  definitely  settled.  Very  lit- 
tle is  known  of  the  causes  which  favor  its  trans- 
mission. The  disease  is  not  directly  contagious 
from  man  to  man,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  virus  may  be  transmitted  through  one  of 
the  lower  animals.  Epidemics  occur  most  fre- 
quently in  winter  and  spring.  Any  conditions 
which  produce  bodily  or  mental  de]iression  pre- 
dispose to  the  disease,  and  it  has  assumed  its 
most  fatal  type  during  times  of  famine  and 
among  squalid  tenement  dwellers  or  soldiers 
in  crowded  barracks.  The  changes  observed  in 
the  meninges  are  those  characteristic  of  a  wide- 
spread and  severe  leptomeningitis;  the  pia  mater 
is  intensely  congested  and  its  blood  vessels  di- 
lated. Pus  and  lym|ih  are  abundant  on  the  con- 
vex surface  of  the  brain,  ahing  the  large  blood 
vessels,  and  in  the  fissures.  The  ventricles  contain 
turbid  serum  or  pus.  Small  hemorrhages  and 
sometimes  abscesses  are  found  in  the  cortex  of 
the  brain.  There  is  in  ailditinn  congestion  of  the 
lungs,  liver,  spleen,  ami  kidneys.  Several  clinical 
varieties  of  the  afTection  have  been  noted  and 
the  course  and  symptoms  vary  remarkably  in  the 
different  types.  In  the  maliimant  or  fulminant 
type,  the  disease  may  prove  fatal  in  a  few  hours. 
The  abortive  type  presents  only  a  few  symv>toms 
and  is  characterized  by  rapid  recovery.  Remit- 
tent and  intermittent  forms  are  recognized  in 
which  the  fever  is  lower  or  entirely  absent  for 


two  or  three  days,  and  there  is  a  form  that  much 
resembles  typhoid  fever.  The  average  duration 
of  the  disease  is  three  or  four  weeks,  and  tlie 
mortality  from  30  to  70  per  cent,  in  the  different 
epidemics.  As  might  be  expected  from  the  ex- 
tent of  tissue  involved,  the  symptoms  are  very 
numerous  and  di\erse.  Xo  single  set  of  symp- 
toms occurs  in  all  cases.  In  some  there  is  an 
indefinite  jirenionitory  stage,  with  malaise, 
nausea,  and  headache;  but  usually  the  onset  is 
sudden,  with  a  cliill,  severe  headache,  vomiting, 
pains  in  the  back  and  limbs,  and  fever.  With 
these  manifestations  come  stillness  of  the  nuiscles 
of  the  neck  and  back,  so  that  the  head  is  re- 
tracted and  the  back  arched.  There  are  also 
pains  in  the  lower  extremities  and  hypeiiesthesia 
of  the  skin.  In  addition  to  these  symptoms  due 
to  irritation  of  the  spinal  nerve-roots,  there  are 
others  referable  to  implication  of  the  cranial 
nerves.  These  are  in  different  cases,  drooping  of 
the  eyelids  (ptosis),  squint,  contraction,  dilata- 
tion, or  inequality  of  the  pupils,  or  spasms  of  the 
facial  muscles.  Conjunctivitis  or  suppuration 
of  the  eyeball  or  ear  may  occur  and  the  sense  of 
smell  is  impaired.  Unlike  most  siieeific  fevers, 
the  temperature  runs  a  very  irregular  course. 
An  imi)ortant  feature  of  the  disease  is  the  oc- 
currence in  many  cases  of  a  herpetic  eruption  or 
jietechial  or  purpuric  spots,  whence  the  names 
'spotted  fever'  and  'petechial  fever.'  Recovery  is 
apt  to  be  marked  by  the  occurrence  of  many  dis- 
agreeable sequels.  Deafness  is  common  from  de- 
struction of  the  perceptive  apparatus  of  the 
ear;  and  when  this  happens  in  infants,  deaf- 
mutism  results.  Sight  is  often  impaired.  Chronic 
hydrocephalus  with  headache,  nuiscular  weak- 
ness, and  mental  deficiency  oec\irs  in  a  few  in- 
stances. Treatment  must  be  conducted  on  the 
same  general  jirinciples  as  in  other  forms  of 
meningitis. 

CEREnRO-Spix-^i.  JIeningitis.  A  non-contagious 
disease  of  varying  and  poorly  defined  symptoms, 
afl'ecting  horses,  mules,  and  other  domestic  ani- 
mals, which  is  most  frequent  and  has  been  most 
studied  in  horses.  The  most  serious  outbreaks 
have  occurred  in  the  United  States,  England, 
Saxony,  Hungary,  and  Russia.  Si/mijtoins. — The 
disease  is  often  preceded  by  digestive  disturb- 
ances. It  begins  suddenly  with  chills  and  signs 
of  meningitis,  .\fter  a  short  perioil  of  cerebral 
excitement  the  animal  becomes  abnormally  sleepy, 
is  indifferent  to  surroundings,  and  rests  its  head 
against  any  convenient  object.  At  intervals 
there  is  noticeable  dizziness,  accompanied  by 
nuiscular  trembling,  grinding  of  the  teeth,  and 
falling  fits.  When  the  animal  is  forced  to  move 
it  staggers  around  in  circles.  There  are  no  con- 
stant post-mortem  lesions  in  the  vitiil  organs, 
the  most  important  alterations  being  found  in 
the  nicmluanes  (if  the  brain.  -Vcciirding  t"  Sie- 
damgrotzky  and  Sclilegel,  the  disease  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  specific  micrococcus  in  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system,  an  opinion  that  many  in- 
vestigators are  inclined  to  deny  entirely,  attrib- 
uting the  trouble  to  digestive  disturbances 
produced  by  improper  or  unwholesome  fodder. 
.\n  outbreak  of  the  disease  occurred  in  Mary- 
land, anil  acquired  the  name  of  'new  horse  dis- 
ease.' .\n  investigation  indiealed  the  probability 
that  it  was  due  to  moldy  fodder,  JIusty  oaU, 
musty  blaile  fodder,  and  deeayeil  corn  silage  have 
been  suspected  of  causing  the  disease,  .\ftcr 
making  a   study  of  an  outbreak  of  the  disease 


MENINGITIS. 


319 


MENNONITES. 


in  1?00,  Pearson  prodiit^d  the  disease  cxperi- 
uieiitally  in  horses  bj-  feeding  nioidy  corn  silage. 

Fur  further  study  of  the  problem,  consult: 
Dclaudie  ExiJCriment  >Statio)i  Heiiorts  for  1891, 
1892,  1893,  and  1895  (Newark,  1891,  1892,  1893, 
1895)  :  Deluicarc  Exjieritnciit  Htution  ISuUctin 
.Yo.  -li  (Newark,  1899)  ;  Maryland  Experiment 
malion  Bulletin  So.  o.i  (College  Park,  1898)  ; 
Indiana  Experiment  Station  Report  for  1S'J7 
(Lafayette,  1897). 

M^NIPPEE,  nia'nj'pa'.  A  political  satire  in 
prose  and  verse,  published  in  France  in  1594, 
directed  against  the  Catholic  League  and  in  favor 
of  political  religious  toleratiim.  The  name  is 
borrowed  from  the  ^atira  Mcnippca  of  the  Roman 
satiric  poet  Varro,  who  had  taken  as  a  model 
the  Greek  cynic  Jlenippus,  Diogenes's  pupil.  Its 
full  title  was  De  la  vertti  du  Catholieon 
d'Espafjne  et  dc  la  teniie  des  Etats  dr  Paris. 
It  was  the  joint  work  of  Leroy,  Gillot,  Passcrat, 
Rapin,  Chrestien,  Pithou,  and  Durant,  chiefly 
lawyers.  It  ostensibly  reports  an  assembly  of 
the  States  at  Paris,  with  a  satirical  introduction 
and  a  burlesque  close,  and  is  the  best  travesty 
of  its  kind  in  any  language  before  Butler's  Eudi- 
brus  (1063).  Its  political  eflfect  was  immediate 
and  lasting.  The  Menippee  is  well  edited  by 
Labitte  (1801).  For  a  clear  analysis  of  this 
satire,  consult  Suchier  and  Birch-Hirschfeld,  Ge- 
srhirhte  der  franzosischen  Litteratur  (Leipzig, 
1000). 

MENIP'PTJS  ( Lat.,  from  Gk.  MhmTro;)  ( c.250 
B.i'. ).  A  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Cynic  School, 
born  at  Gadara,  in  Syria.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  slave  by  birth,  and  to  have  acquired  con- 
siderable wealth,  the  loss  of  which  cause<l  him  to 
hang  himself.  His  writings,  now  com[)li'tely  lost, 
were  a  medley  of  prose  and  verse  in  wliieh  he 
satirized  the  follies  of  men.  particularly  of  phi- 
losophers. These  were  the  model  for  Varro's 
Menippean  fiatires,  as  well  as  for  satires  of 
Meleager  and  Lucian.    See  MliNiPp£E. 

MEN'NO  SI'MONS  (1492-1559).  The  found- 
er of  till'  later  school  of  Anabaptists  (q.v. )  in 
Holland,  from  whom  the  ilennonites  (q.v.)  take 
their  name.  He  was  bom  at  Witmarsum.  in 
Friesland.  in  1402:  took  orders  in  1510;  and 
was  a  priest  in  his  native  place  from  1531  to 
1530.  The  stiidy  of  the  New  Testament,  how- 
ever, excited  grave  doubt  in  his  mind  regarding 
the  truth  both  of  the  doctrine  and  constitution 
of  the  Church,  and  in  1530  lie  withdrew  from 
it  altogether.  He  attached  himself  to  the  party 
of  the  Anabaptists,  was  rebaptized  at  Leeuwar- 
den,  and  in  1537  was  appointed  a  teacher  and 
bishop  in  the  university  of  what  was  then  known 
as  the  Old  Evangelical  or  Waldensian  Church 
at  Groningen.  Henceforth  his  great  endeavor 
was  to  organize  and  unite  the  scattered  members 
of  the  Anabaptist  sect  in  Holland  and  Germany. 
With  this  design  he  spent  much  time  in  travel- 
ing: but  Friesland  was  his  chief  residence  until 
persecution  compelled  him  to  flee.  Finally  he 
settled  in  Oldesloe,  in  Holstein,  where  he  was 
allowed  to  establish  a  printing  press  for  the 
diffusion  of  his  religious  opinions.  Here  he 
died.  January  13,  1559.  He  was  a  man  of  ear- 
nest and  spiritual  nature,  with  no  trace  about 
him  of  the  wild  fanaticism  of  the  earlier  Ana- 
baptists. His  book  of  doctrine,  Elements  of  the 
True  Christian  Faith,  was  published  in  Dutch 
in  1539.     His  works  in  English  translation  are 


published  by  the  -Meunonite  Publishing  Society 
at   Elkhart,   Ind. 

MENNONITES.  A  denomination  of  evan- 
gelical Protcst;int  Christians  which  arose  in 
Switzerland  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  sect  was  in  a  congregation  foniied 
in  Zurich  in  1525  by  Conrad  Grebel  and  his 
associates,  Manz  and  Blaurock.  Stress  was  laid 
upon  discipline  rather  than  dogma;  abstinence 
from  the  vanities  of  the  world  was  imposed; 
and  (the  State  being  regarded  a,s  unchristian) 
the  principle  of  refusing  to  participate  in  civic 
duties,  to  bear  arms,  and  to  take  oaths  was  up- 
held. The  movement  begun  at  Zurich  extended 
through  Switzerkaid  and  into  Southern  (Germany 
and  Austria.  The  attitude  of  its  adherents 
toward  the  State  exposed  them  to  persecution, 
which  continued  in  Switzerland  through  the 
whole  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  provoked 
emigrations  into  Moravia  and  Holland.  The 
Anabaptists  (q.v.)  were  active  in  Westphalia 
at  the  same  time,  and,  professing  some  of  the 
same  views  with  Grebel's  followers,  gave  occa- 
sion for  the  introduction  of  heresies  and  trou- 
bles. After  the  Anabaptist  disaster  at  lliinster, 
Jlenno  Simons  (q.v.)  l>ecame  a  leader  among 
the  followers  of  Grebel,  and  placed  their  move- 
ment upon  a  sounder  footing.  Allying  himself 
with  the  more  sober-minded  elements  of  the  Ana- 
baptists after  1530,  he  organized  congregations 
in  Northern  Germany  and  Holland,  and  by 
virtue  of  his  piety,  discretion,  and  ability,  made 
such  an  impression  upon  the  body  that,  although 
he  was  not  its  founder,  his  name  became  idcnti- 
iied  with  it.  The  Mennonite  Confession  of  Faith, 
in  eighteen  articles,  was  adopted  in  Holland  in 
1632.  It  embodies  the  usual  evangelical  doc- 
trines concerning  God,  the  fall  of  man,  the  au- 
thority of  the  Scriptures,  repentance,  and  bap- 
tism, and  contains  articles  relating  to  discipline 
and  conduct.  Grace  is  presented  as  designed  for 
all.  The  view  taken  of  the  Lord's  Supper  accords 
with  that  of  Zwingli.  In  the  United  States  the 
sacrament  is  observed  twice  a  year,  usually  in 
the  spring  and  fall,  the  connnunicants  having 
been  previously  examined  concerning  their  spir- 
itual condition.  The  rite  of  foot- washing  (q.v.) 
is  observed  in  connection  with  it.  I3aptism, 
which  is  only  upon  confession  of  faith,  is  ad- 
ministered by  pouring.  After  baptism  the  kiss 
of  peace  is  given  by  the  minister,  or  by  a  repre- 
sentative sister,  if  the  convert  is  a  woman.  Cor- 
rect discipline  and  rectitude  are  considered  more 
important  elements  in  the  Christian  life  than 
learning  and  the  elaboration  of  doctrinal  points. 
Divorce  is  condemned,  except  for  adultery.  The 
bearing  of  arms  and  taking  of  oaths  are  regarded 
as  wrong,  and  tlie  liolding  of  olliccs  under  the 
State  is  not  encouraged.  The  Church  polity  is 
congregational,  with  a  ministry  of  bishops, 
priests  or  elders,  and   deacons. 

The  Mennonite  Cliurch  has  been  divided  in 
both  Holland  and  Switzerland.  The  dilTerent 
branches  in  Holland  were  reunited  in  1801.  A 
division  took  place  in  Switzerland  in  1020  be- 
tween the  Lapland  and  Lowland  Mcnnonites  when 
Jacob  Amen,  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  held  that  ex- 
communication of  one  party  dissolved  the  mar- 
riage tie,  and  proscribed  the  use  of  buttons  and 
the  trimming  of  the  beard.  Traces  of  this  sepa- 
ration are  found  in  the  United  States  and  Cana- 
da in  the  Amish  congregations. 


MENNONITES. 


320 


MENNONITES. 


The  first  settlement  of  ilciinonites  in  the 
United  States  was  made  in  1U83,  when  immi- 
grants, induced  by  William  Pcnn's  offer  of  reli- 
gious liberty,  settled  in  Pennsylvania  and  built 
a  church  in  tiermantown.  on  a  spot  still  occupied 
by  a  Mcnuonite  meeting  house.  Another  con- 
.siderable  immigration  has  taken  place  from 
Southern  Russia  since  1871,  the  immigrants 
establishing  colonies  in  the  United  States  (ilin- 
nesota,  Dakota,  and  Kansas),  Canada,  and  Bra- 
zil. So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  ascertain,  the 
ilennonites  have  in  the  I'nited  States  55,554: 
communicants,  with  1112  ministers  and  073 
churches.  They  are  divided  among  twelve 
branches,  which  differ  on  jK)ints  of  doctrine, 
ritual,  and  discipline,  or  in  historical  origin. 

I.  The  oldest  and  largest  of  these  branches  is 
TtiE  Men'Xomte  CnuKcii,  the  mcmbei-s  of  which 
are  represented  in  seventeen  States,  but  most 
largely  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  Their  288 
churches,  with  418  ministers  and  22,743  com- 
municants, are  for  the  most  part  affiliated  with 
some  of  the  twelve  district  organizations,  but  a 
few  of  them  arc  inde])eiulent.  A  publishing 
house  is  established  at  Elkhart,  Ind.,  where  a 
semi-monthl.v  newspaper  in  English,  the  Herald 
of  Truth,  a  weekly  journal  in  German,  the  Men- 
■nonitiseh-e  RiDidsehau,  Sunda.v-.school  and  chil- 
dren's periodicals,  Mennonite  historical  and  doc- 
trinal works,  and  other  books,  are  published. 

II.  The  BRirEnKRiioEF  Mexxoxite  Cihrch 
traces  its  origin  to  Jacob  Huter.  who  was  burnt 
at  the  stake  at  Innsbruck.  Tyrol,  in  1530.  It 
was  at  one  time  represented  by  24  communities 
in  Jloravia,  whence  they  were  driven  to  Hun- 
gary. They  removed  to  Rumania  in  1707.  and 
"two  years  afterwards  to  Russia,  and  finally,  in 

1874,'  to  the  United  States,  where  they  settled 
in  South  Dakota.  They  live  under  the  com- 
munal system.  Their  language  is  Oerman,  and 
their  books,  preserved  in  manuscript,  including 
their  histor,v  {Gemeinde-deschirlitshiieh) .  are  in 
that  tongue.  Their  5  congregations  have  352 
conuiiuiiicant  members  and  are  served  by  9 
ministers. 

III.  The  Ami.su  Mexxoxite  CirrRcll  originat- 
ed in  the  division  already  mentioned,  which  took 
place  in  Switzerland  in  1020.  and  represents  the 
Oberland  Meiinonites.  or  followers  of  .lacob  Amen, 
of  the  Bernese  Alps,  after  whom  it  is  named. 
It  is  serond  in  importance  among  Mennonite  bod- 
ies in  the  United  States,  and  has  205  ministers, 
124  churches,  and  I.*?. 220  conimunicanls.  being 
most  largel.v  represented  in  Illinois,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Ohio.  A  settlement  of  Amish  Men- 
nonites  was  formed  in  1824  in  Wilmot  Township. 
Ontario,  where  land  was  bought  for  the  purpose 
by  Christian  Nafziger.  of  Munich.  Five  congre- 
gations have  grown  >ip  from  it.  to  which  329 
faniilies  are  attached. 

IV.  The  Old  Ami.sii  Mexxoxite  CiirRCir  is 
the  result  of  a  separation  from  the  Aniisli  body 
which  took  place  about  1805  r)ver  questions  con- 
cerning forms  of  worship  and  inetlio<ls  of  Chureli 
work,  the  separatists  |)rotesting  against  certain 
steps  which  thev  regarded  as  innovations,  and 
insisting  upon  a  strict  adherence  to  the  ancient 
forms  and  practices.  They  have  24.38  members, 
with  75  ministers  and  25  churches,  and  are 
strongest    In   Indiana   and   Ohio. 

V.  nie  .VposTOLir  Mexxoxite  Ciinicii  is  a 
brancli  derived  from  the  .\mish.  which  came  to 
the  United  States  by  imnii<;rntion  from  Europe 


about  1840.  The  discipline  is  less  strict  than 
in  the  other  Amish  branches.  Two  churches  are 
mentioned,  both  in  Ohio,  with  2  ministers  and 
209  members. 

\1.  The  Reformed  Mennoxite  Church  orig- 
inated  in  1812,  under  the  leadership  of  John 
Herr,  who  protested  against  la.xity  in  the  Men- 
nonite Church,  and  insisted  upon  the  preserva- 
tion of  purit.v  in  teaching  and  the  maintenance 
of  e.xact  discipline.  Its  adherents  are  strict  in 
the  observance  of  the  old  ways  and  in  their  dis- 
cipline, and  do  not  as  a  rule  hold  fellowship 
with  other  denominations.  Tliey  have  1080  mem- 
bers, about  half  of  them  being  in  Penn.sylvania, 
with  43  ministers  and  34  churches. 

VII.  The  Gexek.vi.  Coxferekce  Menno.n'ite 
Chirch  has  adopted  modern  views  and  practices 
to  a  larger  extent  than  most  of  the  other 
branches.  It  originated  as  a  result  of  proceed- 
ings which  were  instituted  in  1848  in  Pennsyl- 
vania against  a  minister,  John  Oberholtzer,  who 
was  charged  with  attempting  to  introduce  new 
teachings  and  practices.  Oberholtzer  and  his 
svmpathizers  withdrew  and  formed  a  body  called 
the  New  Mennonites.  Tliis  body  united  with 
churches  whose  members  had  come  irom  Germany 
and  settled  in  Illinois  and  Iowa,  and  a  General 
Conference  was  formed,  with  three  districts — 
eastern,  central,  and  western.  A  new  constitu- 
tion, described  as  being  evangelical  in  tone, 
was  adopted  in  1898.  The  number  of  niend)er3 
is  10.395.  with  128  ministers  and  70  churches. 

VIII.  The  Chi-rch  of  (Jon  ix  Ciiki.st  was 
founded  in  1859,  under  the  leading  of  John 
Haldeman,  who  believed  himself  inspired  with 
the  spirit  of  prophecy.  It  inculcates  a  strict 
adherence  to  the  teachings  of  the  founders  of  the 
ilennonite  Church.  The  estimate  of  its  num- 
bers gives  it  18  ministers,  18  churches,  .ind  449 
members. 

IX.  The  Old,  or  Wisler.  Mexxoxites  repre- 
sent a  separation  from  the  Jlennonite  Church 
in  Indiana  which  took  place  about  1S70  by  those 
who  op])ose(l  the  introduction  of  Sunday  schools, 
evening  meetings,  and  other  new  features.  The 
first  General  Conference  was  held  in  1898.  They 
number  003  member.s,  with  17  ministers  and  16 
churches. 

X.  Die  Buxdes  Conferexz  der  ilExxoNlTBlT 
BRCDFJf(iEMEixDE  originated  in  Russia  about 
1840.  and  was  brought  to  the  United  States  by 
immigrant  adherents  between  1873  and  1870.  It 
practices  baptism  bv  immersion,  and  attaches 
special  iniporlancc  to  evidences  of  conversion. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  Meiuionite 
bodies  in  missionarv  enterprise,  and  has  mis- 
sionaries in  China.  Africa,  and  India.  Its  16 
churches  have  2950  members  and  are  served  by 
41   ministers. 

XI.  The  Defexseless  Mennonites  are  like- 
wise distinguished  bv  the  stress  they  lay  upon 
the  necessity  of  conversion  and  regeneration,  and 
represent  a  separation  from  the  .\nilsh.  which 
was  led  by  Henry  Kgli.  They  have  1120  mem- 
bers In   11   churches,  with  20  ministers. 

XII.  The  CiifRni  o»  the  Mexxoxite  Breth- 
REX  IX  Christ  is  the  most  recent  in  organiza- 
tion of  the  Mennonite  bodies,  having  Ijeen  formed 
about  1880.  The  Hrethren  are  open  conununion- 
ists.  and  ailminister  baptism  in  any  of  the  usual 
fonns.  They  have  59  elnirches,  70  ministers,  and 
3103  members,  in  eight  States  of  the  Union,  and 
churches  in  Canada. 


MENNONITES. 


321 


MENSHIKOFF. 


The  larger  !Mfnnonite  Inanclics  have  in  recent 
years  displayed  iiioreascd  activity  in  missionary 
enterprise,  in  consequence  of  which  they  have 
enjoyed  a  greater  relative  prosperity.  A  general 
tendency  has  been  observed  toward  a  closer  draw- 
ing together  of  the  ditl'erent  branches.  This  was 
e.xeniplilied  in  an  eti'ort  which  was  made  in  1808 
to  secure  the  liolding  of  a  General  Conference 
of  the  ilennonite  and  Amish  district  conferences, 
and  in  the  coiiperation  of  all  the  bodies  with  the 
lloine  and  Foreign  Relief  Commission  at  KlU- 
hart,  for  famine  relief  in  India,  for  the  education 
of  the  famine  orphans,  and  for  the  support  of  the 
missionaries  among  them. 

BiBUOuR.\pnv.  Periodicals:  Mennonitische 
Rundschau,  weekly  (Elkhart,  Ind.)  ;  Herald  of 
Truth,  semi-monthly  (ib.)  ;  Christ licher  liundcu- 
hotc.  weekly  (Berne.  Ind.):  Gemeindcsbote  iind 
M'aisenhcirn,  monthly  (Hillsboro,  Kan.)  ;  Zians 
Bote,  weekly  (Jledford,  Okla.)  :  the  Mennoiiite, 
monthly  (Quakertown,  Pa.).  The  anspel  Banner, 
weekly,  and  the  Evangeliums  Panier.  semi- 
monthly (Berlin,  Ontario),  represent  the  Jlen- 
iionite  Brethren  in  Christ.  Literature:  Blau- 
pet  ten  Cate,  Geschiedeniss  der  Doopsgezinden 
(Amsterdam,  1839-47)  ;  Starck.  Geschichte  der 
Taufe  und  der  Taufgeshuiten  (Leipzig,  1789)  ; 
Brons,  Ursprung,  Entivickehing  und  Sehicksale 
der  Taufgesinnten  (•2d  ed.,  Norden,  1891).  Con- 
.sult  also  the  article  "ilcnnoniten,"  by  Hauck, 
in  the  Hauek-Herzog  Reulenri/clopadie.  vol.  x., 
which  has  full  biI)liography.  In  Knglish.  con- 
sult: .Menno  Simons's  complete  works,  and  The 
ilrmmniles:  Their  History,  F<ii1h,  and  Practice, 
published  bv  the  Jlennonite  Publishing  House,  at 
Klkhart.  Iiid. :  Martin,  The  Mennonites  (Phila- 
delphia, 1883)  ;  Krehbiel,  The  History  of  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  Mennonites  of  Xorth  America 
(Saint  Louis.  189.5)  ;  Pennypacker.  Historical 
and  Geographical  Sketches  (Philadelphia.  1883). 
the  first  half  of  which  relates  to  the  history  of 
the  Jlennonites ;  Richardson,  "A  Day  with  the 
Pennsvlvania  Amish,"  in  the  Outlook,  vol.  Ixi. 
(1899'),  pp.  781-8(3. 

MEN'OBRAN'CHUS.  A  genus  of  large 
newts,  of  the  family  Proteida>,  represented  in 
the  United  States  only  by  the  mud-puppy   (q.v. ). 

MENOMINEE,  me-noml-ne  (Wild-rice  men, 
so  called  because  of  their  great  use  of  the  wild 
rice  which  grows  abundaiitly  in  their  country). 
A  consideraljle  Algonquian  tribe. formerly  ranging 
over  northern  Wisconsin  and  the  adjacent  Upper 
Michigan,  chiefly  along  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  and  now  gathered  with  the  Stockbridge 
upon  a  reservation  near  Green  Bay,  Wis.  In 
their  general  characteristics  they  resemble  the 
Ojibwa,  but  they  speak  a  distinct  hmguage. 
French  missionaries  established  a  mission  among 
them  in  1070,  and  they  remained  faithful  to  the 
French  interest  vmtil  the  end.  They  aided  the 
English  in  the  Revolution  and  in  the  War  of 
1812,  and  fought  under  Tccumsch  during  the 
latter  struggle.  In  1822  thev  were  estimated 
at  3900.  In  1901  they  numbered  1390,  nearly 
all  civilized  and  Catholic,  ami  about  one-half 
being  able  to  read  and  write. 

MENOMINEE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Mi'iinmince  County,  Jlich.,  52  miles  northeast 
of  Green  Bay.  Wis.,  and  opposite  Marinette,  Wis., 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  tliree  bridges.  It 
is  situated  on  Green  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Menominee  River,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 


western, the  Chicago,  Mil\vaul<ee  and  Saint  Paul, 
and  the  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  railroads  (Map: 
iliehigan,  F  3 ) .  It  is  also  tlie  western  terminus  of 
the  car  ferry  of  the  Ann  Arbor  Railroad.  One  of 
the  greatest  lumber-slii])ping  ports  in  the  United 
States,  ilenominee  has  numerous  saw  and  planing 
mills  with  a  large  output,  and  manufactories  of 
electrical  appliances,  telephones,  shoes,  paper, 
steam  boilers,  heavy  machinery,  boxes,  beet  sugar, 
etc.  The  city  possesses  a  public  lilirary  of  about 
4500  volumes  and  a  fine  higli  school  building, 
Menominee,  first  incorporated  in  1883,  is  gov- 
erned under  a  charter  of  1891  which  provides 
for  a  mayor,  chosen  annually,  and  a  unicameral 
council  which  elects  most  of  the  administrative 
officials,  only  the  supervisor,  city  treasurer,  and 
justice  of  the  peace  being  chosen  by  popular 
election.  Louis  Chappieu,  a  trader,  settled  here 
in  1799:  but  the  city  really  dates  from  1832, 
when  the  first  mill  was  built  here.  Population, 
in  1890,  10.(!.'50:  in  1900,  12,818. 

MENOMINEE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Dunn  tounty.  Wis.,  70  miles  east  of  Saint 
Paul.  Minn. ;  on  the  Red  Cedar  River,  and  on 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul,  and 
the  Chicago,  Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha 
railroads  (Map:  Wisconsin,  B  4),  It  has  a 
fine  memorial  libraiy  of  SOOO  volumes,  and  the 
Stout  Manual  Training  School  and  a  normal 
ti-aining  school.  The  Dunn  County  Asylum  is 
near  the  city.  The  industrial  interests  are  rep- 
resented by  brick  yards,  lumber  mills,  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  carriage  and  wagon  works, 
etc. :  and  the  commercial  interests  by  a  large 
trade  in  lumber,  brick,  flour,  wheat,  and  fur. 
Population,  in  1890,  5491;  in  1900,  5655. 

MEN'OPOME.     The  hellbender    (q.v.). 

MENPES,  men'pes.  Mortimer  i  ?—  ) .  An  Eng- 
lish artist,  born  in  Soutli  Australia.  He  was 
educated  at  Port  Adelaide  and  went  to  London 
when  nineteen  years  old.  There  he  studied  at 
South  Kensington,  and  then  went  to  Pont  Aven 
in  Brittany,  where  he  remained  three  years.  In 
1880  some  of  his  etchings  were  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  in  1885  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Society  of  Britisl\  Artists.  Two  years 
afterwards  he  went  to  .Japan,  and  in  1888  he  ex- 
hibited his  Japanese  drawings  and  pictures  at 
Dowdeswell's  in  London.  He  invented  a  process 
of  painting  in  water  color  by  which  he  attained 
uncommon  brilliancy  of  efl'ect,  and  he  is  particu- 
larly successful  in  this  medium.  His  large  dry- 
point,  "The  Officers  of  the  Archers  of  Saint  Adri- 
an," after  Hals,  was  succeeded  by  a  series  of 
etchings  which  include  the  brilli;int  studies  of 
Whistler  in  dift'erent  positions.  He  also  revived 
the  art  of  painting  in  color  from  etclied  plates. 
In  later  years  he  turned  his  attention  to  por- 
traiture on  a  small  scale,  where  his  skill  as  a 
draughtsman,  his  deft  liandling  of  color,  and  his 
individual    style   were   elVectivcly   sliown. 

MENSHIKOFF,  or  MENTCHIKOFF.  men'- 
shT-kof.  Alexander  Daxilovitch  (1072-1729.  or 
1730),  A  Russian  field-marshal  and  Minister  of 
State.  He  was  born  at  Jloseow.  Xovember  Ifi, 
1072,  in  humble  circumstances,  and  was  a  baker's 
apprentice.  His  intelligent  countenance  attracted 
the  notice  of  General  Lcfort,  through  whose 
patronage  he  was  taken  into  the  service  of  Peter 
tlie  Great,  He  discovered  a  conspiracy  among  the 
Streltsi  (q,v.)  and  his  rapid  promotion  was  se- 
cured.    He  accompanied  Peter  in  his  travels  to 


MENSHIKOFF. 


322 


MENSURABLE   MUSIC. 


Holland  and  England,  and  on  the  death  of  Lefort 
became  the  Czar's  chief  adviser.  ilenshikolV 
showed  equal  ability  as  a  general  and  as  a  diplii- 
niatist;  and  although  totally  uneducated  he  did 
much  to  promote  the  education  of  the  people, 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
On  October  30,  1700,  lie  defeated  the  Swedes  at 
Kalisz;  he  contributed  to  some  of  the  Czar's 
other  victories,  was  made  a  ticld-niarshal  on  the 
field  of  Poltava,  1700,  and  after  the  battle  com- 
pelled Lewenhaupt  to  capitulate  with  a  great 
])art  of  the  Swedish  army.  In  1710  he  took  Riga  ; 
in  1712  he  led  the  Eussian  troops  into  Pomerania 
and  Holstein,  and  in  1713  took  Stettin,  liut  gave 
it  up  to  Prussia  contrary  to  tlic  will  of  the  Czar. 
This  and  bis  avarice  so  displeased  Peter  that 
MenshikolV  was  court-martialed  and  condenuied 
to  death,  but  he  was  pardoned  on  payment  of  a 
heavy  fine.  During  the  reign  of  Catharine  1.  he 
regained  his  influence  at  Court,  and  after  her 
death  governed  Russia  with  almost  absolute  au- 
thority in  the  name  of  Peter  II.  His  dauglitcr 
was  about  to  marry  the  young  Czar,  when  Menshi- 
koff  was  overthrown  by  Dolgoruki  and  banislu'd 
to  Siberia,  September.  1727.  His  estates  and 
treasures  were  confiscated. 

MENSHIKOFF,  or  MENTCHIKOFF,  Alex- 
ander SERiiEYEVITfll.  Prime  (  17S7-1.S01)) .  .V 
Russian  general,  the  great-grandson  of  Alexander 
Hanilovilch  ^MenshikotV.  He  was  born  Se])tember 
11,  1787,  and  participated  in  the  camjiaigns  of 
1812  to  LSI,')  against  Napoleon.  In  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  of  1828-20  he  took  Anapa  and 
Varna.  In  1836  he  became  Jlinister  of  Marine, 
and  did  much  to  increase  the  efVeetiveness  of  the 
Russian  Navy.  In  18.53  he  was  sent  as  Envoy 
Extraordinary  to  Constantinople,  where  his  over- 
bearing demeanor  produced  the  rujiture  winch 
resulted  in  the  Crimean  War.  During  this  war 
lie  became  prominent  as  defender  of  Sebastopol, 
where  he  sliowed  the  greatest  energy'  until  his 
retirement  on  account  of  ill  health  in  JIaich, 
185.->.     He  .lied  at  Saint  Petersburg,  May  2,  18G9. 

MENSES,  men'sez.     See  ^Iexstrvatiox. 

MENSTRUATION.  The  discharge  of  bloody 
lluid  wliieh  i»ues  every  month  from  the  genera- 
tive organs  of  the  human  female  during  the 
period  ill  which  she  is  capable  of  |)rocrealion. 

Tlie  first  appearance  of  this  discharge,  to  vvhieli 
are  applied  the  terms  mcii.-ics  and  mtameiiia,  is 
11  decicled  indication  of  the  arrival  of  the  period 
of  commencing  womanhood,  and  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  an  enlargement  of  the  mammary 
glands,  a  gi'owth  of  the  external  genitals,  an  in- 
crease of  hair  U|M)n  the  nions  Veneris,  and  an  ac- 
cession of  rcsene,  thoughtfulness,  and  inaturily. 
^lenstruation  usually  eomnicnees  between  the 
fourteenth  and  the  sixteenth  years,  and  termi- 
nates between  the  forty-eighth  and  fifty-second 
years.  The  cessation  of  the  menstrual  (low  is 
called  menopause.  The  interval  which  most  com- 
monly elajises  between  tlu>  successive  appearances 
of  the  discharge  is  about  four  weeks,  although 
it  is  oftener  shorter;  and  the  duration  of  the 
flow  is  usually  three  or  fi>ur  ilays.  but  is  liable 
fo  great  variations.  The  lirst  appearance  of  the 
discharge  is  usually  preeeded  and  aeeompanied 
by  pain  in  the  loins  and  headache,  malaise,  de- 
pression, nnd  restlessness,  and  in  many  women 
these  symptoms  invariably  necompany  tlie  dis- 
charge. As  n  general  rule  there  is  no  menstrual 
flow    during    pregnancy   and    lactation,    and    its 


i<'ssation  is  one  of  the  tirst  signs  that  concep- 
tion has  taken  jilace. 

In  robust  young  girls  who  have  lived  an  out- 
door life  there  is  no  disturbance  experienced  at 
the  appearance  of  the  menses.  In  many  others, 
however,  there  is  considerable  nervous  excite- 
ment, consisting  of  irritability,  emotion,  de- 
])ression.  Hushing,  and  throbbing  of  the  head. 
DilKcult  and  painful  menstruation  is  called  dya- 
menorrhoea.  During  such  nervous  manifesta- 
tions the  girl  should  be  treated  as  an  invalid, 
and  studies  should  not  be  persistently  prose- 
cuted. Avoidance  of  drains  upon  |)hysical  and 
mental  powers  should  be  enjoined,  and  abundant 
daily  outdoor  life  should  be  secured. 

MENSURABLE  MUSIC  (Lat.  »»ieH.<(i(ra6i7ig, 
measurable,  from  Dtnisiini,  measure).  Strictly 
speaking,  all  music  written  in  notes  that  have 
a  definite  time-value.  In  a  specific  sense  the  term 
is  a])plied  to  the  music  written  between  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  and  the  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, before  the  invention  of  the  line  dividing  ', 
a  composition  into  bars.  Before  the  twelfth 
century  tile  choral  note  of  the  ])laiii  chant  indi 
cated  only  the  pitch.  The  duration  of  each  note 
was  left  to  the  individual  singer,  and  arbitrarily  ' 
determined  by  the  rliylhiii  of  tlie  text.  As  long  I 
as  music  was  sung  in  unison  this  system  an- 
swered all  practical  purposes.  But  with  the  in- 
troduction of  harmony  and  the  development  of 
polyphonic  music,  employing  a  nunilicr  of  inde- 
jiendent  voices,  an  imperative  need  made  itself 
felt  to  fix  the  duration  of  the  individual  note. 
Jlensurable  music,  therefore,  borrowed  the  forms 
of  the  notes  as  used  in  the  plain  chant.  These 
were:  tlie  large  (mtuiinrt  or  duplex  lottga),  ■! ; 
the  long  {longa),  ■;  tlie  breve  (hreeis).  ■; 
and    the    seinibreve    (semibrevis),    ♦.      To    these 

were  added  the  minim  (ininixiii).  ^,  and  semi- 
minim  (semiminima),  ^.  For  nearly  three 
liundred  years  the  notes  were  written  in  thU 
form.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  black  notes   were  gradually   supplanted  by 

the  white  or  open  notes  :  tlj,  t|.  IzJ.  O.  A. 
For  the  smaller  notes  both  the  black  and  white 

forms  continued   in   use  :   semimiiiim,  <>  or  ^.  ; 

eroma  or  fusa,   0  ov  ^;  semicroma  or  semifusa, 

<5  or  4.  Even  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury rounded  notes  were  substituted  for  the 
s(|uarc  ones  in  writing  music,  liut  it  was  not 
until  1700  that  the  round  forms  were  generally 
adopted  by  music  ])rinters. 

Out  of  "reverence  for  tlie  Trinity  triple  time 
was  regarded  as  perfect  time,  whereas  duple  time 
was  imperfect.  A  division  of  a  note  into  three 
of  the  next  smaller  kind  was  vicnsura  perfecta : 
into  two  of  the  smaller  kind,  mcnuura  imperfeclti. 
This  division  was  indicated  by  certain  signs,  hut 
a  sharp  distinction  was  made  between  the  di- 
vision of  a  long  into  breves,  or  of  a  breve  into 
semibreves.  These  signs  were  )ilaced  at  the  be 
ginning  of  a  composition.  The  division  of  a 
large  into  longs  or  of  a  long  into  breves  wn- 
known  as  modus:  of  a  breve  into  semibreves  i>- 
tempim:  of  a  semibreve  into  minims  as  prolnti" 
The  modim  it.self  was  further  distinguished  a- 
modiis  major  (division  of  a  large  into  longs) 
nnd  modus  minor  (division  of  a  long  into 
breves).  A  still  further  subdivision  of  both  the 
modus    major    and    minor    was    into    pcrfeetut 


MENSURABLE   MUSIC. 


323 


MENSURABLE  MUSIC. 


(triple  time)  :\ud  i in iicrfccliis  ((liii)k').  Tcmpus 
was  thvis  also  subiliviiU'd  into  prrfcctum  and 
impcrfrcliiiii  :  wlicroas  in  the  case  of  iirolalin 
this  division  was  desiijnated  as  tnajor  and  iiiiiKtr. 
The  following  talile  gives  a  complete  view  of  this 
system  with  the  various  signatures: 

Modus  major  perfect  us 

Modus  major  imperfectus,       .     .     . 

Modus  minor  perfectus 

Modus  minor  imperfectus, .... 

Tempus  perfectum 


Terapus  imperfectum, 
Prolatio  major,  .  . 
Prolatio  minor,      .     . 


The  sign  of  the  modus  major  was  the  same  for 
the  perfectus  and  imperfectus.  The  following 
sign  for  the  modus  miiuir  determined  the  modus 
major.  If  the  sign  {s  was  followed  by  or 
III,  it  was  modus  major  perfectus;  if  followed 
by  or  II ,  it  was  modus  major  imperfectus.  The 
length  of  the  vertical  bars  had  reference  to  the 
modus  miiwr.  the  long  bars  indicating  the  per- 
fectus, the  short  ones  the  imperfectus.  The  num- 
ber of  vertical  bars  referred  to  the  division  of 
the  large  into  two  or  three  longs.  Tlie  prolatio 
sign  appeared  only  in  connection  with  the  tempus 
sign.  Thus  O  meant  tempus  perfectum,  pro- 
latio major;  Q  tempus  imperfectum,  prolatio 
major.  If  the  tempus  sign  appeared  without  a 
dot  it  always  meant  that  prolatio  minor  was  un- 
derstood. The  following  table  will  make  tiiis 
clear: 

_  (  Modns  major  perfectus. 
-  1  Modus  iniuor  perfectua. 
;  i  Teiiipng  perfectum. 
(  Prolatio  major. 

(  Modus  major  perfectus. 
Modus  minor  imperfectus. 


m 


^E 


Alteratio  was  the  doubling  of  the  time-value  of 
the  second  of  two  notes  of  the  same  l<ind  when  a, 
tripartite  note  of  the  next  larger  kind  followed. 
Generally  the  two  smaller  notes  stood  between 
two  of  the  larger  kind,  or  were  separated  from 
the  following  notes  of  equal  or  smaller  value  by 


1   ^  =3i=l  .    ( 


1  t=:  =  3  S)  , 

1 ^ ' =3^. 

1  ^  =3^, 

1  ^  =3o  . 

1  W  =3  O  , 

1  -^  =3  <1>   , 

1  O  =3<!>   , 


H 

lll'll 
III. II 

o 

c 

•  within  Tempus  sign. 

no  dot. 


a  punctum  divisionis.  Thus  in  tempus  perfectum, 
(Q,  tripartite)  {=4  <y<y  fs^  would  be  expressed 
in    modern   notation    (values    reduced   one-half) 

An  important  factor  in  the  theory  of  mensur- 
able music  was  tlie  color  of  the  notes.  The 
ordinary  note  was  black.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury a  red  note  (notula  rubra)  was  used.  Origi- 
nally this  red  note  was  used  instead  of  signa- 
tures to  denote  a  change  from  perfectio  to  im- 
perfectio  or  vice  versa.  Soon  it  was  definitely 
used  to  indicate  imperfectio  only.  For  want  of 
red  color,  it  was  often  left  open  or  white  (notula 
alba ) ,  and  during  the  fifteenth  century  the  white 
note  had  the  same  meaning  as  the  red  note  of 
the  fourteenth.  When  finally  the  white  notes 
were  geneially  adopted  (during  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries),  imperfectio  was  denoted 
by  the  black  note  (notula  nigra). 

(  Modus  major  imperfectus. 

-  1  Modus  miiior  perfectus. 
- 1  Tempus  imperfectum. 
'  Prolatio  major. 


m 


z^^3 1  Tempus  perfectum 
(  Prolatio  minor. 

The  time-value  of  the  different  notes  as  fixed 
by  these  signs  or  signatures  was  known  as  the 
integer  valor  notarum.     But  these  fundamental 
values  could  be  changed  by  means  of  augmenta- 
tio,  diminutio,  and  proportio.   Dimiinitio  reduced 
the  value  of  the  notes  in  triple  time  to  one-third, 
in  duple  time  to  one-half  of  the  original  value. 
It  was  indicated  by  a  vertical   line  through  the 
signature  (t)    d  .  ci"  by  affixing  a  number  to  the 
tempus  sign    (_)  2.  or  Q  3.     Tiiue  indicated  thus 
always  denoted  a  lively  tempo,  corresponding  to 
the  modern   allegro.     Augmentatio   signified   the 
restoration  of  the  integer  valor  of  notes  reduced 
by  diminutio.     It  was  indicated  by  writing  the 
i  ordinary  sign    of    the    integer    color   O    C  ■     ■'^ 
i  change  of  the  integer  valor  by  means  of  fractions 
'  was  known  as  proportio.     Thus  -^  meant  that  the 
!   time  was  to  be  accelerated,  so  that  three  breves 
I  now  had  the  same  duration  as  one  breve  of  in- 
teger valor.     But  ^  meant   the  opposite,  viz.  that 
the  time  w'as  to  be  retarded,  so  that  one  breve 
now  had  the  same  duration  as  three  breves  of  the 
integer  valor.     A  special  kind  of  proportio  w.is 
that  indicated  by  -|,  known  as  hernial  id. 


Modus  major  imperfectus. 
AIoilus  minor  imperfectus. 


■'I    "        'i  Tempus  imperfectum. 

(  Prolatio  miaor. 

A  group  of  two  or  more  notes  to  be  sung  on 
one  syllable  was  called  ligatura.  When  only 
two  notes  were  given  to  one  syllable,  they  were 
written  as  one  and  called  figura  obligua. 


pE(^^iEga^)^ 


In  ligatures  of  more  than  two  notes  the  time- 
value  of  the  individual  notes  was  not  deter- 
mined from  their  actual  shape  but  from  their 
position.  The  value  of  the  first  note  could  be 
a  breve  or  a  long.  In  the  former  case  the  term 
proprietas,  in  the  latter  iniproprietas,  w'as  ap- 
plied. If  the  second  note  was  lower  than  the 
first,  proprietas  was  indicated  by  a  vertical  line 
(Cauda)    downward  <m  the  left  side  of  the  first 

^0^, 


note  ; 


if  tlie  second  note  was  higher,  the 


Cauda  was  wanting,  p  .  In  both  cases  the 
first  note  is  breve.  Imprnprieias  was  indicated 
by  adding  the  Cauda  to  the  first  note  if  the  sec- 
ond was  higher,  and  omitting  it  if  the  second  was 

lower:  l-i^S ,  nn  .  Here  both  first  notes  are 
longs.  ' 


MENSURABLE  MUSIC.  324  MENTAL  CONSTITUTION. 

Out   of   this   system   of   notation    our   modern  tliat  the  volume  of  :\  rectan^'iihir  pariiUclepiped 

eystem  of  notation  has  been  gradually  evolved,  or  prism   is   found  by  nuiltiplying  together  the 

Those  interested  are  referred  to  the  comprehcn-  length,  breadth,  and  thiekness ;  and  of  the  oblique 

sive  histories  of  music  and  cyclopaedias  of  Ger-  parallelepiped,   jirism.   or  cylinder,   by   multiply- 

ber,  .Anibros,  Coussemaker.     See  ilusiCAL  NoTA-  ing  the  area  of  the  base  by  the  height. 

TION.  As  in  case  of  the  circle,  so  in  the  mensuration 

MENSURATION      (Lat.     mensuratio,     from  of  the  cylinder,  cone,  and  sphere,  the  theory  of 

mensurare,  to  measure,  from  mensura,  measure,  limits    (see   Limit.s,  Theory  of)    is   applied    in 

from  mctiri,  to  njcasure).     A  branch  of  applied  connection  with  the  circumscribed  and  inscribed 

mathematics  dealing  with  the  calculation  of  linos,  figures.     The  following  formulas  of  mensuration 

angles,    surfaces,    and    volumes    from    measured  will  be  found  convenient : 

Abbreviations;    ft.  base;  2j,  altitude;  r,  radius:  n.  area;  c,  circumference;  /),  perimeter;  «,  slant  height ;  r,  volume: 
m,  mid-section;  a.  tlie  number  of  radians  in  an  angle. 

Parallelogram a  ^=hh. 

Triiiugle a  =  >  bh. 

Trapezoid a  =  \(b-\-b')  h. 

Parallelepiped v  =  bh. 

Prism V  =bh. 

]>ateral  area,  right  prism «  =  ph. 

Prismatoid v  ^  I  h  {b  -\-  b'  -\-  4:  m). 

Pyramid v  =  \  bh. 

Lateral  area,  regular  pyramid o  =  i  ps.  

Frustum  of  ])vramid v  =  I  h  (b  -{- b'  -\-  v  66'). 

Lateral  area,  frustum  of  regular  pyramid a  =  1  (p  +  p')  s. 

Eight  circular  cylinder c  =  6/i  =  ir  rh. 

Lateral  area a  =  ch  —  2  r  rh. 

Eight  circular  cone v  =  \  bh  =  J  x  r-h. 

Lateral  area "  =  I  cs  ^  t  is. 

Frustum  of  right  circular  cone v  =  ^  ir  h  (?y  +  ij^  +  r,  r,). 

Sphere r  =  |7r  /■*,  a  =  4  ir  /■-. 

Lune a  =  2  a  r-. 

Spherical  polygon n  =  a  r. 

Zone «  ^  2  TT  rh. 

Spherical  segment r  ^  ^  ir  /i  [3  (r,'  +  r,')  +  h']. 

Splicrical  sector v  =  I  ir  r-  /i  =  J  6i-. 

Circle c  ='2  v  r,  a  =  ir  i^,  arc^a  ■  r. 

data.  The  metrical  relations  between  lines  and  For  the  mensuration  of  geometric  solids,  con- 
angles  are  computed  chiefly  by  the  principles  of  suit  Holzmiiller.  Klemcnte  der  Stere<ynmtrie  (2 
trigonometrv    (qv.).     The  mensuration  of  com-  vols.,  Leipzig.  lOOO). 

„,on  surfaces  and  volunics.  however  ^"n  J";  MENTAL  CONSTITUTION.  The  typical 
erally  be  elfected  by  the  prmc.pes  <>f  S';"""^  O-  ,,,,,,,,1.,  ^hi,!,  .tv...  to  ^ive  the  unnd  itsunity 
For  the  ijurposes  of  either  direct  measurement  ,..,,..  ai  .  i  »•*.,»;„;, 
or  compu  atimi  a  unit  is  necessarv.  The  straight  •?"^,  individual  s.gmhcance.  Mental  const.tut  on 
line  is  measured  bv  direct  comparisons  with  scnne  >*  determined,  irstot  all,  by  the  manner  of  the 
linear  unit,  as  the  inch,  foot  or  yard.  But  in  assembling  of  the  elements  which  go  to  make  up 
measuring  a  surface  or  a  volume  it  is  unneces-  consciousness.  Lvery  normal  mind  comprises 
.  '^  1  .  ,  „,,i.;„  ,..,;*  r^,.  manifold  elements  and  diverging  tendencies — sen- 
sary  to  applv  an  actual  square  or  cubic  unit,  or  v.-  i  •  i  i-  ..i., 
even  to  d  vide  the  magnitudes  into  such  squares  ^''t';'"^-  "''"T-,  vohtions-which  oi.linaiily 
or  cubes.  It  is  onlv  necessarv  to  measure  el.rtain  ^^'%  ^•^^f'^\  »«  /"""  ;.l%'.»'"t  ,«'•  '^^b.tual  way^ 
of  its  boun.larv  lines  or  dhnensiom.  and  from  By  dint  of  natural  proclivities,  due  o  .nheritanee 
these  measurements  to  calculate  the  contents  in  "r  environment,  it  achieves  a  kind  of  integuty 
terms  of  the  a,,propriate  unit;  e.g.  if  a  inches  ■•""1  ''"''■."l  etfectiveness  which  we  recognize  as 
and  6  inches  are  the  lengths  of  the  adjacent  sides  poisonality :  a  mind  is  thus,  as  we  say,  well  or- 
of  a  recti.ngle,  its  area  is  a-h-  1  square  inch  =  «a>"=^eii  operating  to  consistent  and  coherent 
n6  square  inch;  i.e.  the  number  of  scpuiie  units  -;"'.ls-  Not  infrequently,  however,  minds  are  de- 
of  area  in  a  rectangle  is  equal  to  the  product  "'''•'I't  '"  organization  The  weak-willed,  mat- 
of  two  numbers  which  represent  its  ba.se  and  t^'t've  person  sufVers  from  lack  of  cohesion  of 
altitude,  measured  bv  the  same  linear  unit.  The  mental  elements:  his  interests  vary  with  each 
areas  of  other  figures  are  found  from  this  by  suggestion  that  conies  to  liim  through  ,H^rception 
the  aid  of  C'ltain  relations  or  properties  of  those  "'•  ''."''ily  feeling:  he  is  never  cera in  of  Ins  in_ 
figures;  for  instance,  the  area  of  a  parallelo-  teiitions,  never  constant  in  his  attitude  toward 
gram  is  the  .same  as  the  area  of  a  rectangle  hav-  t''"'!-'^;  never  thoroughly  self-possessed.  On  the 
ing  the  same  base  and  altitude,  and  is  therefore  "ther  hand,  there  are  minds  in  which  he  niter- 
equal  to  the  base  multiplied  bv  the  altitu.le.  "al  suggestion  is  so  powerful  as  to  dull  I'cwp- 
■\s  a  triangle  is  half  of  a  parallelogram  of  the  tion  to  all  not  falling  within  a  certain  field  of 
same  base  and  the  same  altitude,  its  area  is  one-  interest,  .so  destroying  the  mind's  pliancy  and 
half  the  product  of  its  base  and  altitude.  Certain  powers  of  adaptation.  Such  minds  have,  we 
quadrilaterals  and  polvgons  are  measured  by  .say.  strong  jnepossessions;  they  are  biased,  nar- 
<lividing  them  into  tri.'ingles.  the  area  of  each  row;  in  extreme  form  they  are  afflicted  with 
nf  wliii'li  is  separatelv  calculated.  ( Tor  the  ar.a  fixed  ideas  and  monomania.  A  third  type  of 
of  the  circle,  see  Circle.)  By  reasoning  similar  aberrant  constitution  is  found  in  bi-ccntred  or 
to  that  employed  in  the  case  of  areas,  it  is  shown  multi-centred     minds.       Here     the     personality 


MENTAL  CONSTITUTION. 


325 


MENTAL  PROCESS. 


breaks  up  into  two  or  more  selves,  or  cores  of 
interest,  aljout  each  of  wliieli  f,'atlier  elements  con- 
genial to  itself.  Such  ijorsoiialities  are  usually 
detieient  in  stability  and  in  breadth  and  rich- 
ness of  mental  content.  They  exist  incipiently  in 
the  normal  mind. and  where  the  transformation  is 
gradual  resiilt  in  healthy  alterations  of  character 
and  in  the  broadening  of  intelligence;  in  a  more 
lively  form,  though  still  subject  to  the  domina- 
tion "of  one  supreme  self,  tliey  may  give  the  dra- 
niatic  creations  of  the  novelist;  but  in  extreme 
oases  they  result  in  exaggerated  transpositions  of 
thought  and  feeling,  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
insanity. 

Apart  from  these  more  general  variations, 
minds  are  characterized  by  dift'ercnces  in  the 
form  and  trend  of  their  presentations.  One  per- 
son, for  example,  thinks  largely  in  visual  images; 
another's  thought  takes  shape  in  internal  eonver- 
satimis;  while  yet  another  is  more  keenly  con- 
scious of  his  attitude  toward  things,  the  way  he 
will  act  in  their  presence  or  the  way  he  imagines 
that  they  feel.  Again,  presentations  in  the  same 
field  of  sensation  may  vary  in  quality,  ditterent 
minds  having  different  characteristic  modes  of 
perception;  so  a  landscape  always  appeals  to 
the  artist  aesthetically,  to  the  agriculturist  or 
promoter  by  its  practical  possibilities.  This  is 
not  due  merely  to  ditTerence  of  interest,  but  to 
an  actual  variation  in  the  quality  of  the  presen- 
tation. The  variation  appears  again  in  powers 
of  memory  and  imagination,  where  there  is  al- 
ways in  evidence  a  natural  selection  of  elements 
due  to  the  mind's  aptitude.  Herein  lies  the 
chief  factor  of  individuality,  the  mind's  com- 
plexion or  characteristic  style  of  thought  and 
feeling,  serving  to  throw  it  into  relief  against 
that  background  of  qualities  common  to  all  con- 
sciousness which  in  mankind  we  term  human 
nature. 

MENTALITY  OF  INSECTS.  See  section  on 
Social  Insects  under  Insect;  also  Instinct. 

MENTAL  PATHOLOGY.  The  science  of 
abnormal  mental  process.  The  intimate  depen- 
dence of  consciousness  upon  the  functioning  of 
the  central  nervous  system  enables  us  to  approach 
the  investigation  of  morbid  mental  conditions 
from  the  vantage  ground  of  physiology.  The 
brain,  which  is  the  substrate  of  mind,  may,  like 
any  other  organ  of  the  body,  exhibit  (1)  de- 
fects— i.e.  lack  of  some  structure — or  (2)  ab- 
riormality  of  function,  whether  it  be  (a)  tem- 
porary— i.e.  a  disorder — or  (  6  )  permanent — i.e. 
a  disease.  'Defectives'  are,  then,  persons  who 
suffer,  congenitally  or  from  early  childhood,  from 
the  absence  of  some  group  or  grou|)s  of  mental 
elements  in  consequence  of  some  luiderlying 
structural  gap  in  the  nervous  system;  they  are 
the  lilind,  the  deaf,  the  paralytic,  etc.  The  eases 
of  Laura  Bridgman  and  Helen  Keller,  the  blind 
deaf-mutes,  are  typical.  From  careful  reports  of 
their  educational  progress,  and  from  special 
psychological  and  neurological  examination  of 
their  mental  and  physiological  organization,  val- 
uable data  have  i)een  secured.  Temporary  dis- 
turbances of  normal  mental  functioning  are  af- 
forded in  the  consciousness  of  dreams  (extreme 
inattention),  hypnosis  (extreme  attention),  and 
the  intoxication  of  various  drugs.  Frequent  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  examine  mind  as  spe- 
cific phases  of  it  are  rendered  ana'sthetic  or 
hyperaesthetic  in  these  ways.     Hashish    (extract 


of  Cannabis  Indica),  e.g.,  greatly  magnifies  our 
consciousness  of  duration  and  extent,  and  also 
induces  visual  hallucination.  Chronic  mental 
derangement  is  excmi)lified  by  the  various  forms 
of  insanity — mania,  melancholia,  dementia,  gen- 
eral paresis,  etc. — the  extended  investigation  of 
which  by  oompetent  alienists  has  thrown  much 
light  upon  the  nature  of  the  more  complicated 
mental  processes. 

Abnormal  mental  types  are,  as  one  writer  puts 
it,  "psychological  experiments  made  for  us  by 
Nature  herself."  Especially  is  this  true  when 
the  infirmity  is  isolated,  when  a  single  group  of 
mental  processes — e.g.  a  sense  department — is 
either  entirely  lacking  or  extraordinarily  empha- 
sized. Such  a  state  of  atlairs  simplifies  matters 
for  the  psychologist.  He  is  able  to  find  out  the 
relative  value  of  the  group  concerned  in  the  nor- 
mally organized  mind,  and,  as  a  consequence,  to 
proceed  more  successfully  with  the  analysis  of 
the  adult  human  consciousness.  (See  Psychol- 
ogy.) Take,  for  example,  cases  of  the  anaesthesia 
of  particular  internal  organs  which  lie  beyond 
that  experimental  control  which  is  of  supreme 
importance  in  the  laboratory  investigation  of  the 
external  sense  organs.  Evidence  of  this  sort  has 
been  of  weight  in  referring  the  sensation  of  gid- 
diness to  the  semicircular  canals  of  the  internal 
ear.  ( See  St.\tic  Sense.  )  From  observations  of 
senile  dementia  Hughlings  Jackson  has  estab- 
lished the  law  that,  in  the  gradual  loss  of  mem- 
ory with  advancing  age,  the  latest  mental  stviff, 
that  acquired  with  most  difficulty,  first  decays. 
The  successive  .stages  of  dissolution  consequent 
upon  the  inroads  of  cerebral  deterioration  re- 
trace the  steps  of  evolution.  The  various  types 
of  aphasia  (q.v. )  have  been  of  great  assistance 
in  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  cortical 
localization  of  function,  as  well  as  in  the  more 
strictly   psychological   problems   of  apperception 

(q.v.)    and  language. 

Bibliography'.  Lewis,  Mental  Diseases:  Path- 
olofficul  Aspects  of  Insanitij  (London,  1889)  ; 
Hall,  Mind,  iv.  ( 1S70,  149);  Maudsley,  The 
Pnthologtj  of  Mind  (London.  1879);  Mereier, 
Hanitji  and  Insanity  (London,  1890)  ;  Binet,  The 
I'si/cholofiy  of  Reasonin;/,  Based  jipon  Experi- 
mental Researches  in  Ili/pnotism  (Eng.  trans., 
Chicago.  1899)  :  Ribot.  Les  maladies  de  la  me- 
moire  (Paris.  1891)  ;  Diseases  of  the  Will  (Eng. 
trans.,   Chicago,    1894)  ;    Diseases  of  Personality 

(Eng.  trans.!^  Chicago,  1894)  ;  Sully,  The  Hu- 
man Mind,  i..  19.  7-i.  ii.,  3'20f.  (lx)ndon,  1892)  ; 
Titchener,  An  Outline  of  Psi/eholodv  (New  York, 

1899). 

MENTAL  PROCESS.  A  phrase  employed 
by  modern  psychologv-  in  two  nearly  related 
meanings.  ( 1 )  In  the  first  place,  it  is  tending 
to  replace  the  older  static  conception  of  'mind' 
(q.v.).  Stout,  e.g.,  defines  psycliology  as  "the 
positive  science  of  mental  process."  in  preference 
to  speaking  of  it  as  the  'science  of  mind.'  and 
.James  declares  that  "the  first  fact  for  us  as 
psychologists  is  [not  that  mind  exists,  but]  that 
thinking  of  some  sort  goes  on.  ...  If  we 
could  say  in  English  'it  thinks.'  as  we  say  'it 
rains"  or  'it  blows.'  we  should  be  stating  the 
fact  most  simply."  (2)  But  not  only  is  mind,  as 
a  whole,  a  'stream'  of  thought  and  feeling;  each 
separate  element  of  mind  or  mental  formation 
that  our  analysis  teases  out  of  the  total  con- 
sciousness  is  itself  a   process.     Every  sensation 


MENTAL  PKOCESS. 


326 


MENTONE. 


rises,  poises,  falls,  in  its  own  characteristic  way; 
even  the  idea,  the  mental  'thinj,'"  par  excellence, 
is  termed  l>y  Wundt  a  'variable  process.'  and 
such  formations  as  emotion  and  volition  bear  the 
mark  of  process  stamped  upon  them.  Meaning 
(q.v. )  and  mode  of  connection  (see  Fl'Slo.N  ;  I.M- 
PULSE)  arc  stable,  but  the  'stuff'  of  which  mind 
is  made  is  essentially  process  and  not  being. 
Consult:  Wundt,  Essays  (Leipzig,  1885):  I'hi- 
losophische  Studien,  vi.,  x.  (Leipzig,  1891,  1894)  ; 
James,  Principles  of  Psycholoyij,  vol.  i.  (New 
York,  1890);  Stout,  Analytic  Psyclioloyy  (Lon- 
don, 1890)  ;  Titehener,  An  Outline  of  Psychology 
(New  York,  1S99). 

MENTAL  SCIENCE.  The  name  given  to  a 
philosophical  or  religious  system  which,  as  ex- 
plained by  one  of  its  adherents,  aims  at  the  pre- 
vention of  disease,  rather  than  its  cure,  by  awak- 
ening in  the  individual  the  inherent  but  dormant 
spiritual  forces  through  the  medium  of  its  litera- 
ture, lecture  courses,  and  by  auto-suggestion. 
It  contends  that  no  system  of  cure  can  rid  the 
world  of  discord  and  disease;  that  the  various 
systems  of  medication,  ranging  from  the  incanta- 
tion of  the  barbarian  to  mind  healing  or  faith 
cure,  are  simply  compatible  with  the  dilTerent 
temperaments  of  humanity.  A  materialistic 
nature  demands  "things'  as  antidotes  for  dis- 
cord, while  a  metaphysical  temperament  demands 
"thoughts'  as  a  mode  of  cure.  Mental  .Science 
looks  u])on  all  schemes  of  cure  as  temporary 
expedients  only  to  bridge  over  a  defect  in  man's 
estimation  of  himself.  It  maintains  that  the 
phenomenal  world  is  the  differentiation  of  the 
infinite  mind  of  humanity,  ranging  from  an  atom 
to  immensity  and  from  a  molecule  to  man.  It 
contends  that  man  does  not  live  in  a  physical 
world,  but  rather  in  a  physical  phase  of  con- 
sciousness, and  that  to  transcend  mentally  the 
plane  of  lumian  consciousness  to  that  of  the 
spiritual  would  dissolve  the  human  or  physical 
misconception  of  life  and  being.  It  argues  that 
since  each  individual  thinks  for  himself  alone, 
he  must  be  just  what  he  thinks  he  is,  for  he  is 
the  one  who  thinks  it.  Therefore  each  lives; 
moves,  and  has  his  being  in  an  environment  com- 
patible with  tl>e  statiis  of  his  own  mind. 

Mental  Science  has  numerous  subdivisions, 
known  in  part  as  "Divine  Science,'  'Spiritual 
Science,'  "Metaphysical  Science,'  "Sjiiritual  Kth- 
ics,'  and  other  titles.  It  differs  from  Christian 
Science  (q.v.),  which  is  an  organized  church 
with  government,  tenets,  etc..  and  which  teaches 
the  practical  application  of  the  Christ  Mind 
healing  to  all  forms  of  disease.  Attempts  to 
organize  the  Mental  Scientists  have  met  with 
])ersistent  defeat,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of 
organizing  a  body  of  individualists.  I/t  is  claimeil 
that  the  numerical  strength  of  Mental  Science 
is  upward  of  1.000.000  adherents  in  the  I'nited 
State-,    nti.li  r    the    various    titles    mentioned. 

MENTANA,  mCn-tii'na.  A  village  in  Italy, 
13  miles  northeast  of  Rome,  with  "2401  inhabit- 
ants in  inoi.  It  is  noted  as  the  place  where. 
on  November  3,  1807.  Garibaldi  was  defeated  In- 
Papal  and  French  troops  while  attempting  to 
seize  Rome  and  thus  complete  the  unity  of  Italy. 
On  November  2n.  1877.  a  monument  was  erected 
in  honor  of  the  adherents  of  (iaribaiili.  who  was 
taken  prisoner  in  this  battle.     See  GaRIIIaLDI. 

MEN'TEL       (or      Mentei.tn).       .TonAXXES 
(c.1110  78).     A  German  printer  of  the  fifteenth 


century,  the  first  to  establish  a  press  at  Strass- 
burg.  To  him  the  invention  of  printing  was 
once  attributed  by  many.  The  erroneous  charac- 
ter of  any  such  assertion  was  very  clearly  demon- 
strated by  Von  der  Linde  in  the  results  of  hia 
investigation  of  the  early  history  of  printing  in 
his   Gutenberg    (Stuttgart,    1878). 

MEN'TER,  Soi'UiE  (1848—).  A  German 
pianist,  burn  at  Munich,  in  which  city  she  subse- 
quently studied  under  SchOnchen,  Lebert,  and 
Niest,  making  her  debut  in  1803.  She  met  with 
extraordinary  success,  particularly  at  Frankfort, 
where,  in  1807,  Tausig  (q.v.)  secured  her  as  a 
pupil.  Two  years  later  she  won  the  good-will  of 
Liszt,  who  became  one  of  her  stanchest  frienda. 
She  nuide  many  tours  and  had  many  famous 
pupils,  and  finally  retired  to  her  home,  Castle 
Itter,  in  the  Tjrol.  Meanwhile  she  had  become 
known  as  a  remarkable  virtuoso,  and  besides 
her  appointments  as  Court  pianist  to  the  Prince 
of  Hohenzollern  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
she  sened  for  a  time  on  the  faculty  of  the  Saint 
Petersburg  Conservatory.  In  1S7"2  she  married 
the  'cellist  Popper,  from  whom  she  was  subse- 
quently   divorced    (1880). 

MENTETJE,  miix'ter',  Le  ( Fr.,  Tlie  Liar). 
A  comedy  by  Corneille  (1044),  modeled  after 
Alarcon's  Venlad  sospechosa.  The  leading  char- 
acters are  Dorante,  whose  propensity  gives  the 
play  its  name  and  involves  the  hero  in  numer- 
ous complications;  GCronte,  his  credulous  old 
father  and  his  dupe;  and  Cliton.  his  shrewd,  wit- 
ty valet.  The  play  is  Corneille's  best  comedy, 
and  the  most  important  before  the  appearam* 
of  ilolifere.  It  was  followed  by  the  Suite  du 
menteur,  modeled  on  Lope  dc  Vega's  Amar  sin 
saber  d  quien,  and  not  having  the  successful  qual- 
ities of  t)ic  original  comedy. 

MENTHOL,  mfn'thrd  (from  Lat.  mcnilia, 
mint),  C,„H,,,OH.  A  colorless  crystalline  sub- 
stance obtained  from  oflicial  oil  of  pc])permint, 
or  from  .Japanese  or  Chinese  oil  of  peiq>ennint. 
It  has  the  odor  of  peppermint,  and  produces  in 
the  mouth  a  sensation  of  cold.  It  is  but  sparing- 
ly soluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  in  considerable 
q'uantities  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  other 
organic  liquids.  It  is  often  used  as  a  remedy  for 
neuralgic  headache.  In  a  solution  of  ten  parta 
of  alcolud  to  one  of  menthol,  or  in  the  solid  form 
of  a  pencil,  it  usually  gives  inunediate.  though 
not  always  complete,  relief,  wlien  apjilied  to  the 
se;it    iif   |i;iiii. 

MENTONE,  mento'nii.  Fr.  MENTON, 
miix'tux'.  A  seaport  town  in  the  Dcjiarlment  of 
.\lpes-Maritimes,  France,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
19  miles  northeast  of  Nice  by  rail  (  Map:  France, 
O  8).  It  is  situated  on  two  small  bays  known 
respeetivelv  as  Bale  de  I'Ouest  and  Haie  de 
Garavan.  divided  by  a  point  of  lan<l  from  which 
juts  the  breakwater  inclosing  the  h;irbor.  On  the 
north  is  a  sheltering  range  of  lofty  mountains, 
the  lower  slopes  of  which  are  covered  with  orange, 
lemon,  and  olive  groves,  and  dotted  with  pic- 
turesque villas  and  elegant  residences.  The  in- 
closed situation  of  the  town,  dry  and  equable 
clinuite.  ami  other  natural  advantages  make  Men' 
tone  one  of  the  most  popular  of  invalid  resort* 
on  the  Riviera.  The  old  portion  of  the  town  re- 
tains a  medieval  aspect,  with  its  narrow,  winding 
streets:  the  newer  portion  is  regubirly  laid  out 
and  clean.  The  prominent  buildings  are  the 
churches  of  Saint  Michel   (seventeenth  century) 


MENTONE. 


327 


MEPHISTOPHELES. 


and  of  the  CoHception ;  the  Hotel  dc  Ville  has  an 
interesting  uiuseum  of  prehistoiie  relies.  Other 
notable  features  are  the  Jardin  Puhlie  and  the 
Promenade  du  Jlidi.  The  chief  point  of  interest, 
however,  is  in  the  grottoes  of  Baousse  Rousse 
near  by.  in  Italian  territory,  where  Rivi&re 
diseovered  relios  of  very  aneient  human  occupa- 
tion and  skeletons  of  a  later  race  in  the  debris. 
Nine  skeletons  in  all  were  found,  and  with  them 
pierced  shells  and  milk  teeth  of  deer,  formerly 
portions  of  personal  ornaments;  but  more  sur- 
prising is  the  fact  that  the  bones  were  painted 
with  red  ochre.  In  the  general  stratum  beneath 
ooeiirrcd  stone  implements  of  Paleolithic  type. 
This  fact,  and  tlie  entire  absence  of  implements 
of  bone,  ])ierced  shells,  and  teeth  of  deer  from  the 
lower  beds,  leaves  the  impression  of  two  periods 
of  occu[iation.  ilentone  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  fruit  and  olive  oil.  After  belonging  for  500 
years  to  Monaco,  the  town  revolted  in  1848,  and 
attached  itself  to  Sardinia.  With  the  cession  of 
Nice  to  France  in  1801,  Mentone  came  under 
French  rule,  the  Prince  of  Monaco  ceding  his 
rights  to  the  French  Government  for  4,000,000 
francs.  Consult:  Mortillet,  Le  pr4histonque 
(Paris.  1000),  and  Bulletins  de  la  Socicte  d'An- 
thropoloijie  de  Paris,  ser.  4,  vol.  is.  (Paris,  1898). 

MENTOR  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  {iUvrap).  The  son 
of  Alcimus  of  Ithaca,  the  trusted  friend  of 
Ulysses,  who.  on  setting  out  for  Troy,  left  to 
him  the  charge  of  his  household  and  the  educa- 
tion of  Telemachus.  His  name  has  become  pro- 
verliial  fur  a  wise  guide  and  counselor. 

MENYANTHES,  men'i-an'thez.  A  genus  of 
plants.      See   Buckbe.^x. 

MENZALEH,  men-za'lc  L.\ke.  A  lagoon  on 
the  northeastern  coast  of  Egj'pt.  extending  from 
the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile  to  the  Suez 
Canal,  and  separated  from  the  Mediterranean  by 
narrow  sand  bars  (ilap:  Egj-pt,  F  1).  It  is  30 
miles  in  length  by  about  20  miles  in  average 
breadth,  is  very  shallow,  and  studded  with  low 
islands,  on  one  of  which  are  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Tcnnesus.  Tlie  lagoon  has  valu- 
able fisheries,  besides  producing  much  salt. 

MENZEL,  nien'tsel,  Adolf  vo.\  (181.5-1905). 
A  tiernian  historical  and  genre  painter,  illus- 
trator, and  lithographer,  one  of  the  leading  paint- 
ers of  the  present  day.  He  was  born  at  Bres- 
lau,  December  8,  1815.  and  when  a  mere  lad  as- 
sisted his  father,  a  lithographer,  in  his  work. 
To  give  him  opportunity  for  study,  the  family 
removed  to  Berlin  in  18.30,  but  lie  soon  reliii- 
quished  as  unprofitable  the  ordinary  routine  of 
training  at  the  Academv.  and  mav  trulv  be  called 
self-taught.  His  father's  death  in  lS.3l"  threw  the 
support  of  the  family  upon  his  shoulders,  and  he 
worked  hard  at  litliographic  commissions.  In  1833 
he  executed  for  the  publisher  Sachse  'The  Artist's 
Earthly  Pilgiimage.",  a  series  of  ten  drawings 
in  pen  and  ink  illustrating  Goethe's  poem, 
"Kiinstler's  Erdenwallen."  which  attracted  im- 
mediate attention.  Among  his  other  efforts  in 
lithography,  the  "Essays  on  Stone  with  Brush 
and  Scraper."  in  which  he  produced  effects  re- 
sembling mezzotinting,  are  of  especial  interest 
as  a  novel  departure,  in  which  for  a  long  time 
he  had  no  imitator  or  rival.  The  real  besinnins 
of  Menzel's  triumphs  was  the  Tear  1830.  when  he 
negan  the  illustration  of  Kugler's  Tlistoni  of 
Frederirk  the  Great,  a  task  occupying  three 
years.     These   four   hundred   designs,"  drawn    in 


pencil  on  wood  and  reproduced  in  fac-simile, 
brought  him  royal  and  popular  favor,  and  gave  a 
new  impetus  to  the  art  of  wood  engraving  in 
Germany.  Menzel  began  to  paint  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  without  formal  instruction.  * 

Of  his  i)ainlings  the  best  known  are  the  epi- 
sodes from  the  history  of  the  great  Prussian 
monarch.  These  include:  The  "Kouud  Table  of 
Frederick  the  Great  at  Sans  Souci"  (1850),  and 
the  'Flute  Concert"  (1852),  both  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery.  Berlin;  "Frederick  the  Great 
Traveling"  (1854),  Raven6  Gallery,  Berlin; 
"Frederick  and  His  Men  at  Hochkirch"  (185G), 
in  the  Royal  Palace  at  Potsdam.  He  appears 
as  the  painter-historian  of  the  modern  Hohen- 
zoUern  in  another  series,  of  which  the  "Corona- 
lion  of  King  William  I.  at  Kijnigsberg."  in  the 
Roval  Palace.  Berlin,  and  "Departure  of  the  King 
for  the  Seat  of  War  in  1870"  (1871),  in  the 
National  Gallery,  Berlin,  are  the  most  conspicu- 
ous examples.  Among  a  great  variety  of  genre 
pictures,  the  "Modern  Cyclops"  ( 1875,  National 
Gallery,  Berlin),  representing  the  interior  of  a 
rolling  mill  in  Silesia,  is  a  sterling  piece  of  real- 
istic characterization  and  of  masterly  light  ef- 
fects. Remarkable  for  this  latter  quality,  as  well 
as  for  its  keen  satire,  is  "The  Ball  Supper" 
(1879),  and  a  later  notewortliy  example  is  tlie 
''Carnival  Morning"'  (1885),  in  the  National  Gal- 
lery, Berlin.  Besides  various  other  honors  be- 
stowed upon  him.  Menzel  was  made  a  Privy 
Councilor,  with  the  title  of  excellenc}-,  on  his 
eightieth  birthday,  in  1895,  and  received  the 
Order  of  the  Black  Eagle,  conferring  hereditary 
nobility,  in  1899.  For  his  biography,  consult: 
Sondermann  (Magdeburg,  1895) ,  and  Knackfuss 
(Bielefeld,  1897)  ;  also  Jordan,  Das  Werk  Adolf 
Meiizels  (ilunich,  1895)  :  Waldstein,  in  Harper's 
Maga~ii>e  (New  York,  1890),  and  Magazine  of 
Art  (London,  1884  and  1901). 

MENZEL,  WoLFCAKG  (1798-1873).  A  Ger- 
man historian  and  critic,  born  a^  Waldenburg, 
Silesia,  June  21.  1798.  He  studied  at  Jena  and 
Bonn,  became  an  ardent  disciple  of  Jahn  (q.v. ) 
and  the  Turner  movement,  taught  (1820-24)  at 
Aarau,  in  .Switzerland,  and  from  1825  lived  as  a 
man  of  letters  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  edited  the 
Litterafiirhlatt  ( 1820-48  :  again  in  1852) .  From 
1830  to  1838  he  belonged  to  the  Wiirttemberg 
Diet.  Unsuccessful  in  politics,  he  gave  himself 
up  to  literature,  assailed  CJoethe.  and  was  him- 
self mercilessly  attacked  by  Heine  and  others. 
His  popular  Gesehichte  der  Dentsehen  came  out 
in  1824-25;  Die  Gesehichte  Europas.  17S0-1SI',. 
in  1853.  His  strongly  monarchical  tendencies  de- 
velop in  other  histories.  He  composed  the  dra- 
matic fairy  tales  ff/i&pro/i?  (1829)  and  Narcissus 
(1830).  and  an  historical  novel.  Furore  (1851). 
His  Deutsche  Litteraiur  ( 1828)  can  be  studied  in 
.S'ppcimens  of  Foreign  Literature  (Boston.  1840). 
Consult  also  his  autobiographical  Denkwiirdig- 
kciten    (Bielefeld.  187G). 

MENZELINSK,  men'tsel-Insk'.  A  town  of 
eastern  Russia  in  the  government  of  Ufa,  situ- 
ated on  a  branch  of  the  Kama,  125  miles  north- 
west of  Ufa.  Important  fairs  are  held  here,  in 
which  miscellaneous  goods  are  sold  to  the  value 
of  .$2,000,000  annually.  Population,  in  1897, 
7542. 

MEPHTSTOPH'ELES  (formerly  also  }fe- 
phostophilus,  Mephostophilis ;  of  uncertain  deri- 
vation, but  perhaps  most  plausibly  explained  as 


MEPHISTOPHELES. 


328 


MERCANTILE  AGENCY. 


Gk.  /i^,  »i<",  not  +  0iit,  phon,  light  +  0iXos, 
philos,  loving).  One  of  the  seven  chief  devils  in 
the  old  denionology,  the  second  of  the  fallen 
archangels,  and  the  most  powerful  of  the  infernal 
legions  after  Satan.  He  ligures  in  the  old  legend 
of  Dr.  Faustus,  and  in  Marlowe's  play  of  that 
name,  as  the  familiar  spirit  of  that  renowned 
magician,  and  his  name  was  commonly  used  as 
a  term  of  jocular  reproach.  To  modern  readers 
he  is  chicily  known  as  the  cold,  scoffing,  relent- 
less fiend  of  Goethe's  Faust. 

MEP'PEL.  A  town  in  the  Netherlands,  situ- 
ated I'll  the  ileppeler  Diep,  10  miles  northeast 
of  Zwolle  (Map:  Netherlands.  E  2).  It  is  an 
important  centre  for  the  hutter  trade,  and  has 
calico  and  canvas  man\ifacturcs.  Population,  in 
1880,  8S(iO;   in  1900,  10,154. 

MEQTIINEZ,  niek'i-nez,  or  MEK'NEZ.  A 
noted  town  of  Morocco.  Africa,  situated  in  a 
mountainous  regiim  over  30  miles  southwest  of 
Fez  (Map:  Africa.  D  1).  It  is  still  one  of  the 
finest  cities  of  Morocco,  although  it  has  greatly 
declined  since  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it 
had  attained  unusual  magnificence  under  the 
Sultan  Jluley  Ismail.  It  is  surrounded  by  exten- 
sive olive  groves,  and  has  a  fine  mosi|iU'  which 
is  visited  hy  pilgrims,  and  a  palace  of  the  Sultan, 
■who  occasionally  visits  the  town  in  the  summer. 
It  is  of  little  commercial  or  industrial  impor- 
tance, its  chief  manufactures  being  earthenware 
and  leather  goods.  Tlie  population  is  estimated 
at  from  ^n.OOO  to  00,000. 

MERAN,  mft-rlin'.  A  famous  health  resort 
in  Tyrol,  Atistria.  situated  on  the  Passer,  about 
42  miles  south-southwest  of  Innsbruck  (Map: 
Austria,  B  3).  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Kiichel- 
berg,  at  an  altitude  of  about  1000  feet,  and  is 
noted  for  its  salubrious  and  moderate  climate. 
The  vicinity  abounds  in  picturesque  old  castles 
and  chateaux,  and  fine  promenades  extend  along 
both  banks  of^the  Passer.  The  principal  street, 
Vnter  den  Lauben.  flanked  with  arcades,  con- 
tains the  fifteenth-century  burg — the  former 
residence  of  the  cmints  of  Tyrol,  and  now  in  its 
restored  condition  serving  as  a  museum.  The 
season  lasts  from  the  begiiming  of  fall  to  the 
end  of  spring,  and  Ihe  annual  number  of  patients 
exceeds  10.000.  Meran  is  ]irovided  with  several 
churches,  schools,  and  a  theatre.  On  the  north- 
western side  of  the  Kiichelberg  is  the  remarkable 
old  castle  of  Tyrol,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  counts 
of  Tyrol,  and  now  in  a  half-ruined  condition.  The 
chateau  of  l.ebenberg.  south  of  Meran.  is  also  of 
no  little  interest.  Meran  is  first  mentioned  as 
ilairania  in  S.'il.  It  became  a  town  at  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  was  nntil  14110  the 
residence  of  the  counts  of  Tvrol.  Population,  in 
180O.  7170:  in   MIOO,  9284. 

MERAN,  .V(i.\Ks  or.    See  Agnes  of  Mf.rax. 

MERCADANTE,  mer'ka-dan'tft.  Francesco 
Samiiki  I  I7!I7IS70).  A  celebrated  Italian 
musician,  born  at  Altanuna.  He  studied  the 
violin  and  the  llute  uniler  Zingarelli  at  the  Con- 
servatory i^an  Sebastiano  at  Naples,  but  soon 
turned  his  attention  to  compositions  for  the 
voice.  In  1818  he  produced  a  grand  cantata,  en- 
titled h'uniimr  rlrllf  lirlli  nrli.  which  was  per- 
formed af  the  Teatro  Fondo.  and  which  met  with 
a  very  favorable  reception.  This  led  to  an  en- 
gagement at  the  Teatro  San  Carlo,  where  his  first 
opera,  L'apoteosi  d'ErcoU   (1819),  was  well  re- 


ceived. In  1833  he  was  appointed'  chapelmaster 
at  the  Cathedral  of  Xovara.and  in  1830  liisoiiera 
/  briyanti  was  i)crl'ornied  in  Paris  witli  an  ex- 
traordinary cast,  which  consisted  of  Kubini, 
Tamburino,  Lablache,  and  Grisi.  He  was  made 
director  of  the  royal  conservatory  at  Naples  in 
1840,  but  became  totally  blind  in  1802.  He  com- 
posed many  masses,  and  much  Church  music.  He 
died  at  Naples. 

MERCANTILE  AGENCY.  "An  institution 
wbicj].  lor  a  subscripliuM  price,  agrees  to  collect 
information  as  to  the  financial  condition  and  re- 
sponsibility of  business  men  and  to  transmit  the 
same  to  its  subscribers."  At  times  it  also  un- 
dertakes the  collection  of  debts  for  its  cus- 
tomers. It  originated  in  the  United  States,  dur- 
ing the  period  of  depression  following  the  panic 
of  1837,  and  its  avowed  object  was  to  uphold, 
extend,  and  render  safe  and  profitalile  to  all  con- 
cerned the  great  credit  system  which  had  grown 
up  with  the  increase  of  commerce.  The  first  mer- 
cantile agency  was  established  in  New  York  dur- 
ing the  year  1841  by  Lewis  Tappan,  and  was 
followed  the  next  year  by  a  simihir  agency  un- 
der the  control  of  Woodward  and  Duscnbury, 

While  originally  establislied  for  the  purpose 
of  answering  <piestions  about  the  financial  stand-  ' 
ing  of  jjarticular  persons,  the  scope  of  the  i 
agency  has  been  extended,  until  its  records  eon- 
tain  the  financial  ratings  of  nearly  every  business 
man  in  the  country.  In  addition  to  the  general 
agencies,  such  as  Dun  &  Co,  and  the  Pradstreet 
Comjiany.  there  are  many  special  agencies  which 
confine  themselves  to  particular  lines  of  trade. 
By  the  general  agencies  the  country  is  divided 
into  districts,  in  each  of  which  is  a  maniiging 
agent  with  various  correspondents  in  the  several 
localities.  If  a  subscriber  wishes  more  minute 
or  more  recent  information  than  that  contained 
in  the  agency's  periodical  reports,  he  asks  for 
and  receives  a  special  report  brought  down  to 
date. 

While  a  mercantile  agency  is  employed  by  its 
subscribers  to  do  certain  things  for  them,  it  is 
not  in  the  strict  sense  their  agent  (<|.v.)  in  these 
transactions:  it  is  rather  an  independent  con- 
tractor. It  engages  to  accomplish  a  stipu- 
lated result,  but  is  entirely  free  to  accomplish 
this  in  its  own  way  and  with  its  own  instrumen- 
talities. If.  in  obtaining  and  publishing  infor- 
mation, it  docs  a  legal  wrong  to  tliird  persons,  it 
is  responsible  therefor,  but  its  employers  are  not. 
A  statement  made  to  a  subscriber  iisking  for  it  is 
generally  held  to  be  conditionally  ]>rivileged.  hut 
when  made  to  other  subscribers  who  have  no 
interest  in  the  information  it  is  not  privileged. 
In  a  ease  of  the  former  kind  the  plaintiff  would 
be  obliged,  therefore,  to  prove  actual  malice,  or 
malice  in  fact,  to  sustain  an  action  for  libel, 
slander,  or  the  like,  on  the  part  of  the  agency; 
but   in  the  latter  case  he  would  not. 

.\  subscriber  who  is  misled  to  his  injury  by 
acting  upon  false  information  stipplicd  by  the 
agency  is  generally  entitled  to  daimigcs  against 
it.  Alost  agencies,  however,  require  their  pa- 
trons to  agree  that  the  agency  shall  not  be  re- 
spor.sible  for  any  loss  caused  by  the  neglect  of 
anj'  of  its  servants,  clerks,  attorneys,  or  employees 
in  procuring,  collecting,  and  comiiiunicnting  in- 
formation. Such  agreements  have  been  nplicid  by 
several  courts.  If.  however,  after  correct  infor- 
mation has  been  received  by  the  agency,  a  blunder 
is    made    by    its    managers    in    printing   it,   the 


MERCANTILE  AGENCY. 


329 


MERCANTILISM. 


agency  should  be  held  lialile,  ami  such  a  decision 
was  iiiade  l>y  the  Sujirerne  Court,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. When  a  business  man  makes  false  state- 
ments about  his  financial  condition  to  a  mcr(?an- 
tiic  agency,  and  this  is  comnumicated  to  a  third 
party  who  acts  upon  it^to  his  injury,  the  third 
party  bas  as  good  cause  of  action  in  deceit  (q.v. ) 
a"ainst  the  business  man  as  though  the  state- 
ment had  been  made  directly  to  him.  Consult: 
Errant.  The  Late  Relating  to  Mercantile  Agencies 
(Philadelphia,  1889)  ;  Reinhard.  .!  Treatise  cm 
the  Laic  of  Ageney    (Indianapolis,  1902). 

MERCANTILE  AGENT.  In  the  absence  of 
a  statutory  definition,  specifically  one  who  acts 
as  agent  for  another  in  important  commercial 
transactions.  It  does  not  include  a  mere  ser- 
vant, care-taker,  or  a  merchant's  clerk  or  sales- 
man, or  a  common  carrier.  The  present  Factors 
Act  in  England  (52  and  53  Vict.  c.  45  §  1)  de- 
fines the  term  as  an  "agent  having  in  the  cus- 
tomary course  of  his  business  as  such  agent  au- 
thority either  to  sell  goods,  or  to  consign  goods 
for  the  purpose  of  sale,  or  to  buy  goods,  or  to 
raise  money  in  the  security  of  goods."  This  is  the 
signification  in  which  the  term  is  most  frequent- 
ly used  in  current  law  literature. 

MERCANTILE  LAW.  A  term  which,  at 
present,  covers  a,  rather  indefinite  domain  in 
English  law.  It  is  ordinarily  applied  to  a  group 
of  topics,  more  or  less  closely  related,  and  having 
this  element  in  common,  that  they  have  origi- 
nated in,  or  been  greatly  modified  by,  the  usages 
and  customs  of  merchants.  The  legal  rules  gov- 
erning these  various  topics  do  not  form  a  sepa- 
rate and  independent  branch  of  jurisprudence: 
they  cannot  be  called  with  accuracy  a  distinct 
and  homogeneous  body  of  law.  In  the  leading 
English  treatise  on  this  subject  mercantile  law 
is  viewed  as  comprising:  partnership,  joint-stock 
companies,  agency,  negotiable  paper,  contracts 
with  carriers,  insurance,  sale,  bottomry  and  re- 
spondentia, debt,  guaranty,  stoppage  in  transit, 
lien,  and  bankruptcy. 

JIuch  nf  tlie  law  upon  these  subjects  is  of  an- 
cient origin,  coming  to  us  from  the  Roman  civil 
law  and  later  codes.  For  a  discussion  of  this 
early  development,  see  L.\w  ilERcn.^xT.  For  the 
law  upon  the  various  subjects  included  under 
the  term  mercantile  law,  such  as  partnership, 
lien,  etc.,  see  those  titles  in  the  vocabulary.  Con- 
sult the  authorities  cited  under  Law  JIeechant, 
and  the  titles  Partnership;  Llex  ;  etc. 

MERCANTILISM.  The  system  of  economic 
policy  evolved  by  the  European  States  after  the 
decay  of  the  feudal  system.  In  essence  it  repre- 
sented a  transition  from  local  and  territorial  to 
national  economy.  In  the  earlier  period  each 
town  had  vcgiilatcd  industry  in  the  exclusive 
interest  of  its  own  inhabitants,  treating  the  citi- 
zens of  other  towns  as  aliens  wlio  could  trade 
in  the  town  only  after  svibmitting  to  such  re- 
strictions as  the  town  government  chose  to  im- 
pose. It  was  the  purpose  of  the  mercantilist 
statesmen  to  break  down  the  barriers  to  internal 
intercourse,  and  to  unite  the  State  in  a  single 
economic  organism  in  rivalry  with  other  States. 

The  practical  measures  by  which  the  mercan- 
tilist statesmen  sought  to  attain  national  power 
were:  (1)  the  accumulation  within  the  State 
of  a  large  amount  of  the  precious  metals  :  (2)  the 
encouragement  of  agriculture;  (.■?)  the  develop- 
nieut  of  manufactures;  and  (4)  the  creation  of  a 


mercantile  marine.  In  the  writings  of  the  ex- 
ponents of  mercantilist  doctrine  especial  emphasis 
was  devoted  to  the  acquisition  of  treasure.  The 
European  States  were  rajiidly  i)assing  from  an 
economic  order  in  which  payments  in  kind  pre- 
vailed to  an  economy  b;ised  upon  money  trans- 
actions, and  as  a  consequence  the  great;  impor- 
tance of  a  suflicient  stock  of  the  precious  metals 
occupied  a  large  share  of  the  attention  of  states- 
men. In  the  earlier  mercantile  period  an  effort 
had  been  made  to  prevent  the  exportation  of  bul- 
lion altogether.  Later  it  came  to  be  i-eeognized 
that  bullion  sent  abroad  in  the  way  of  exchange 
might  result  in  an  ultimate  increase  in  the  stock 
of  bullion  at  home.  Statesmen  then  concentrated 
their  attention  upon  securing  a  favorable  balance 
of  trade.  One  way  of  attaining  this  end  was 
to  encourage  the  exportation  of  finished  com- 
modities and  the  importation  of  raw  materials, 
since  in  this  way  a  greater  value  would  be  ex- 
ported  than    imported. 

ilanufactures  were  encouraged  because  they 
furnished  materials  for  commerce,  lielping  there- 
by to  secure  the  so-called  favorable  balance  of 
trade.  Agriculture  also  took  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion, and  was  encouraged  as  a  source  of  abun- 
dance of  raw  material.  The  growth  of  popula- 
tion was  desired  in  order  to  have  an  ample  sup- 
ply of  cheap  labor  power.  Cheap  agricultural 
products  and  cheap  labor  were  aims,  and  herein 
we  see  a  diflference  between  mercantilism  and 
modern  protectionism,  the  avowed  claims  of 
which  are  high  prices  for  the  products  and  high 
wages  for  labor.  In  England  the  earlier  prohibi- 
tion of  exportation  of  grain,  which  had  been  cal- 
cidated  to  favor  the  consumer,  was  succeeded  by 
prohibition  of  importation  when  prices  fell  below 
a  certain  figure,  in  order  that  tillage  might  be 
uniforml.v  profitable.  Manufactures  were  stimu- 
lated by  high  duties,  or  even  by  prohibition  of 
imports,  and  by  numerous  sumptuary  laws  favor- 
ing domestic  manufactures.  The  aim  here  was 
twofold :  to  attain  national  economic  indepen- 
dence and  to  prevent  the  export  of  bullion  in  pay- 
ment for  foreign  goods.  Finally,  the  encourage- 
ment of  shipping  was  naturally  regarded  as  of 
the  greatest  consequence  at  the  time,  since  the 
new  trade  with  America  and  the  Orient  rapidly 
enriched  the  nations  which  controlled  it.  For  the 
mercantilist  navigation  policy,  see  Navigatiox 
Laws. 

Mercantilism  as  a  definite  policy  first  appears 
in  English  history  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century :  not  much  later  it  was  also  the  settled 
policy  of  France.  In  England  it  reached  its 
height  under  Elizabeth ;  in  France  under  Colbert 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  From  that  time  pure 
mercantilism  rapidly  decayed,  degenerating  into 
a  complicated  system  of  discriminating  duties 
designed  to  favor  private  interests  instead  of 
those  of  the  State  as  a  whole.  It  was  mercan- 
tilism of  this  kind  against  which  Adam  Smith 
directed  his  criticisms. which  prejudiced  economic 
writers  for  a  century  against  the  system.  Re- 
cent historical  investigations  have,  however,  dem- 
onstrated that  at  its  best  mercantilism  repre- 
sented a  great  advance  in  economic  policy,  and 
that  it  was  effective  in  bringing  about  national 
iniity  and  independence.  See  International 
Trade;  Protection;  Balance  op  Trade;  Physi- 
ocrats;  Navigation  Laws. 

BiULiOGRAPiiY.  Perhaps  the  best  presentation 
of  a  moderate  mercantilism  bv  an   advocate  is 


MERCANTILISM. 


330 


MERCENARIES. 


that  found  in  .Sir  .Jaiiie^  Stoiuut's  Inquiry  into 
the  Frinciples  of  I'olitical  Economy  (London. 
1707).  For  the  older  critical  attitude  toward 
nieroantilism,  consult  Adam  .Smith,  Wealth  of 
Nations,  book  iv.  By  far  the  best  statement  of 
the  modern  view  is  Sehmoller's  Mercantile  tiys- 
lem   (Eng.  trans.,  New  York,  189C). 

MERCAP'TANS  (from  Lat.  mercurius.  mer- 
cury. (|\ii(k>ilvi'r  +  ciiplans,  prcs.  part,  of  cap- 
tare,  frciiiiciitativc  of  eapere,  lo  take;  so  called 
as  al)s()rbin<;  mercury).  A  class  of  carliiin  com- 
pounds anal(ij;ous  to  the  alcohols.  The  latter  arc 
de(incd  as  eoiM|ic)uiids  containing'  one  or  inure  (JIl 

(hydroxyl)  ^;roups  directly  coml)ined  with  hyilro- 
carbon  ■,'roups  like  nietliyl  (CH3),  ethyl  (C.Hj), 
etc.  Similarly,  the  niercaptans  may  be  defined  as 
compounds  containini;  one  or  more  Sil  (sulphur 
and  hydroj^en)  prouiis  directly  combined  with 
hydrocarbon  groups.  Thus,  methyl  alcolud  has 
the  constitution  ('11,011.  metliyl  mcrcajitan  the 
constitution  t'lljSIl:  ethyl  alcoliol  has  the  consti- 
tution CjlI;.OII,  ethyl  nicr<apt:in  the  constitu- 
tion CJlsSll:  etc.  The  following  are  the  two 
principal  methods  used  in  preparing  niercaptans: 

(1)  by  the  action  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
potassium  sulpho-hvdrate  (KSH)  upon  halogen 
derivatives  of  the  hydrocarbons  (CH3CI,  C,H,C1, 
etc.);  (2)  by  distilling  an  aqueous  scdution  of 
potassium  sulpho-hydrate  with  salts  of  acids  like 
the  well-known  cthyl-sul])huric  acid.  Thus  methyl 
mercaptan  may  lie  ])rcparcd  according  to  either 
of  the  following  reactions: 

I.     CH,C1  -f  KSH  =  CH,SH  +  KCl. 

Metliyl    Potassium    Methyl      PotasMiiim 
chloride      saiphn-    mercaptan     chloride 
hydrate 

/OCH, 
II.    SOj  +  KSH  =  CH3SH  +  KjSOi 

\0K 

PotnHHium      Potassium       Methyl         Potassium 
methyl-  sulplio-      mercaptan       sulphate 

sulphate        hydrate 

Most  mercaptnns  are  liquid,  though  some  exist, 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  in  the  solid  state.  The 
liquid  mcnaplans  arc  much  more  volatile  than 
the  corresponding  alcohols.  They  are  only  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water,  but  mix  freely  with  alco- 
hol or  ether.  Their  most  eliaracteristic  property, 
liowever,  is  their  exceedingly  ollcnsive  odor,  by 
which,  according  to  Kniil  Fischer  and  Pcnzoldt, 
a  quantity  of  ethyl  mercaptan  can  be  detected 
that  is  2.'i0  limes  more  minute  than  the  smallest 
amount  of  sodium  that  can  be  revealed  by  the 
spectrosco])e.  'Hie  hydrogen  of  the  SIT  group 
of  a  nu'rcaptan  can  he  replaced  by  metals.  The 
resulting  substances,  called  'merca|)tides,'  arc  de- 
composed by  acids,  but — unlike  the  alcoholates 
(see  A1.COII01.S) — they  are  unalTectcd  by  pure 
water.  The  ethyl  mcrcaptide  of  mercury  is 
formed  acconling  to  the  following  equation: 
20,H,SH  +  TIgO  =  (C.n,8),Hg  +  H.O 

Ethyl        M*'nMiric  Mercuric  Water 

mercaptan      oxide  inerctiptide 

The  first  mercaptan  ever  prepared  was  ethyl  mer- 
captan, which  was  obtained  liy  Zeise  in  \S3^.  It 
is  now  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
Bulphonal  (q.v.),  a  well-known  hypnotic. 

MERCAP'TIDES.     See  AIehcaptans. 

MERCA'TOR,  Cicit.Muns  (T.atinizcd  form  of 
Okrhahi)  K11KMKII)  (l.')12-n4).  .\  Klemish  niathe- 
inaticinn  ami  geographer,  born  in  Rupelmonde, 
He  took  his  degree  in  philosophy  at  the  Univer- 


sity of  Louvain,  and  later  made  a  profound 
study  of  the  sciences  of  geography  and  mathe- 
matics. In  1559  he  was  a|)pointed  eosmographer 
to  the  Duke  of  .Jiilich  and  t'leves.  His  name  in 
perpetuated  by  the  projection  used  in  nautical 
maps,  in  which  the  meridians  are  represented  by 
parallel  lines,  and  parallels  of  latitude  by 
straight  lines  intersecting  tlie  meridians  at  right 
angles.  Tlie  projection,  liowever,  seems  to  have 
been  applii'd  to  nautical  maps  by  Edward  Wright. 
Besides  a  large  number  of  maps,  Mercator  com- 
piled series  of  geographical  tallies.  Tabula'  (reo- 
f/raphiew  ad  Mentcm  I'tolemai  Uestituiw  (1578). 
He  also  wrote  a  Uarmonia  Ecungeliorum 
(1592);  and  a  work  entitled  Atlas,  give  Cos- 
moffrui>hic<c  ilcditaliones  de  Fabrica  MutuU 
(159-I),  which  was  placed  on  the  Index  Expurga- 
torius. 

MERCATOR  (properly  Kai'fmanx).  Nico- 
LAU.s  {c.l(i20-S7 ) .  A  (ierman  mjithcmatician, 
astronomer,  and  engineer,  born  at  t'ismar  in  the  1 
Duchy  of  Ilolstein.  He  was  e<lucated  at  the  j 
universities  of  Copenhagen  and  Kostock.  and  in  ■h 
1000  or  thereabouts  went  to  London,  where  he 
became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, then  newly  founded.  Subsequently  he  pro- 
ceeded to  France,  where  he  was  :ip|ioiiiled  hy- 
draulic engineer  to  direct  the  construction  of  the 
^'ersailles  fountains.  Owing  to  his  refusal  to  ac- 
cept the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  the  sum  agreed 
upon  as  payment  for  this  work  was  withheld,  and 
this  fact  is  said  to  have  hastened  his  death.  He 
is  credited  with  the  discovery  of  several  methods 
of  calculation,  in  astronomy  and  higher  mathe- 
matics. His  publications  include,  besides  con- 
tributions to  the  Philosophical  Tran.<iactions  ol 
the  Royal  Society.  Cosmntfraphia  (IGol);  As- 
tronomia  Sphwrica  (1051);  I'ationcs  Mathe- 
malicw  f^uhductd'  (105;!);  and  Lofiarithmo- 
tcehnia  (1008-74).  Consult:  Kacstner.  dischichle 
dcr  Matlwmatik  (Gottingen,  1790-1800)  ;  Mon- 
tucla.  Uistoire  des  mathfmatiques  (Paris,  1799- 
1802). 

MERCATOR'S   PROJECTION.   See  CnABTj 

.Map:   JIkimakih.  (;iaiAUiils;   N'AVUiATlo.N ;  SaIL- 

l.N(iS. 

MERCEDES,  mer-sii'Di'is.  A  tow  n  in  the  Prov- 
inii'  of  Hucnos  Ayrcs.  Argentina,  situated  on  the 
I'acilic  Railroad,  .'50  miles  west  of  Buenos  Ayree 
(Map:  Argentina.  F  10).  It  is  a  flourishing 
town  in  a  rich  sheep-raising  region,  has  a  col- 
lege, a  public  library,  and  several  steam-mills 
and  soap  factories.  Population,  about  10,000. 
It  was  founded  a-  a  niilitjiry  station  in  1779,  and 
has  been  settled  largely  by  Irish  immigrants. 

MERCENARIES  (Lat.  mcrccnarius,  hireling, 
from  I/O  rcis.  wage-;,  from  wcrcrr,  to  gain,  de- 
serve; connected  with  Ok.  fitipiadai,  ini  irrstliai, 
to  share,  divide).  Hired  .soldiers,  usually  for- 
eigners in  the  country  for  which  they  light. 
They  existed  from  the  earliest  times.  In  the 
early  (Jreek  rejiublies  there  was  no  standing 
army  or  mercenary  force,  but  the  citizens  them- 
selves formed  a  national  militia.  In  Persia,  how- 
ever, there  were  large  numbers  of  Orcck  merce- 
naries, and  they  aiii)ear  to  have  played  the  same 
jiart  which  in  later  centuries  the  Swiss  did 
in  Western  Europe.  The  first  Orecian  State 
which  used  mercenaries  in  large  numbers  was 
.\tbens,  and  other  Greek  States  soon  followed 
this  example,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War  there  were  a  large  number  of  men  in 


MERCENARIES. 


331 


MERCERIZED  COTTON. 


Greece  whose  prufi'ssioii  was  war,  and  who 
fou-ilit  regardless  ol  llie  cause.  In  Home  merce- 
nary triiups  were  lung  used  merely  as  auxiliaries, 
but  about  llie  fourlli  ceiilury  after  Christ  the 
aruiy  began'to  assume  the  characteristics  of  a 
mercenary  force,  being  composed  largely  of  Ger- 
mans, who  finally  dvertlirew  the  Western  Em- 
pire. In  the  Byzantine  Kmpire  nearly  all  the 
troops  were  mercenaries. 

But  the  golden  age  of  mercenaries  was  in 
Western  Kurope  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 
beginningof  the  modern  era.  In  the  early  Middle 
Ages  armies  were  recruited  by  a  feudal  levy, 
but  when  wars  came  to  be  waged  on  a  larger 
scale  in  the  eleventh  century,  the  forty  days  per 
year  which  the  vassal  had  to  serve  proved  in- 
sullicient,  and  instead  the  King  or  feudal  lord 
preferred  to  connuute  the  service  of  the  vassal 
for  a  money  payment  and  hire  soldiers  instead. 
In  England,  it  is  true,  mercenaries  were  rare, 
though  they  did  form  one  of  the  grievances 
against  John  and  Henry  111.  The  reason  for 
their  scarcity  in  England  was  that  there  war- 
fare consisted  to  a  great  extent  in  border  raids, 
for  which  the  feudal  levy  or  local  militia  was 
ample.  On  the  Continent  circumstances  w'erc  dif- 
ferent, and  kings  with  a  wide  and  scattered  em- 
pire, like  Henry  11.  of  England,  who  pos- 
sessed a  large  part  of  Friince,  were  compelled 
to  cni|)loy  mercenaries  of  all  kinds.  At  first  it 
was  common  to  buy  their  services  by  a  gift  of 
land,  but  by  the  twelfth  century  money  became 
more  conuuon,  and  Xorman  knights,  fjenocse 
bowmen,  and  Flemish  pikemen  were  frequently 
hired  for  pay.  A  fuller  development  was  reached 
in  the  thirteenth  century  Ijy  Die  appearance  of 
the  condotliere  system,  in  which  some  noted  chief 
collected  an  army  of  free  companions,  and  .sold 
his  force  as  a  whole.  The  first  of  these  was 
Roger  de  Flor,  who  waged  war  successfully 
against  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Andronicus  II. 
(See  Cat.m.ax  Gb.\nd  Comp.\ny.)  It  was  to 
this  type  th.at  the  various  noted  Italian  adven- 
turers belonged.  The  character  of  Italian  civi- 
lization was  of  a  kind  to  give  impetus  to  tlie  rise 
of  a  mercenary  force,  for  the  inhabitants  of  the 
many  commercial  city  States  were  unwarlike  and 
at  the  same  time  engaged  in  numerous  petty 
quarrels.  Frequently,  however,  the  mercenaries 
turned  their  arms  against  the  city  which  had 
hired  them,  or  aided  in  imposing  a  tyrant  upon 
the  city, who  then  rewanled  the  company  from  the 
spoils.  Thus  arose  in  Milan  tlie  rule  of  the  Vis- 
conti.  in  Verona  that  of  the  Scala.  in  Ferrara 
that  of  the  Este,  in  Rimini  that  of  the  ^Malntesta. 
At  the  end  of  tlie  fourteenth  century  the  Italian 
mercenary  met  a  dangerous  rival  in  the  Swiss 
pikeman.  Switzerland  was  too  small  and  poor  to 
support  all  of  its  hardy  sons,  and  they  were 
sold  in  large  numbers,  usually  by  the  canton 
itself,  to  some  warlike  prince,  .\fter  the  battle  of 
Melegnano  in  l.5Iii.  they  formed  a  valualile  con- 
tingent in  the  French  armies  until  the  French 
Revolution.  All  parties  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
\\ar  used  mercenaries  to  the  exclusion  of  nearly 
all  other  troops,  and  to  this  fact  is  partly  due 
the  terrible  devastation  which  was  caused.  In 
the  American  Revolution  Great  Britain  used 
Hessian  mercenaries  to  fight  against  the  colonists, 
it  being  common  for  some  of  the  smaller  princes 
to  sell  their  subjects  in  this  fashion.  The  tise 
of  mercenaries  on  the  Continent  ended  with  the 
French  Revolution,  their  place  being  taken  by 
Vol.  XUI.— 22. 


national     stan<ling    armies.       ^ee     BR.iBA.NCO.NS; 
Co.NixyrTiEKi ;  Fbee  Lance;  Swiss  Gl'abd. 

MERCER,  FoBT.     See  Fort  Mercer. 

MER'CER,  Hknry  Chapma.n  (1850—).  An 
American  anthropologist  and  archaeologist,  born 
at  Doylestown,  Pa.,  and  eilucated  at  Harvard, 
where  he  graduated  in  187!).  He  made  special 
studies  of  the  relations  of  extinct  animals  to 
primeval  man  in  North  America,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  niylodon,  peccary,  and  sloth; 
made  valuable  discoveries  of  fossil  carnivora  in 
the  Port  Kennedy  ( Pa. )  bone  cave ;  and  explored 
the  caverns  of  Yucatan.  After  research  on  the 
Pennsylvania  Dutch  pottery-  manufactures  he 
perfected  a  preparation  for  mural  tiles.  Mercer 
wrote:  Leiiape  tilone  ( 1885)  ;  Uill  Caves  of  Yuca- 
tan (1890)  ;  The  Antiquity  of  Man  in  the  Dela- 
jcure  Yollri/  (1897)  ;  and  Tools  of  the  yalion 
Maker  (1897). 

MERCER,  Hugh  (1720-77).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  at  Alx'rdeen,  Scotland  ;  was 
educated  at  the  university  there;  entered  the 
medical  profession,  and  served  as  assistant  sur- 
geon under  Prince  Charles  Edward  in  1745.  The 
rebellion  having  failed,  he  emigrated  to  America 
in  1747,  and  settled  as  a  physician  near  the  site 
of  the  present  JIercersl)urg,  Pa.  He  served  as 
captain  under  Braddock  in  1755,  and  was  so  se- 
verely wounded  in  the  battle  near  Fort  Duquesne 
that  he  could  not  keep  pace  with  the  other  fugi- 
tives, and  spent  several  weeks  in  solitary  wander- 
ing, before  he  finally  reached  Fort  Cumlierland, 
100  miles  away.  In  1758  he  was  promoted  to 
be  lieutenant-colonel,  accompanied  General 
Forbes  to  Fort  Duquesne.  now  Pittsburg,  and 
commanded  that  post  for  some  time.  Afterwards 
he  settled  at  Fredericksburg.  Va.,  and  on  the 
approach  of  the  Revolution  took  sides  with  the 
patriot  party.  He  organized  and  drilled  the 
militia  of  Virginia  in  1775,  and  the  mintite  men 
in  1770,  and  at  Washington's  reqiu-st  on  .lune  5, 
1770.  was  made  a  brigadier-general  by  Congress. 
He  commanded  a  column  in  the  attack  on  Tren- 
ton, and  led  the  aihance  in  the  night  march  on 
Princeton,  which  he  had  himself  advised.  While 
rallying  his  temporarily  disorganized  troops  early 
in  the  engagement  at  Princeton  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  after  a  stubborn  hand-to-hand  conllict 
in  which  he  refused  all  quarter,  and  on  .January 
12  he  died  in  a  neighboring  farm-house.  .\  monu- 
ment to  his  memorv  was  erected  at  Laurel  Hill 
Cemetery.  Philadelphia,  in   1S40. 

MERCERIZED  COTTON.  Cotton  that  has 
been  treated  by  a  chemical  process  which  imparts 
a  permanent  silky  lustre  to  the  fabric,  yarn,  or 
thread.  About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury .John  Jlercer.  an  English  chemist,  discov- 
ered that  caustic  soda  or  caustic  potash  had  a 
remarkable  efTect  upon  the  cellulose  stniclure  of 
the  cotton  fibre,  changing  its  physical  and  chemi- 
cal nature,  causing  it  to  shrink  and  become 
thicker  and  softer,  and  increasing  its  aflinity 
for  dyes.  Xo  practical  u.se  was  made  of  the  dis- 
covery because  the  process  shrunk  the  material 
so  badly.  Toward  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
it  was  discovered  that  by  treating  the  cloth 
under  tension  the  shrinkage  is  obviated  and  the 
material  assumes  a  glossy  appearance,  like  silk. 
This  effect  is  due  to  the  elongation  of  the  fibres, 
which  under  the  action  of  the  chemicals  have  been 
softened  and  made  glutinous,  so  that  the  fabric 
acquires  the  same  striated  texture  and  lustre  that 


MEKCEBIZED  COTTON. 


332 


MERCHANTS'   COURTS. 


silk  possesses.  In  fact,  the  artilkial  process  is 
exactly  similar  to  that  involved  in  the  produc- 
tion of  silk,  for  it  is  the  clonr;atioii  of  the  plastic 
glutinous  thread  from  the  silkworm  that  gives 
lustre  to  the  silk. 

MER'CERSBURG.  A  borough  in  Franklin 
County.  J'a.,  ~'.i  miles  southeast  of  llarrisburg; 
at  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Cumberland 
Aalley  Railroad  (.Map:  Pennsylvania,  D  4).  It 
was  formerly  a  noted  educational  centre  as  the 
seat  of  institutions  under  the  control  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  the  United  States  (German). 
It  now  has  the  well-known  Jlercersbnrg  .\cadeniy. 
The  principal  interests  are  agricultural.  Jlercers- 
burg.  originally  called  Ulack  Town,  was  settled 
about  1730  and  was  incorporated  first  in  1831. 
It  was  the  home  of  President  .Tames  Buchanan. 
In  IflOl  the  limits  of  the  borough  were  extended, 
consideraldv  increasing  the  population.  Popula- 
tion, in  ISi'lO,  907;  in^lHOO,  9o(J. 

MERCERSBURG  THEOLOGY.  The  name 
of  a  system  of  views  emanating  from  the  the- 
ological seminary  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  formerly  located  at  Mercersburg.  Pa. 
(now  at  Lancaster),  and  chiefly  defended  by 
Prof.  J.  \V.  Xevin  (q.v. ).  He  insisted  upon  the 
true  unity  of  the  person  of  Christ,  and  tlie  gen- 
uinely human  character  of  His  life.  The  person 
of  Christ  was  made  central  in  the  system. 
Christ  is  united  with  generic  humanity,  which 
develops  itself  by  an  inward  force  in  the  Church. 
Thus  the  Church  has  a  true  tlu-anthropic  char- 
acter. Kniphasis  was  also  laid  upon  the  objec- 
tive operation  of  the  sacraments.  Consult  Xevin's 
principal  work.  Miixtinil  I'resciicc  (Philadelpliia, 
184(11.  and  his  Life  by  Theodore  Appel  (Phila- 
deljihia,   1889). 

MERCER  UNIVERSITY.  A  Baptist  insti- 
tution of  learning  at  Maccm.  Ga..  founded  in 
1838.  In  1902  it  ha<l  a  faculty  of  1.5.  and  a 
student  enrollment  of  222  in  the  College  of  Lib- 
eral Arts,  and  oO  in  the  Law  Department.  The 
library  contained  1.5.000  volumes.  Its  endow- 
ment was  .$203,000.  and  its  income  .$20,000.  Tlie 
grountls  and   buildings   were  valued   at  $200,000. 

MERCHANTABLE  ARTICLE.  One  tliat  is 
salable  in  the  market  under  the  name  which  it 
boars  in  the  contract  relating  to  it.  Frequently 
a  contract  of  sale  expressly  provides  that  the 
article  to  be  delivered  shall  be  merchantable: 
but  even  in  the  absence  of  such  a  statement,  a 
contract  for  the  sale  of  goods  by  description,  as 
for  the  sale  of  sugar,  or  wheat,  or  coal,  imi)lies 
an  undertaking  by  the  seller  to  supply  a  mer- 
chantable article.  The  buyer  is  not  entitled  to  a 
perfect  article,  but  he  is  entitled  to  one  that  is 
salalile  under  its  contract  name.  If  the  contract; 
is  for  a  quantity  of  Manila  sugar,  the  buyer  can- 
not insist  upiMi  absolutely  pure  sugar,  but  he  can 
reject  sugsir  that  is  adulterated  to  s\ich  an  extent 
as  not  to  pass  in  market  as  salable  ^Manila 
.sugar.  Where  the  term  'merchantable'  is  iised  in 
the  contract,  either  parly  may  show  that  it 
bears  a  peculiar  meaning  in  that  locality.  Con- 
Hult  the  authoritii's  referred  to  under  Sale,  sec- 
tion Sair  of  I'rrsiinal  I'lii/Krli/. 

MERCHANT  OF  VENICE,  The.  A  com- 
edy by  Shakespeare.  lundnied  probably  in  1.507. 
printed  in  1000.  The  earliest  versirm  was  proba- 
bly that  by  ITenslowe.  in  1.594.  \mder  the  title 
"The  Venesyon  Comedy."     Tlie  incidents  of  tho 


play  are  drawn  from  many  sources.  The  story 
of  the  pound  of  ilesh  is  very  ancient :  Shake- 
speare took  the  story  of  Bassanio  no  doubt  from 
the  counterpart  in  the  "Adventures  of  Gianetto" 
in  Fiorentino's  "II  Pecorone,"  written  in  1378, 
but  jirinted  in  1558:  and  possibly  from  a  similar 
tale  in  tlie  "Gesta  Romanorum,"  which  contained 
as  well  the  story  of  the  choice  of  three  caskets, 
a  ])opular  mediaval  tale.  He  may  have  been 
indebted  to  the  lost  play  "'The  Jew."'  mentioned 
by  S.  Gosson  in  his  "School  of  Abuse,"  1579; 
but  certainly  was  influenced  by  Marlowe's  "Jew 
of  Malta."  The  character  of  Shylock  was  drawn 
in  part  at  least  from  "The  Orator"  by  Silvayn; 
while  the  story  of  Antonio  and  Sliylock  was  fore- 
shailowcd  in  "Three  Ladies  of  London,"  by  Robert 
Wilson,   1584. 

MERCHANTS,  Custom  of.     See  Law  JIeb- 

CIIA.NT. 

MERCHANTS  ADVENTURERS.  .\n  Eng- 
lish company  organized  in  late  mediicval  times 
for  carrying  on  foreign  trade.  Its  constitution 
was  that  of  a  regulated  company  (q.v.),  any  one 
having  a  right  to  join  in  the  trade  upon  payment 
of  a  fine  and  agreement  to  submit  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  company.  The  date  of  its  incorpora- 
tion is  not  known,  but  ])rivileges  were  granted 
to  it  by  the  Count  of  Flanders  as  early  as  the 
fourteenth  centuiy.  The  principal  business  of 
the  C(imi)any  was  the  export  of  cloth ;  and  it 
exacted  regular  contributions  from  all  persons 
who  exported  cloth  to  covnitrics  covered  by  its 
privileges.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  chief 
work  in  extending  English  foreign  trade  was  per- 
formed by  this  company.  When  the  Portuguese 
made  Antwerp  the  depot  for  Oriental  wares,  the 
ilerchants  Adventurers  grew  rapidly  in  wealth, 
since  their  goods  could  find  a  ready  sale  for  the 
Eastern  trade.  In  the  same  centui-y  the  eom- 
]):uiy  began  a  long  war  with  the  traders  of  the 
Hanseatic  League  (q.v.),  who  were  infringing 
upon  their  monopoly  of  the  export  of  woolen 
goods.  The  Hanseatic  traders  were  at  first  pro- 
tected by  the  Crown,  but  finally  were  driven 
from  England  by  a  decree  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
With  the  siege  and  capture  of  Antwerp  by  the 
Spaniards  ( 1584-85),  the  Merchants  Adventurers 
had  to  find  new  centres  for  carrying  on  their  for- 
eign trade,  and  finally  settled  in  Handmrg.  be- 
coming known  as  the  Hamburg  Company.  Much 
of  the  historical  importance  of  the  Merchant* 
-Adventurers  lies  in  the  fact  that  their  organiita- 
ti(m  served  as  a  model  for  the  great  foreign  trad 
ing  companies  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventceuUl 
centuries.     See  Reoilated  Co.mi'ame.s. 

Bim.ior.RAPiiY.  For  a  brief  account  of  the 
Merchants  Adventurers,  see  article  "Adventn 
rers,  Jlerchants,"  in  Palgrave,  Diclioiinrji  of  P" 
liliriil  Lcnnomri  (London,  1894K  .\  more  ex 
tended  discussion  will  be  found  in  Lingelbacli 
Thr  Mcrrhiint  Adventurers  of  England  (Philn- 
ilelphia.  1903). 

MERCHANTS'    COURTS.      Certain    court- 

which  aru-c  mil  of  the  g\iilil  merchant,  by  tli' 
practice  of  the  guild  brethren  assuming  to  d"  , 
justice  at  their  "morning  speeches.'  or  periodical 
meetings  of  the  society.  They  first  assumed  to 
decide  cases  of  inheritance  and  succession,  the 
right  of  a  mcnd>er  of  a  guild  being  treated  as  an 
object  of  ownership.  Then,  besides  these  matters, 
they  assinned  jurisdiction  over  actions  of  debt, 
covenant,  and  trespass,  and  such  other  matters 


MEECHANTS'  COURTS. 


333 


MERCIER  DE  LA  RIVIERE. 


as  they  could  enforce  by  their  decrees.  Tliesc  ju- 
dicial functions  of  the  guild  mercliaut  became  well 
establisiied,  in  some  cases  at  least,  as  early  as 
the  twelftli  or  thirteenth  century;  and  tlie  nier- 
ehanls"  courts  exercised  a  large  influence  upon 
the  economic  and  corporative  growth  of  the 
municipalities  where  they  existed  both  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  Continent.  These  old  courts  dis- 
appeared with  the  disappearance  of  the  guild  mer- 
chant, which  was  superseded  by  the  aggregate  of 
the  crafts;  but  tlie  business  customs  that  they 
recognized  and  helped  to  establish  became  the 
source  of  a  large  |)art  of  the  mercantile  usages 
and  laws  of  to-day.  See  further  under  Law 
JlEKcii.vNT,  and  consult  the  authorities  there  re- 
ferred to. 

MERCHANT'S  TALE,  TuE.  One  of  Chau- 
cer's Canterbury  talcs.  The  stoiy  is  the  l>e- 
trayal  of  an  old  husband  by  a  young  wife. 
Tynvhitt  thinks  it  was  taken  from  a  Latin  fable 
by  Adolphe  of  1315,  but  the  story  with  the 
incident  of  the  pear-tree  is  found  in  many 
sources.  It  forms  the  seventh  of  the  "Fables  of 
Alfonce."  added  by  Caxton  to  his  edition  of 
-ilsop,  1484,  and  is  found  in  "Behar  Damish." 
jfoniposed  in  ItioO.  though  the  story,  evidently  of 
Oriental  origin,  is  far  older.  Boccaccio  and 
Chaucer  may  have  drawn  it  from  the  "Commediii 
Lydiic."  An  account  of  these  sources  is  found 
in  the  Chaucer  Society  publications  under  "Ori- 
gins and  Analogues"  of  the  Tales.  Pope  used 
the  talc  as  a  basis  for  his  "January  and  May." 

MERCIA,  mer'sha.  An  ancient  Anglo-Saxon 
kingdom,  which  extended  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Trent  from  the  North  Sea  to  Wales.  It  owed 
its  origin  to  the  fusion  of  many  smaller  States, 
though  the  chief  portion  was  conquered  by  An- 
gles late  in  the  sixth  century.  The  name  Jler- 
cians  signifies  'men  of  the  march.'  for  they  were 
settled  along  the  moorlands,  which  for  centuries 
remained  the  borderland  between  Angle  and 
Welshman.  Tiie  Kingdom  was  of  little  importance 
until  the  accession  of  Penda  in  626.  who  rapidly 
attained  a  supremacy  over  the  other  kin.gdoms 
after  his  victory  over  the  powerful  Edwin  (q.v. ), 
the  Deiran  King,  at  Hatfield  (or  Heathfield) 
in  6.3,3.  In  fi.'i.5,  however,  Penda  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  Oswin  of  Xorthumberland 
at  Winwaed,  and  for  the  time  being  Mercian  su- 
premacy came  to  an  end.  It  recovered  gradually 
under  Wulfhere  (6.5S-675),  who  was  the  first 
Christian  King  of  Mercia,  and  attained  its  high- 
est development  in  the  eighth  centurv.  especially 
under  .Ethelbald  (716-7.=)7)  and  Offa  (7.57-796)'. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter  the  Kingdom  rapidly 
declined,  and  in  828  it  was  merged  in  the  realm 
of  Egbert  (q.v.)  of  Wessex.  Consult  Green.  The 
Makuifi  of  Eiirjhiml  (Xew  York,  1882).  See 
Heptarchy. 

MERCIE,  mfir'sya'.  Antonin  (1845—).  A 
French  sculptor,  liorn  at  Toulouse.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  .Touffroy  and  Falgui&re.  and  shows  much  of  his 
latter  master's  technical  perfection.  He  won  the 
Prix  de  Rome  in  1868,  and  sent  from  Rome  his 
"David  Vainqueur"  (1872),  now  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg. Other  works  by  this  sculptor  arc: 
"Gloria  Victis"  (1874).  now  in  the  Place  Mon- 
tholon:  "David  avant  le  combat"  (1876)  ;  "Lo 
pfnie  des  arts"  (1877),  for  the  entrance  to  the 
Tuilerics;  the  "Quand  mCme"  (1882),  at  Bel- 
fort  ;  and  busts  of  G.inibetta  and  Michelet.  He 
erected   the   tombs   of   Thiers    and   :Michelet   at 


Pere-Lacliaise,  and  tlie  monument  to  Gounod  for 
tlie  Park  Monceau.  One  of  his  most  celebrated 
works  is  the  statue  of  Xajioleon  on  tlie  VendOme 
Column. 

MERCIER,  mar'sya',  Hoxoifri  (1840-94).  A 
Canadian  political  leader.  He  was  born  at  Saint 
Athanase,  Quebec;  was  educated  at  the  Jesuits' 
College,  Montreal;  studied  law,  and  in  1867  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1862-64,  as  editor  of  Le 
Vourrier  de  Haint-Uyucinthe,  he  for  some  time 
advocated  liberal  principles.  In  1871  he  was 
elected  to  the  Commons  from  Rouville,  in  1879  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  in  the  same  year 
became  Solicitor-General.  In  1883  he  was  selected 
to  lead  the  Lil^eral  opposition  in  the  Assembly, 
but  later  founded  a  party  of  his  own  by  combin- 
ing Liberals  and  Clericals,  and  in  1887  became 
Premier. 

MERCIER,  LouLs  Charles  Axtoi.xe  (1744- 
1S12).  A  French  engineer,  born  at  Melun.  He 
entered  the  French  naval  service  about  1760,  but 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution  got 
I^ermission  to  join  the  Patriot  forces  as  a  volun- 
teer, and  served  under  d'Estaing  and  Lafayette. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  reentered  the  French 
service,  but  during  the  Reign  of  Terror  fled  to  Lou- 
isiana, where  in  1803  Napoleon  employed  him  to 
draw  up  plans  for  the  protection  of  the  Gulf 
Coast.  Later  ilercier  explored  the  country  as 
far  as  Oregon  and  California.  In  1808  he  re- 
turned to  France,  where  he  published  Mcmoire 
siir  les  vapeurs  de  l' atmosphere  le  long  du  cours 
da  ilississi2}pi  (1808)  ;  Carte  du  bas^in  du  Mis- 
sissippi (1808)  ;  Hijstime  hydroyraphique  de  la 
Louisiane  (1809)  ;  Carte  di(.  delta  du  Mississippi 
(1810);  Etudes  iopogrnphiques,  georjraphiques, 
hi/drographiques.  geologiques  et  geodisiques  sur 
la  Louisiane  (1811)  ;  and  Tahlcau  du  climat  dc 
la  Louisiane,  et  de  son  influence  sur  les  Europeens 
et  les  Creoles   (1812). 

MERCIER,  Louis  Si5ba.stien  (1740-1814). 
A  French  author,  born  in  Paris.  At  first  he 
wrote  novels,  some  of  which,  especially  L'hmnme 
saurage  (1767),  were  widely  read.  After  having 
written  some  drama.s,  which  were  severely  criti- 
cised, he  published  an  Essai  stir  I'art  dramatique 
(1773),  in  which  he  contended  that  the  dramas 
of  Racine  and  Corneille  had  ceased  to  be  of  any 
interest  to  the  French  theatre,  ilercier  wished 
to  see  Diderot's  theories  realized  on  the  boards; 
he  wished  to  see  life  portrayed  nioi'e  faithfully. 
It  was  after  a  prolonged  struggle  tliat  Mercier 
had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his  dramas,  L'hahi- 
tant  de  la  Guadeloupe,  La  hrouctte  du  vinaigrier, 
and  Le  deserteur,  played  on  the  Parisian  stage, 
where  they  were  enthusiastically  received.  In 
his  essay  L'an  J-i'/O.  rere  s'il  fut  jamais,  pub- 
lished in  1770.  he  sketches  out  a  programme 
of  political  and  social  reforms.  His  Tableau  de 
Paris  (1781).  in  which  the  vices  and  lawlessness 
of  the  Parisian  aristocracy  are  described,  gave 
so  much  offense  that  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
France.  His  other  books  include:  Le  nouveau 
Paris  (1800),  and  Histoire  de  France  depuis 
Clovis  jusqu'au  regne  de  Louis  XYI.  (1802). 
^lercier  was  a  member  of  the  Convention,  in 
which  he  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVL,  and 
of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred. 

MERCIER  DE  LA  RIVIERE,  mar'syj'  de 
l.-i  I'-'vyar',  Paul  Pierre  I  1720-171)4).  A  French 
economist.  In  1758  he  became  Intendant  of 
Martinique,   where   he    attempted   to   apply  the 


MERCIER  DE  LA  RIVIERE. 


334 


MERCURY. 


free-trade  notions  of  the  Pliysiooratic  School. 
He  returned  to  France  in  ITtiV,  and  publislied 
L'OrUre  naturel  et  essentiel  des  socictcs  puli- 
tiqties,  pronounced  by  Adam  Smitli  to  be  the  best 
exposition  of  the  doctrines  of  tlie  Physiocrats. 
This  work  was  received  with  extravagant  ap- 
plause, and  gained  for  him  an  invitation  to  the 
Court  of  Catliarine  II.  of  Russia.  He  publislieJ 
several  other  works,  which  do  not,  however,  rise 
above  mediwrity. 

MERCK,  merk,  Joiiann  IIei.xrich  (1741- 
iU  ) .  A  (ierman  autlior  and  critic,  born  at  Darm- 
stadt and  educated  at  Giessen.  llis  inlluence  on 
German  literature  was  the  result  of  his  critical 
ability,  but  chielly  through  his  early  recognition 
and  encouragement  of  Goethe,  his  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Herder.  Wieland.  Forster.  and  Lichten- 
berg.  and  the  prominent  part  he  took  in  Wie- 
land's  Mcrhiii;  the  Frank jurtvr  ydchrtv  AnzcUjcn, 
and  Xicolai's  Allgenu  inc  dcittsilw  lUhliolhck.  In 
business  ventures  and  in  his  domestic  relations  he 
was  unfortunate,  his  mind  Ix'came  afl'eetod,  and 
in  1791  he  committed  suicide.  His  correspond- 
ence, printed  at  Darmstadt  (1835-38)  and  at 
Leipzig  (1848),  and  a  selection  from  his  crit- 
iques, edited  by  Stahr  (1840).  alone  remain  as 
evidences  of  his  literary  ability.  Consult  Zim- 
mermann.  Johann  llcinrich  Merck  (Frankfort, 
1871). 

MER'CUR,  James  (1842-90).  An  American 
military  ollicer  and  scientist.  He  was  born  at 
Tonawiinda,  Pa.,  and,  after  graduation  at  West 
Point,  was  assistant  engineer  on  tlie  survey  of 
the  Northern  and  Xorthwcsteni  lakes.  In  18G7 
he  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of  natural 
and  experimental  philosoph.y  at  West  Point.  He 
likewise  engaged  in  dilTerent  river  and  liarbor 
improvements,  notably  at  Hell  Gate,  and  was 
professor  of  civil  and  military  engineering  at 
West  Point  from  1884  until  his  death.  He  re- 
vised and  enlarged  ilahan's  Pcrmuiicnt  Fortificii- 
tion  (1887)  and  wrote  Elements  of  the  Art  of 
TVur  (1888)  and  Mililari/  iliiies.  Blasting,  and 
VeiiKiliHons    (  IMi'ii  . 

MERCURIC  CHLORIDE,  or  Cokbosive  Sub- 
limate, HgCl.,.  One  of  tlie  two  known  eom- 
[lounds  of  mercury  and  chlorine,  the  other,  wliich 
contains  a  smaller  proportion  of  eldorine,  being 
described  iinder  (alomki,.  Mercuric  chloride 
may  be  prepared  l>y  heating  a  mixture  of  mer- 
curic sulphate  and  common  salt  with  man- 
pinesp  dioxide,  and  collecting  the  sublimate  in  a 
suitable  receiver.  The  nuinganese  dioxide  re- 
mains behind  unchanged,  its  presence  being  de- 
sirable only  in  order  to  jirevent  the  formation  of 
caloniid  along  with  mercuric  chloride.  Corrosive 
sublimate  is  moderately  and  very  slowly  soluble 
in  water,  but  is  quite  soluble  in  ordinary  alcohol, 
which  disscdves  about  one-third  of  its  weight  of 
the  sublimate.  Mercuric  chloride  is  a  violent 
poison,  the  symptoms  of  acute  poisoning  being 
painful  gastrointestinal  irritation,  vomiting,  and 
diarrhoea.  A  moderate  amount  of  white  of  egg 
forms  a  good  antidote.  Hesides,  milk  and  Hour 
should  be  given,  and  vomiting  should  be  induced 
bv  mustard  and  lukewarm  water,  or  by  irritating 
the  fauces.  In  small  quantities  mercuric  chlo- 
ride is  ailministered  internally,  either  by  the 
nioulb  or  byjiodcrmalieally,  ns  a  remedy  for 
syphilis.  miTcury  salts  being  especially  valualde 
in  the  priniar>-  and  seeonrlary  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease, r.xicrnally  inercnrie  chloride  is  exten- 
sively used  as  an  antiseptic  and  as  an  antipara- 


sitic, the  maximum  strength  of  solutions  thus 
employed  being  about  one  part  of  the  sublimate 
to  one  thousantl  parts  of  water.  It  is  one  ol 
the  most  jxiwerful  antise]itics  known. 

MERCURIC  CYANIDE.  See  Hydrocyanic 
Acid. 

MERCUROUS  CHLORIDE.     See  Calomel. 

MERCURY  (Lat.  ilercurius,  Gk.  'E/j/ifo/f, 
lltjriiiriiis,  hence  'E/ifii'/;,  llermCs,  Doric  'Ejifia^, 
Herman).  The  Latin  name  for  one  of  the  Olym- 
pian divinities  of  Greece  and  Rome,  known  to  the 
Greeks  as  Hermes. 

Greece.  According  to  the  common  Greek  leg- 
end Hermes  was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Maia,  who 
bore  him  on  ilount  Cyllene  in  Arcadia.  Imme- 
diately after  his  birth  he  went  forth  and  stole 
the  cattle  of  Apollo,  dragging  them  backward  to 
his  cave.  \\'hen  accused  he  stoutly  denied  the 
theft  even  Ijefore  Zeus,  and  when  convicted  suc- 
ceeded in  pacifying  his  brother  by  the  gift  of  the 
lyre,  which  he' had  been  led  to  invent  from  dis- 
covering a  tortoise-shell  in  which  only  the  dried  \ 
sinews  remained.  In  the  Odyssey  and  later, 
Hermes  is  the  messenger  of  the  gods — their  her- 
ald {Kf/pv'),  of  supernatural  swiftness,  often 
with  wings  on  his  slioes  and  cap,  and  earning 
a  magic  rod  ( the  later  caduceus,  q.v. ) .  With 
this  rod  he  charms  men  to  sleep  and  wakes  them. 
He  also  appears  in  the  latest  stages  of  epic  jioi'try 
and  throughout  classical  antiquity  as  Hermes 
rsychopompos,  who  conducts  the  souls  of  the 
dead  to  the  lower  world,  where  he  intrusts  them 
to  Charon,  who  ferries  them  over  the  Styx.  He 
was  also  the  herdsman's  god,  being  especially 
worshiped  to  secure  increase  of  tlic  lloeks.  .\nd 
from  this  function  perhaps  arises  connection  with 
the  ram  and  calf,  both  of  which  are  associated 
with  him  in  cult  and  art.  Travelers  looked  to 
him  for  guidance  and  help  on  their  journeys,  and 
traders  venerated  him  as  one  who  could  incftasa 
their  gains,  for  he  was  the  god  of  good  luck  and 
'windfalls.'  He  was  also  the  patron  of  thieves; 
perhaps  originally  of  cattle-raiders.  He  was  also 
honored  in  the  pala>stra  and  gynuiasiuni.  where 
his  statues  were  erected,  as  the  guardian  and 
favorer  of  manly  sports.  In  later  times  he  ap- 
pears frequently  as  a  god  of  eloquence  and  pet^ 
suasion. 

Perhaps  his  most  common  appearance  in  the 
Greek  world,  certainly  in  Attica,  was  as  the  (tod 
of  roads  and  boundaries.  Square  pillars,  called 
herma;  were  conuuon  as  guide-posts  and  bound- 
ary marks.  They  usually  bore  the  head  of  the 
god,  and  a  phallus,  and"  on  them,  as  a  sacred 
place,  food  was  sometimes  left  for  needy  wan- 
derers. The  pillar  seems  the  essential  and  orig" 
inal  sign  of  the  god.  and  perha|)s  even  earlier 
the  god  was  present  in  cairns  or  heaps  of  stone*, 
which  were  called  henna-a.  The  worship  of 
Hermes  therefore  shows  a  mixttire  of  elements  in 
which  conceptions  of  a  heavenly  god  are  com- 
bined with  worshi])  of  rude  stones.  The  name  has 
not  been  satisfactorily  exjilained.  for  its  etymo- 
logical identity  with  Saramri/as  or  Knrinnii,  the 
ddii  of  the  gods  of  Indian  mythology,  is  by  no 
means  certain,  and  any  other  connection  in  the 
conception  is  hard  to' see.  It  is  possible  that 
tptm,  a  'njound'  or  'cairn.'  is  at  the  basis  of  the 
name,  and  that  the  pile  of  stones  in  the  pasture 
or  on  the  road  is  the  dwelling  place  of  the  gpd 
who  protects  the  herds  and  the  wayfarer.  Many 
of  his   functions,   however,  agree   well   with   the 


MERCURY. 


335 


MERCURY. 


theory  of  Reseller,  that  Hermes  is  a  wind-god. 
This  ex|il:uns  liis  ])Osilion  as  swift  messenger  of 
the  go<ls,  and  as  guide  of  the  souls,  for  tciiid  and 
soul  are  closely  connected  in  the  primitive  con- 
ceptions. The  variety  and  apparent  lack  of  con- 
nection in  his  functions  would  lind  easy  explana- 
tion in  the  union  of  divinities  originally  separate. 
In  art  the  types  of  Hermes  show  a  marked 
change  in  the  course  of  time.  At  first  he  is  a 
bearded  man,  with  the  'petasus'  or  broad-brimmed 
hat,  winged  shoes,  and  his  herald's  staff.  Later 
the  type  becomes  distinctly  .vouthful  and  vigor- 
ous, sometimes  with  short-girded  tunic  and  cloak, 
but  with  the  figure  often  nude,  or  but  lightly 
draped.  The  most  famous  e.xtant  statue  of 
Hermes  is  the  beautiful  figure  at  Olympia,  repre- 
senting the  god  holding  the  infant  Dionysus,  the 
work  of  Praxiteles.     See  illustration  with  Polt- 

CtlTl'S. 

Ro.\lE.  Mercurius  was  brouglit  to  Rome  from 
tlie  IJreeks  of  Southern  Italy,  as  the  god  of 
merchants  and  trade,  and  this  always  reniained 
his  character  in  the  Roman  religion,  as  his  at- 
tributes of  tlie  purse  and  cadueeus  plainly  show. 
The  literature  of  course  presents  him  in  all  bis 
varied  Greek  activities,  but  these  are  absent  for 
the  most  part  from  the  inscriptions.  As  the 
Roman  traders  penetrated  to  the  north,  they 
identified  witli  their  tutelary  god  the  Celtic 
Esus,  and  even  found  grounds  for  regarding  the 
Germanic  Wotan  as  the  same  divinity. 

KcYPT.  Another  divinity  identified  -with 
Hermes  was  the  Egj'ptian  god  Dliouti  or  Tlioth 
(called  Thout{h)  or  Thot  by  Greek  writers),  and 
in  this  case  the  resemblance  is  more  striking. 
Originally  Tliotli  was  the  local  god  of  Chmunu, 
the  (Jreek  Hermopolis  (q.v. ).  and  is  usually 
represented  in  the  form  of,  or  with  the  head 
of,  an  ibis.  Before  historic  times,  liowever, 
he  had  become  a  moon  god,  worshiped  through- 
out Kgj'pt,  and  he  plays  an  important  part  in 
EgA-ptian  mythology  as  the  assistant  of  the  sun 
god  in  his  fight  again.st  hostile  powers.  (See 
HoRU.s.)  He  was  the  inventor  of  writing  and  the 
scribe  of  the  gods.  A  euhemeristic  Phoenician 
tale  rcjuesents  liim  as  a  man  of  ancient  times, 
who  invented  letters  and  communicated  bis  dis- 
covery to  his  King.  Thamus.  Thoth  was  the 
judge  who  decided  between  Osiris  (or  Horus) 
and  Set,  and  he  assisted  as  recorder  at  the 
judgment  of  the  dead.  (See  Dead,  Jiidgment  of 
the).  He  was  the  patron  of  learning  and  tlie  in- 
ventor of  all  sciences,  including  especially  as- 
tronomy and  medicine.  His  sacred  animals  were 
the  ibis  and  the  cynocephalus.  On  Thoth  as 
Hermes  Trismegistus  and  on  his  writings,  see 
Hermktic. 

Other  Countrie.s.  According  to  Greek  ac- 
counts, Taaut  would  seem  to  have  been  the  Phoe- 
nician Hermes,  the  inventor  of  letters  and 
sciences;  but  this  is  only  a  late  importation  of 
Egj'ptian  ideas,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  name  of 
the  deity,  and  from  the  fact  that  he  is  called 
a  son  of  Misor  or  Eg^-pt.  Sunies.  a  name  of 
obscure  etymology-,  is  given  as  the  Punic  name 
of  Hermes,  .^niong  the  Babylonians,  Nabu  the 
god  of  Borsippa,  worshiped  in  the  planet  Jler- 
cury,  corresponded  to  Hermes  in  many  of  his  at- 
tributes. The  later  Arabs  relate  niany  fables 
nbont  Hermes,  stating,  for  example,  that'  Hermes 
Trismegistus  once  lived  at  Calovaz  in  Chaldaea, 
hut  these  stories  are  all  worthless  distortions  of 
very  late  Greek  traditions. 


Consult  Roscher,  Htrmcs  dcr  Wind-Got t  (Leip- 
zig,  1878). 

MERCURY.  The  planet  nearest  the  sun.  Its 
mean  dislance  from  the  sun  is  3U, 000, 000  miles, 
its  periodic  time  88  days,  its  diameter  3030 
miles,  mass  ^'j-  of  the  earth's;  density  0.85, 
that  of  earth  being  unity.  Since  Mercury  is  an 
inferior  planet,  it  is  seen  alternately  east  and 
west  of  the  sun,  at  an  apparent  angular  distance 
never  exceeding  29°,  and  its  apparent  motion  in 
the  orbit  is  at  times  retrograde.  When  a  change 
in  the  apparent  motion  takes  place  it  appears  for 
a  short  time  stationary.  During  the  year  Mer- 
cury is  morning  star  in  the  east  three  times  and 
evening  star  in  the  west  three  times.  Owing  to 
its  nearness  to  the  sun,  it  is  never  above  the 
horizon  more  than  about  two  hours  after  sun- 
set or  the  same  time  before  sunrise.  On  this 
account,  and  from  its  small  apparent  size  (5" 
to  13"  angular  diameter),  it  is  .seldom  distinctly 
observable  by  the  naked  eye.  It  is  said  that 
Copernicus  was  never  able  to  see  it.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  observe  any  markings  on  Mercury's 
surface,  and  there  is  consequently  much  doubt 
as  to  the  period  of  revolution  on  its  axis.  In 
1889  Schiaparelli  (q.v.)  announced  that  he  had 
been  able  to  fix  this  jieriod  at  88  days,  in  precise 
accord  with  the  period  of  the  planet's  revolution 
around  the  sun.  If  this  be  correct  (and  it  has 
received  some  confirmation  from  the  observations 
of  Lowell ) ,  Mercury  always  turns  the  same  side 
toward  the  sun.  This  undecided  question  con- 
cerning the  rotation  time  of  Mercury  is  of  much 
importance  in  theoretical  astronomy.  See  Solab 
System  ;   Planets. 

MERCURY,  or  Quicksilver.  A  metallic  ele- 
ment that  has  been  known  since  ancient  times. 
As  early  as  B.C.  300  Theophrastus  mentions 
'liquid  silver,'  which  he  says  is  obtained  by  rub- 
bing cinnabar  with  vinegar  in  a  copper  vessel. 
Dioscorides  describes  the  production  of  mercury 
by  subliming  cinnabar  with  charcoal  in  an  iron 
pot.  Pliny  gave  it  the  name  of  hj/drfirgi/iiim 
when  so  obtained,  while  native  mercury  he  called 
argentum  vivuin.  Mercury  was  extensively  stud- 
ied by  the  alchemists,  who  believed  that  it  was 
one  of  the  component  parts  of  all  metals,  and 
they  were  familiar  with  the  method  of  purifying 
it  by  distillation.  Many  of  the  alchemists  and 
iatrocheniists  considered  mercury  a  metal ;  but 
this  was  disputed,  and  even  as  late  as  1735  soma 
chemists  contended  that  it  was  a  semi-metal. 
Not  until  1759,  when  Braune  found  it  possible 
to  solidify  it  by  exposure  to  a  freezing-mixture, 
was  its  metallic  nature  established  beyond  dis- 
pute. 

Mercury  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  the 
metallic  state,  principally  disseminated  tlinmgh 
its  native  sulphide.  It  is  also  found  alloyed 
with  silver,  with  gold,  and  with  platinum,  but  in 
small  quantities  only.  Its  principal  ore  is  the 
sulphide  or  einnahnr,  but  it  also  occurs  in  small 
quantities  in  combination  with  selenium,  as  tie- 
mniDutc  and  onofrite,  and  with  chlorine,  as 
calomel.  The  ores  of  mercury  are  not  widely 
distributed  in  nature,  there  being  but  few  dis- 
tricts where  extensive  mining  operations  are  car- 
ried on.  In  the  United  States  the  most  impor- 
tant deposits  are  those  of  New  Almaden  and 
New  Idri,  Cal.  j  Lane  County,  Ore. ;  and  Ter- 
lingua,  Tex.  Tlie  California  mines  have  been 
for  a  long  time  the  chief  domestic  source  of  mer- 


MERCURY. 


336 


MERCURY. 


cury,  producing  about  1000  tons  of  metal  an- 
nually. The  mines  of  Terlingua  have  not  been 
developed  sulliciently  to  test  their  value.  In 
foreign  countries  mercury  is  produced  in  Mexico, 
Spain,  Italy,  Austria,  Russia,  Australia,  and 
China.  The  Spanish  mines  at  Ahnad^n  yield 
about  one-third  of  the  world's  total  jiroduction. 
In  1000  the  production  of  the  different  countries 
was  as  follows:  Austria.  550  metric  tons:  Italv, 
220  tons:  Mexico,  335  tons:  Russia,  340  tons; 
Spain,  nil  tons;  United  States,  967  tons;  total, 
3523  metric  tons. 

Mercury  (symbol,  Hg;  atomic  weight,  200.3) 
is  a  silver-white  liquid  metal  that  solidifies  at 
—  40°  C.  (  —  40°  F.),  and,  while  slightly  volatile 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  boils  at  al)out  300°  C. 
(048°  F.).  Its  speeitie  gravity  at  0°  C.  (32°  F.) 
is  13.59.  Its  principal  uses  are  in  the  separation 
of  gold  and  silver  from  their  ores,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  vermilion,  in  medicine,  in  various 
chemical  and  physical  operations,  in  tlie  manu- 
facture of  alloys,  etc.  It  dissolves  and  possibly 
combines  chemically  with  nearly  all  of  the  metal- 
lic elements  to  form  alloys  termed  'amalgams' 
(q.v. ).  With  oxygen  it  forms  two  oxides,  of 
which  the  mercurous  oxide  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  caustic  alkalies  on  mercurous  salts, 
while  the  mercuric  oxide  ('red  oxide  of  mer- 
eury.'  or  'red  precipitate')  is  fonned  by  pro- 
longed heating  of  mercuni'  in  air.  The  latter 
oxide  is  used  in  medicine  and  as  an  oxidizing 
agent  in  chemical  operations.  Corresponding  to 
the  two  oxides,  mercurv  forms  two  series  of  com- 
pounds, which  are  known  as  mercurous  and 
mercuric  salts.  Among  these,  one  of  the  most 
important  is  the  mercuric  sulphide  found  native 
as  cinnabar,  and  when  prepared  artificiallv  is  the 
red  pigment  known  as  vermilion  (q.v.).  The 
two  chlorides  are  important  commercial  salts, 
and  of  these  the  mercurous  chloride,  or  calomel 
(q.v.),  occurs  native.  The  mercuric  chloride. 
or  corrosirc  sublinuitc.  finds  extensive  use  in 
medicine,  and  is  extensively  used  for  the  preser- 
vation of  skins  and  natural-history  specimens. 
Jlercuric  ammonium  chloride  is  a  white  powder 
that  is  extensively  used  in  medicine,  under  the 
name  of  uhite  prccipilate,  especially  in  the  form 
of  ointment.  Metallic  mercury  and  its  salts  are 
poisonous,  and  chronic  mercurial  poisoning  is 
common  anifing  those  who  haliitually  work  with 
the  metal.  When  taken  internally,  salivation, 
ulcers  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth. 
and  ultimately  paralysis,  result.  The  usual 
antidotes  arc  albumen,  milk,  and  Hour  and  water. 
See  also  llYr)Rionic  .\<il):  Hvdhocy.vnic  Acid. 

JIetallirgy.  Practically  the  only  ore  which 
is  regularly  worked  for  mercury  is  cinnabar. 
Mercurj-  ma,v  be  extracted  from  cinnabar  in  sev- 
eral wavs,  but  two  methods  only  are  us<>d  upon 
n  large  scale.  They  are  (1)  extraction  by  heat- 
ing the  ore  in  the  air.  and  (2)  extraction  by 
heating  the  ore  with  lime  or  iron,  air  being  ex- 
cluded. In  both  methods  the  chemical  reactions 
take  place  at  temperatures  above  the  boiling 
point  of  mercury,  so  that  the  latter  is  separated 
in  the  gaseous  form  and  has  to  be  condensed. 
Heating  the  cinnabar  in  the  air  is  a  process  per- 
formed in  shaft,  reverberatory.  or  miifllc  fur- 
naces, and  is  preferred  to  methods  using  lime 
or  iron,  inasnuich  as  it  is  more  economical  and 
less  dangerous  to  the  workmen,  whose  health 
should  be  considered,  since  mercurial  vapors  arc 
exceedingly  injurious.     The  leading  objection  to 


this  method  is  the  dilution  of  the  mercurial 
vapors  by  sulphur  dioxide,  o.x,ygen,  and  nitrogen, 
especiall,v  where  shaft  and  reverberatory  fur- 
naces are  employed,  b,v  the  products  of  combus- 
tion. For  these  reasons  it  is  rallier  dillienlt  to 
condense  the  mercur,v,  and  therefore  there  are 
losses  of  the  metal  tlirough  incomplete  condensa- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  where  the  mercury  is 
extracted  by  heating  the  cinnabar  with  lime  or 
iron,  retorts  are  used  in  which  the  crushed  ore 
is  treated  in  small  (|uautities.  Concentrated  mer- 
curial vapors  are  obtained  from  these  retorts, 
and  then  condensed  so  that  with  a  high  grade 
of  ore  the  output  is  somewhat  greater  than  by  the, 
first  process.  But  as  there  is  a  much  greater 
expense  of  labor  and  fuel,  and  as  the  process  is 
unheallhful  for  the  workmen,  on  account  of  the 
mercurial  vapors  in  cmniying  retorts;  the  process 
is  less  frequenth'  employed. 

The  extraction  of  mercury  in  the  air  consists 
in  heating  cinnabar  with  an  excess  of  air  to  a 
high  temperature.  The  heating  is  usually  accom- 
plished in  shaft  or  reverberatory  furnaces,  from  ' 
which  the  gases  pass  into  the  condensers,  con-  '} 
sisting  of  a  series  of  tubes  and  chambers,  and  are 
there  cooled  until  the  mercurial  gases  condense 
into  metallic  mercury,  while  the  other  gases  es- 
cape. The  process  requires  great  care  to  prevent 
the  loss  of  mercury  and  danger  to  the  workmen, 
and  in  the  Ijest  operated  plants  the  loss  of  mer- 
cury is  at  present  not  more  than  8  per  cent,  of 
the  metal  in  the  ore.  while  every  attempt  is 
made  to  draw  otV  the  mercurial  gases  by  fans  and 
other  apparatus,  and  so  to  keep  them  confined 
that  thc,y  will  not  be  inhaled  by  the  workmen. 
Mercur.y  is  transported  in  wroughtiron  flasks 
closed  by  a  screw  stopper  and  holding  about  76 
pounds  of  metal.  Sheepskin  bags  are  also  used 
for  this  purpose.  Consult:  Schables.  Ihindhook 
of  Metallunj!/  (Xew  York,  1898)  ;  Eggleston, 
}[rt<ilhirpii  of  Silrcr.  (Sold,  and  Mercury  (New 
York.  1890). 

MERCURY,  Medicinal  Uses  of.  The  twenty; 
one  olliiial  |)roparations  of  hydrargyrum,  or  mer- 
cury, may  be  class! fieil  as  follows:  (1)  Prepara- 
tions of  mercuri/.  including  mercury  with  chalk, 
blue  mass,  mercurial  ointment,  and  two  plasters 
of  mercury:  (2)  the  chlorides  of  niercurii  and 
their  preparations,  including  calomel,  corrosive 
sublimate,  and  others;  (3)  the  oxides  and  their 
preparations,  including  the  red  precipitate  and 
others:  (4)  the  iodides  and  their  prcparatioM, 
including  the  red  iodide,  the  ,yellow  iodide,  and 
others;  (5)  acid  combinations  and  their  prepara- 
tions, including  the  .solution  of  mercuric  nitrate 
and  others:  (I!)  cjianide  of  mcrenri/:  and  (7) 
the  triturations.  Resides  the  oflicial  ])rcpara- 
tions.  the  following  unoliicial  jircparations  are 
well  known:  Yellow  .sidution  of  mercury  ('yellow 
wash"),  black  lotion  of  mercury  ("black  wash' I. 
and  red  ointment  of  mercuric  nitrate  Cljrown 
citrine  ointment') . 

Mercury  is  purgative,  alterative,  and  tonic,  and 
jironioles  the  flow  of  bile.  Some  of  its  prepara- 
tions are  corrosive,  some  are  caustic,  some  are 
poisono\is.  In  small  quantities  .some  of  the  mer- 
curial.; are  tonic,  while  in  large  quantities  they 
cause  'poverty  of  the  blood.'  ilitninishing  the 
number  of  the  reil  corpuscles,  reducing  nutrition, 
and  impairing  digestion,  finally  causing  waste  of 
tissue.  Long-continued  exhibition  of  mcrcuiy 
causes  a  cachectic  condition  termed  hydrargyriafc 


MERCURY. 


337 


MEREDITH. 


Mercury  stimulates  glands  to  a  proiluotioii  of 
an  increased  amount  of  secretion,  llydraryyrisni, 
commonly  called  -salivation'  from  one  of  its 
symptom's,  consists  of  foetid  breath,  swollen  and 
spongy  gums,  with  a  blue  marginal  line,  sore 
moutii,  swollen  and  tender  tongue,  cxcessiyo  pro- 
duction of  saliya,  loss  of  appetite,  diarrha>a,  and 
fever. 

Mercury  is  used  in  syphilis,  tonsillitis  and 
other  glandular  affections,  gastritis,  dysentery, 
gastric  ulcer,  early  cirrliosis  of  the  liver,  typlioid 
fever,  diphtlieria,  Asiatic  cholera,  pneumonia, 
"astro-enleric  disturbances,  conjunctivitis,  en- 
larged thyroid,  and  enlarged  spleen. 

Bicldoride  of  mercury  is  very  largely  used  as 
an  antiseptic.  It  is  irritant  and  corrosive,  and 
in  toxic  doses  causes  severe  gastro-intestinal  irri- 
tation, nausea,  vomiting,  suppression  of  urine, 
blood.v  diarrhoea,  convulsions,  and  collapse.  It 
is,  however,  a  very  safe  and  valuable  internal 
remedy  in  proper  dosage.  It  occurs  in  heavy, 
colorless  crystals,  with  sharp  metallic  taste  and 
acid  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  2  parts  of  boiling 
water,  3  of  alcohol,  and  10  of  water.  Its  symbol 
is  HgCL.  It  is  used  locally  as  a  parasiticide 
in  a  solution  of  I  part  in  250  parts  of  water, 
and  as  a  general  surgical  antiseptic  in  a  solu- 
tion of  I  part  to  1000  of  water,  or  1  to  2000, 
sometimes  1  part  to  5000  of  water.  In  these 
dilutions  it  is  an  efficient  antiseptic  for  cleansing 
wounds,  moistening  gauze  dressings,  injecting 
into  cavities,  etc.  See  the  articles  Antidote 
and  Toxicology. 

MERCURY,  Dog's  (Mei-curialis).  A  small 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Kuphor- 
biace;e.  The  common  dog's  mercuiy  [Meicuiiiilis 
peremiis) ,  connuon  in  woods  and  shrubby  places 
in  Europe,  has  a  simple  stem  about  a  foot  high, 
rough  ovate  leaves,  and  axillary  loose  s|)ikes  of 
greenish  Howers.  It  turns  a  glaucous  black  in 
drying.  The  root,  which  is  very  poisonous,  con- 
tains two  coloring  substances,  one  blue  ami  the 
other  carmine.  The  mercury  mentioned  by  some 
writers  as  a  pot  herb  is  not  this  plant,  but 
Chcnuijodium  Bonus-Hem  icus.  Annual  dog's  mer- 
cury IMcrcurialis  annua)  is  eaten  in  Germany 
as  spinach. 

MERCUTIO,  mer-ku'shlo.  A  character  in 
Shakespeare's  Romeo  and  JuJicf,  the  kinsman  of 
the  Prince  of  Verona  and  friend  to  Romeo.  He 
is  killed  in  a  quarrel  with  Tybalt. 

MERCY,  Fathers  of.  A  religious  congrega- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  founded  b.v 
Jcan-I?aptiste  Rauzan  (1757-1847).  a  zealous 
French  priest,  immediately  after  the  rest<n'ation 
of  Louis  XVIII.,  whose  chaplain  he  was.  Its 
const ituticm  was  approved  by  the  Pope  in  18.34. 
under  tlie  title  of  "Societ.v  of  the  Priests  of 
Mercy."  The  members  devoted  themselves  to 
mission  preaching  and  works  of  charit.v.  liar. 
de  Forbin-.Ianson.  Bishop  of  Xancv,  brought  two 
of  them  to  America  in  18.30.  and  houses  were 
established  in  Xew  York  and  Saint  .\ugustine. 
Florida.  The  fathers  of  the  societ.v  still  care  for 
the  French  population  of  Xew  York,  and  have 
also  a  church  in  BrookUii.  In  1003  the  mother- 
house  in  Paris  was  closed  by  the  Government 
under  the  .Associations  Law.  and  the  headquar- 
ters were  accordingl.v  transferred  to  Rome.  Con- 
sult Dehiporte,  Vie  de  Jean-liaptiste  Rauzan 
(Paris,   1857). 


MERCY,  Sister.s  of,  or  Order  of  Our  Lady 
OF  Mercy.  A  Roman  Catholic  religious  conunu- 
nity  founded  in  Dublin  in  1827.  They  are  of  two 
classes,  choir  sisters  and  la.v  sisters,  the  choir 
sisters  being  occupied  with  the  visitation  of  the 
sick  and  prisoners,  the  care  of  poor  and  virtuous 
girls,  and  other  charities ;  the  la.v  sisters  being 
employed  in  the  domestic  occupations  of  the  con- 
vent. Each  comnuniitv  is  independent  of  the 
rest  of  the  Order,  being  subject  onl.y  to  the  bish- 
ops. The  origin  of  the  Order  was  due  to  Miss 
Catharine  McAuley,  of  Dublin,  who.  born  of 
Roman  Catholic  parents  and  left  an  orphan,  hav- 
ing been  educated  a  Protestant,  joined  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  and  devoted  her  life  and 
ample  fortune  to  the  service  of  the  poor.  The 
Order  has  been  introduced  into  nurny  parts  of 
Ireland,  England,  Scotland,  and  America.  After 
a  preliminary  preparation  of  six  months,  candi- 
dates assume  the  white  veil  and  become  novices. 
The  novitiate  lasts  two  ,vears.  Their  vows  bind 
them  to  poverty,  celibacy,  obedience,  and  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  poor.  In  the  United  States 
their  first,  now  the  luother,  house  was  opened  in 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  1843,  and  they  are  now  very 
widespread  and  have  sixty-five  convents.  Con- 
sult Leaves  from  the  Annals  of  the  listers  of 
Mcrcii   (3  vols.,  Xew  York,  1881). 

MERCY  SEAT.  The  ordinary  translation  of 
the  Hebrew  Kapporeth(Ex.  xxv.  17  sqq.),  signify- 
ing the  'covering'  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  ( q. v. ) . 
It  was  made  entirel.y  of  gold,  and  surmounted 
at  the  two  ends  b.y  two  figures,  called  chcrnhini, 
also  made  of  gold.  The  kapporeth  appears  to 
have  been  a  movable  cover  to  the  ark,  resting 
above  it  like  a  roof.  The  cherubim  covered  this 
kapporeth  with  their  wings.     See  Cherub. 

MER  DE  GLACE,  mar  de  glas  (Fr..  Sea  of 
Ice).  One  of  the  largest  and  most  interesting  of 
the  .\lpine  glaciers.  It  lies  on  the  northern  slope 
of  iVIont  Blanc,  and  is  formed  l\v  the  confiuence  of 
three  branches  known  as  the  Glacier  du  Geant,  the 
Glacier  du  Lechaud.  and  the  Glacier  du  Talefre. 
Its  extreme  length  is  about  9  miles,  and  in  all  it 
covers  an  area  of  10  square  miles.  The  rate  of 
flow,  compared  with  other  glaciers  of  the  .-Vlps.  is 
very  rapid,  the  average  advance  during  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn  months  being  about  two  feet 
per  day.  The  Jler  de  Glace  is  noted  for  its 
beautiful  scenery,  and  is  one  of  the  favorite  tour- 
ist resorts  in  the  Alps.  It  is  most  easil.y  reached 
from  the  village  of  Chamonix.  near  \vhich  it 
debouches  into  the  yalle.v  as  the  Glacier  des  Blois 
and  gives  rise  to  the  .\rve.yron  River.  See 
Glacier;  Mont  Blanc;  and  Illustration  accom- 
panying Chamonix. 

MEREDITH,  Georoe  (1828—).  A  distin- 
guished English  novelist  and  poot.  He  was  born 
in  Hampshire,  February  12.  1S28.  and  received 
part  of  his  earl.v  education  in  Germany — a  land 
whose  influence,  especially  through  its  poetry 
and  music,  is  perceptible  in  his  writings.  On 
returning  to  England  he  studied  law  for  a  while, 
but  soon  abandoned  it,  as  his  literary  genius 
began  to  make  itself  felt.  His  first  ]udilished 
poem,  "Chillianwallah,"  appeared  when  he  was 
only  twenty-one,  in  Chnmhrrs's  Journal  (.lulv, 
1849).  He  married  a  daughter  of  Thomas  Love 
Peacock  (q.v. ).  and  it  was  to  Peacock  that  lu> 
dedicated  his  first  volume  of  poems  (1S51). 
Original  and  unique  as  Meredith's  novels  are,  it 
is  possible  to  trace  in  them  an  inheritance  from 


MEBEDITH. 


338 


MEREDITH. 


the  dilettante,  whimsical  work  of  his  father-in- 
law.  After  The  Shacing  of  lihagpat,  'an  Arabian 
entertainment'  (1850),  and  Farina,  a  bit  of 
German  fairy-lore  (1857),  he  published  his  lirst 
novel  in  185!) — strange  as  it  now  seems  to  asso- 
ciate the  two  dates,  the  year  of  the  publication 
of  (ieorge  Eliot's  lirst  novel,  Adam  licdc.  This 
book.  The  Ordeal  of  Richard  Fevercl,  which  many 
of  his  admirers  think  he  has  never  surpa.ssed,  is, 
almost  as  much  as  Rousseau's  Emile,  a  formal 
treatise  on  methods  of  education,  and  at  the 
same  time  contains  some  of  his  most  beautiful 
passages  in  its  tender  love-episodes.  Eran  Har- 
rington (1801)  was  a  more  ))urely  humorous 
treatment  of  the  psychological  problems  in- 
volved in  the  great  question  whether  a  tailor 
could  be  a  gentleman.  A  year  later  appeared 
Modern  Lore,  and  Foems  of  the  English  Koad- 
side.  The  splendid  sonnet-sequence.  Modern  Love, 
is  now  recognized  as  probably  its  author's  high- 
est and  most  <lurable  achievement  in  the  poetic 
form:  but  at  the  time  it  was  severely  criticised, 
especially  by  the  Spectator,  in  which  .Swinburne 
replied  wilb  a  fervid  eulogy.  .Among  the  few 
accessible  biographical  data,  the  close  associa- 
tion of  three  of  the  foremost  writers  of  the  cen- 
tury is  worth  mentioning;  for  a  short  time  in 
180,3,  after  the  first  two  had  lost  their  wives, 
Meredith.  Kossctti,  and  Swinburne  shared  a  house 
in  Cheyne  Walk.  Chelsea.  Emilia  in  England 
(afterwards  called  Handra  Belloni)  came  out  in 
1804,  and  the  next  year  Rhoda  Fleming,  as  a 
story  the  simplest  and  the  Itest  told  from  an 
artistic  point  of  view;  a  savage  onslaught  on  the 
idols  of  fatuous  respectability,  a  digging  down 
to  the  elemental  and  primitive  passions.  When 
the  war  between  Austria  and  Italy  broke  out  in 
1806,  Meredith,  who  had  already  done  consider- 
able work  in  Journalism,  went  out  as  the  corre- 
spondent of  tlie  Morning  Fost.  He  turned  to 
good  account  the  knowledge  of  Italy  thus  gained 
and  his  sympathy  with  Mazzini  and  the  ca\ise 
of  Italian  independence  in  his  next  book,  Vittori<i, 
a  secpiel  to  Emilia  in  England  (1807).  For 
some  thirty  years  he  acted  as  literary  adviser  to 
the  pidilisliiiig  house  of  Chapman  &  Hall,  and 
helped  many  a  young  author  by  his  wise  and 
kindly  criticism.  Thomas  Hardy,  in  particular, 
has  said  that  he  would  ])robably  never  have  per- 
severed in  the  ])ath  of  literature  without  the 
eneourngement  which  Jteivdilh  gave  him  when 
he  subniiltcd  his  first  manuscript.  Mcanwliile 
Meredith  was  going  on  steadily  with  his  own 
work.  In  1871  he  Irrouglit  out  The  Adrrn tiircs  of 
Harrg  Ilichmond.  a  fascinating  romantic  novel, 
whicii  is  rcconuuiMided  to  bi'ginners  as  easier 
reading  than  the  meta]ihysical,  subtle,  enigmatic 
style  of  his  later  books.  It  had  undoubtedly  no 
small  inlluence  on  younger  writers,  and  the  class 
of  romantic  stories  at  the  head  of  which  stands 
Prince  Otto  may  be  clearly  derived  from  it. 
lieiiuehamii's  Career  (1870)  is  largely  occupied 
with  English  pfditics.  While  standing  aloof  as 
usual  from  questions  of  actual  detail,  Meredith 
allowed  his  philosophic  liberalism  to  be  seen 
almost  distinctly,  thou'jh  he  did  not  declare  for 
either  side,  .\ftcr  two  short  but  brilliant  studies 
in  romedy.  The  House  on  the  fieach  anil  The  Case 
of  (lenrrul  Opie  and  hndg  Camper  (1877).  he 
made,  in  The  Egoist  (1S7!1).  a  pitiless  analysis 
of  the  selfishness  innate  in  humanity  as  a  whole. 
In  its  central  figure,  Sir  W'illougbby  Patterne. 
the    abstract    egoist    takes    on    final    shape    and 


becomes  typical.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  o£ 
Jleredith  generally  that,  unlike  most  psychologi- 
cal novelists,  he  gives  us  a  psychology  of  types, 
not  of  individuals.  Xext  came  The  Tale  of 
Chloe  (1S7'J);  The  Tragic  Comedians  (1880), 
recounting  in  the  guise  of  fiction  a  decisive 
episode  in  the  life  of  Ferdinand  Lassalle,  the  tier- 
man  Social-Democrat;  and  another  volume  of 
verse.  Poems  and  Lyrics  of  the  Joy  of  Earth 
(1883).  All  this  time,  in  spite  of  such  a  bulk 
of  admirable  work,  and  though  recognized  by 
an  increasing  number  of  cultivated  i)eo|>le,  Mere- 
dith had  remained  strangely  unknown  to  the 
public  at  large — in  this  like  Browning,  with 
whom  in  many  ways  his  genius  had  strong 
allinitics.  The  publication  of  Uiana  of  the  Cross- 
icay.?  (1885),  partly,  perhaps,  because  its  central 
episode  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  an  actual 
occurrence  in  English  political  life  of  a  genera- 
tion earlier,  made  a  general  impression.  From 
this  time  he  came  more  and  more  to  be  recog- 
nized as  the  head  of  the  profession  of  letters  in 
England.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Brit- 
ish Society  of  Authors  on  the  death  of  Tennyson 
in  1892:  and  his  appearance  as  the  guest  of  honor 
at  the  meeting  of  the  Omar  Khayj'um  Club  (an 
organization  including  many  of  the  best-known 
men  of  letters)  in  1895  was  an  event  of  singular 
interest,  from  the  universal  homage  paid  to  him, 
as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  he  then  made  what 
he  called  his  first  public  speech.  Three  more 
novels  remain  to  l)e  mentioned:  One  of  Our  Con- 
querors (1891),  Lord  Ormont  and  His  Aminta 
(1894),  and  The  Amazing  Marriage  (1895),  as 
well  as  three  notable  volumes  of  verse.  Ballads 
and  Poems  of  Tragic  Life  (1887),  A  Heading  of 
Earth  (1888),  and  The  Empty  Purse  (1892). 
His  poems,  like  his  novels,  will  probably  never 
be  popular;  and  for  the  same  reason,  that  they 
require  too  nuich  thought  on  the  part  of  the 
reader.  Yet  as  a  poet  lie  has  many  remarkable 
.  achievements  to  his  credit,  and  none  more  signal 
than  the  expression  of  a  perfect  luidcrstanding 
of  nature — nature  as  she  is  in  herself,  not,  as 
with  Byron  and  so  many  others,  the  mere  reflex 
of  the  poet's  temperament  and  moods. 

His  fiction  is  characteristic  of  an  age  of  analy- 
sis and  introspection,  when  every  art  must  take 
account  of  the  results  of  psychology  and  meta- 
physics. He  is  before  all  things  a  student  of  life. 
His  attitude,  as  illuminated  by  the  Essay  on 
Comedy  (1877),  is  not  unlike  that  of  his  own 
Adrian  Harley  in  Fererd :  with  an  annised  but 
not  unkindly  cynicism  he  stands  olT  and  waldios 
his  characters  act  on  each  other  as  deliberately, 
as  inevitably,  and  often  thnnigh  situations  as 
apparently  unimportant  as  in  life.  He  shows 
us  the  progress  from  act  to  act  of  dramas  subtly 
philosophical,  in  the  manner  of  Hamlet.  We  are 
reminded  of  Shakespeare  again  as  we  think  of 
one  of  .Meredith's  strongest  points — his  gallery 
of  fair  women,  types  of  the  best  in  their  age.  for 
jiarallels  to  which  we  are  driven  to  recur  to 
]!entrice  and   Rosalind  and   Portia. 

His  style  is  frequently  obscure — not  because 
he  cannot  write  simply,  for  (like  Browning 
again)  he  can  give  us  "English  as  ripe  and  sound 
and  unatrected  as  the  heart  could  wish."  Hi» 
aim.  however,  is  not  simplicity:  it  is  to  pack  as 
much  thought  as  possible  into  a  phrase,  to  say 
only  what  is  worth  saying,  and  to  say  it  in 
terms  charged  to  the  fullest  with  significance. 
The   final   verdict  of  his  contemporaries,  slowly 


MEREDITH. 


339 


MERGER. 


though  it  was  reaclieii,  is  justified  (if  there  were 
nothing  else)  l>y  his  umiuestioned  intellectual 
eminence,  by  the  constant  distinctiou  of  his 
thouglit.  Consult :  Le  Gallienne,  licoryc  Mere- 
dith: Hume  Vhayaclcristics,  with  a  full  bibliog- 
raphy (3d  ed.,  London,  1900)  ;  Lynch,  George 
Meredith  (ib.,  18i)l);  and  essays  by  Henley,  in 
Fieirs  and  Rei-iars  (ib.,  1890)  :  by  Brownell,  in 
Victorian  Prose  Masters  (New  York.  1901); 
also  Cross,  The  Development  of  the  Enylish  Xoiel 
(New  York,  1899). 

MEREDITH,  Louisa  Anxe  (maiden  name, 
T\v.\j[i,KY)  ( l)Sl'2-95).  An  Australian  writer, 
born  at  Birmingham,  England.  She  studied  art, 
and  was  thus  able  to  illustrate  many  of  her 
books,  both  in  verse  and  in  prose,  as  the  Romance 
of  Nature^  or  the  Floucr  tieasons^  (1830).  In 
1839  she  married  Charles  Meredith  and  went 
with  hiiu  to  Australia.  After  living  for  five  years 
at  Sydney,  they  settled  in  Tasmania,  where  ilrs. 
Meredith  wrote  several  delightful  volumes  of  de- 
scription. T^otes  and  Sketches  of  New  South 
Wales  (1844)  was  followed  by  Mi/  Home  in  Tas- 
mania (1852);  Home  of  My  Bush  Friends  in 
Tasmania  (18.59)  ;  Orcr  the  Straits,  a  Visit  to 
Victoria  (1801);  and  later,  Our  Island  Home 
(1879);  Tasmania,  Friends  and  Foes,  Feathered 
and  Furred,  etc.  (1880).  Her  first  volume  of 
verse  appeared  in  1835  and  her  last,  Grand- 
mama's  Verse-Book  for  Young  Australia,  in  1878. 
Mrs.  Meredith  died  at  her  island  home  in  1895. 

MEREDITH,  OwEx\.  The  pseudonym  of  Lord 
Lyttuii.      Sci-     Lytto.x,    Emv.iRu    Kobekx    Bul- 

WKK. 

MEREDITH,  Solomon  (1810-75).  An  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  politician,  born  in  C4uilford 
Coimty,  N.  C.  He  removed  to  Indiana  in  1830, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  was  made 
colonel  of  the  Sixty-ninth  Indiana  Volunteers.  He 
participated  in  many  of  the  most  desperate  bat- 
tles fought  by  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  be- 
came the  commander  of  the  famous  Iron  Brigade. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  retired  with  the 
brevet  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers. 

MEREDITH,  Sir  William  (1840—).  A 
Canadian  jurist  and  politician,  born  in  Middle- 
sex County,  Ontario,  of  Irish  descent.  He  was 
educated  in  London.  Ont..  and  at  the  Toronto 
University,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1861.  was 
made  Chief  .Justice  of  Couunon  Pleas  in  1894.  and 
was  knijihted  two  years  afterwards.  His  political 
career  liegan  in  1872.  when  he  was  elected  a 
member  for  London  of  the  Provincial  House,  and 
in  six  years  he  became  leader  of  the  Liberal- 
Conservative  opposition.  Equally  noted  as  a 
judge  and  a  parliamentary  orator.  Sir  William 
was  also  a  member  of  the  Toronto  University 
Senate  (1895).  as  well  as  honorary  lecturer  to 
its  law  faculty. 

MERES,  mOrz,  Frantis  ( 1505-1647 ) .    An  Eng- 
lish   author   and   teacher.      He   was   educated   at 
Pembroke  College.  Cambridge,  graduating  P.. A.  in 
1587,  and  M.A.' in  1591.     By  1597  he  was  living 
in  London,  where  he  gainecl  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  contemporary  literature.     In  1002  he  be- 
I  came   rector    of    Wing    in    Rutland,    and    subse- 
:  quently  opened  a  school.     He  died  at  Wing,  ,Tan- 
iuary  29.  1647.     His  Palladis  Tnmia.  Wits  Trens- 
I  tiry  (1598),  gives  an  account  of  Marlowe's  death 
I  and  an  estimate  of  Shakespeare.    After  mention- 
I  mg  twelve  of  Shakespeare's  plays  and  the  "sugred 
I  sonnets  among  his  private  friends,"  Meres  says, 


"The  muses  v^ould  speak  Shakespeare's  fine  filed 
phrase,  if  they  could  speak  English."  Tlie  im- 
portant sections  dealing  with  Elizabethan  litera- 
ture were  reprinted  in  Hhaksjure  Allusion  Books, 
New  Shakspere  Society  (London,  1874)  ;  and  by 
Arber  in  the  English  Garner,  vol.  ii.  (London, 
1879). 

MERGAN'SER  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  mergus, 

diver  +  unser,  goose).  A  small  subfamily  of 
ducks,  Merginic,  having  a  slender,  straight,  much 
compressed  bill,  hooked  at  the  tip,  and  notched 
at  the  edges,  almost  as  if  furnished  with  teeth. 
Their  other  anatomical  peculiarities  are  like 
those  of  the  sea-ducks.  Thej'  feed  largely  upon 
fish,  which  they  are  said  to  pursue  and  capture 
luider  water.  Jlost  of  the  species  have  little  food 
value,  but  the  hooded  merganser  {Lojihodytes  eu- 
cullatus)is  said  to  feed  upon  roots  and  seeds,  and 
is  thus  a  palatable  table  duck.  The  males  are 
black  and  white,  with  a  large,  circular  crest,  giv- 
ing them  a  peculiar  and  striking  apijearance;  the 
adult  female  also  has  a  crest,  but  it  is  small, 
grayish-brown,  tinged  with  cinnamon.  I  See  Plate 
of  North  American  Wild  Ducks.)  The  hooded 
merganser  is  the  smallest  of  the  North  American 
species,  only  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length.  The 
other  two  species,  the  goosander  ( Merganser 
Americanus)  and  the  red-breasted  merganser  or 
shelldrake  (  Merganser  serrator) ,  are  much  larger, 
nearly  or  quite  two  feet  long,  and  have  no  true 
crest,  though  the  feathers  of  the  crown  may  be 
somewhat  lengthened.  The  hooded  and  red- 
breasted  mergansers  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  while  the  goosander 
is  replaced  in  Europe  by  a  very  closely  allied 
species  {Merganser  merganser).  All  of  these 
species  breed  in  the  northern  portions  of  their 
range  and  winter  southward  almost  to  the  tropics. 
About  half  a  dozen  other  mergansers  are  known, 
one  or  two  of  which  are  South  American. 

MERGER.  ( I )  In  the  law  of  real  property, 
the  union  of  a  lesser  with  a  greater  estate  in  the 
same  property  in  the  same  person,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  lesser  estate  is  obliterated  by  the 
larger  estate.  Thus,  if  one  is  a  tenant  for  years 
or  for  life  of  real  estate,  and  the  estate  of  his  land- 
lord or  the  reversioner  in  fee  comes  to  him  either 
by  descent  or  purchase,  the  tenancy  is  extin- 
guished in  the  larger  estate,  and  the  tenant  be- 
comes owner  in  fee.  If,  however,  there  be  an 
intermediate  estate,  merger  is  prevented.  Thus, 
if  one  be  in  possession  of  property  as  tenant  for 
years,  with  remainder  to  another  for  life,  and 
remainder  to  a  third  in  fee,  there  will  be  no 
merger  if  the  fee  remainderman  convey  his 
estate  to  the  tenant  for  years ;  but  if  the  owner 
of  the  life  estate  convey  to  the  tenant  for  years, 
or  vice  versa,  the  tenancy  for  years  will  merge 
in  the  life  estate.  Courts  of  equity  will  in  many 
cases,  where  justice  requires  it,  in  efl'ect  prevent 
merger  by  compelling  the  owner  of  the  estate  to 
hold  the  property  as  though  the  two  estates  were 
distinct.  Thus,  for  example,  if  a  tenant  of  real 
estate  in  his  own  right  purchased  the  reversion 
as  trustee  for  another,  a  court  of  equity  would 
compel  him  to  continue  to  collect  the  rents  from 
himself  as  tenant  and  to  account  to  the  bene- 
ficiary for  them  as  trustee  of  the  re\-ersion.  In 
the  same  manner  when  the  legal  estate  in  prop- 
erty becomes  vested  in  one  having  an  equitable 
claim  with  reference  to  the  property,  or  an 
equitable  estate   as   it   is   sometimes   called,  the 


MEBGEB. 


340 


:yiERIDA. 


equitable  becomes  merged  in  the  legal  estate  un- 
less kept  alive  for  tlie  purpose  of  furthering 
justice,  when  equity  will  treat  the  two  interests 
as  distinct  notwithstanding  the  merger.  Consult 
the  authorities  referred  to  under  Tbusts;  Mobt- 

CAGE. 

(2)  The  term  is  also  applied  in  the  law  of 
contracts  when  it  is  held  that  the  acceptance  of 
a  higher  security  or  obligation  in  lieu  of  a 
lower  extinguislies  the  lower.  Thus  rights  upon 
contract  are  merged  in  a  judgment  secured  in 
an  action  upon  tlie  contract.  A  simple  debt 
merges  in  a  promissory  note  given  in  its  stead. 
and  both  merge  into  a"  bond  or  obligation  under 
seal  given  in  their  place.  The  effect  is  to  limit 
the  obligee  to  his  action  or  remedy  upon  tlie 
higher  obligation. 

(3)  The  term  is  also  in  use  in  the  criminal  law 
to  denote  both  tlie  inclusion  of  a  lesser  crime 
in  a  greater  and  the  sinking  of  private  wrongs  in 
public  wrongs  or  crimes.  Many  greater  crimes 
include  lesser  crimes:  that  is,  the  lesser  crime  is 
necessarily  committed  in  committing  the  greater, 
as  an  assault  in  committing  robbery  or  homi- 
cide. The  State  may  prosecute  and  punish  cither 
the  greater  or  the  "lesser  offense,  but  of  course 
not  both,  since  that  would  be  putting  a  man 
twice  in  jeopardy  for  the  lesser  offense.  In  Eng- 
land, where  criminal  prosecutions  are  usually  con- 
ducted by  private  persons,  whenever  a  tort  is  also 
a  crime,  tlic  private  wrong  is  postponed  to  or 
merged  in  tlie  public  wrong,  so  that  the  injured 
party  has  no  private  remedy  until  after  the  con- 
viction and  punisliment  of  the  criminal.  This 
does  not  hold  in  tlie  fnited  States.  Consult  the 
authorities  given  under  Tort. 

(4)  By  extension  the  term  'merger'  is  now  ap- 
plied to  denote  the  consolidation  of  the  control  of 
two  or  more  corporations  in  a  single  corpora- 
tion by  means  of  issuing  the  stock  in  exchange 
for  a  "majority  of  the  stock  of  the  several  cor- 
porations to  be  controlled.  The  several  corpora- 
tions to  be  controlled  are  then  said  to  be  merged 
in  the  single  corporation  holding  their  stock.  The 
several  corporations  preserve  their  sejiarate  legal 
identities,  and  there  is  no  merger  in  a  legal  sen.se. 

MERGUI,  mer-ge'.  The  capital  of  the  ^Mcrgui 
Arcliipi'higci    I  i|.v.  I . 

MERGUI  ARCHIPELAGO.  A  group  of  isl- 
ands in  the  Day  of  IJengal,  forming  part  of  the 
district  of  the  same  name  in  tlie  Burmese  division 
of  Tenasserim  and  scattered  along  tlie  north- 
western shore  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  (Map: 
Asia.  .17).  The  islands  are  rocky  and  moun- 
tainous, some  of  them  rising  to  .3000  feet  above 
sea-level,  ami  arc  noted  for  their  varied  and  pio- 
turesqup  scenery.  They  are  inliabited  by  a  race 
called  SeUings,  who  sulisist  mainly  by  pearl-fish- 
ing and  by  collecting  and  selling  edilile  birds' 
nests.  Tin  mines  are  worked  in  the  south.  Area 
of  district.  07S!)  square  miles;  population,  in 
ino],  SS.dCiT.  Mergui,  the  capital  of  the  district, 
■with  a  heterogeneous  popidation  of  10.000  in- 
habitants, is  situated  r>n  an  island  at  the  chief 
outlet  of  the  Tenasserim  River  in  tlie  Bay  of 
BenL-nl. 

MERIAN,  m.-|'rf-ftn,  :Mari.\  Sirti.i.a  (lf.47- 
1717).  .\  •Jernian  painter  and  naturnlisi,  born 
in  Frankfort  mitlie-Main,  daughter  of  the  en- 
graver Matthiins  Merian.  In  lfiflr>  she  married 
.Tohann  .Andreas  Oraff.  a  painter,  and  removed  to 
Nuremberg.     Though  she  was  skillful  in  painting 


fruits  and  flowers,  her  taste  led  her  particularly 
to  natural  history.  Her  exquisite  taste,  as  well 
as  the  great  precision  which  eharacterized  her 
artistic  work  in  botany  and  entomology,  gained 
for  her  a  high  reputation  in  the  scientific  world 
of  the  time.  In  1079  slie  publislied  an  excellent 
work  on  caterpillars,  entitled  Enicdium  Ortun. 
Alimoitum  et  I'aradoxa  Mctoniorphosis.  In  1U98 
she  went  to  South  America  and  devoted  herself 
to  research  on  the  natural  histor,v  of  Dutch 
Guiana,  the  result  of  which  appeared  ia 
her  Jlctamorphosis  Insectorum  Suriuamcnsium 
(1705).  There  are  two  volumes  of  lier  drawings 
in  the  British  Jlusexini.  one  of  the  insects  of 
Europe,  the  other  of  those  of  Dutch  Guiana. 
There  are  collections  in  Saint  Petersburg,  Am- 
sterdam, and  Frankfort. 

MERIAN,  JNUttiiaus,  called  The  Eldeb 
(1503-UijO).  A  Swiss  engraver.  He  was  born 
at  Basel,  and  afterwards  lived  in  Paris  and 
Frankfort.  He  began  in  ltj40  the  famous  Zeiller's 
TopuyraphUt.  presenting  perspective  views  of  Eu 
ropcan  cities,  towns,  and  castles  wliich  were 
drawn,  engraved,  and  described  liy  liiiiiself.  The 
work,  which  is  regarded  as  extremely  valuable, 
was  continued  after  his  death.  For  his  biography, 
consult  Eckardt   (Basel.  18S7). 

MERIDA,  mii'ri-Da.  The  capital  of  the  State 
of  Los  Amies,  Venezuela,  situated  about  60 
miles  south  of  L:ike  Maracailio,  on  a  plateau 
5500  feet  above  sea-level  (Ma|):  Venezuela  C  2). 
Its  climate  is  cool  and  moist,  the  temperature 
averaging  61°  Fahr.  It  has  a  new  catliedral,  and 
one  of  the  two  universities  of  the  Repulilic.  Its 
chief  manufactures  are  car|)ets,  cotton  and 
woolen  goods :  it  exports  coffee  and  preserved 
fruits.  Population,  about  11.000.  Merida  was 
founded  in  1558  by  .Juan  Rodrigeuz  Saurez.  It 
lias  sufTered  much"  from  eartliquakes,  notably  in 
1812  and  1894. 

MERIDA.  Tlie  capital  of  Yucatan,  Mexico, 
situatcil  on  a  barren  plain  in  the  northwestern 
jiart  of  tlie  peninsula,  25  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  (Map:  Mexico.  0  7).  The  town  is  regu- 
larly built,  with  fine  streets,  squares,  and  parks, 
and  has  a  university,  a  cathedral  built  in  1598, 
a  Government  palace,  a  museum,  various  second- 
ary schools,  and  a  hospital.  Among  its  nianu- 
fiictures  are  straw  hats,  cotton  goods,  soap,  and 
leather,  while  great  quantities  of  sisal  grass  are 
exported  from  here  to  the  I'nited  States,  as  well 
as  brandy,  sugar,  hides,  indigo,  and  salt.  Popu- 
lation, about  37.000.  Merida  was  founded  in 
1542  liy  ^lontcjo.  the  comiueror  of  Yucatan. 

MERIDA.  A  small  town  of  Southwestern 
Spain,  in  llie  Province  fif  B;idajoz. situated  on  the 
rigid  bank  of  the  (;iiadiana.  .30  mih>s  cast  of 
Badajoz  (Map:  Spain.  B  3l.  It  is  now  an  in- 
signiiicant  town,  but  contains  numerous  evidences 
of  its  ancient  greatness.  Among  these  are  the 
remains  of  the  Roman  walls  with  five  gates  still 
preserved,  a  triumphal  areli  erected  by  Trajan, 
the  ruins  of  nn  amphitlieatre  and  of  a  Roman 
circus  built  to  accommnilate  20.000  spectators, 
some  remains  of  a  temjde  of  Diana,  and  parts  of 
an  old  reservoir  and  of  two  Roman  aqueducts,  as 
well  as  numerous  columns,  statues,  and  minor 
ruins.  There  is  also  a  ma^inifieent  Roman  stone 
bridge  crossing  the  Guadiana  by  64  arches  and 
nearly  3000  feet  long.  Merida  was  founded  as 
a  colony  for  Roman  veterans  (emeriti),  and 
called  Augusta  Emcrita,  whence  the  present  name 


MERIDA. 


341 


MERIDIAN  CIRCLE. 


is  (k'rived.  It  was  iiiailc  tin-  (■ai)ital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Lusitaiiia,  and  later  litiaiiu-  the  seat  of 
the  Visigothie  archbishops.  It  remained  an  im- 
portant town  during  the  time  of  the  Moorish 
doniinalion  until  it  was  captured  bj-  Alfonso  IX. 
in  12-.iS.     Us  population  in  1900  was  9124. 

IIER'IDEN.  A  city  in  Xew  Haven  County, 
Conn..  18  miles  north-northeast  of  New  Haven, 
and  the  same  distance  south-southwest  of 
Hartford;  on  the  New  York,  Xew  Haven  and 
Hartford,  and  the  Meriden,  \\'aterbury  and  Mid- 
dlctown  Railroad,  a  branch  of  the  former  (Map: 
Connecticut,  D  3).  It  is  picturesquely  situated, 
overlooked  by  the  Hanging  Hills  on  the  north- 
west, and  is  drained  by  Harbor  Brook.  Meriden 
is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  industrial  centres 
in  Xew  England.  Among  its  manufactures  are 
silver  and  plated  ware,  hardware,  cutlery,  steel 
pens,  bronzes,  brass  castings,  malleable  iron,  fire- 
arms, organs,  self-playing  attachments  for  pianos 
and  organs,  glassware,  cut  glass,  curtain  fi.xtures, 
pas  and  kerosene  fixtures,  screws,  vises,  and  ma- 
chinery. The  city  has  the  Connecticut  School  for 
Boys  (Reform),  ileriden  Hospital,  Curtis  Home 
for  Orphan  Children  and  Aged  Women,  and  the 
handsome  Curtis  Memorial  Lil>rary.  Hubbard 
Park  is  a  beautiful  natural  reservation  of  900 
acres,  within  the  limits  of  which  are  the  Hanging 
Hills,  the  highest  {xjint  rising  1000  feet  above 
sea  level.     Another  attraction  is  Lake  Meriniere. 

The  government,  under  a  charter  of  1897,  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years;  a  bi- 
cameral council ;  and  administrative  officials,  ap- 
pointed or  elected  as  follows:  by  the  maj'or — 
boards  of  apportionment  and  taxation,  public 
works,  and  police,  fire,  and  park  commissioners; 
by  the  council — tax-collector,  plumbing  inspector, 
fire  marshal,  boiler  inspector,  health  officer,  and 
board  of  compensation;  by  the  people — clerk, 
treasurer,  auditor,  and  sheriffs.  The  city  owns 
and  operates  its  water  works.  Population,  in 
1890.  21.0.52;  in  1900,  24,290.  From  1725  imtil 
incorporated  in  1800  as  a  town  under  its  present 
name  (probably  from  ileriden,  Eng. ).  Jleriden 
was  a  parish  of  Wallingford.  In  1807  it  was 
chartered  as  a  cit.v.  Consult  Perkins.  Historical 
Skrtchr.t  of  Meriden  (West  Meriden,  1849). 

MERID'IAN  (Lat  meridianus,  relating  to 
midday,  from  meridies,  for  *medidie/<,  midday, 
from  medius,  middle  +  dies.  day).  Any  great 
circle  of  a  sphere  passing  through  its  poles.  A 
terrestrial  meridian  is  tlic  intersection  of  the 
earth's  surface  made  by  a  plane  passing  through 
the  poles.  A  celestial  meridian  is  a  great  circle 
of  tile  celestial  sphere  passing  through  the  ce- 
lestial poles.  The  prime  meridian  is  the  one 
from  which  longitude  is  measured.  The  niar/- 
netic  meridian  at  any  point  is  the  horizontal 
direction  at  the  point  of  a  freely  sus])ended 
compass  needle  undisturbed  by  influences  other 
than  the  earth's  magnetic  force.  To  distin- 
guish the  terrestrial  or  geographical  merid- 
ian from  the  magnetic,  the  former  is  called  the 
true  meriilian.  as  its  direction  is  that  of  true 
north  or  south.  It  is  evident  from  the  explana- 
tion given  that  the  so-called  magnetic  meridian  is 
not  a  great  circle  of  the  earth,  but  merely  a 
direction  at  a  particular  point.  The  line  joining 
the  points  of  equal  variation  are  not  therefore 
coinciiient  with  the  magnetic  meridian;  they  are 
called  isogenic  lines,  and.  owing  to  tlie  non-uni- 
form  character   of   the    earth's   magnetic    force. 


these  lines  are  very  irregular  curves.     .See  Mebid- 
l.vx  Circle;  Meriuian  ilE.vsrKE.MEXT. 

MERIDIAN.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Lauderdale  County,  Miss.,  87  miles  east  of  .Jack- 
son; on  the  Queen  and  Crescent  Route  and  the 
Koutlieru  Railway  (Jlap:  Mississippi.  HO).  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  East  ilississippi  Female  Col- 
lege (ilethodist  Episcopal),  opened  in  1809,  and 
of  the  Meridian  Academy  (Methodist  Episcopal 
South),  and  Lincoln  School  (Congregational), 
the  last  two  for  colored  students.  The  city  has 
an  extensive  trade,  due  to  its  jHisilion  in  a  cotton- 
growing  region,  and  is  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing centre  in  the  State.  Its  industries, 
represented  by  railroad  machine  shops,  cotton 
mills,  cottonseed  oil  mills,  lumber  mills,  etc., 
had,  by  the  census  of  1900.  a  production  valued 
at  nearl}'  §3,000,000.  ileridian  was  an  import- 
ant Confederate  railway  centre  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  in  February,  1804,  General  Sherman 
was  sent  against  it.  Arriving  on  the  14tli.  he 
remained  unmolested  until  the  20th.  completely 
destroying  the  railroads  in  the  vicinity  and  de- 
molishing the  large  store-houses  and  manj'  pri- 
vate residences.  Population,  in  1890,  10.024;  in 
1900,    14.0.50. 

MERIDIAN  CIRCLE.  An  instrument  used 
for  determining  the  meridian  altitude  or  zenith 
distance  of  a  star.  It  consists  of  an  astronomical 
telescope  firmly  fixed  to  a  graduated  circle,  which 
moves  about  a  horizontal  axis,  resting  on  a  pair 
of  very  solid  supports.  In  the  common  focus  of 
the  eye-piece  and  object-glass  of  the  telescojje  is 
a  system  of  fi.xed  cross-wires  (spider  lines  are 
generally  used  for  the  purpose),  one  being  hori- 
zontal, and  five  or  more  vertical,  with  equal 
spaces  between.  An  imaginary  line  passing 
through  the  optical  centre  of  the  object-glass  and 
the  intiersection  of  the  horizontal  and  middle  ver- 
tical wires  is  called  the  line  of  coUiniation  of 
the  telescope,  and,  when  the  instrument  is  in  per- 
fect adjustment,  this  line  moves  in  the  plane  of 
the  lueridian.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  fixed 
wires  there  is  a  movable  one.  called  a  micrometer 
wire,  which  is  moved  by  means  of  a  screw,  re- 
maining always  parallel  to  the  fixed  horizontal 
wire.  If  the  instrument  is  in  perfect  adjustment, 
and  if  the  image  of  a  star,  while  passing  across 
the  middle  vertical  wire  in  the  field  of  view-,  is 
at  the  same  time  bisected  by  the  fixed  horizontal 
wire,  the  star  is  at  that  moment  in  the  line  of 
collimation  of  the  telescope.  It  is  therefore  at 
that  moment  in  the  meridian,  and  its  meridian 
zenith  distance  is  the  angle  through  which  the 
circle  would  have  been  turned  from  the  position 
it  had  when  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  tele- 
scope pointed  to  the  zenith.  There  is  a  fixed 
pointer,  for  the  purpose  of  approximately  read- 
ing the  instrument.  If  the  instrument  was  ad- 
justed so  that  the  pointer  was  opposite  the  zero 
point  of  the  circle,  when  the  line  of  collimation 
of  the  telescope  pointed  to  the  zenith,  the  arc 
measured  on  the  circle  between  these  two  posi- 
tions of  the  instrument  is  the  meridian  zenith 
distance  of  the  star. 

Great  nicety  is  required  in  reading  the  instru- 
ment;  i.e.  in  determining  exactly  the  arc  through 
which  the  circle  has  moved  in  bringing  the  tele- 
scope from  the  vertical  to  any  other  position. 
The  rim  is  usually  graduated  at  intervals  of  five 
minutes;  and  the  eye  could  determine  only  the 
division  nearest  to  the  fixed  index.  But  by  means 
of  a  reading  microscope  or  micrometer    (q.v.), 


MEKIDIAN  CIRCLE. 


342 


MERIMEE. 


fixed  opposite  to  tlie  rim,  tlie  portion  of  the  in- 
terval to  the  nearest  division  on  the  rim  can  be 
read  to  seconds.  Tliere  are  sometimes  six  sucli 
microscopes  fixed  opposite  diirercnt  points  of  the 
rim;  and  the  reading  of  the  instrument  is  the 
mean  of  tlie  readings  of  all  tlie  microscopes.  This 
tends  to  eliminate  errors  arising  from  imperfect 
graduation  and  errors  of  observation.  If  the 
inslrunieiit  is  ))roperly  adjusted,  the  zero  point 
of  the  circle  will  be  opposite  the  fi.\ed  pointer 
when  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope 
points  to  the  zenith.  In  practice,  however,  this 
is  not  always  accurately,  or  even  approximately, 
the  case,  and  is  really  of  no  consequence,  as  the 
final  result  of  every  observation  is  the  difference 
between  two  readings.  It  is  evident  that  the 
ditrerence  between  any  two  readings  of  the  instru- 
ment will  represent  the  angle  through  which  the 
line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope  moves  in  pass- 
ing from  one  position  to  the  other.  It  remains  to 
show  how  a  fixed  point,  viz.  the  nadir  (q.v.),  is 
observed,  and  then  how  an  observation  is  taken  of 
the  star  itself  on  its  meridian  passage.  It  must 
be  explained  here  that  the  fixed  horizontal  wire 
in  the  eye-piece  of  the  telescope,  in  the  instru- 
ment as  now  used,  is  only  an  imaginary  line, 
which  determines  the  line  of  collimation  of  the 
telescope.  It  coincides  with  the  position  of  the 
micrometer  wire  when  the  screw-head  of  the 
micrometer  marks  zero. 

To  observe  the  nadir,  a  trough  of  mercury  is 
placed  underneath  the  instrument,  and  the  tele- 
scope is  turned  so  as  to  look  vertically  down- 
ward into  it.  An  image  of  the  system  of  cross- 
wires  which  is  in  the  common  focus  of  the  object- 
glass  and  eyepiece  will  be  rellected  back  again 
to  nearly  the  same  focus.  Looking  into  the  tele- 
scope, the  observer  now-  adjusts  it  by  means  of  a 
slow-motion  screw  till  the  rellected  image  of  the 
horizontal  wire  coincides  with  the  real  one.  The 
final  adjusttnent  is  perhaps  most  delicately  ef- 
fected by  turning  the  screw-head  of  the  microme- 
ter wliich  moves  the  wire  itself.  When  they 
coincide,  the  line  joining  the  centre  of  the  object- 
glass  of  tlie  telescope  witli  the  intersection  be- 
tween the  middle  vertical  and  horizontal  micro- 
metric  wire  will  be  vertical.  For  that  position 
of  the  movable  wire,  the  circle  now  gives  the 
exact  nadir  reading,  which  difTers  180°  from  the 
true  zenith   reading. 

Again,  to  ob.serve  a  star  in  the  meridian,  the 
instrument  is  previously  adjusted  so  that  the 
star,  in  passing  the  meridian,  shall  pass  over  the 
field  of  view  of  the  telescope.  As  the  image  of 
the  star  approaches  the  centre  of  the  field,  the  ob- 
server adjusts  the  telescope  by  the  slow-motion 
screw,  so  as  very  nearly  to  bring  the  image  of  the 
■  star  to  the  horizontal  wire.  Finally,  just  as 
the  star  passes  the  middle  vertical  w^ire,  he 
bisects  the  image  of  the  star  with  the  hori- 
zontal wire  l)v  a  touch  of  the  micrometer  screw- 
head.  The  circle  being  now  clamped  (or  made 
fast),  the  reading  is  determined  as  before  by 
reading  the  pointer  and  microsco])es.  and  adding 
or  subtracting,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  reading 
of  the  micrometer.  This  reading  now  subtracted 
from  the  zenith  reading  gives  the  meridian  zenith 
distance  of  the  star;  and  this,  again,  subtracted 
from  !in°,  gives  its  meridian  altitude  above  the 
horizon.     See  Tiun.sit  Tnstri'MENT. 

MEKIDIAN  MEASUREMENT.  The  deter- 
iiiitKilinn  I'f  till'  form  and  si/c  nf  the  earth  from 
the  measurement  of  a  meridional  arc'  has  lucn  a 


favorite  problem  with  mathematicians  from  the 
earliest  times,  butf  up  to  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  their  operations  were  not  carried 
on  with  exactness  sufficient  to  render  their  con- 
clusions of  much  value.  Since  that  time,  how- 
ever, geodesy  has  progressed  so  rapidly,  owing  to 
the  invention  of  more  accurate  instruments  and 
the  discovery  of  new  methods,  that  the  measure- 
ment of  the  meridian  can  now  be  ])erformed  with 
very  high  precision.  The  modus  operandi  is  as 
follows:  Two  stations,  having  nearly  the  same 
longitude,  are  chosen ;  their  latitude  and  longi- 
tude are  accurately  determined  (the  error  of  a 
single  second  in  latitude  introduces  a  consider- 
able error  into  the  result ) ,  and  the  direction  of 
the  meridian  to  be  measured  ascertained;  then  a 
base  lino  is  measured  with  the  greatest  accuracy, 
as  an  error  here  generally  bccumes  increased  at 
every  sub-sequent  ste]) ;  and  then,  by  the  method 
known  as  triangulation  (q.v. I,  the  length  of  the 
arc  of  the  meridian  contained  between  the  paral- 
lels of  latitude  of  the  two  stations  is  ascertained.  , 
As  the  previously  found  latitudes  of  its  two  ex-  i 
tremities  give  the  number  of  degrees  it  contains,  ; 
the  average  length  of  a  degree  of  this  arc  can  , 
be  at  once  determined;  and  also,  on  certain  as- 
sximptions  as  to  the  earth's  form,  the  length  of  ' 
the  whole  meridional  circumference  of  the  earth. 
This  operation  of  meridian  measurement  has  l)ecn 
performed  at  dillerent  times  on  a  great  many 
arcs  lying  between  latitude  08°  N.  and  latitude 
38°  S.,  and  the  results  show  a  steady  though 
irregular  increase  in  the  length  of  the  degree  of 
latitude  as  the  latitude  increases,  thi  the  sup- 
position that  the  law  of  increase  holds  good  to 
the  poles,  the  length  of  every  tenth  degree  of 
latitude  up  to  70°   is  as  follows: 


DEGBEE  OF  LATITUDE 

Length  o(  depree  In  English 
J<*t 

0° 

3f.2.-5G 

10° 

362,868 

20° 

363.188 

30° 

363,679 

40° 

3114,284 

60° 

3M.929 

60° 

'     365. 53G 

70° 

3(16.033 

This  table  is  calculated  on  the  theory  that 
the  earth  is  not  s]dierical,  as  in  that  case  the 
length  of  all  degrees  of  latitude  would  be  alike, 
but  of  a  more  or  less  spheroidal  form,  that  is, 
having  its  curvature  becoming  less  and  less  as 
we  go  from  the  extremity  of  its  greater  or  equa- 
torial diameter  to  the  lesser  or  polar  axis.  See 
Earth  :  Uegree  of  Latitide. 

.Mekidio.nal  1'akts.  In  preparing  a  chart 
(q.v.)  upon  Merca tor's  projection,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  relative  proportion  between  the 
lengths  of  meridians  aiirl  parallels  at  any  point, 
the  former  must  be  increased  in  jengtli.  The 
lengths  of  small  portions  of  the  meridians  thus 
increased  are  called  miridinmil  /)((^^«.  and  tables 
giving  the  lengths  at  dilTerent  latitudes  are  pre- 
lianil   for  use  in  constructing  charts. 

MERIMEE,  mft'r.'-niA'.  Prosi-kk  (1803-70). 
A  French  nnvclist,  historian,  diamalist,  and 
critic,  born  in  Paris,  September  28,  ISOH.  He 
studied  law,  which  he  never  practiced;  he  held 
various  olTices  in  the  civil  service,  bccnine.  in 
1831,  inspector  of  archieological  and  historical 
monuments  of  France,  an  .Academician  in  1844, 
and   a   Senator  of  the   Empire   in    18.53.     His  re- 


SIEBIMEE. 


343 


MEKIVALE. 


ports  of  professional  rest-a relies  were  the  basis 
of  four  volumes:  Duns  Ic  iijidl  lie  la  France 
(1835);  Dans  I'Ouest  (1830);  En  Auveryne  et 
Limousin  (183S);  En  Corse  (1840).  To  this 
science  he  contributed  also  Monuments  liisto- 
riques  (1843)  ;  Peintures  de  VEylise  Saint-Havin 
(1844);  and  to  history  a  monograph  on  Don, 
Pedro  de  Castille  (1843),  Les  faux  Demetrius 
(1854),  and  a  volume  of  miscellaneous  Essaies 
(1855).  He  is  best  known,  however,  for  his 
fiction,  narrative  and  dramatic,  Theatre  de  Clara 
Gazul  (1825),  a  pretended  translation  from  the 
Spanish  and  an  ironical  toying  with  Romanti- 
cism; />«  Ouzla  (1827),  a  pretended  translation 
of  lllyrian  songs;  La  Jaequcrie  (1828),  dramatic 
scenes  from  the  Peasants'  War  of  1358;  a  similar 
but  far  finer  historic  study,  La  chronique  du 
regnc  de  Charles  IX.  ( 1829) ,  of  which  the  massa- 
cre of  Saint  Bartholomew's  forms  the  central 
scene;  Colomba  (1840),  his  most  popular  novel, 
a  story  of  Corsica;  Carmen  (1847),  a  Spanish 
gypsy  romance  and  subject  of  a  po])ular  opera 
by  Bizet,  and  three  volumes  of  short  stories  of 
remarkable  polish  and  artistic  ellect.  but  hard, 
ironical,  and  sometimes  cynically  pessimistic. 
Mfrimee  was,  before  Maupassant,  an  unap- 
proached  master  of  stylistic  restraint  and  con- 
cision. He  chooses  exotic  scenes,  a  material  and 
moral  life  alike  foreign  to  his  readers,  but  he 
never  fails  to  produce  the  illusion  of  reality 
even  when  he  crosses  the  border  of  the  super- 
natural. Although  impassive  in  his  writing, 
Mfrimee  was  in  private  life  characterized  by 
tender  and  devoted  friendships,  of  which  his 
Leilres  a  unv  inconnue  (1873),  trans,  in  the 
"Brie  !l  Brae  Series,"  ed.  by  Stoddard,  vol.  iii., 
New  York,  1874;  the  Lettres  a  une  autre  ineon- 
nue  (1875)  ;  the  Lettres  a  Punizzi  (1881)  ;  and 
I'ne  corresjiondanee  inedite  (1890),  are  most  in- 
teresting and  beautiful  monuments.  They  show 
Ato"im(;e  gracious,  atlectionate,  loyal,  capable  of 
even  a  romantic  idealism.  Merim^e  died  at 
Cannes,  September  23,  1870.  Consult:  Filon, 
ilirimie  et  scs  amis  (Paris,  1894)  ;  Haussonville, 
iliriinee  (ih.,  1888)  ;  Tonineux,  Prosper  Merimee, 
ses  portraits,  ses  dessins.  etc.  (ib.,  1879);  and 
Faguet,  XlXemc  siecle   (ib.,  1894). 

MERINO.     See  Sheep. 

MER'ION'ETH.  A  county  of  Wales,  bounded 
west  by  Cardigan  Bay.  and  north  by  the  counties 
of  Carnarvon  and  Denbigh  (Jlap:  Wales,  C  4). 
Area.  008  square  miles.  Merioneth  is  the  most 
mountainous  county  in  Wales,  and  large  tracts 
are  luifit  for  profitable  cultivation.  Slate  and 
limestone  are  largely  quarried,  and  lead  and  cop- 
per are  mined.  Woolens  and  flannels  are  manu- 
factured. Capital.  Dolgellv  (q.v.).  Population, 
in  1891.  49,200;  in  1901,  49,100. 

MER'ISTEM  (irregular  formation  from  Gk. 
MfpiffTit,  nirristos,  divided,  from  jneplfeii/,  meri- 
zein,  to  divide,  from  ^^pos,  mrros.  part).  The 
region  of  a(tivit,v  dividing  unditTerentiated  cells. 
f^e  Histology. 

MERIT,  Order  of.  An  order  institiitcd  in 
London.  June  2(i,  1902.  by  King  Edward  VII., 
I  with  the  object  of  conferring  distinction  on  per- 
i  sons  who  have  gained  prominence  in  military, 
1  scientific,  artistic,  and  professional  circles.  The 
^  Order  consists  of  the  sovereign  and  the  members 
;  and  is  not  conferred  as  a  reward  for  political 
;  services.  ]\[embers  of  the  order  are  accorded 
I   precedence   immediately  after  the   Order  of  the 


Bath  and  before  the  other  orders  of  knighthood. 
Up  to  January  1,  1903,  only  twelve  members 
had  been  installed,  com|)rising,  as  repre.sentatives 
of  the  army.  Lords  Roberts,  Wolseley,  and  Kitch- 
ener; of  the  navy.  Admirals  Keppel  and  Sey- 
mour; of  science.  Lords  Rayleigh  and  Kelvin  and 
Sir  William  Huggins;  of  medicine.  Lord  Li.ster; 
of  literature  and  history,  John  Jlorley  and  W.  E. 
H.  Lecky ;  of  painting,  O.  F.  Watts. 

MERIT  SYSTEM,  The.  The  merit  system, 
as  the  name  implies,  looks  toward  the  appointment 
of  men  to  office  because  of  their  competency, 
and  not  because  of  their  political  opinions.  The 
fitness  of  the  candidate  is  determined  Ijy  liis 
ability  to  pass  a  written  competitive  examination, 
given  by  a  commission  of  examiners.  The  an- 
swers submitted  by  candidates  must  be  unsigned, 
so  as  to  obviate  the  possibility  of  favoritism  on 
the  part  of  the  examiners.  A  list  is  made  of  the 
successful  candidates,  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  merit  as  shown  by  the  results  of  the  exami- 
nation. Appointments  must  be  made  from  this 
eligible  list  in  the  order  of  rank  unless  good 
cause  can  be  shown  why  one  of  higher  rank  should 
be  set  aside  for  one  standing  lower  on  the  list. 
A  common  objection  to  the  merit  system  is  that 
it  does  not  give  an  adequate  test  of  a  man's  real 
capacity  to  administer  the  office  to  which  he  seeks 
appointment.  This  is  in  a  measure  true,  though 
more  and  more  the  civil  service  examiners  are 
coming  to  lay  stress  upon  experience  and  prac- 
tical knowledge.  Inasmuch  as  the  merit  system 
makes  it  more  difficult  for  the  ordinary  political 
heeler  to  secure  lucrative  offices  because  of  his 
vote-getting  abilitv.  the  svstcm  nuist  be  recog- 
nized as  a  power  for  good.  Though  it  does  not 
inevitably  lead  to  the  choice  of  tlie  most  com- 
petent, it  docs  very  effectually  exclude  the  abso- 
lutely unfit — the  political  trickster  and  dealer 
in  votes.     See  C'ivil-Service  Reform. 

MERIVAIiE,  merl-val.  Charles  (1808-93). 
An  English  historian,  best  known  by  his  work  on 
the  Roman  Empire.  He  was  born  March  8, 
1808,  the  son  of  John  Herman  Merivale.  a  well- 
known  minor  poet.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
Haileybury  College,  and  Saint  .John's  College, 
Cambridge.  He  took  his  degree  at  the  latter 
place  in  1830,  and  was  successively  scholar,  fel- 
low, and  tutor.  During  all  this  time  he  was  in- 
terested especially  in  Roman  histor.v,  and  between 
1850  and  1804  wrote  his  well-known  Uistoni 
of  the  Romans  Under  the  Empire,  which  deals 
with  the  period  between  the  rise  of  the  Gracchi 
and  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  first 
part  of  the  work  was  especially  popular,  and  was 
published  in  popular  form  under  the  title  of 
The  Fall  of  the  Roman  Repuhlie.  The  merit  of 
this  historv  was  great  in  its  dav,  but  more  re- 
cent investigation,  especiall.v  the  st\id,v  of  epig- 
raphy, has  controverted  man.v  of  Merivale's 
views.  In  1869  he  became  dean  of  Elv,  though 
he  had  only  a  slight  interest  in  strictly  ecclesi- 
astical questions  and  disputes.  He  continued  to 
publish  various  studies  on  Roman  history,  among 
which  may  be  noted  General  Uistori/  of  Rome 
from  the  Foundation  of  the  Citti  to  the  Fall  of 
Au.justulvs  (1875).  He  died  December  27.  1803. 
Consult  Autohioyraphji  and  Letters,  edited  bv  his 
daughter,  Judith  Anne  Merivale   (London,  1899). 

MERIVALE,  Herman  (1806-74).  An  Eng- 
lish political  economist  and  author,  bom  at 
T)awlish,    Devonshire.      He    was    a    brother    of 


MERIVALE. 


344 


MEBLIN. 


Charles,  the  historian,  studied  at  Harrow,  and 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1827. 
In  1832  he  was  called  to  the  bar  of  the  Inner 
Temple.  Trom  1837  to  1842  he  was  professor  of 
political  economy  at  O.xford,  delivering  while 
there  a  valuable  scries  of  Lecturcx  on  Colonizatiun 
ayid  I  lie  Colonics  (1841).  Appointed  Assistant 
Under-Secretary    of    State    for    the    Colonies    in 

1847,  he  became  permanent   Under-Secretary  in 

1848.  He  was  transferred  in  18.')'J  to  the  Under- 
Secretaryship  for  India,  and  contiinied  in  that 
office  until  his  death.  His  further  works — and 
none  of  his  books,  it  is  said,  well  represents  him 
— include  Historical  Htmlics  (18G,5)  and  Me- 
moirs of  Hir  I'ltilip  Francis  (18G7). 

MEKIVALE,  .John  Hekm.vx  (1779-1884). 
An  English  scholar,  translator,  and  poet.  He  was 
born  in  Exeter,  studied  at  Saint  .John's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1804. 
He  contributed  largely  to  Bland's  Collections 
from  the  (Ireek  Anthology,  published  in  1813, 
and  himself  brought  out  a  second  edition  in  1833. 
From  1831  to  his  death  he  held  the  olfice  of 
Commissioner  of  Bankruptcy.  Among  his  further 
literary  works  may  be  mentioned  Poems,  Orig- 
inal and  Translated  (1841).  and  Minor  Poems  of 
Schiller  (1844). 

MER'I"WETH'ER,  Lee  (1802—).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  author,  born  at  CoUimbus,  Miss. 
After  a  "study  of  the  law  he  practiced  liis  profes- 
sion at  Saint  Louis,  and  was  appointed  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  write  a  rep<u-t  on  tlic 
condition  of  the  laboring  classes  in  Europe.  Sub- 
seqiiently,  as  a  special  agent  of  the  l)ci)artiiicnt 
of  the  Interior,  he  was  active  in  collecting  sta- 
tistics regarding  labor  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
and  the  United  States.  This  post  he  resigned  to 
accept  tliat  of  Labor  Commissioner  of  Missouri. 
He  made  himself  known  by  his  report  on  the  cor- 
poration (or  'truck')  store  system,  by  which 
miners  in  Missouri  were  provided  with  supplies, 
at  exorbitant  ligures.  as  a  substitute  for  the  regu- 
lar wages,  and  he  introduced  into  the  Legisla- 
ture of  the  State  a  bill  which  put  an  end  to  this 
system.  Later  he  stmlied  European  prisons,  and 
upon  his  return  to  the  United  States  rcsumcil  the 
practice  of  law  in  Saint  Louis.  His  pul>lication9 
include:  A  Tramp  Trip:  How  to  ftrr  Europe  on 
Fiftii  Cents  a  Dag  (1887),  describing  a  pedes- 
trian journey  taken  by  him  from  Gibraltar  to  the 
Bosporus  in  ISS.'i-Sfi;  and  Afloat  and  Ashore 
on  the  M((lilerranean   (1802). 

MERKEL,  mer'kcl,  Adolf  (1836-90).  A  Ger- 
man juri-t.  born  in  Mainz,  and  educated  at  Gies- 
sen  and  ilcidellicrg.  He  became  doccnt  at  Gies- 
Ben  in  18(12  and  professor  in  18t!7.  and  was  sue- 
cessivelv  appointed  professor  at  Prague  (18fi8), 
at  Vienna  (1872).  and  at  Strassburg  (1874). 
He  contributed  largely  to  IloItzendorfT's  lland- 
hiich  drs  drutsrhftt  Strafrechts  and  Fncgklopiidie 
drr  liechtsirissensehnft  and  wrote  Zur  Lchre  rom 
fortgesctzten  Verhrerhen  (1802):  Kriminalis- 
tisriie  Ahhandliingen  (1807):  Jiiristische  Fncg- 
klopiidir  dSS.'))  :  Lrhrltueh  dcs  deuisehen  Straf- 
rechiK  (1889):  Vergeltiingsidee  und  Zn-eck- 
gedanlr  im  fttrnfrecht  (1892:)  and  other  essays 
on  criminal  law. 

MERLE  (OF.,  Fr.  merle,  from  Lat.  merula, 
blackbiiclK  The  common  European  blackbird 
tTurdiis  merula).  a  thrush  closely  allied  to  the 
.American  robin,  the  male  of  which  is  uniformly 
black,    while    the    female    is    duskv    olive-brown 


above  and  reddish-brown  below.  The  spe'^ies  is 
migratory  except  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  of  the 
sununer  birds  of  Europe,  coming  about  all  gar- 
dens and  roadsides,  and  making  its  rude  nest  in 
bushes  and  hedgerows;  the  eggs  are  bluish-green 
freckled  with  brown.  This  is  one  of  tlie  hnest 
of  European  songsters,  and  is  frequently  kept  in 
cages  and  aviaries.  The  genus  is  a  large  one, 
with  numerous  species  in  the  Orient,  Australia, 
and  South  America.  Compare  Blackbird; 
Thrush. 

MERLE  D'AXJBIGN:^,  milrl  dft'be'nya',  .Iean 
IIenki  (  17'J4-1.S72| .  A  Swiss  historian.  He  was 
born  at  Eaux-Vives,  a  suburb  of  Geneva,  in  Swit- 
zerland, August  lU,  1794;  stiulied  there  and  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1818  became  pastor  of  the  French 
Protestant  Cliurch  in  Hamburg.  Thence,  after  a 
residence  of  live  years,  he  proceeded  to  Brussels. 
In  1831  he  returned  to  Geneva  and  took  part 
in  the  institution  of  a  new  college  for  the  propa- 
gation of  orthodox  theology,  in  which  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Church  history.  His  Uia- 
ioire  de  la  reformation  au  seizicme  siicle  gave 
him  a  wide  reputation.  It  is,  however,  marred 
by  partisanship  and  misleading  and  uncritical 
use  of  authorities.  The  first  part,  that  on 
the  Reformation  in  the  time  of  Lutlier  (Paris, 
1835-47,  4  vols.;  best  ed.  of  the  Kng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  18.53.  5  vols.,  the  last  volume  on  the 
English  Reformation),  was  vastly  mor<'  popular 
than  the  second  part,  that  on  the  Keformation 
in  the  time  of  Calvin  (1802-78.  8  vols.;  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1803-78,  8  vols.).  His  other 
writings,  mostly  historical,  are  of  less  account. 
He  died  at  Geneva.  October  21,  1872.  Consult  his 
Life  liy  Bonnet  (Paris,  1874). 

MERLET,  m.^r'la',  LuciEN  Victor  Claude 
(1827 — ).  A  French  antiquary,  born  at  Vannes. 
He  studied  paleography,  and  in  18.51  bcdanie 
head  of  tITe  departmental  archives  of  Eure-et- 
Loir.  He  edited  many  cliartularics  and  ecclesi- 
astical registers  and  published:  Histoirc  dcs  rela- 
tions des  Hurons  et  dcs  Ahnni/uis  du  Canada  avee 
Xotre-Dame  de  Chartres  (1858)  :  Uobert  dc  Oal- 
lardon.  seines  de  la  vie  feodalc  au  Xllleme  siiclt 
(1858)  :  Dictionnaire  topographiquc  du  ddpartt- 
mcnt  d'Eure-et-Loir  (1861);  Dc  I'instrucjion 
primaire  en  Eure-et-Loir  avant  178!t  (1878); 
and  Dictionnaire  dcs  noms  vulgaircs  des  habi- 
tants de  diverses  localit^s  de  la  France  ( 1883). 

MER'LIN.  The  name  of  an  ancient  British 
pruiihct  and  magician,  who  nourished,  according 
to  the  romancers,  during  the  decline  of  tlie  native 
British  power  in  it.s  contest  witli  tlie  Saxon  in- 
vaders. The  earliest  traces  of  him  are  found  in 
the  Ilistoria  liritonum.  ascribed  to  a  certain 
Xennius  (ahoiit  800).  He  there  appears  as* 
projihetic  child  under  the  name  Ambrosius,  and  is 
confoimded  with  .\nrelius  Ambro.;ius,  to  whom 
Vortigern  surrenders  Mount  Heremus  (Snow- 
don).  He  next  appears  in  GeolTrey  of  Mmi- 
niouth's  Vita  Mcrlini.  afterwards  incorporated  in 
the  Historia  Rcgum  liritnnniir  (about  11.39), 
where  he  is  called  Merlin  .\mbrosius.  or  simply 
Merlin.  Geoffrey  expanded  the  narrative  of  Ncn- 
jiius,  evidently  employing  for  the  ])urpose  tradi- 
tions concerning  a  Cambrian  or  Welsh  ba»d 
known  in  Welsh  legend  as  Myrddin.  According 
to  GeofTrey,  Merlin  lived  in  the  fifth  century,  and 
was  spr\mg  from  the  intercourse  of  a  demon  and 
a  Welsh  princess.     Merlin  displayed  miraculous 


MERLIN. 


345 


MERMAID. 


tiowoi's  Ironi  infancy.  Ho  is  made  ti)  predict  tlie 
iiistory  nl'  Britain  down  to  Uedilrey's  own  time. 
From  (.ieollrey  and  otlier  sourees  was  built  up 
the  Krencli  prcse  romanoe  of  Merlin  I  thirteenth 
century).  \'ersions  of  this  romance  were  made 
in  Italian,  Spanish,  German,  and  Knglish;  and 
parts  of  it  were  embodied  in  Jlalor^^'s  Morte 
d'ArtUiir  (148.5).  A  collection  of  prophecies  at- 
tributed to  him  appeared  in  French  (Paris, 
14118 ).  in  English  (London,  1520  and  1.533),  and 
in  Latin  (Venice,  1554)  ;  and  their  existence  is 
traceable  as  far  back  as  the  thirteenth  century. 
Besides  this  Cambrian  Jlcrlin  I  Jlerlin  Ambrosius) 
there  is  the  Strathclyde  ilerlin,  called  Jlerlin  the 
Wyllt,  or  Merlin  Caledonius.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  si.xth  century,  a  contemporary 
of  8aint  Kentigern.  Bishop  of  Glasgow.  His 
grave  is  still  shown  at  Drummelzier  on  the 
Tweed,  where,  in  attempting  to  escape  across  the 
river  from  a  band  of  hostile  rustics,  he  was  im- 
paled <m  a  hidden  stake.  A  metrical  life  of  him, 
extending  to  more  than  loOO  lines,  professedly 
based  on  Armorie  materials,  and  incorrectly  as- 
cribed to  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  was  published 
by  the  Roxburghe  Club  in  1833.  His  prophecies, 
published  at  Edinburgh  in  1615.  contain  those 
ascribed  to  the  Cambrian  Merlin.  Consult: 
GeofTrey  of  Monmouth,  Historia  Regum  Britan- 
nia:, edited  by  A.  Schulz  (Halle,  1854)  ;  Mer- 
lin, ruman  en  prose  du  Xlllcme  siccle,  cd.  by 
Paris  and  Llrich,  Soeiete  des  Anciens  Textes 
(Paris,  1880)  :  Merlin,  or  the  Early  Histort/  of 
King  Arthur:  A  Prose  Romanes  (about  1450-GO), 
ed.  by  Wheatley,  Early  English  Text  Society 
(London,  18fi5-09)  ;  JIalory,  Morte  d'Arthur;  and 
Tennyson.  Idylls  of  the  King. 

MER'LIN  (OF.  csmcrillon,  emcriUon,  Fr. 
ctiierilloH,  merlin,  augmentative  form  from  ML. 
gmerillus,  snierhis,  merlin,  probably  from  Lat. 
mrriila.  blackbird).  The  smallest  of  Old  World 
falcons  (Faleo  asalon).  scarcely  exceeding  a 
blackbird  in  size,  but  very  bold  and  powerful.  It 
is  bluish  ash  in  color  above :  reddish  yellow  on 
the  breast  and  belly,  with  longitudinal  dark 
spots,  the  throat  of  the  adult  male  white.  It 
builds  its  nest  on  the  ground,  and  is  fond  of 
localities  where  large  stones  are  plentiful,  whence 
it  is  often  called  "stone  falcon.'  It  is  common  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  was 
of  great  repute  in  the  days  of  falconry.  The 
merlin  is  represented  in  Xorth  America  by  the 
pigeon-hawk   (q.v.l. 

MERLIN  DE  DOUAI.  niar'la>''  dr  doo'a', 
Phili.ipe  Antoine.  Count  ( 1754-1838) .  A  French 
politician  and  jurist.  He  was  born  at  Arleux  and 
studied  at  the  College  of  Anchin.  He  began  his 
career  by  practicing  law  at  Doitai.  whence  the 
second  part  of  bis  name.  In  1775  he  became  ad- 
vocate at  the  Parlement  of  Flanders,  where  he 
soon  acquired  reputation  as  an  able  lawyer.  His 
frequent  contributions  to  the  law  dictionary,  then 
appearing  under  the  title  Rrprrtoire  iinirersel  et 
raisonnr  dc  jurisprudrnrr.  increased  his  reputa- 
tion and  established  his  authority  as  a  juris- 
consult. After  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly, where  he  attracted  much  attention  by  his 
report  on  the  bill  of  April  4.  1780.  abolishing  the 
feudal  system.  In  1705  lie  became  ^linister  of 
Justice,  and  kept  this  post  till  .January  IS.  1700. 
After  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  Eighteenth  Bnunaire 
he  took   the   office   of   procureur-g6nC'ral    at   the 


Court  of  Cassation,  and  Xapoleon  made  him 
Councilor  of  State  in  ISOS,  and  two  years 
afterwards  created  him  Count.  By  a  royal  ordi- 
nance of  July  24,  1815,  he  was  expelled  from 
France.  On  his  return  to  France  in  1830  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Science.  He  is  the  author  of  Recueil 
alphabetique  des  questions  de  droit  qui  se  pre- 
sentent  le  plus  frequeminent  dans  les  tribunuux 
(1810--27). 

MERLINO  COCCAJO,  mer-le'nu  ku-kii'yo. 
otherwise  known  as  Teofilo  Folekuo,  his  real 
name  (1491-1544).  One  of  the  principal  maca- 
ronic poets  of  the  sixteenth  century.  At  the 
age  of  eighteen  he  became  a  member  of  tlie 
Benedictine  Order,  and  while  a  monk  lie  wrote 
Latin  verses  in  the  style  of  Vergil.  About  1515 
he  forsook  monastic  life  and  wandered  about 
the  country  with  a  young  woman  of  good  family, 
Girolania  Dieda,  often  in  great  poverty,  for  he 
had  no  resource  but  his  poetic  talent.  His  first 
publication  was  Merlini  Coccaii  Maearononicon 
(Venice,  1517  and  1521),  which  relates  the  ad- 
ventures of  a  fictitious  hero  named  Baldus.  This 
poem  is  written  in  macaronic  verse,  which  Fo- 
lengo  was  the  first  to  use  with  success.  Coarse 
though  it  was,  it  contained  much  genuine  poetry 
and  it  became  very  popular.  Like  the  later  Or- 
landino,  an  Italian  poem  in  octaves  dealing  with 
adventures  of  the  youthful  Roland,  the  work  was 
a  parody  on  the  heroic  epic  as  written  by 
Ariosto.  Ruing  his  wayward  career,  Folengo 
returned  to  his  Order.  About  this  time  appears 
the  macaronic  Chaos  del  tripperino,  an  autobio- 
graphical account  of  his  errors  and  repentance 
( 1527 ) .  He  seems  to  have  devoted  the  rest  of  his 
life  to  the  production  of  religious  works  only, 
such  as  the  Palermitana  o  jimanita  di  Cristo  and 
the  play  Atto  delta  pinta.  For  editions  of  his 
works,  consult:  Le  opere  maceheroniche  di  Mer- 
lino  Coccaio,  edited  by  Portioli  (Mantua,  1882- 
89)  ;  Marzo,  Drammatiche  rappresentazioni,  vols. 
i.-ii.  (Palermo,  1876),  which  contains  the  Atto 
delta  pinta  and  the  Palrrmitann :  Racrolta  dei 
piu  celehri  poenti  eroicomici  italiani,  vol.  i.  (5Ii- 
lan,  1841),  which  contains  Orlandino;  Luzio, 
yitove  ricerche  sul  Folengo  (Turin.  1880)  ; 
Sehneegans,  Gcsehichte  der  grotesken  Satire 
(Strassburg,  1804)  :  Zumbini,  "II  Folengo  pre- 
cursore  del  Cervantes."  in  Studi  di  letteratura 
italinna  (Florence,  1894). 

MERLON  (Fr.  merlon,  It.  merlo:  perhaps 
connected  with  Lat.  mfpn/.s,  murus,  wall).  In 
fortification,  the  portion  of  the  parapet  between 
two  embrasures. 

MERMAID  (from  mere,  AS.  mere.  Goth. 
morci,  OHC!.  mari,  Cier.  Mcer,  dr.,  Gael,  muir, 
OChurch  Slav,  morye.  Lat.  mare,  sea  +  maid. 
AS.  m<eg\i,  Goth,  magafs,  OIIG.  magad.  Ger. 
Magd,  maid).  An  imaginary  inhabitant  of  the 
sea.  The  upper  parts  of  mermaids  are  repre- 
sented as  resembling  those  of  beautiful  women, 
while  the  body  terminates  in  a  tail  like  (hat  of 
a  fish.  The  merman  is  also  heard  of.  but  less 
frequently.  The  commonest  representation  of  the 
mermaid  pictures  her  as  holding  in  her  hand  a 
mirror,  while  in  the  act  of  combing  her  hair. 
There  is  an  evident  affinity  between  the  stories 
concerning  mermaids  and  those  concerning  the 
sirens  and  tritons,  perhaps  also  the  nereids,  of 
the  ancients.  The  probability  is  that  these  stories 


MERMAID. 


3-16 


MEROM. 


have  originated  in  tlie  appearanee  of  seals,  wal- 
ruses, and  the  herbivorous  cetaeea. 

MERMAID,  The.  A  famous  London  club, 
the  foundation  of  which  is  ascribed  to  Sir  Walter 
Kaleigh.  Its  members  included  Jonsou,  Beau- 
mont, Fletcher,  Selden.  and  Carew.  Shakespeare 
also  is  said  to  have  I)elonged  to  it.  The  meeting 
place  was  the  old  Jlermaid  Tavern  on  Bread 
Street. 

MERMAID'S  GLOVE.  A  local  English 
name  applied  to  a  spuni;e  (Ilalichondiia  ocuhifa) 
often  cast  ashore  on  the  coast  of  Great  Britain 
and  Xortheastern  America.  Its  branches  are 
somewhat  finger-shaped,  giving  to  the  entire  ani- 
mal a  rude  glove-like  appearance.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  a  social  polyp,  Alcyoiiium  digi- 
tatum,  more  aptly  and  commonly  called  'dead- 
man's  fingers.' 

MERMAID'S  HEAD.  The  popular  British 
name  for  a  spatangoid  sea-urchin  (Amijhidetus 
cordatiis) . 

MERffl 

See  Kay. 

MERMILLOD,  mer'me'h'i',  Gasp.ujd  (1824- 
92).  A  Swiss  Catholic  prelate,  whose  ecclesi- 
astical history  is  largely  tlie  story  of  the  quarrel 
between  the  radical  (iovernment  of  Geneva  in  the 
seventies  and  the  Holy  See.  He  was  born  in 
C'arouge,  studied  in  a  Jesuit  college  at  Freiburg, 
and  took  holy  orders  in  1847.  He  immediately 
sprang  into  i)romincnce  as  an  impassioned  orator 
and  a  leader  of  the  Ultramontanists,  in  whose 
behalf  he  founded  L'Obxcrvateur  Catholuiue  and 
the  AniKtUs  CalholiqucK.  In  18G4  he  was  ap- 
pointed V'iear-Gcneral  of  Geneva,  and  in  1805  re- 
ceived full  episcopal  jmwers  in  the  canton.  In 
the  struggle  ])recipitated  by  this  action,  the 
Genevan  Government  acted  with  great  bitterness, 
and  in  187.'?  exiled  him.  .\n  attempt  on  the 
Pope's  part  in  187!)  to  restore  him  was  unsuc- 
cessful, as  the  brief  forming  the  Canton  of  Geneva 
into  an  apostolic  viearatc  was  still  in  force;  but 
in  1883  ilermillod  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Lausanne  and  Geneva,  and  tlie  distasteful  title 
was  thus  abrogated  and  the  decree  of  exile  con- 
sequently withdrawn.  He  was  made  a  cardinal 
in  1890.  His  collected  works,  sermons,  lives  of 
the  saints,  and  political  pamphlets,  were  pub- 
lished in  Paris  and  Lyons  in  ISO.*}.  Consult 
Lesur  and  Bournand,  Le  Cardinal  Mcrmillod  (Ab- 
beville. isn.-.K 

MERODACH.  me'rA-dak,  or  BEL-MERonACii. 
The  name  of  a  Babylonian-Assyrian  deity,  who 
is  genernllv  referred  to  in  the  Old  Testament  as 
Bel  (i.e.  'lonl')  or  Bol-Merodach.  The  Baby- 
lonian form  of  th(;  name  is  Mnnidiik  or  Mmdiih. 
Originally  merely  the  patron  deity  of  the  city  of 
Babylon,  he  liecame  the  head  of  the  Babylonian 
Pantheon,  as  Babylon  grew  to  be  the  cajiilal  of 
a  great  kingdom.  In  virtue  of  this  preeminent  posi- 
tion, he  usurped  the  rites  of  older  gods,  who  in 
earlier  periods  of  Mesopotamian  history  had  been 
supreme,  notably  the  chief  god  of  Xippur.  known 
as  Bel  of  Nippur  .or  simply  Bel.  Hence  the 
references  to  him  in  the  f)ld  Testament  as  Bel  or 
Bel-Merodach,  and,  in  the  Bativlonian  religious 
literature,  the  substitution  of  Marduk  by  the 
Babylonian  theologians  in  hymns  and  myths 
which  originally  spoke  of  Bel.  By  virtue  of  this 
process.  Marduk  becomes  the  creator  of  mankind 
as  well  as  the  god  who  brings  order  into  the  uni- 


ver.-.e  by  his  conquest  of  the  monster  Tianuit.  This 
story  of  ilarduk  and  Tiamat  became  known  to 
tlie  Hebrews,  among  wliom  it  gave  birth  to  such 
conceptions  as  Leviathan  ( q.v. ) ,  and  plays  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Apocalyptic  literature.  In 
the  legend  of  Saint  George  and  the  dragon  we 
have  anotlier  transformation  of  the  JIarduk  and 
Tiamat  myth,  ilarduk  appears  originally  to 
have  been  a  solar  god.  but.  as  in  the  case  of  other 
gods,  his  nature  is  not  •single,'  and  hence  he 
appears  also  in  the  literature  as  a  storm  god.  In 
the  artificial  astronomical  system  of  the  Baby- 
lonian scholars,  which  iilentitied  the  chief  deities 
with  the  great  stars,  Marduk  is  identical  witli 
the  planet  Jupiter  of  the  Romans.  As  the  head 
of  the  Pantheon  he  receives  such  titles  as  'King 
of  the  Gods,'  "King  of  Heaven  an<l  Earth.'  'the 
supreme  god,'  and  the  like.  The  cliief  temple  of 
Marduk  stood  in  the  city  of  Babylon  and  was 
known  as  E-sag-ila  (i.e.  'the  lofty  house').  It 
is  now  being  explored  by  a  German  expedition. 
Consult:  Jastrow,  Riligioii  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria, especially  chaps,  viii,  and  x.xi,  ( Boston, 
1808)  ;  Zimmern,  Kcilinschriftcn  und  das  Alte 
Testament,  pp.  370-91)  (Berlin.  1902). 

MERODE,  mfi'rod',  Fka.ncois  Xavier  Maris 
Fri'iilhu  GiiisLAix.  Count  de  (  1SJ01S74).  A 
Roman  Catholic  prelate.  He  was  born  at  Brus- 
sels, a  grand-nephew  of  Lafayette.  He  entered 
the  Belgian  army  and  took  part  in  the  -Mgerian 
campaign.  In  1S74  iie  began  the  study  of  the- 
ology at  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  to  the 
jiriesthood  in  18.50.  Pius  IX.  made  him  his 
chamberlain,  and  canon  of  Saint  Peter's.  In 
1800  he  was  appointed  temporary  Minister  of 
War.  an<l  recruited,  chiefly  from  fon'igiiers.  a 
Pontifical  army.  In  ISfiii  he  went  out  of  office 
in  conseiiuence  of  a  dispute  with  Cardinal  An- 
tonelli.  The  next  year  he  was  made  .\rch- 
bishop  of  Mytilene  and  Papal  Almoner.  In 
1809  he  resisted  the  declaration  of  the  doctrine 
of  Pa])al  infallil)ility ;  but  he  acquiesced  in  the 
final  enunciation  of  it  by  the  Eciimeiiieal  CounciL 
Consult  his  Life  by  Besson  (Paris,  1880). 

MERGE,  nier'6-e  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Utpiti). 
The  second  capital  of  ancient  Ethiopia  (q.v.), 
dominant  from  the  reign  of  King  Ergamenes 
(about  B.C.  250).  and  tlie  only  residence  of  the 
kings  after  the  downfall  of  Xapata  (q.v,).  AM 
licnia.  it  is  mentioned  as  early  as  n.c.  .500;  the 
extensive  ruins  (described  by  Cailliaud.  and 
finely  illustrated  in  I.epsius.  Drnliniilrr.  part  v.) 
are  situated  at  a  place  now  called  Begerawieli. 
Consult:  Cailliaud.  Voyane  d  Mrro^  (Paris, 
1823-27)  :  Lepsius.  Letters  from  Eitypt-  Ethiopia, 
anil  the  ^rnin■^^ula  of  Siiini  (London,  1853). 

ME'ROM,  Water.'s  of.  The  scene  of  the  great 
battle  between  the  Hebrews  under  Joshua  and 
the  allied  kings  of  Canaan  (Josh.  xi.).  The 
Waters  of  Meroin  are  commonly  identified  with 
the  more  northern  of  the  two  lakes  through  which 
the  Jordan  flows  in  its  course  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
although  the  identification  is  not  free  from  diffi- 
culty anil  is  disputed.  This  lake  is  now  called 
Iluleh.  or  more  fully  Baheiret  elHuleh.  'the  little 
lake  of  Huleh.'  It  is  triangular  in  sliape:  at  its 
base,  toward  the  iiortli,  the  .Tordan  enters  and 
flows  out  again  from  its  apex  toward  the  south 
on  its  descent  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  The  fallinff 
rains  and  melting  snows  periodically  increase  it<i 
size,  but  its  average  length  is  about  three  and 
one-half  miles,   and    its   width   at    the   broadest 


MEKOM. 


347 


MEBOVINGIANS. 


point  about  three;  its  deptli  is  10  to  Ui  feet. 
Jos>cphiis  calls  the  lake  Semeehonitis  (Wars,  iii.- 
X.  7),  and  the  region  about  it  Ulatha  (Antiqui- 
ties, XV.,  X.  3).  The  district,  which  is  very  fer- 
tile, is  inhabited  by  Arabs.  Consult  JIaegregor, 
2'Ae  Rob  Hui/  on  the  Jordan  (New  York,  1870). 

MEBOPE,  nier'6-pe.  ( 1 )  A  sister  of  Phaethon 
and  one  of  the  Heliades.  (2)  One  of  the  Pleiades, 
the  wife  of  Sisyphus  and  mother  of  Glaucus.  (3) 
The  daughter  of  C'ypselus  and  wife  of  tlie  Mes- 
scniiin  King  Cresphontes.  All  her  sons  except 
.Epytus  were  killed  when  her  brotlier-in-law. 
Polyphonies,  seized  the  kingdom.  .i<2pytus  tied, 
and'  when  he  had  grown  up  returned  and  put 
Polyiiliontos  to  death. 

MEKOPE,  uia'rop'.  A  tragedy  by  Voltaire 
(174:ii. 

MEROP'ODA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /x^pos,  nie- 
ros,  a  part,  a  segment  +  irovs,  7ro56s,  fjous,  podos, 
a  foot ) .  Tlie  name  given  by  Packard  to  a  phy- 
lum or  general  group  of  arthropodous  animals 
comprising  three  classes,  i.e.  the  diplopod  Jlyria- 
])oda  (i).v. )  or  'thousand-legs,'  the  Pauropoda, 
and  the  Sympliyla.  It  is  equivalent  to  the 
'Trachcata  proyoncata  of  Pocock.  In  the  typical 
forms  (Diplopoda)  the  second  pair  of  mouth- 
appendages,  corresponding  to  the  mandibles  of 
insects,  are  very  different  in  structure  and  com- 
posed of  three  segments,  since  all  the  head  and 
thoracic  appendages  are  made  up  of  several 
joints,  hence  the  name  Mcropoda,  or  jointed-legs. 
In  this  phylum  all  the  forms  agree  in  having 
the  genital  outlets  situated  a  little  behind  the 
head;  i.e.  in  diplopods  and  pauropods  in  the 
third  segment  behind  the  head,  while  in  the 
Symphyla  (Scolopendrella)  the  single  opening  is 
in  the  fourth  segment  from  the  head.  The  young 
•on  hatching  differ  from  those  of  centipedes  (Chi- 
lopoda)  in  having  but  three  pairs  of  legs,  but  un- 
like tho.se  of  insects,  either  the  third  or  the  sec- 
ond trunk-segment  in  diplopods  is  footless.  See 
Centipede  :  J1yri.\poda. 

MER'OSTOM'ATA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  fi^pos,  iiiiros.  ])art  -f-  ffxi/ia,  stoma,  mouth). 
A  class  of  Arthropoda,  standing  next  above  the 
Trilobites  and  immediately  below  the  Arachnida, 
these  three  classes  forming  a  series  by  them- 
selves and  distinct  from  the  Crustacea.  They  are 
repre.sented  by  tlie  king-crab  (q.v. ),  or  Limulus, 
the  sole  surviving  member  of  the  class.  The 
merostomes  are  subdivided  into  three  orders : 
the  Euryptcrida,  represented  by  Eurvpterus;  the 
Kynziphosura,  of  which  three  Paleozoic  families 
are  the  types;  and,  third,  the  Xiphosura,  type 
Limuhis.  Tlie  class  chiefly  dift"ers  from  Trilo- 
bites in  having  appendages  of  two  types,  those 
of  the  head  being  single,  those  of  tlie  abdomen 
being  hiramous;  in  being  provided  with  book- 
gills,  attached  to  the  broad  abdominal  legs,  which 
are  fused  together  at  the  base,  the  head  appen- 
dages often  ending  in  a  forceps,  while  they  dif- 
fer from  the  Arachnida  in  breathing  by  gills, 
all  the  forms  being  marine,  in  the  nature  of  the 
appendages,  the  brain,  the  nervous  cord  envel- 
oped by  arteries,  and  by  the  reproductive  organs. 
The  earliest  forms  are  the  Eurypterida.  The 
typical  genus  Eurvpterus,  unlike  the  king- 
crab,  probably  actively  swarm  nearer  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea.  The  species  are  found  fossil 
m  rocks  of  Cambrian  to  Permian  age.  The  form 
of  the  body  is  somewhat  like  that  of  a  scorpion, 
though  flatter  and  of  larger  size.  A  quadrate 
Vol.  xiu.— 23. 


ErnypTEKUs  fischebi. 


headpiece  or  cephalothorax  w'ilh  rounded  front 
corners  bears  two  large  reniforin  compound  eyes, 
between  which  are  two  small  eye  spots  or  ocelli. 
The  abdominal  portion  consists  of  twelve  seg- 
ments tliat  taper  posteriorly  and  are  terminated 
by  a  strong,  sharp  spine  or  telson.  The  structure 
of  the  ventral  surface  of  tlie  body  is  quite  similar 
to  that  of  the  horse-slioe  crab. 

The  eurypterids  appeared  first  in  the  Potosi 
Cambrian  limestones  of  Jlissouri.  At  the  end 
of  the  Silurian  period  geographic  conditions 
seem  to  have  favored  their  development,  for  they 
expanded  rapidly  and  became  the  dominant  types 
of  the  fauna  of  the  inclosed  basins  in  which 
were  deposited  the  shallow  water  passage  beds 
between  the  Silurian 
and  Devonian  forma- 
tions. They  appear  in 
great  numbers  in  the 
water  limestones  or 
cement  rocks  of  New 
York  State,  and  in 
beds  of  equivalent  age 
and  similar  character 
in  Great  Britain  and 
the  Baltic  Provinces; 
also  in  the  coal  meas- 
ures of  Carboniferous 
age  in  Pennsylvania, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  in 
Europe,  where  they 
are  associated  with 
the  fossil  remains  of 
a  swamp  fauna  and 
flora.  The  last  member 
of  the  genus  is  known  from  Permian  fresh-water 
beds- of  Portugal.  The  genus  seems  to  have  been 
first  a  marine  shallow-water  organism  and  to 
have  changed  its  habitat  through  brackish  and 
possibly  to  fresh  water  in  succeeding  geological 
periods.  Several  allied  genera  are  found  asso- 
ciated with  the  remains  of  Eurypterus;  of  these 
Pterygotus,  Slimonia,  and  Stylonurus  are  the 
most   important.     See  the   articles   Kinq-Crab; 

XiPIlO.SURA. 

Bibliography.  Zittell,  Text-Book  of  Palcon- 
tolof/!/,  trans,  by  Eastman  (New  York,  1900); 
Woodward,  J7oHO(/r«;>ft  of  the  British  Fossil  Crus- 
tacea of  the  Order  Merostomata  ( Pala-ontological 
Society,  London,  1806-78)  ;  Packard,  "On  the 
Carboniferous  Xiphosurous  Fauna  of  North 
America,"  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  vol.  iii.  (Washington,  1886); 
with  the  writings  of  De  Kay,  Hall,  Huxley,  Salt- 
er,   Peach,   and   Laurie. 

MER'OVIN'GIANS.  The  fir.st  djaiasty  of 
the  Prankish  Kings  in  Gaul.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  MeroviEus,  the  reputed  grandfather  of 
the  great  Prankish  King  Clovis  (q.v.),  who  in 
486  put  an  end  to  the  Roman  doniininn  in  Gaul. 
Clovis  on  his  death  divided  his  kingdom  among , 
his  four  sons,  one  of  whom,  Clotaire  I.,  reunited 
them  under  his  own  sway,  in  5.58.  On  his  death, 
in  561,  the  Kingdom  was  again  divided  into  four 
parts — Aquitaine.  Burgundy.  Neustria,  and  Aus- 
trasia.  His  grandson,  Clotaire  TI.,  again  reunited 
them  in  613.  Later  there  were  again  three  States, 
Neustria,  Austrasia,  and  Burgundy,  which  were 
united  in  687.  The  power  of  the  Jlerovingian 
kings  was  finally  reduced  to  a  shadow,  the  real 
power  having  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  major 
donius  (q.v.).  The  dynasty  of  the  Merovingians 
terminated  with  the  deposition  of  Childeric  III. 


MEROVINGIANS. 


348 


MERRILL. 


by  Pepin  the  Short  (q.v.)  in  752,  and  gave  place 
to  tliat  of  the  Caiolinf;ians(q.v. ) .  (See  Fbanks.) 
The  cliief  autlKirity  for  the  earlier  parts  of  the 
history  of  the  Jlerovingians  is  (Jrej^ory  of  Tours. 
Consult:  Thierry,  Hccits  des  temps  merovingiens 
(Paris,  1840)  ;  Kiohter,  Aitnalen  des  friinUischen 
keichs  (Halle,  1873)  ;  Sergeant,  The  Franks 
(New  York.  1898). 

MER'RIAM,  AuGlSTis  Chapmax  (1843-95). 
All  iniinent  classical  .scholar,  born  at  Locust 
tJrove,  N.  Y.  In  lSfl(!  lie  grailiialed  with  the 
highest  honors  from  Columbia  College,  and  from 
IStiS  until  his  death  lie  was  coniiecled  with  his 
alma  mater  as  tutor,  adjunct  professor  of  Cireek, 
and  professor  of  Greek  arclueology  and  epig- 
raphy. He  was  director  of  the  American  School 
of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens,  1887-88,  during 
which  year  important  excavations  were  carried 
on.  He  died  .January  19.  1895.  while  on  a  visit 
to  Athens,  and  was  buried  there.  His  chief  pub- 
lications are:  The  I'hwacicnis  of  Homer  (New 
Y'ork,  1880)  ;  The  drcck  and  Latin  Inscriptions 
on  the  Obelisk  Crab  in  Central  Park  (1883); 
Tlie  Sixth  and  Screnth  Hooks  of  Herodotus  (New 
Y'ork.  1885)  :  The  Law  Code  of  Gortyna  in  Crete 
(New  York,    18S6). 

MERRIAM,  Clinton  Hart  (1855—).  An 
American  biologist,  born  in  New  York  City  and 
educated  at  the  Shetlield  Scientific  School  of 
Y'ale  (1877)  and  the  New  Y'ork  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons.  He  served  as  naturalist  to 
the  Hayden  Survey  in  1872;  was  appointed  as- 
sistant of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission 
in  1875.  and  head  of  the  Biological  Survey  in 
1885;  and  acted  as  one  of  the  Hering  Sea  Com- 
missioners in  1S91  and  as  head  of  various  expedi- 
tions. He  developed  the  Biological  Survey  as 
a  bureau  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  edited  a  long  and  important 
series  of  publications  relating  to  the  fauna  of 
North  America,  in  the  classification  of  which  he 
became  a  leading  authority.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  are:  The  Birds  of  Connecticut 
(1877);  Mammals  of  the  Adirondacks  (1882- 
84)  ;  Biological  Reconnaissance  of  Idaho  (1891)  ; 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Life  in  Xortli  Antei'ica 
(1892);  Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  Death  Valley 
Expedition  (1893)  ;  Temperature  Control  of  Dis- 
tribution of  Animals  and  Plants  (1894);  and 
many  pamphlets  relating  to  American  zoology. 

MERRIAM.   Florence.     See   Bailey,   Flor- 

EN(  K    .MkHIMAM. 

MERRIAM,  Henry  Clay  (1837—).  An 
American  sohlier.  born  in  I^laine.  He  graduated 
at  Colby  College  (  Waterville.  Maine) ,  studied  law, 
entered  the  United  States  .\rmy  in  18(12  as  cap- 
tain in  the  Twentieth  .Maine  Volunteer  Infantry, 
resigned  in  18(13.  and  in  llio  same  year  was  ap- 
pointed captain  in  the  Eightieth  I'nited  States 
colored  troops.  He  served  until  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  from  18(13  with  colored  troops,  was 
brevefted  colonel  of  viiliintccrs  for  faithful  and 
meritorious  services  during  the  caiiipaign  against 
Mobile  and  its  defenses,  and  in  Hi;5  led  the  final 
attack  on  Fort  RIakely.  .Ma.,  with  the  Seventy- 
third  United  States  colored  infantry.  In  18(1(1  he 
became  major  in  the  Thirty-eight li  United  States 
Infantry,  in  1885  colonel  of  the  Seventh  Infantrv. 
and  in  1897  brigadier-general.  An  commander 
of  the  departments  of  Columbia  and  Califnrnia 
in  1898  he  organized  and  forwarded  troops  for 
the    Philippines    expedition.      He    became    com- 


mander of  the  Department  of  Colorado  in  1900, 
;ind  was  retired  in  1901.  The  Merriani  infantry 
pack  was  invented  by  him. 

MER'RILL.  A  city  and  the  county-scat  of 
Lincoln  County,  Wis.,  170  miles  nortliwest  of 
Milwaukee;  on  botli  sides  of  the  Wisconsin 
River,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Alilwaukee  and  Saint 
Paul  Kailroad  (ilap:  Wisconsin,  D  3).  It  i* 
laid  out  with  broad  and  well-paved  streets,  and 
has  the  T.  B,  Scott  Public  Library  occupying  a 
line  building,  a  commodious  opera  house,  a  large 
and  well  equipped  high  school,  and  a  handsome 
court  house.  The  surrounding  country  possesses 
valuable  hardwood  timber,  and  there  are  in 
Merrill  very  imiiortant  lumber  manufactories, 
producing  sawed  lumber,  sliingles.  laths,  etc. 
Settled  in  1875.  Merrill  was  incorporated  five 
years  later.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  biennially  elected,  and  a  unicameral 
council.    Pn]iulation,  in  1890,  GS09;  in  1900,85.37. 

MERRILL,  Frederick  James  Hamilton 
(1861 — ),  An  American  geologist,  born  in  New 
Y'ork  City.  He  graduated  at  tlie  Columbia  School  ', 
of  Mines  in  1885.  received  his  Ph.D.  tliere  five 
years  afterwards,  held  a  fellowship  in  geology  at  ' 
Columbia  College  (lS8ti-90),  and  was  assistant 
in  tlie  New  .Jersey  (ieological  Surve,v  (1885-891. 
From  1890  to  1893  he  was  assistant  geologist  for 
Ne«-  York  State.  He  was  director  of  the  New 
York  State  Museum  in  1894.  and  he  was  in  charge 
of  the  New  York  exhibit  at  the  Columbian  Ex- 
position in  Chicago  in  1893.  He  was  a  member 
of  numerous  scientific  societies,  to  wliose  bul- 
letins and  to  other  periodicals  he  iimlributed 
s])ecial  articles,  and  in  1S9S  he  was  madi'  State 
(ieologist  for  New  York.  To  the  liullctiii  of  the 
New  Yiu-k  State  Museum  he  contributed  ,SV(//  and 
(liipsuin  Industries  in  Xew  York  (  1S93)  :  Mineral 
Rcsi.urrrs  of  Sew  York  (1890)  ;  Road  Materials 
and  l!<„i,l  lluilding  in  Sew   York    (1897). 

MERRILL,  Georoe  Perkins  (1854—).  An 
American  geologist,  horn  at  Auburn,  Me.  After 
graduating  at  the  Maine  State  College  ( 1879) 
ho  was  assistant  in  chemistrv  a*  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, Conn.  (1879-80).  I'n  1880  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  curator  at  the  National  Mu- 
seum. Ho  also  served  as  professor  of  geologj-  and 
niincralogv  at  the  Corcoran  Scientific  School  of 
Columbian  University,  Wasliington,  D.  (',(1893)  ; 
anil  was  appointed  head  curator  of  the  depart- 
ment of  geologj-  at  the  National  Museum,  Wash- 
ington, in  1897.  His  chief  publications  are: 
Stones  for  Building  and  Decorations,  llundbooka 
for  the  Department  of  (Icologij,  United  Stnlet 
yational  Museuyn,  and  a  Report  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution    (1890). 

MERRILL,  Lewis  (1S34-9(>).  An  American 
soldier,  boni  at  New  Berlin.  Pa.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1855,  was  assigned  to  duty  with 
the  First  Dragoons,  and  served  in  Missouri,  in 
Kansas  Territory,  and  with  the  Utah  expedition. 
In  1801,  as  colonel  and  chief  of  stall'  to  .Tolui  <". 
Fieliiont.  he  organized  Merrill's  Horse  to  oppose 
L'uerrillas  in  Missouri,  and  later  commanded  the 
Department  of  Saint  Louis,  and  then  that  of 
Northern  Missouri.  In  1804  he  was  commander 
of  the  cavalry  bureau  at  Saint  Louis  and  took 
part  in  the  engagements  at  Franklin.  ]VIo.  The 
next  year  he  was  sent  against  guerrillas  in  north- 
ern Georgia  and  .\labama.  and  was  brevetted 
brigadier  general,  .\fter  various  Western  assign- 
ments be  was  placed  in  command  of  a   military 


MERRILL. 


349 


MERRITT. 


district  in  South  tainlina  witli  orders  to  break 
up  the  Ku  Khix  Klan  I  ([.v. ) .  From  1S71  to  1S73 
he  suceeeded  in  tliis  so  well  that  wlien  similar 
conditions  arose  in  the  Red  River  District  of 
Louisiana  he  was  made  commander  there  in 
IS'."),  remaining  until  the  following  year. 

MERRILL,  Selaii  (1837 — ).  An  American 
Congregalionalist  clergyman,  born  in  Canton  Cen- 
tre. Conn.  After  studying  theology  at  the  Yale 
Divinity  School  he  was  ordained  in  1804.  During 
the  last  year  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  chaplain 
of  the  Forty-ninth  United  States  colored  infantry, 
and  in  18US  went  to  Germany,  where  he  studied 
two  years.  In  1874-77  he  was  in  Palestine  as 
arcliii'ologist  of  the  American  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Society,  and  in  1882  became  United  States 
consul  at  .Jerusalem.  Wliile  there  he  made  im- 
portant explorations  and  excavations  to  discover 
the  second  wall  of  Jerusalem  and  determine  the 
site  of  Calvary.  He  was  again  consul  in  1891-94, 
and  was  reappointed  in  1898.  He  taught  at  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminar}-  in  1872  and  1879, 
and  became  curator  of  the  Biblical  Museum  there. 
His  works  include:  East  of  flic  .lonhm  { 1881  and 
1883 1;  GaVilee  in  the  Time  of  Christ  (1881); 
Oreck  Inscriptions  Collected  in  the  Years  1875-77 
in  the  Country  East  of  the  Jordan  (1883)  ;  and 
parts  of  I'irturesque  Palestine    (1882-83). 

MERRILL,  Stephen  Mason  (1825—).  A 
Methodist  Episcopal  bishop,  born  in  .JefTerson 
County,  Ohio.  He  entered  the  ministry  in  Ohio 
in  184().  was  editor  of  the  Western  Christian 
Adroeate  (1808-72),  and  in  1872  was  elected 
bishop.  He  retired  in  1904.  His  chief  works. 
are:  Christian  Baptism  (1876);  Bell  (1878); 
Second  Coming  of  Christ  (1879);  Aspects  of 
Christian  Experience  (1882);  Methodist  Laiv 
( 18S.i  et  sec|. )  ;  Mary  of  Nas:areth  and  Her  Family 
( lS!)."i  I  ;  Atonement  ( 1901 )  ;  Sanetifieation  ( 1901 ) . 

MERRILL,  William  Emery  (1837-91).  An 
American  soldier  and  military  engineer.  He 
was  horn  at  Fort  Howard,  Wis.;  graduated  first 
in  his  class  at  West  Point  in  18.59,  and  from 
September,  1860,  to  .July,  1861,  was  assistant 
professor  of  engineering  there.  In  the  Civil  War 
he  served  as  assistant  engineer  in  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  during  the  Peninsular  campaign  and 
in  the  Northern  Virginia  campaign;  was  superin- 
tending engineer  at  Newport  and  Covington,  Ky., 
at  the  time  of  the  threatened  Confederate  attack 
in  September  and  October.  1862;  was  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  forces  in  Kentucky  from  October, 
I8G2.  to  May.  1863,  and  of  the  Army  of  the 
Cuinlierland  from  August  to  September,  1863, 
and  again  from  .January  to  June,  1805;  partici- 
pated in  the  invasion  of  Cieorgia  from  jlay  to 
June.  1S04;  and  from  July.  1864,  to  September, 
1805,  commanded,  as  colonel,  a  regiment  of  'vet- 
eran volunteer'  engineers  which  was  charged  with 
the  erection  of  defenses  along  the  military  rail- 
roads in  Tennessee,  Cieorgia,  and  northern  Ala- 
bama, and  at  Chattanooga,  Tenn.  During  the 
war  he  received  the  successive  brevets  of  captain, 
major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel  for  gal- 
lant services.  In  Marcli.  1867.  he  was  raised  to 
the  regular  rank  of  major  and  in  February,  1883, 
to  that  of  lieutenant-colonel.  From  1867  to  1870 
he  was  chief  engineer  on  the  stall'  of  (ieneral 
Sherman,  then  commanding  the  ^Military  Division 
of  the  Missouri,  and  thereafter  until  his  deatli  he 
was  engaged  on  engineering  work  for  the  Gov- 
ormnent.      In    1889    he    represented    the    United 


States  Engineer  Corps  at  the  International 
Congress  of  Engineers  at  Paris.  He  iiublished: 
Iron  Truss  Bridges  for  Railroads  (1870)  and 
Improvement  of  Non-Tidal  Rivers    (1881). 

MER'RIMAC.  A  river  of  New  Hampshire 
and  .Massachusetts.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  Winnipiseogee  and  Pemigewasset,  the  former 
being  the  outlet  of  the  lake  of  that  name,  and 
the  latter  rising  in  the  White  Mountains  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  E  2).  It  Hows  southward  until 
it  enters  Massachusetts,  when  it  turns  eastward 
and  empties  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  Newbury- 
port.  Its  length,  including  the  Pemigewasset,  is 
183  miles,  and  its  chief  importance  is  the  water- 
power  which  it  furnishes  to  the  manufacturing 
cities   of   Lowell,   Lawrence,   and   Manchester. 

MERRIMAC,  The.  (1)  A  United  States 
frigate,  sunk  with  other  vessels  when  the  Federal 
Government  abandoned  the  Norfolk  Na\'j'  Yard 
in  1861,  and  reconstructed  as  a  Confederate  iron- 
clad. She  was  then  renamed  the  ^ir;/inia.  After 
destroying  the  Congress  and  the  Cumberland  at 
Newport  News  on  March  8,  1862,  she  met  the 
Monitor  in  Hampton  Roads  on  March  9,  and  after 
a  contest  of  four  hours  was  obliged  to  withdraw. 
She  was  destroyed  when  the  Norfolk  yard  was 
evacuated  by  the  Confederates  on  May  II,  1802. 
See  Hampton  Road.s  and  Monitor. 

(2)  A  collier  accompanj'ing  the  United  States 
fleet  investing  Santiago  de  Cuba,  in  1898.  To 
prevent  ^he  escape  of  the  Spanish  fleet  she  was 
sunk  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  on  June  3  by 
Lieutenant  Richmond  P.  Hobson,  who,  after  ac- 
complishing his  perilous  feat,  was  captured  by 
the  Spaniards  and  held  prisoner  until  July  6. 

MER'RIMAN,  Henry  Seton.  The  pseudo- 
nym of  the  English  novelist  Hugh  S.  Scott  (q.v. ) . 

MERRIMAN,  Mansfield  (184,8—).  An 
American  civil  engineer,  born  at  Southington. 
Conn.  He  graduated  at  the  Shellield  Scientific 
School  of  Y'ale  University  in  1871.  was  assistant 
in  the  United  States  Corps  of  Engineers  in  1872- 
73,  and  instructor  in  civil  engineering  at  the 
Sheffield  School  from  1875  to  1878.  In  1878  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  civil  engineering  in 
Lehigh  University.  From  1880  to  1885  he  was 
also  assistant  on  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey.  His  researches  in  connection 
with  hydraulics,  bridges,  strength  of  materials, 
and  pure  mathematics  are  important.  His  chief 
publications,  widely  used  as  standard  text-books, 
are:  Method  of  Least  Sguares  (1884;  8th  ed. 
1901);  Mechanics  of  Materials  (1885;  9th  ed. 
1902);   Treatise  on  Hydraulics   (8th  ed.  1903). 

MER'RITT,  We.sley  (1830 — ).  An  American 
soldier,  jirominent  in  the  Civil  War  and  the 
Spanish-American  War.  He  was  born  in  New 
Y'ork  City,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  I860, 
was  assigned  as  second  lieutenant  of  the  Second 
Dragoons  in  .January,  1801,  acted  as  aide-de- 
camp  to  General  Cooke  from  February  to  Sep- 
tember, 1862.  and  in  April,  1862,  was  i)romoted 
to  be  captain.  He  participated  in  Stoneuurn's 
famous  raid  toward  Richmond  in  April-May, 
1863;  commanded  the  reserve  cavalry  brigade 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg  and  in  the  Richmond  campaign  from 
April  to  August.  1864;  and  commanded  a  cavalry 
division  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  cami)aign 
under  Sheridan  from  August.  1864.  to  March. 
1805,   and    in   the    final    Richmond    campaign   of 


MERRITT. 


350 


MERSEBURG. 


March-April,  18C5.  For  liis  services  he  received 
the  successive  brevets  of  major,  lieutenant - 
colonel,  colonel,  major-general  of  volunteers,  and 
brigadier-general  and  major-general  in  the  Reg- 
ular Army;  and  on  A])ril  1,  18G5,  was  promoted 
to  be  major-general  of  volunteers.  He  acted  as 
chief  of  cavalry  of  the  military  division  of  the 
Southwest  from  June  9  to  duly  17,  1805,  and 
conunaiuled  the  cavalry  in  the  Department  of 
Texas  from  July  28  to  November  8,  1805.  In' 
February,  18G0,  he  was  mustered  out  of  the 
volunteer  service,  and  in  July  was  appointed 
lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Regular  Army.  He  then 
served  on  frontier  duty  at  various  stations  for 
several  years,  was  promoted  to  be  colonel  of  the 
Fifth  Cavalry,  July  1,  1870,  and  in  the  same 
year  served  against  the  Indians  in  Wyoming  and 
Dakota.  From  1882  to  1887  he  was  superintend- 
ent of  the  United  States  JliliUiry  Acidemy,  and 
in  April,  1887,  he  was  promoted  to  lie  brigadier- 
general.  He  became  a  m.ajor-gcneral  in  April, 
1895;  was  in  command  of  t)ie  Department  of  the 
East  in  1897-98;  was  jjlaccd  in  command  of  the 
United  States  forces  in  tlie  Philippine  Islands 
(q.v.)  in  May,  1898:  and  later  in  the  same  year 
wa.s  sunnnoiied  to  Paris  to  assist  the  American 
Peace  Commissioners  there.  In  June,  1900,  he 
was  retired  from  active  service. 

MER'RY.  Robert  (1755-98).  An  English 
poet,  born  in  London.  He  studied  at  Christ 
College,  Cambridge,  and  began  the  study  of  law, 
hut  was  never  called  to  the  bar.  In  '(1775  he 
purchased  a  commission  in  the  Horse  Guards, 
but  soon  afterwards  sold  it.  After  leaving  the 
service,  Jlerry  traveled  extensively  throughout 
Europe,  an<l  in  Florence  was  made  a  member 
of  the  so-called  Delia  Cruscan  Circle.  He  wrote 
much  for  the  Florence  MisrrUani).  and  after  his 
return  to  Kngland  published  reams  of  affected 
and  grandiloquent  verse  over  the  signature  Delhi 
Crusca.  His  ambition  was  to  form  a  new  school, 
and  his  style  is  similar  to  that  of  Mrs.  Piozzi 
and  Bertie  Greatheed,  He  also  wrote  a  number 
of  incoherent  dramas,  including:  Lorenzo 
(1791)  ;  The  Magician  A'o  Conjurer  (1792)  ;  and 
The  Ahheti  of  St.  Auffuatine  (1797).  From  1790 
he  resided  in  the  United  States, 

MERRY,  William  Walter  (18.35—).  Rec- 
tor of  l.iiKoln  College,  Oxford,  He  was  born 
in  \A'orceslershire:  eclucatcd  at  Cheltenham  Col- 
lege and  lialliol  College.  Oxford,  where  he  gained 
the  Chancellor's  prize  for  a  Latin  essay  in  1858. 
He  was  elected  fellow  and  tutor  of  Lincoln 
College  in  1859,  an<l  Vector  in  1884;  was  pre- 
sented to  the  V'icarage  of  .Ml  Saints,  Oxford,  in 
1801  ;  was  appointed  one  of  the  select  preachers 
to  the  university  in  1878-79,  and  again  in  1889; 
was  elected  public  orator  in  the  university  in 
1880:  and  in  lS8.'?-84  was,  by  apimintment  of 
the  Hishop  of  London,  one  of  the  preachers  in 
the  Chapel  l!oy;il,  Whitehall,  He  has  been  promi- 
nent in  teaching  and  ixnminiiig  in  the  univer- 
sity, and  has  fre(|uently  l)een  classical  moderator. 
He  has  been  for  many  years  engaged  in  the 
pre])aration  of  e<litions  of  the  classical  authors 
to  be  published  by  the  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford, 
Of  these  have  so  far  appeared:  Homer's  Odi/ssei/ 
(books  i.  to  xii.,  second  edition,  1880;  books  xiii. 
to  xxiv.,  15th  thousand,  1901);  and  a  series  of 
the  plays  of  Aristophanes,  begun  in  1879,  An- 
other work  in  classical  literature  is  on  The 
Greek  Diah-ets    (1875). 


MERRY  DEVIL  OF  EDMONTON,  The. 
An  anonymous  comedj-  acted  in  1007  and  printed 
in  1008.  It  has  been  attril)Uted  on  slight  evi- 
dence to  Drayton  by  Coxeter,  ;ind  also  ascribed 
to  Shakespeare.  Fleay  tliinks  the  play,  originally 
called  .Sir  John.  Uldcaxtlc,  was  wrilt*-n  by  Dray- 
ton for  the  Chamberlain's  Men  before  1597,  and 
that  the  prose  story  of  the  sanu?  title  by  T,  B,, 
1008,  is  not  to  l)e  identified  with  the  play.  It 
was  very  popular;  Jonson  remarks  that  it  was 
the  "dear  delight  of  the  public."  Allusions  to 
it  are  found  in  Grim,  the  Collier  of  Croyden, 
:ind  probably  in  Merry  Wires  of  Windsor  as  well. 
The  hero,  Fabel,  whose  tomb  was  at  Edmonton, 
was  said  to  have  sold  liis  soul  to  the  devil,  but 
his  wit  proved  too  much  for  the  purchaser. 

MERRY  ENGLAND.  An  old  popular  name 
of   England,   in   which   the   word  merry  has  its 

early  iiU'aiiiMg  of  'pleasant.' 

MERRY  MONARCH,  The.  A  nickname  of 
King  Charles   11.   uf   England. 

MERRY  MOUNT,  The  name  of  a  settlement 
made  by  Thomas  Morton  within  the  limits  of 
the  present  (Juincy,  ilass.  See  .MoUTO.x,  TliOMAS. 

MERRY  ■WIVES  OF  -WINDSOR.  The,  A 
comtnly  by  Shakespeare,  produci'd  ]uobably  in 
1597,  printed  complete  in  l(i2:!.  An  imperfect 
copy,  entitled  .S'ir  Jolin  Falxtaff  and  the  Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor,  was  printed  by  Thomas  Creede 
in  1002,  bearing  evident  marks  of  haste.  The 
play  was  made  for  a  Court  performance,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  written  at  Qiieen  Elizabeth's 
command,  to  show  FalstafT  in  love.  Some  in- 
cidents of  the  plot  are  taken  from  two  tales  in 
Straparola's  Xotli  Piaeeroli ;  from  Tarleton's 
The  Lovers  of  Pisa  in  his  Xeires  Out  of  I'ur- 
<iatorie :  from  Brainford's  "Fishwife's  Tale"  in 
Westu-ard  for  Smells.  The  buck-basket  found 
in  the  tale  of  Buciolo  in  Fiorentino's  Pecorone 
is  in  the  comedy  the  basket  of  soiled  linen  in 
which  FalstatV  hides.  It  is  notably  a  play  of 
middle-class  [N'ople,  and,  like  Mueh  Ado  .ibout 
Sothiny,  is  mostly  prose,  A  version  called  The 
Comieal  (lallant  was  made  in  1702  by  John 
Dennis,  who  is  one  authority  for  Elizabeth's 
connection  with  the  plav.  Another  is  Rowe  in 
1709. 

MERSCHEID,  mer'shit.  A  town  of  Germany. 
See  I  iHI.lcs. 

MERSEBURG,  m5r'ze-boorK,  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  situated  on  the 
Saale,  aliout  20  miles  west-northwest  of  Leip- 
zig (Map:  Prussia,  D  .S).  It  is  ancient  in  ap- 
pearance. It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  begun  in 
the  eleventh  and  finished  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. The  Gothic  castle,  the  former  residence  of 
the  bishops,  is  now  used  as  an  administration 
building.  Other  interesting  buildings  arc  the 
Rathaus,  the  new  assembly  house,  and  the  chap- 
ter house.  The  gymnasium,  fouiuled  in  1575.  is 
the  chief  e(luc:itii)nal  institution.  .Mcrsclmrg 
juanufactures  machinery,  leather,  iron  juiiilucts, 
toys,  textiles,  etc.  It  is  considered  one  of  the 
oldest  towns  of  Germany.  .\s  early  as  the  ninth 
century  it  was  the  residence  of  the  coiuits  of 
Merseburg.  During  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and 
twelfth  centuries  it  was  the  favorite  residence 
of  the  German  emperors  and  the  seat  of  many 
diets.  ^Merseburg  was  the  seat  of  an  important 
bishopric  in  the  .Middle  .\ges.  With  tlie  intro- 
duction of  Protestantism  the  sec  passed  to  Sax- 


MERSEBURG. 


351 


MERTON  COLLEGE. 


onv.  Its  fairs  were  also  of  groat  importance. 
Near  Merseburg  the  Ciermau  King,  llcnry  the 
yowler,  won  a  great  vietorv  over  tlie  Hungarians 
in  !>33.  Popuhition.  in  1890,  17,609;  in  1900, 
19.119.  chielly  Protestants. 

MERSENNE,  mar'sen',  M.\rin  (15881048). 
A  Kreiifh  tlieologiau  and  seliolar,  born  at  La 
h>ouItiere  (Maine).  He  studied  at  the  College 
of  La  Kl&ohe,  wliere  he  had  as  a  fellow  pupil 
Rene  Descartes,  with  whom  he  always  main- 
taineil  a  close  fricndsliip.  In  1011  he  became 
a  Minim  Friar.  Afterwards  he  taught  philos- 
ophy at  Xevers  from  1014  to  1020,  and  sub- 
sequently lived  principally  in  Paris.  He  was 
the  Parisian  representative  of  his  friend  Des- 
cartes while  the  latter  was  in  Holland.  After- 
wards liis  studies  grew  more  scientific,  and  he 
published  a  number  of  treatises  on  astronomy 
and  mathematics.  He  also  wrote  flaniionie  iini- 
rersclle,  conteiuint  la  ihcorie  et  la  pratique  de 
la  musiijue  (1630),  and  a  Latin  epitome  of 
it,  naniioiiiconiiii  Libri  XII.  (1030).  From 
these  we  learn  much  of  the  condition  of  music 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  his  own  dis- 
coveries in  the  phenomena  of  vibration. 

MER'SEY.  A  river  of  England,  separating 
the  coimties  of  Chester  and  Lancaster  (Map: 
England,  D  3).  It  enters  the  Irish  Sea  by  a 
wide  estuary  forming  the  Liverpool  Channel. 
This  channel  is  deep  and  navigable  for  several 
miles  above  Liverpool.  By  means  of  a  ship  canal, 
which  follows  for  some  distance  the  course  of 
the  river,  navigation  can  be  continued  to  Man- 
chester and  lieyond.    See  Liverpool. 

MERSINA,  mer'sJ-na'.  A  seaport  town  in 
the  Vilayet  of  Adana,  Asia  Minor,  situate  1  on 
the  southern  coast,  ill^  miles  by  rail  west-south- 
west of  Adana  (Jlap:  Turkey  in  Asia,  F  4). 
It  is  well  built  and  surrounded  by  fine  gardens. 
The  harbor,  an  open  roadstead,  is  not  very  deep, 
and  steamers  usually  anchor  a  long  distance 
from  the  town.  Its  commerce  amounted  to  over 
$5,000,000  in  1900.  The  United  States  is  rep- 
resented by  a  consular  agent.  Mersina  is  of 
recent  oriain :  its  population  is  estimated  at  over 
12.000,  about  one-half  Christian. 

MERSON,  mar'soN',  Lrc  Oli\ier  (1840—). 
A  French  painter,  bom  in  Paris.  He  studied 
vmder  Chassevcnt  and  Pils,  and  was  awarded  the 
Prix  de  Rome  in  1869.  He  obtained  a  first-class 
medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  ISSO.  His 
works  are  on  historical  and  religious  subjects, 
painted  with  peculiar  charm,  and  his  drawings 
have  the  same  delicate,  almost  tender,  quality. 
Notable  pictures  are  the  two  episodes  from  the 
life  of  Saint  Louis,  for  the  Palais  de  Justice  in 
Paris.  "Saint  Isidore,"  and  the  "Repose  in 
Eg>-pt" 

MERTHYR  TYDFIL,  mer'ther  tid'vil.  A 
manufacturing  towii  in  Glamorganshire.  South 
Wales,  surrounded  by  lofty  hills  and  built  on 
the  river  TaflT,  about  .500  feet  above  sea-level.  24 
miles  from  Cardiff  CMap:  England.  C  .5).  Mer- 
thyr  Tydfil  is  the  seat  of  the  iron  trade  of  South 
Wales,  and  contains  large  collieries,  celebrated 
for  the  excellence  of  steam  coal,  the  exports 
of  which  are  considerable.  The  town  has  greatly 
improved  since  1850;  it  owns  handsome  public 
buildings,  a  good  water  supply,  and  two  profit- 
able sewage  farms,  and  maintains  two  infectious 
i1isea.se  hospitals.  Population,  in  1801,  7700;  in 
1891,  59,000;  in  1901,  69,200. 


MERTON,  mCr'ton,  Walter  de  (?-1277).  An 
English  prelate,  founder  of  ilerton  College,  Ox- 
ford. He  was  educated  in  the  priory  at  Merton, 
Surrey,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 
Henrj'  III.  raised  him  in  1261  to  the  lord  chan- 
cellorship, from  which  otfice  he  was  depo.sed  in 
1263  by  the  barons  under  Simon  de  Montfort. 
He  returned  to  that  oHice  in  1272,  but  in  1274 
resigned  to  accept  an  ap])ointment  to  the  See 
of  Rochester.  He  founded  at  Basingstoke  a  hos- 
pital for  superannuated  clergymen  and  travelers 
in  distress;  but  is  best  known  as  the  founder  of 
Merton  College,  Oxford,  which  was  completed  in 
1274.  This  was  originally  designed,  it  would 
appear,  to  be  for  the  education  of  the  secular 
clergy,  and  offered  courses  in  philosophy,  the 
liberal  arts,  and  theology — in  arte,  diahctica,  et 
theologia,  as  the  Rochester  chronicles  express  it. 
It  became  the  model  of  subsequent  foundations 
at  both  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  was  thus 
the  basis  of  the  collegiate  system  peculiar  to 
these  two  English  universities. 

MERTON  COLLEGE.  The  oldest  college  of 
its  type  in  Oxford,  and  the  model  of  all 
later  secular  colleges,  in  both  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. It  was  first  founded  as  the  House  of 
the  Scholars  of  Merton,  in  1263  or  1264,  by 
Walter  de  Merton  (q.v. ).  The  original  endow- 
ment consisted  of  his  manor  house  and  estate 
at  Maiden,  Surrey,  the  income  from  whicli  was 
to  go  to  the  support  of  scholars  in  Oxford,  the 
estate  being  managed  by  a  resident  warden  and 
lirethren.'  By  various  changes  between  1264 
and  1274,  the  scholars  were  moved  from  a  rented 
house  to  their  own  property,  Merton  Hall,  ac- 
quired for  them  by  the  founder,  and  were  put 
in  charge  first  of  a  sub-warden,  then  of  the  war- 
den himself,  who  had  come  up  from  Surrey.  The 
nuniljer  of  scholars,  who  had  been  originally  con- 
fined to  the  members  of  the  founder's  family,  was 
increased,  and  the  collegiate  idea  of  the  founda- 
tion w-as  crystallized  in  the  statutes  of  1274. 
The  addition  of  a  system  of  ecclesiastical  patron- 
age, the  arrangement  of  the  buildings,  and  the 
plan,  size,  and  beauty  of  the  chapel,  in  addition 
to  the  scheme  of  the  statutes,  had  great  influence 
on  later  foundations.  The  college  has  suffered 
various  changes  since  its  establishment,  the  last 
of  which  was  its  absorption  of  Saint  Alban  Hall 
in  1882.  There  were,  in  1902,  a  warden,  twenty 
fellows,  several  honorary  fellows,  eighteen 
scholars,  called  post-masters,  ten  exhibitioners, 
four  lecturers,  two  chaplains,  college  officers,  and, 
in  all,  some  one  hundred  and  fifty  undergrad- 
uates. The  buildings  are  among  the  most  inter- 
esting in  Oxford,  comprising,  a.s  they  do.  a  con- 
siderable part  dating  from  the  thirteenth  ccnturv. 
Here  Henrietta  Maria  occupied  the  warden's 
apartments,  while  Charles  I.'s  Court  was  held  at 
Oxford.  Again,  in  1065,  the  year  of  the  plague, 
Charles  II.  moved  his  Court  hither,  and  hi8 
Queen  occupied  the  lodgings  formerly  used  by 
Henrietta  Maria.  The  chapel,  though  not  com- 
pleted, is  of  cathedral  size,  but  has  no  transepts. 
Among  the  worthies  of  ISIerton  may  be  mentioned 
Harve_v.  the  demonstrator  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood.  Bishops  Patteson  and  .Jewell .  An- 
thony Wood,  Sir  Thomas  Bodley.  Sir  Richard 
Steele,  and  Sir  H.  Savilc.  Consult  Henderson, 
"Merton  College,"  in  Universit)/  "f  Oxford  Col- 
lege Histories  (Oxford,  1902).    See  Oxford  Uni- 

VEESITT. 


MEBU. 


353 


HESA. 


MERtr,  ma'roii.  A  fabulous  mountain  in 
Hindu  mythology,  the  abode  of  the  gods.  It  is 
supposed  to  stand  at  the  centre  of  the  world, 
and  it  towers  to  a  height  of  80,000  leagues;  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  revolve  about  its  summit. 
Regarded  as  a  terrestrial  mountain,  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  located  somewhere  to  the 
north  of  the  Himalayas. 

MEBV,  nierf.  A  region  in  Central  Asia  now 
forming  a  district  in  the  Russian  Trans-Caspian 
province,  a  short  distance  from  the  northeastern 
corner  of  Persia  (Map:  Asia.  Central,  H  .3).  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  about  411,000  square  miles. 
The  northern  and  larger  ])art  is  a  vast  sandy 
plain  with  very  little  vegetation.  The  southern 
part  is  more  elevated  and  watered  by  the  llur- 
ghab  and  its  tributaries.  The  summers  arc  long 
and  hot.  and  the  annual  average  temperature  is 
from  about  o7°  to  00°,  ranging  from  — 0°  to 
11.3°.  The  precipitation  is  very  meagre,  espe- 
cially in  the  nortliern  part.  The  cliief  occupation 
of  the  inhabitants  is  agriculture,  wliicb  is  made 
possible  only  by  irrigation.  Unirrigatcd  regions 
are  utilized  to  some  extent  for  stock-raising  by 
the  nomadic  tribes.  The  chief  centre  of  agri- 
culture is  the  oasis  of  ilcrv,  to  which  the  name 
was  formerly  confined.  The  water  for  irrigation 
is  supplied  by  the  Murgliab  and  ,a  few  of  its 
tributaries.  Wheat  and  rye  are  the  chief  cereals 
raised  in  the  irrigated  portions  of  the  territory. 
Transportation  is  ell'ectpd  principally  by  the  use 
of  pack  animals,  altliovigh  the  territory  is  crossed 
by  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway  line.  Near  the 
railway  line  are  tiie  Imperial  estates  of  Murghab, 
with  extensive  irrigation  works.  The  population 
of  the  district  was  110.3.32  in  1S!)7,  composed, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  Russian  .Tews  and 
Persians,  of  Tekke  Turkomans,  divided  into  a 
number  of  elans.  A  considerable  portion  of  them 
are  nomadic.     They  all  profess  Islam. 

The  capital  of  the  district,  known  as  Xew 
Merv,  is  situated  on  the  .Murgbab  and  the  Trans- 
Caspian  Railway.  It  has  a  number  of  schools, 
churches,  a  meteorological  observatory,  and  some 
trade.  Populati(m.  in  1807,  8727,  consisting  of 
Russians.  Turkomans,  Armenians,  Persians,  and 
Jews.  About  25  miles  east  of  Xew  Merv  are  the 
ruins  of  three  cities,  of  which  one,  existing  in 
the  time  of  Strabo,  was,  according  to  that  his- 
torian, of  great  extent  and  importance. 

Merv  is  a  very  ancient  settlement,  its  name 
iMotini)  lieing  mentioned  in  tlie  Zend-.\ vesta. 
It  once  formed  a  siitrapv  of  the  Persian  Km|iire. 
An  archbishopric  of  the  Xestorian  Church  existed 
there  as  early  as  the  fifth  centur.v.  Occupied  by 
the  Arabs  in  the  seventh  century,  the  city  of 
Merv  became  the  capital  of  Khorasan  and  a  great 
intellectual  centre,  rising  to  still  greater  im- 
portance in  the  eleventh  century  while  under  the 
rule  of  the  Seljuks.  The  prosperity  of  Merv 
came  to  an  end  with  the  invasion  of  the  Turko- 
mans about  the  midille  of  the  eleventli  centur.v. 
The  district  was  almost  entirely  ilepopulaled  by 
the  Mongols  under  Tulai  in  1221.  .\t  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  ccnt\iry  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Timur.  and  after  a  short  occupation  by  tlie 
Vzbeks  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century- 
was  taken  by  the  Persians,  under  whose  rule 
it  remained  until  1787.  when  it  was  occupied 
and  later  entirely  devastatcil  by  the  Rokharinns. 
About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 
was  invaded  bv  the  Tekke  Turkomans,  who  l>e- 


came  the  ruling  race.    In  ISS-t  Merv  was  annexed 
by  Russia. 

MERX,  merks,  Ad.xluert  (1838—).  A  Ger- 
man theologian  and  Orientalist.  He  was  born 
at  Blcicherixle,  near  Xordliausen,  and  studied 
at  Jlarburg,  Halle,  and  Berlin.  From  lSli.5  to 
1875  he  was  jjrofessor  of  Semitic  philology  and 
theologj-  at  dill'erent  universities.  In  I  lie  latter 
year  he  took  the  chair  of  theology  at  Heidelberg. 
He  belongs  to  the  school  of  liberal  theologians, 
who  fully  acknowledge  the  right  of  unrestricted 
criticism  of  the  Scriptures.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Das  Gedicht  von  Biob  (1S71);  Die 
Saailjanischc  Uebersctzung  des  llohcnliedcs  ins 
Arahixche  (1883);  the  "Historia  Artis  Gram- 
maticip  apud  Syros,"  in  Abliaiidlunijen  fiir  Kunde 
des  Morgcnlatides  (Leipzig,  1889)  ;  and  Idee 
und  Vnuidllnicn  eincr  allgemeinen  Geschichte  der 
Mijslii-   (1803). 

MEBY,  ma're',  Jo-sepk  (1798-1800).  A 
French  satirical  poet,  born  January  21,  1708,  in 
Aygalades  (  Bouehes-du-Rhonc) .  In  1S24  he  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  aroused  attention  tlirough  a 
political  satire,  La  ViUvliade,  Ics  Jisuitcs  (1826), 
by  some  Bonapartist  poems,  and  by  work  on  a 
satirical  journal  Xcnu'sis.  Later  he  wrote  dra- 
mas, romances,  and  novels  rem:irkable  for  their 
exotic  descriptions  of  lands  Merv  had  never  seen. 
Of  his  once  very  popular  stories.  Ucva  (1843) 
and  Xouvilks  nouiclles  (1853)  are  sufTiciently 
typical.  Merv  died  in  Paris.  June  17,  1866. 
Consult  Claudin,  Mcni,  sa  vie  inliuic  (Paris, 
18GG), 

MEBYON,  niar',vox'.  Cii.vrle.s  (1821-08).  A 
French  etcher,  born  in  Paris.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Naval  School  in  Brest,  and  afterwards 
rose  to  the  position  of  lieutenant  in  the  Navy. 
After  making  a  voyage  around  the  world  (1843), 
he  was  compelled  by  failing  health  to  take  up 
etching,  which  he  stutlied  at  Paris,  achieving 
the  highest  success  in  this  art.  Though  strong 
and  precise,  his  execution  is  of  rare  delicacy,  and 
his  art  is  highly  imaginative.  After  a  few  years 
a  mental  malady  developed,  and  during  his  sec- 
ond visit  to  the  asylum  at  Cliarenton  he  died. 
Of  his  etchings  the  best  known  are  the  scries  of 
twcnt.v-three  (ilates,  Eaux-fnrirs  sur  Paris  (1850- 
54),  most  of  which  represent  old  Paris,  then 
rapidly  disappearing  under  the  improvements 
of  Haussmann.  Consult:  Wedmore,  .l/c'cyon  and 
Mt'ri/on's  Paris  (London.  1S70)  ;  Bouvennc.  .Yo/f« 
et  fifiuvrtiirs  siir  Cliarlis  Mrriion  (Paris.  1SS3)  : 
Burtv,  I/Ohirrr  dr  Charles  Mdri/on,  translated  by 
Huish    (London.  1870). 

MESA,  m.a'sa.  A  Spanish  word  meaning 
'table'  (ef.  Latin  mrnsa).  and  used  especially  in 
the  Southwestern  United  States  to  designate  the 
small,  isolated  plateaus,  usually  rising  abruptly 
from  the  surrounding  plains,  which  are  foiuid 
scattered  over  the  region  traversed  by  the  Colo 
rado  River.  The  mesas  arc  remnants  of  an 
ancient  plain  which  in  a  former  geological  age 
was  \iplifted  from  the  oc€>anbottom  to  a  height 
of  several  thousand  feet.  This  plain  was  rut 
down  by  erosion  t^i  its  present  level  except  where 
a  hard  superficial  rock  protected  the  umlerlying 
soft  strata ;  such  places  were  left  as  isolated 
blocks  with  steeply  escarped  sides.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  mesas  arc  the  Mesa  Encantada 
and   the  Alesn   Verde. 

The  Mesa  Rncantada  or  Enchanted  Mesa,  called 
bv   the    Indians   Katzimo,   is   situnteil   near  the 


MESA. 


353 


MESENTERY. 


village  of  Acoina  in  west  cciilral  Now  Jlexico. 
It  id  a  perpendicular  sandstone  rock  rising 
from  a  grassy  plain.  It  is  of  elongated  shape, 
2050  feet  long  and  from  100  to  3o0  feet  wide. 
Above  a  sloping  talus.  100  to  200  feet  in  height, 
towers  tlie  perpendicular  wall  to  a  height  of  480 
feet  above  the  plain.  The  sununit  is  nearly  level, 
and  consists  of  a  hard  rock  very  much  weathered 
and  siippniting  a  few  stunted  cedars.  The  rock 
is  held  in  superstitiuus  awe  by  the  neighboring 
Aeoma  Indians,  and  a  tradition  is  current  among 
them  that  their  remote  ancestors  once  inhabited 
the  snnnnit.  The  rock  had  never  been  ascended 
by  white  men  until  Professor  Libbey  scaled  it 
in  the  summer  of  1890.'  He  and  F.  \V.  Hodge, 
who  ascended  it  in  1897,  found  an  artilicial  stone 
monument  and  numerous  fragments  of  pottery 
and  some  stone  iuijjlements. 

The  Mesa  Verde  is  situated  in  the  extreme 
southwestern  corner  of  Colorado,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  ilaneos  River.  It  is  a  plateau  15 
miles  long  and  8  miles  wide.  Its  talus  is  300  to 
500  feet  high,  above  which  rises  a  precipitous 
wall  of  yellow-  sandstone  150  to  300  feel  farther, 
the  top  of  the  mesa  being  400  to  800  feet  above 
the  plain.  It  derives  its  name  { \'('r<ic  =  'green') 
from  the  fact  that  its  entire  upper  surface  is 
covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  cedars  and  pinon 
trees.  The  summit  is  more  accessible  than  that 
of  the  Encantada,  being  intersected  by  the  numer- 
ous ramifieations  of  a  canon  which  opens  into 
that  of  the  JIancos  River.  The  rock  walls  of  the 
Mesa  Verde  are  interrupted  by  nmnerous  hori- 
zontal ledges  occupied  by  the  ruins  of  ancient 
cliff  dwellings,  some  in  a  remarkable  state  of 
preservation.  Large  numbers  of  stone  imple- 
ments, pot-sherds,  and  some  mummies  have  been 
found  among  the  ruins.  Consult  Xordenskjold, 
The  ('liff-Du-€lIers  of  ihc  Mesa  ^'cr(^e.  translated 
by  Alorgan  (Stockholm,  1893) .  See  Cliff  Dwell- 
ers. 

MESAGNE,  m&sa'nya.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince (if  Lecce.  Southern  Italy,  situated  about  10 
miles  by  rail  southwest  of  Brindisi  (Map:  Italy, 
M  7).  It  is  an  ancient  town,  picturesquely  situ- 
ated in  a  fertile  region,  producing  oil,  wine, 
grain,  and  fruit.  Population  (commune),  in 
lOni.  1-2,10.1. 

MESCALA,  ma-skii'la,  or  MEXCALA.  A 
river  of  Jlexico,  rising  in  the  State  of  Tlaxcala, 
60  miles  east  of  Mexico  City.  Its  general  course 
is  westerly,  bending  southward  shortly  before 
emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Lower  California  at 
the  piirt  of  Zacatula.  It  is  known  in  the  first 
part  of  its  course  as  the  Atoyac,  and  in  its  lower 
course,  where  it  serves  as  the  boundary  line 
between  the  States  of  Guerrero  and  Michoacan, 
as  the  Rio  de  las  Balsas.  The  current  is  exceed- 
ingly swift,  and  the  river  is  not  navigable,  but  it 
furnishes  power  to  a  number  of  textile  and  other 
mills. 

MESCALERO,  ma'ska-ln'r'..  A  small  Atha- 
pa.scan  tribe.  They  receive  their  name  from  their 
use  of  mescal  bread  prepared  from  the  maguey 
root  by  roasting  under  cover  until  it  softens  into 
a  white,  .sticky,  and  sweetish  mass,  which  is  said 
to  be  extremely  nutritious.  They  formerly  ranged 
over  the  arid  Pecos  and  Staked  Plain  region  of 
Texas  an<l  Xew  Mexico,  and  were  constantly  at 
war  with  the  Ute  and  Xavaho,  while  maintaining 
a  precarious  friendship  with  the  T^iowa  and 
Comanche,     They  lived  entirely  by  hunting  and 


depredation  upon  the  frontier  settlements  of 
Te.xas  and  Mexico,  in  coni])any  with  other  roving 
tribes,  and  were  distinguished  for  their  warlike 
and  cruel  disposition.  Their  shelters  were  mere 
wikiups  of  boughs;  they  planted  nothing  and 
went  nearly  naked.  Since  about  1803  they  have 
been  confined  upon  a  reservation  in  southeastern 
Xew  Mexico,  shut  in  by  mountains  and  well  .sup- 
plied with  timber  and  water,  where  they  are  now 
making  some  advance  in  farming,  stock-raising, 
and  civilization,  although  still  greatly  addicted 
to  tis-imn,  a  sort  of  sour  beer  manufactured  from 
com.  In  1855  they  were  est<imated  at  about  750. 
They  number  now'  470. 

MESDAG,  mes'dJiG,  Hendrik  Willkh  (1831- 
1902).  A  Dutch  marine  painter,  born  in  (ironin- 
gen.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Alma-Ta<lenia  in  Brus- 
sels, and  afterwards  lived  at  The  Hague.  He  is 
one  of  the  best  of  modern  Dutch  marine  painters. 
His  style  is  naturalistic,  and  his  work  is  cliarac- 
terized  by  breadth,  atmospheric  elVeet.  and  sober 
color.  His  pictures  include:  "Sunrise  on  the 
Shores  of  Holland."  in  the  Rotterdam  iluseum ; 
"Return  of  the  Fishing  Boat"  (1875),  in  The 
Hague  Museum;  "Evening;"  and  "Seashore" 
(1889).  He  received  a  gold  medal  and  the  cros.s 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1889. 

MES'EMBRYA'CE.ffi,  Aizo.\ce.e  or  Ficoide.e 
(Xeo-Lat.,  from  (ik.  fie<rr;ij.l3pla,  iiicsOiiihria,  mid- 
day, from  iiiaos,  mcsos,  middle  +  'hl^^P";  hCmera, 
day;  so  called  because  the  (lowers  of  many 
species  open  only  during  midday).  An  order  of 
dicotyledonous  succulent  herbs  or  shrtibs.  As 
defined  by  some  botanists,  it  includes  the  orders 
Tetragoniaceae,  Sesuviaeese,  etc.  Of  the  more  re- 
stricted Mesembryaceie  about  400  species  are 
known,  embraced  by  eighteen  or  twenty  genera,  a 
few  of  which  are  natives  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
some  of  America.  The  greater  numlx>r  lielong 
to  South  Africa  and  the  South  Sea  Islands.  The 
perianth  is  usually  5-parted;  stamens  5  or 
many;  ovary  3-eelled  with  numerous  ovules. 
The  leaves  of  some  species,  when  burned,  yield 
soda  in  great  abundance.  Large  quantities  of 
barilla  are  made  from  them  in  the  Canary 
Islands,  in  Spain,  and  in  Egypt.  The  seeds  of 
some,  as  the  ice  plant  (ilesemhrijiinthemum  crys- 
tallinum) ,  and  of  Mesembryanthemum  geniculi- 
florum,  are  ground  into  flour  to  make  bread. 
Mesembryanthemum  geniculidorum  is  used  as  a 
pot-herb  in  Africa.  The  fruit  of  Mesembryan- 
themum edule  (known  as  Hottentot's  fig)  is 
eaten  in  South  .\frica.  and  that  of  JIeseml)ryan- 
themum  icquilaterale  (pig's-faces)  in  Austra- 
lia. Mesembryanthemum  anatomicum  is  called 
kou  by  the  Hottentots,  who  beat  and  twist  up  the 
wliole  plant,  allow  it  to  ferment,  and  chew  it  like 
tobacco.  \\'hen  nearly  fermented  it  is  narcotic 
and  intoxicating.  Some  species  of  Mesembryan- 
themum are  common  anmuils  in  flower  garilens. 
The  principal  genera  are  Mollugo.  Scsuvium, 
Aizoon.  and  Mesembryanthenmm. 

MESEN",  ma'zyen.  A  river  in  Russia.  See 
Mezex. 

MES'ENTERY  axd  its  Disease.s.  The  mes- 
entery derives  its  name  from  being  connected  to 
the  middle  portion  (Gr.  ij.4<rov,)  of  the  small 
intestine  (errepoi').  It  is  a  broad  fold  of  peri- 
toneum (the  great  serous  membrane  of  the  abdo- 
men), surrounding  the  jejunum  and  ileum,  and 
attached  posteriorly  to  the  vertebral  cnlunni.  Its 
breadth    between    the    intestinal    and    vertebral 


MESENTERY. 


334 


MESMERISM. 


borders  is  about  four  inches;  its  attachment  to 
the  vertebral  column  is  about  six  inches  in 
length,  and  its  intestinal  border  extends  from 
the  duodenum  to  the  end  of  the  small  intestine. 
It  serves  to  retain  the  small  intestines  in  their 
place,  while  it  at  the  same  time  allows  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  movement,  and  it  contains  be- 
tween its  layers  the  mesenteric  vessels,  the  lacteal 
vessels,  and  mesenteric  glands.  These  glands  are 
100  to  150  in  number,  and  are  about  tlic  size  of 
an  almond.  They  exert  an  organizing  action  on 
the  contents  of  the  lacteals,  the  chyle  licing  more 
abundant  in  fibriiu!*  and  in  corpuscles  alter  it 
has  passed  througli  them.  The  most  important 
affection  of  these  organs  is  their  tubercular 
degeneration,  which  gives  rise  to  the  disease 
known  as  tabes  mesvnlerica,  a  disease  most  com- 
mon in  childhood,  but  confined  to  no  period  of 
life.  In  the  great  nuijority  of  cases  it  is  asso- 
ciated with  other  results  of  tubercular  infection, 
such  as  pulmonary  consumption,  tubercular  peri- 
tonitis, caries  of  the  spine,  rickets,  etc.;  but 
sometimes  the  mesenteric  glands  seem  almost  ex- 
clusively afTccted.  in  wliich  ease  the  disease  be- 
comes suniciciilly  distinct  to  allow  of  easy  detec- 
tion. The  leading  .symptoms  are  those  of  early 
tuberculosis,  with  loss  of  color  and  llesh,  derange- 
ment of  the  digestive  organs  (constipation  or 
diarrluea,  and  occasional  vomiting) ,  a  steady  pain 
in  the  region  of  the  navel,  increased  by  pressure; 
but  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  symptom  is 
tumefaction  and  hardness  of  the  abdomen,  with 
general  emaciaticm.  The  enlarged  glands  can 
sometimes  be  detected  by  a  careful  examination 
with  the  hand,  especially  in  advanced  cases.  The 
progress  of  the  disease  is  generally  slow,  but  at 
length  hectic  fever  sct-s  in,  the  emaciation  becomes 
extreme,  dropsical  effusion  appears,  and  the  pa- 
tient dies  exhausted,  if  not  cut  off  by  the  access 
of  some  acute  inflanunation. 

The  treatment  mainly  consists  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  cod-liver  oil.  iodide  of  potassium,  and 
laxatives.  When  the  disease  has  advanced  to  a 
considerable  extent,  medicines  are  of  little  use, 
except  to  palliate  some  of  the  more  urgent  symp- 
toms. 

Independently  of  the  disease  that  has  just  been 
noticed,  inllanimation  of  these  glands  is  by  no 
means  uncommon  when  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  small  intestine  is  ulcerated,  as,  for  example, 
in  typhoid  or  enteric  fever. 

The  mesentery  may  lie  the  site  of  hemorrhages, 
as  in  aneurism  or  some  infectious  diseases,  as 
smallpox:  of  embolism  or  thrombosis;  of  cysts 
or  of  tumors. 

ME'SHA  (IIcl).  Mf.shn').  King  of  jMoab  dur- 
ing 1  he  reigns  of  .\hab  and  his  sons,  Ahaziah 
and  .lehoram,  kings  of  Israel  (II.  Kings  iii.  4,  5). 
Either  on  the  death  of  .\hal>  (according  to  the 
biblical  account,  1.  c),  or  while  the  latter  was 
still  reigning  (according  to  the  Moat)ite  stone), 
Mesha  shook  olf  the  yoke  of  Israel  and  freed  him- 
self from  Jhe  heavy  tribute  imposed  upon  him. 
Subsequently,  however,  .Teboram  secured  the  aid 
iif  .lehoshaphal.  Kin;;  of  .Indiili,  his  father's  ally, 
or  vassal,  and  the  united  armies  of  the  two  kings 
were  joined  by  the  forces  of  the  King  nf  Kdnm.  The 
Moabites  were  defealeil,  and  the  King  took  refuge 
in  Kir-haraseth,  his  last  stronghold  (11.  Kings  iii. 
0-2.5).  Having  in  vain  attempted  to  force  his 
way  throtigh  the  besieging  army,  he  withdrew  to 
the  wall  of  the  city,  and  in  the  sight  of  the 
allied    host    offered    up    bis    first-born    son    and 


successor  as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  to  Chemosh, 
the  national  god  of  the  Sloabites.  The  biblical 
narrative  suggests  (ib.  20-27),  though  in  a  vague 
way,  that  Chemosh  turned  to  the  succor  of 
Mesha;  at  all  events,  the  Moabites  remained  mas- 
ters of  the  situation,  and  the  attempt  to  reduce 
them  to  subjection  failed,  though  their  land  suf- 
fered much  in  the  struggle.  See  ilo.iBlTE  Sro.NE. 
MESHED,  mesh'ed.  A  city  of  Persia.  See 
JIk.shiied. 

MESHHED,  mesh'ed,  or  MESHED.  Capital 
of  tlie  Province  of  Khorasan.  Persia,  situated 
on  an  elevated  i)Iain  in  the  extreme  northeastern 
part  of  the  country  (Jlap:  Persia,  O  3).  It 
owes  its  chief  inii)orta'nce  to  the  fact  that  it 
contains  the  tomb  of  tlie  Imam  Kiza,  a  son  of 
AH,  the  founder  of  the  Khiites.  The  tomb  is 
contained  in  a  mosque  which  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  buildings  in  the  East,  richly  orna- 
mented with  gold,  silver,  and  marble.  II  is 
visited  annually  by  more  than  100,000  pilgrims. 
The  city  is  also  the  centre  of  several  important 
caravan  routes,  and  had  a  very  extensive  transit 
trade  with  India  and  Central  Asia,  which,  how- 
ever, has  greatly  decreased  since  the  completion 
of  the  Russian  railroad  from  the  Caspian  Sea 
to  Samarkand  and  the  adoption  of  adverse  CUB-  \ 
toms  regulations  by  the  Russian  authorities. 
The  town  still  manufactures  ami  exports  fine 
silks,  carpets,  sliawls.  and  sword-bladcs.  Poptl- 
lation.    about    CiO.oiK). 

MESHHED-HOSEIN,  mo'shed  hfi-san',  A 
town  (if  .\siatic  Turkey.     See  IvjERIiela. 

MESTilER,  Fii.xxz,  or  Friedrich-Antow 
(173.31815).  .-\  physician  and  founder  of  the 
doctrine  of  animal  magnetism,  or  mesmerism, 
(q.v.),  born  at  Iznang.  on  Lake  Constance.  He 
studied  at  Vienna,  and  there  took  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  medicine  in  17fifi.  .\botit  1772  he 
began,  along  with  Father  Hell,  to  investigate  the 
curative  powers  of  the  magnet,  and  was  led  to 
adopt  the  opinion  that  there  exists  a  power 
similar  to  magnetism,  which  exercises  an  extraor- 
dinary inlbience  on  the  human  boily.  This  he 
callccl  animal  magnetism,  and  pul)lislied  an  ac- 
count of  his  discovery  and  of  its  medicinal  value 
in  1775.  Honors  were  conferred  upon  him  in 
Clermany.  In  1778  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
attracted  much  attention  and  made  a  fortimc  by 
his  famous  magnetic  cures.  His  system  obtained 
tlie  support  of  members  of  the  medical  profession, 
as  well  as  of  others:  but  he  refused  an  offer  of  aa 
annual  pension  of  20.000  livres  (about  .$4000) 
to  reveal  his  secret:  and  tliis,  combined  with 
other  circumstances,  gave  rise  to  suspicion,  and 
induced  the  Government  to  appoint  a  commission, 
composed  of  physicians  and  scientists,  whose  re- 
port was  unfavorable  to  him.  He  now  fell  into 
disrepute,  and  after  a  visit  to  England  retired  to 
!Meerslnirg.  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
complete  obscurity. 

MESMERISM,  Tlie  name  of  the  process  bjr 
which,  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  ccntuiy, 
Fraiiz  .Mcsmer,  ]irniiuilgator  of  tlic  doctrine 
of  'animal  magnelisni.'  induced  the  so-called 
mesmeric  trance  or  sleep.  Since  ^fcsmer's  day 
the  subject  has  been  transferred  from  the  domain 
of  charlatanism  to  that  of  scientific  research. 
The  mesmeric  trance  is  identical  with  the  condi- 
tion known  to-day  as  'induced  somnambulism,'  or 
'hypnotism.'  or  the  'hypnotic  state;'  it  has  pre- 
.senied  to  the  obscr\'er  manv  liighlv   interesting 


MESMERISM. 


355 


MESOPHYTE. 


phenomena.  In  ]ifiaons  who  are  favorably  dis- 
posed for  passing  into  tlie  hypnotic  state,  the 
condition  is  easily  induced  hy  weak,  long-eon- 
tinni'd.  and  uniform  stimulation  of  the  nerves 
either  of  sight,  of  touch,  or  of  hearing.  This 
state  is,  on  the  contrary,  almost  alwaj-s  easily 
capalile  of  being  terminated  by  some  strong  or 
suddenly  varying  stimulation  of  the  same  nerves. 
The  scientific  study  of  the  phenomena  presented 
hy  hypnotized  persons  is  of  great  interest  and 
inilHirtance;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  indeed  if  tlie 
systematic  induction  of  such  a  slate  can  ever  be 
used  as  a  legitimate  or  potent  means  for  curing 
disease,  or  even  for  the  alleviation  of  certain 
distressing  symptoms.  Tlie  investigations  that 
have  been  made  of  recent  years  are  far  from 
being  decisive  in  favor  of  the  method  as  a 
remedial  agent,  especially  when  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  actual  harm  which  may  result  from 
its  induction  in  some  nervous  and  impressionable 
persons.  Xow  and  tlien  a  minor  operation  may 
be  done  luider  the  influence  of  hypnotism,  or  by 
its  aid  a  fi.\ed  idea  may  be  removed  and  a  delu- 
sion dispelled.  Under  ordinary  circumstanee.s, 
however,  the  number  of  those  susceptible  to  its 
influence  is  so  small  that  its  general  use  is  im- 
possible. In  hysteria,  as  elsewhere,  it  is  most 
decidedly  a  two-edged  weapon,  and  the  patient 
may  emerge  from  hypnosis  instituted  for  a  minor 
difliculty  and  go  into  severe  hysterical  convul- 
sions. One  delusion  may  be  removed,  but  another 
and  a  more  serious  one  may  be  implanted  in  its 
stead.  For  obvious  rea.sons,  women  .should  never 
be  hypnotized  without  reliable  witnesses,  and  the 
public  use  of  hypnotism  can  only  appeal  to  the 
morbid.  Hypnotism  tends  to  destroy  self-reli- 
ance and  to  make  patients  imaginative,  w'eak- 
niinded,  and  neurasthenic.  Suggestion  (q.v. )  is  a 
mighty  aid  to  the  physician,  and  without  produc- 
ing hypnosis,  positive  and  intelligent  assertion 
can  accomplish  all  that  is  likely  to  be  done  by  hyp- 
notism short  of  the  somnambulistic  stage.  A 
fair  realization  of  the  part  suggestion  plays  in 
therapeutics  is  one  of  the  recent  achievements 
of  the  most  progressive  medical  minds.  See 
Hyp.voTi.sM ;  Spiritualism  ;  Somnambulism  ; 
Suggestion. 

MESNE  (men)  LORD.  In  English  law,  a 
landlord  who  is  himself  tenant  to  some  superior 
lord.  The  lord  of  a  manor  containing  freehold 
lands  which  are  held  of  him  in  fee,  and  who  in 
his  turn  holds  his  lands  of  the  Crown,  answers 
that  description  at  the  jiresent  time;  the  supi^rior 
lord,  in  this  case  the  King,  being  the  lord  para- 
mount.   See  Fee  ;  FEn)ALiSM ;  Tenure. 

MESNE  PROCESS.  All  writs,  process,  or 
orders  made  or  issued  in  an  action  between  its 
commencement  by  original  writ.  sumnKms,  or 
other  primary  jiroeess  and  the  final  process  by 
which  the  judgment  of  the  court  is  enforced. 
This  term  is  not  employed  under  modern  practice 
acts,  as  such  process  is  now  included  in  that 
covered  by  the  term  interlocutory  orders.  See 
the  articles  Execution;  .Judgment;  Summons; 
Writ. 

MESNE  PROFITS.  The  reasonable  value 
of  the  use  and  iK-cujiation  of  real  projierty  dur- 
ing the  period  in  which  a  trespasser  remains  in 
possession,  and  which  may  be  recovered  by  the 
true  owner  when  he  is  restored  to  possession. 
The  mesne  profits  are  estimated  by  taking  the 
fair  and  reasonable  net  rental  value  of  the  prem- 


ises between  the  original  entry  by  the  trespasser 
and  the  restoration  of  the  owner  in  possession, 
and  deducting  tlicrefrom  all  reasonable  and  nec- 
essary expenses  for  repairs  and  imi)ro\ements  in- 
curred by  the  trespasser,  and  the  amount  of  any 
taxes  or  assessments  jjaid  by  him.  See  Damages; 
Ejectment. 

MES'OHIP'PUS  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /if oof, 
mcsos,  middle  -p  i'ir?ros,  hippos,  horse).  A  name 
sometimes  applied  to  one  of  the  fossil  horses  of 
Jliocene  age.     See  Horse,  Fossil. 

MES'OLITE  (from  Gk.  /liao^,  viesos,  middle 
-|-  >,/flof,  lithos,  stone).  A  hydrated  sodium- 
calcium-aluminura  silicate  that  is  intermediate 
in  composition  between  natrolite  and  scoleeite, 
and  erj'stallizes  in  the  monoclinic  and  triclinic 
sj-stems.  It  occurs  crystallized,  in  fibrous  masses, 
and  sometimes  massive,,  with  a  vitreous  lustre, 
and  in  color  is  white  or  of  light  shades  of  gray 
or  yellow.  Mesolite  is  found  in  amygdaloid  and 
other  volcanic  rocks,  especially  in  Iceland,  Scot- 
land, in  Pennsylvania  and  Colorado  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  Xova  Scotia. 

MESOLONGHI,  mes'o-lon'ge.  A  town  of 
Greece.     See  Missolongiii. 

MESONERO  Y  ROMANOS,  mrrs6n,-i'r6  e 
ru-mil'nos,  Ramon  de  ( 180.3-82) .  A  Spanish  essay- 
ist, born  at  Madrid.  He  entered  first  upon  a  mer- 
cantile career,  and  while  thus  engaged  he  collect- 
ed the  material  for  his  Manual  de  Madrid.  As 
a  journalist  he  collaborated  cm  the  Cartas  Espa- 
fiolas,  and  in  183()  he  estal)lished  the  Hemanario 
Pintorcsco  Espaitol,  which  he  continued  to  direct 
until  1842.  The  best  of  his  essays  are  to  be 
found  in  the  volumes  entitled  Esccnas  matri- 
ienses  and  Memorias  de  itn  se1ent6n.  Those  con- 
tained in  the  former  collection  give  faithful  pic- 
tures of  older  iladrid,  and  therefore  have  a  de- 
cided antiquarian  value;  those  included  in  the 
Memorias  present  much  matter  that  is  now  very 
useful  to  an  understanding  of  the  political, 
social,  and  literarv  aspects  of  the  time.  Consult 
the  edition  of  his "o&rns   (Madrid,  1881). 

MES'ONYX  (Neo-Lat..  from  Gk. /x^o-os,  mcsos, 
middle  4-  6vv^.  oniix.  nail).  A  fossil  creodont 
mammal  found  in  the  fresh-water  Eocene  for- 
mations of  Wyoming  and  Xcw  jMexico.  A  com- 
plete skeleton  has  been  mounted  in  the  museum 
of  Princeton  University.  It  .shows  the  animal 
to  have  had  a  large  head,  with  strong  jaws  and 
stout  teeth  which  were  able  to  crush  bones.  The 
body  is  more  bulky  in  front  and  smaller  and 
weaker  behind,  with  a  remarkably  long  and  pow- 
erful tail.  It  resembled  in  some  superficial  re- 
spects the   modern   Tasmanian   wolf. 

MESOPH'ILOUS  PLANT  (from  Gk.  fximc, 
mesos,  middle  +  ipi?.o(,  philos,  dear,  from  (piXclv, 
philein,  to  love).  An  objectionable  term  for 
plants  which  grow  in  intermediate  conditions, 
jlesophytic  is  preferable.     See  JIesopiivte. 

MES'OPHYLL  (from  Gk.  fiianc,  mcsos.  mid- 
dle +  (pi'/./.oi;  phijlhm.  leaf).  The  tissue  of  the 
foliage  leaf  which  is  bounded  by  the  two  epider- 
mal layers  and  which  the  vein*  traverse.  The 
mesophyll  cells  for  the  most  part  contain  chloro- 
phyll (the  green  pigment),  and  are  the  nutritive 
cells  of  the  leaf.     See  Leaf. 

MES'OPHYTE  (from  Gk.  /ifffof,  mesos,  mid- 
dle -4-  (pvTbv,  pit  uton,  growth,  plant) .  A  name  given 
to  plants  which  grow  naturally  in  conditions  of 


MESOPHYTE. 


356 


MESOZOIC  EKA. 


intermediate  soil  moisture.  The  term  is  thus  in 
contrast  with  hydrophj-te  and  xerophyte  (qq.v. ). 
To  tliis  group  belong  the  most  common  plants  of 
the  furc>>t  and  grass  lands  of  equable  climates. 
Cultivated  areas  with  very  few  exceptions  are 
mesophytic.  Hydrophytes  and  xerophytes.  then, 
may  thus  be  regarded  as  extremes,  the  one  adapt- 
ed to  an  extreme  of  moisture,  the  other  of  dry- 
ness. On  account  of  the  almost  uniformly  favor- 
able conditions,  mesophytes  are  able  to  survive 
•without  any  striking  adaptations  such  as  are 
to  be  found  among  xeroph_\-tcs  and  hydro|)hytes. 
However,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  remarkably 
plastic  hydrophytes,  they  exhibit  maximum  plas- 
ticity. It  is  perhaps  not  surprising  that  plas- 
ticity is  found  developed  to  a  high  degree  among 
them,  the  sequence  of  periods  of  extreme  mois- 
ture or  extreme  dryness  tending  to  fix  adapta- 
bility. The  vegetation  of  mesophytic  areas  is 
nmch  more  dense  than  that  in  xerophytic  or  even 
in  hydrophylic  regions,  and  there  is  a  far  great- 
er wealth  of  species.  The  struggle  for  existence 
is  thus  more  keen,  and  fewer  representatives  of 
the  various  species  may  be  found,  while  a  xer- 
ophytic or  hydro|)hytic  plant  society  may  often 
be  characterized  by  the  dominance  of  one  or  two 
species.  The  keen  competition  which  exists  in 
mesophytic  regions  may  perhaps  account  for  the 
survival  of  forms  with  a  high  degree  of  plas- 
ticity. .\nother  feature  of  mesophytic  conditions 
is  the  richness  of  the  soil,  which  doubtless  ac- 
counts for  the  great  diversity  of  plant  forms, 
and  for  luxuriance  which  here  reaches  its  climax 
in  the  plant  world.  The  various  mesophytic  so- 
cieties are  treated  under  the  following  heads: 
Forest;  PRAiBrE:  Me.^dow;  and  Pasture. 

MESOPOTA'MIA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^ao-o- 
raftla,  sc.  ;;,  _</«'.  country,  country  between  the 
rivers,  from  fiico^,  nicsos,  middle  +  ■Trnrauo^, 
potamos,  river).  In  the  widest  sense,  all  the 
country  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers 
from  Armenia  to  the  Persian  Gulf:  in  a  nar- 
rower and  more  eonnuon  usage,  the  northern 
part  of  this  territorv;,  called  to-day  by  the  Arab 
name  EhJezirah  (the  Island  Peninsula),  the 
southern  portion  (Babylonia)  being  known  as 
Irak  Arabi.  In  the  Old  Testament  this  territory 
is  called  Aram  ynhnraijim  (the  Aram  of  the 
Two  Rivers),  of  which  the  Greek  name  is  prob- 
ably a  translation:  and  Padrlnn  Aram  (the  Plain 
of  .Aram).  The  name,  in  the  form  \ahrimn.  is 
found  in  Egyptian  inscriptions  and  in  the  Amar- 
na  letters,  though  limited  to  the  northwestern 
district  between  the  Tigris  and  Belik.  In  the 
earliest  times  Mesopotamia  seems  to  have  been 
under  native  rulers,  ami  to  have  developed  a  civil- 
ization of  its  own  which  may  have  been  the 
source  of  many  features  commonly  attributed  to 
the  Assyrians,  About  B.C.  1.300  Rammannirari  I. 
made  it  a  part  of  Assyria.  Aramiran-^  from  the 
south  invaded  the  land  and  settled  there  in  the 
course  of  the  Semitic  migrations  of  the  succeeding 
centuries.  In  B.C.  .5.18  it  passed  under  Persian 
rule,  and  later  belonged  successively  to  the  Mace- 
donian. Syrian,  an<I  Parthian  empires.  The  Ro- 
mans made  it  a  province.  In  .303  .Tovian  sur- 
rendered most  of  it  to  Persia,  In  the  seventh 
century  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the  caliphs. 
After  IO.tI.')  much  of  the  land  was  ruled  by  petty 
Seljukinn  sultans.  These  were  in  turn  con- 
<|uercd  by  the  Mongols,  who  capture)!  Bagdad  in 
J2.iS  and  put  the  Caliph  to  death.    The  Osmanlis 


began  their  conquest  early  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  iu  lliSS  the  land  passed  completely 
into  their  power.  At  present  the  jKjpulation 
is  mainly  Arali:  most  of  the  tribes  are  as  inde- 
pendent of  the  Turkish  Government  as  their 
brethren  in  Central  Arabia,  though  the  country 
is  nominally  divided  between  several  Turkish 
vilayets.  There  are  a  few  Kurds  in  the  north, 
and  a  small  mmiber  of  Armenian  and  Syrian 
Christians.  The  land  is  hilly  in  the  north,  but 
low  and  sandy  to  the  south.  After  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  the  chief  rivers  are  the  Khahur, 
Jaghjagha,  and  Belik.  Bitumen  is  common,  and 
a  few  petroleum  wells  are  found.  The  most  im- 
portant towns  are  L'rfa.  Mardin.  Xcsihin.  Mosul, 
Ed-Dcir.  and  Rakka.  In  early  times,  when  a 
good  irrigation  system  was  maintained,  the  land 
was  fertile,  populous,  and  the  home  of  an  advanced 
civilization.  Owing  to  its  situation,  it  was  open 
to  iniluences  from  both  the  east  and  the  west, 
from  Babylonia  and  Asia  Elinor.  Perhaps  its 
most  prosperous  time  was  under  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  rule,  but  in  the  early  Christian  cen- 
turies it  contained  important  cities,  such  as 
Edessa  and  Xisibis,  and  imder  the  caliphs  the 
country  also  thrived.  Today  it  is  desert  and 
uninhabited  except  along  the  banks  of  the  nat- 
ural watercourses.  Consult:  Oppert.  Expedi- 
tion scienti/ique  en  Mesopotamie  (Paris,  1856-. 
59)  :  Lady  Anne  Blunt,  The  Bedouin  Tribes  of 
the  Euphrates  (London,  1S80)  :  Sachau,  Reise  in 
Si/rien  und  Mesopotamia  (Leipzig.  1883)  ;  Op- 
penheim,  To»i  ilittelmeer  zum  persisehen  Golf 
(Berlin,  1809).    See -Assyria;  Babylo.via, 

MES'OZO'A  (Xeo-Lat,  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
fiitrot.  mrsofi.  middle  +  ^^oy.  :don.  animal). 
A  group  of  animals  regarded  as  intermediate 
between  the  Protozoa  and  Metazoa.  The  name 
was  proposed  in  ISTt!  by  E.  van  Beneden  for  a 
group  of  filifonn  bodies  living  in  the  liquid 
bathing  the  "spongy  bodies'  or  venous  appendages 
(kidneys)  of  cephalopods.  They  resemble  Infuso- 
ria, but  are  two-layered,  and  pass  in  their  develop- 
ment through  a  gastrula  stage.  They  were  named 
Dicyenia  by  K'illiker.  who.  with  others,  consid- 
ered them  as  parasitic  worms.  Van  Beneden  re- 
garded these  forms  as  constituting  the  type  of  n 
distinct  branch  or  phylum  of  tlie  animal  king 
dom.  These  mesozoans  are  represented  by  two 
types  of  individtials.  dilTcring  externally:  one 
( 'nematogene' )  producing  vermiform  embryos, 
the  other  form  Crhombogene')  infusorifomi 
(but  many-celled)  .young.  Packard  suggested 
that  Dicvema  and  allies  ma.v  l>e  degenerate  para- 
sitic plat.vlielminths  derived  originally  from 
some  low  cestoid  or  treuiatode  wojni.  Parker 
and  Haswell  (1897)  treat  of  them  in  an  ap- 
pendix to  the  Civlenterata.  and  state  that  it  has 
been  proposed  to  call  them  the  Planuloidea.  from 
the  re-*mlilan<-e  which  they  bear  to  the  planuin 
larva  of  the  cadenterates.  Sedg^vick  (  Trxl-linok 
of  Znolnfli/.  1808)  is  inclined  to  regard  them  as 
allied  to  the  Trematoda.  to  the  miracidium  larva 
of  which  he  asserts  '"they  do  present  some  consid- 
erable resemblance."  Consult  Lankesler  (edi- 
tor). .1  Treatise  in  Zoiilofiii.  Part  IV.  (London 
and  Xew  York.   1903). 

MES  OZOIC  ERA.  One  of  the  main  dins- 
ions  of  ;;i'. iliiyii'  time,  following  the  Paleozoic  era 
anil  preceding  the  Cenozoic  era.  It  is  subdi- 
vided into  the  Triassic.  Jurassic,  and  Cretaceous 
periods.     See  Geolot.y. 


MESPELBRONN. 


357 


MESSA  DI  VOCE. 


MESPELBRONN,  Jilius  Kchtee  von.  See 
.Jli.it  s    Iaiiiku    MJ.\    jMksI'ELBBONX. 

MESQUITE  imes-ke'ta)  GRASS  (Sp.  mez- 
quite:  |iiijl)alily  iif  .Mtxican  oiif-iii).  A  name  ap- 
plied to  a  miiiiLiLT  of  low  grow  iug  tultcd  grasses 
that  occur  in  greater  or  less  abundance  upon  the 
e.\teiisivc  ranges  of  the  western  and  southwestern 
parts  of  the  L'nited  States.  Species  of  Aiistida 
Hlld  Bouteloua  are  among  the  mesquite  grasses. 
Curly  mesquite  is  IJilnria  cenchroidcs.  It  forms 
a  dense  sward  witli  leafy  stems  a  few  inches  to 
a  fool  liigh.  It  matures  standing,  as  do  tlie  otiier 
species,  and  is  cxcclh'nt  fodder  until  rotted  by 
the  winter  rains.  \\  hilc  valuable  for  grazing,  it 
is  too  low  growing  to  be  cut  for  liay. 

MESQUITE  TREE  {Pronopis  juli flora).  A 
shrub  or  tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
LeguniinosiC.  found  from  central  Texas  to  east- 
ern California,  and  southward  through  iloxico 
and  Central  .\merica  to  Chile  and  Argentina, 
and  also  in  .Jamaica.  It  is  also  known  as  honey 
locust,  honey  jjod.  algaroba.  and  has  been  intro- 
duceil  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  where  it  is  highly 
prized  for  its  timber,  shade,  and  for  its  pods. 
which  are  an  im[)ortanl  stock  food.  In  the 
United  States  the  tree  attains  its  best  develop- 
ment in  the  valleys  of  western  Texas,  New  Jlexi- 
co.  and  Arizona.  In  some  jjlaces  it  is  the  only 
tree.  According  to  its  surroundings,  the  mes- 
quite varies  from  a  straggling,  spiny  shrub  to  a 
widely  branched  tree  50  feet  high  and  .'J  feet  in 
diameter,  the  latter  size  being  attained  in  rich 
valleys,  where  water  is  available  to  the  deeply 
penetrating  roots.  When  once  established  it 
withstands  extreme  heat  and  drought.  The  wood 
is  exceedingly  durable,  and  is  much  used  for 
posts,  house  foundations,  and  similar  structures. 


MESQUITE   TREE. 

as  well  as  for  fuel.  The  leaves,  which  are  eaten 
by  stock,  have  about  the  .same  composition  as 
alfalfa  hay.  The  pods,  which  grow  in  clusters 
of  from  2  to  10,  and  are  from  4  to  8  inches 
long,  are  slender,  white  or  yellow,  contain  a 
number  of  small  hard  seeds,  and  are  rich  in 
sugar,  on  which  account  they  are  eagerly  eaten 
by  cattle,  horses,  and  mules.  When  eaten  with- 
out preparation,  much  of  the  nutritive  value  is 
lost,  since  the  seeds  are  voided  without  being 
digested ;  but  when  gathered,  dried,  and  ground. 


their  value  is  greatly  increased,  since  the  nitro- 
genous beans  are  saved.  Two  forms  of  gum  are 
produced  by  the  mesquite  tree.  One,  resembling 
gum  arable,  e.xudes  as  small  clear  or  amber-col- 
ored drops  from  the  trunks.  It  makes  an  excel- 
lent mucilage,  and  has  been  employed  in  laun- 
dries and  for  confectionery.  The  other,  ob- 
tained from  wounds  in  the  trunks,  occurs  in  black, 
brittle,  larger  masses.  It  contains  as  much  as 
20  per  cent,  of  tannin,  and  with  some  form  of 
iron  is  used  by  the  Mexicans  as  a  black  dye- 
stuif.  During  the  lloweriug  period,  whicli  lasts 
for  about  two  months,  the  trees  are  visited  bv 
bees  for  the  abundant  nectar,  which  nuikes  a 
clear  honey  of  very  agreeable  llavor.  ^Mexicans 
make  a  cathartic  by  pounding  the  inner  bark  in 
water  and  adding  salt  to  the  mixture.  A  second 
species,  Prosopis  piibesceiis,  is  known  as  the 
screw  bean  or  curly  mesquite.  It  is  a  shrub  or 
small  tree  growing  in  situations  similar  to  the 
previous  one.  Its  pods  are  spirally  curled  into 
close  rigid  c.vlinders.  The  uses  of  this  species 
are  verv  similar  to  those  described  above. 

MESS  (OF.  mes,  Fr.  mets,  It.  messo,  messa, 
course  at  table,  from  Lat.  missus,  past  part,  of 
mittere,  to  send).  A  militar.v  and  naval  term 
originallv  signifying  a  dish  or  portion  of  food, 
but  now  used  in  the  sense  of  a  number  or  asso- 
ciation of  oHicers  or  men  taking  their  meals  to- 
gether. The  officers'  mess  of  an  arm.v  post  in 
the  United  States  Army  can  onlv  be  established, 
or  have  quarters  assigned  for  such  purpose,  when 
a  majority  of  its  officers,  who  must  be  not  less 
than  three  in  number,  unite  in  a  mess.  When- 
ever possible  the  enlisted  men  mess  together  by 
companies.  An  officer  appointed  bv  the  post 
commander  has  charge  of  the  general  mess  affairs, 
makes  necessary  'purchases,  and  cares  for  the 
mess  fund. 

The  s.ystem  of  messing,  as  regards  the  soldier, 
is  practically  the  same  throughout  Europe,  vary- 
ing in  comfort  and  food  according  to  the  country 
and  army  organization. 

On  board  men-of-war  the  admiral  messes  alone 
or  with  the  captain,  if  agreeable  to  both.  The 
ward-room  mess  includes  all  ward-room  officers. 
The  junior  officers  (ensigns — if  not  in  the  ward 
room — naval  cadets,  pay  clerks,  etc.)  have  a 
separate  mess  room,  as  have  also  the  warrant 
officers  (boatswains,  gunners,  carpenters,  war- 
rant machinists,  pharmacists).  The  enlisted 
force  in  most  ships  forms  the  'general  mess.' 
The  men  are  divided  into  convenient  units  or 
messes,  according  to  the  size  of  tlje  tables:  the 
chief  pett.v  officers  and  those  of  the  first  class 
have  their  own  tables,  and  when  possible  are 
granted  special  privileges  in  their  messing  ar- 
rangements. In  ships  on  board  which  the  'gen- 
eral mess'  s.vstem  has  not  been  established,  the 
crew  is  divided  into  several  messes,  according 
to  the  number. 

To  each  officers'  mess  are  allotted  a  cook,  stew- 
ard, and  servants,  the  number  of  the  latter  de- 
pending upon  the  nunil)er  of  officers  in  the  mess. 
The  servants  (or  mess  attendants,  as  they  are 
called )  are  not  merely  waiters  and  personal  attend- 
ants, but  in  action  they  are  ammunition  passers. 

MESSA  DI  VOCE,  mes'sa  lU  vi/ehti  (It., 
setting  of  the  voice).  A  term  used  in  (he  art  of 
singing,  meaning  the  gradual  swelling  and  again 
diminishing  of  the  sound  of  the  voice  on  a  note 
of  long  duration. 


MESSAXA  CORVINUS. 


358 


MESSIAH. 


MESSAXA  COKVI'NUS,  Mabcvs  VALERros 
(e.  70  n.c.-c.  1  B.C.).  A  Koman  soldier,  orator, 
and  patron  of  letters.  He  was  educated  in  part 
at  Athens,  and.  lia\ing  returned  to  Rome  after 
Caesar's  assa.ssination  and  previous  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  second  triumvirate,  became  a  member 
of  the  Senatorial  Parly.  He  was  third  in  com- 
mand of  the  Republican  army  at  Philippi.  and 
stormed  the  eamp  of  Octavius,  whom  he  almost 
captured.  Having  escajjed.  with  a  fairly  well 
organized  force,  to  the  island  of  Thasos.  he  later 
accepted  terms  from  Antony,  against  whom,  how- 
ever, at  Actium.  he  brilliantly  commanded  the 
centre  of  Octavius's  fleet,  and  whoso  abrogated 
consulship  he  filled  (li.c.  31).  Appointed  pro- 
consul of  Aquitania,  he  completed  the  reduction 
of  that  province  and  received  a  triumph.  He  was 
also  at  one  time  a  prefect  in  Asia  !Minor,  and  be- 
came a  special  member  of  the  College  of  Augurs. 
He  was  reckoned,  with  Gaius  Asinius  Pollio,  the 
last  orator  of  the  old  school.  Consult  Wiese, 
De  Corvini  Vita  ct  Htudiis  Doclriitw  (Berlin, 
1829). 

MES'SALI'NA,  Valeria.  The  most  infamous 
woman  in  the  annals  of  the  Roman  Empire.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  il.  Valerius  Messala  Bar- 
batus,  and  third  wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
whom  she  married  before  his  accession  in  a.d.  41. 
(See  CLAunirs.)  Taking  advantage  of  the  weak- 
ness and  stupidity  of  the  Emperor,  she  indulged 
in  the  most  wanton  and  flagrant  atrocities,  both 
moral  and  political,  li  we  are  to  judge  by  the 
Roman  historians,  her  character  was  unspeak- 
ably vile,  and  her  boundless  ambition  could  be 
satisfied  only  with  the  destruction  of  all  who 
seemed  to  thwart  her  plans.  The  best  blood  of 
Rome  flowed  at  her  pleasure.  She  retained  her 
influence  over  the  Emperor,  who  remained  un- 
aware of  her  infidelities:  but  when,  during  a 
short  absence  of  Claudius  from  Rome,  she  actu- 
ally conunitted  tlie  folly  of  going  through  the 
forms  of  a  public  marriage  with  C.  Silius,  a 
young  man  of  whom  she  had  become  enamored, 
the  affair  was  brought  to  the  Emperor's  atten- 
tion by  the  frecdman  Xarcissns,  and  Claudius. not 
without  reluctance,  gave  orders  for  her  deatli. 
She  was  killed  by  a  tribune  of  the  guards,  a.d.  48. 

MESSA'PIA  (Lat..  from  Ok.  SU<r(rawla).  Tlie 
name  ai>|ili.d  by  the  Creeks  to  Calabria  (in  the 
classical  sense),  a  )ienin-^ula  in  the  soutlieastcrn 
part  of  Italy,  extending  from  Tarentnm  to  tlie 
lapygian  Promontory.  The  Messapii,  inhabitants 
of  this  part  of  the  country,  were  known  also  as 
the  Tapyges,  or  lapygii, 

MESSENE,  mes-se.'n*  (Lat.,  from  Ok.  Mt<r- 
ffTjnj).  Caiiital  of  Messenia.  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
founded  by  Epaminondas  (n.r.  .SOn).  It  was  sit\i- 
ated  at  the  foot  of  Moimt  fthome.  and  surrounded 
by  a  .stone  wall.  .tVj  miles  long,  and  of  great 
strength.  It  is  still  well  preserved  in  places,  espe- 
cially nt  the  .Xrcadian  (!ate.  which  is  an  exception- 
ally fine  example  of  Creek  fortification.  The  sta- 
dium, theatre,  and  other  ruins  can  lie  easily  traced, 
and  excavations  in  1S!I.">  by  the  Greek  .Nrcha-o- 
logical  Society  brought  to  light  a  fine  colonnade 
and  other  reiiiains  of  the  ancient  agora. 

The  town  was  settled  by  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Messcnians,  and  was  therefore  the  hered- 
itary enemy  of  Sparta,  contributing  not  a  little 
to  the  continual  internecine  strife  which  marks 
the  history  of  the  Pcloponnestis  from  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  centurj-  B.C.  to  the  Roman  conquest. 


The  modern  Messene,  or  Xisi,  is  some  distance 
from  the  ancient  site,  which  is  partly  occupied 
by  the  little  village  of  JIavromati. 

MESSETflA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mecrarivla) .  A 
district  in  the  southwest  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
l)oundcd  on  the  east  by  Laconia,  on  the  north  tiy 
Arcadia  and  Elis,  and  on  the  south  and  west  by 
the  sea.  It  was  composed  chietly  of  extensive 
plains,  watered  by  the  Pamisus  and  other 
streams.  These  plains  were  famous  for  their 
fertility,  and  particularly  for  their  wheat  har- 
vests. At  an  early  ]ieriud.  after  the  Doric  con- 
quest, it  rose  to  jiower  and  opulence.  Its  chief 
cities  were  Methone  and  Pylos.  In  late  times 
Messene  was  the  capital.  Jlessenia  is  chiefly 
noted  for  its  two  wars  with  Sparta,  known  as  the 
Jlessenian  wars,  the  first  of  which  seems  to  have 
occurred  in  the  eighth,  the  second  (of  which 
Aristomenes  is  rejiresented  as  the  hero)  in  the 
second  half  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  though 
our  accounts  of  both  rest  on  no  satisfactor)'  au- 
thorities. In  both  instances  the  ilessenians  were  • 
defeated,  and  after  the  second  war  a  part  of  the  ' 
population  emigrated  to  Sicily.  The  peopling  of 
ilessana  was  much  later.  The  remainder  of  the 
inhabitants  were  reduced  to  the  position  of  helots. 
A  revolt  of  the  latter,  who  fortified  themselvcg 
on  Mount  Ithome  and  held  out  for  ten  years,  is  ' 
known  as  the  Third  Messenian  War  (B.C.  464- 
455).  The  invasitm  of  the  Peloponnesus  by 
Epaminondas  in  370-.3()!l  led  to  the  return  of  the 
Messenians  to  their  land  and  the  revival  of  their 
old  State,  which  continued  independent,  though 
in  alliance  at  times  with  the  Macedonians,  until 
thej^oman  conquest  (B.C.  140).  Messenia  is  the 
name  of  one  of  the  nomarchies  of  the  modem 
Kingdrini  of  Greece. 

MESSIAH  (Gk.  Meo-irios,  Messias,  or  M«r(at, 
Mrsias,  from  Aramaic  Mcshikha.  equivalent  of 
llcb.  haiii-Mushlakh.  the  anointed).  A  title 
given  to  the  King  or  Pontiff  in  ancient  Israel  be- 
cause of  his  anointment  as  vicegerent  of  the 
deity  and  ruler  of  the  pcojde:  and  in  later  times 
a  designation  of  the  expected  deliverer  from  for- 
eign oppression  and  founder  of  a  worldwide 
.lewish  empire.  Saul  (I.  Sam.  xii.  3,  5;  xxiv.  7, 
11),  David  (II.  Sam.  xix.  21;  xxiii.  1),  and 
Zedckiah  (Lam.  iv.  20)  are  spoken  of  as  Yaliweh's 
Anointed.  In  Isa.  xlv.  1,  Cyrus  is  regarded  as 
Yaliweh's  vicegerent  on  earth.  During  the  Per- 
sian period  some  hold  that  the  lligli  Priest  08 
head  of  the  State  was  referred  to  as  the  Messiah, 
the  .\nointed  One  (Lev.  iv.  3,  5,  1(1).  The  same 
custom,  according  to  the  same  view,  continued 
in  the  (Jreck  period,  as  .Toshua  ben  .lozadakis 
alluded  to  as  the  Anointed  Prince  in  Dan.  ix. 
25,  and  Onias  III,  as  an  Anointed  One  in  Dan. 
ix.  26.  It  is  natural  that  the  priest-kings  of  the 
Asmona-an  family  (see  Maccabee.s)  should  re- 
ceive this  title.  Ps.  xviii.  50:  xx.  fi:  xxviii.  8; 
Ixxxiv.  10;  Ixxxix.  39,  52  clearly  refer  to  some  of 
these  rulers,  though  it  is  douiitful  in  some  in- 
stances whether  one  of  the  actual  kings,  Aristo- 
liiihis  I.  and  .Xlcxandcr  .Tannanis,  or  a  princely 
pontiff  like  .Tonathan,  Simon,  or  .Tohn  HyrcanUS 
is  meant.  From  the  critical  point  of  view  there 
is  no  reference  in  the  Old  Testament  to  n  future 
deliverer  of  Israel  described  as  the  Messiah,  and 
the  conception  of  a  coming  Messiah  meets  us  for 
the  fir«t  time  in  the  P-iatlcr  of  Solomon,  written 
soon  after  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  Pompey 
in  B.C.  C3. 


MESSIAH. 


339 


MESSIAH. 


But  the  elements  out  of  wliicli  the  Messiah  as 
an  eschatological  luagnilude  was  formed  had 
loll"  been  in  existence.  There  had  been  a  tend- 
enev  to  attach  much  importance  to  the  anoint- 
ing of  rulers.  From  Saul  to  Zedckiah,  from 
Joshua  to  Aristobulus  11.,  the  leader  of  the 
.State,  whether  king,  pontiil',  or  priest-king,  had 
been  eonseorated  witli  oil.  Originally  unction 
was  an  apjilicaliou  of  sacrificial  fat.  The  pour- 
ing of  oil  upon  the  stone  in  wliich  the  divinity 
dwelt  was  a  sacrifice.  The  King  was  a  holy  be- 
ing to  whom  this  oflering  «as  made.  With  the 
anointing  a  spirit  entered  into  him  ( 1.  Sam. 
xvi.  l.S)  ;  he  was  sacrosanct,  his  body  must  not 
be  touched  (I.  Sam.  x.xiv.  10)  ;  he  was  gradually 
removed  from  the  gaze  of  the  people  and  seen 
only  by  his  olIicials(  11.  Kings  xix.  15) .  The  pontiff 
as  ruler  of  Israel  was  Yahweh's  anointed,  a  'son 
of  oil'  (Zech.  iv.  14),  having  access  to  the  celes- 
tial court  (Zech.  iii.  7).  It  is  held  by  some  that 
in  the  Asmona-an  age  the  priest-king  by  virtue  of 
his  anointment  was  regarded  as  Yahweh's  'Son' 
and  as  a  'god'  sitting  on  his  throne  ( Ps.  xlv., 
Ivii.,  Ixxxii. ).  It  is  not  considered  strange  by 
those  holding  this  view  that  a  victorious  king 
engaged  as  it  seemed  to  his  admirers  in  the  con- 
quest of  the  world  should  at  that  time  have  been 
addressed  as  'god'  by  a  court-poet  ( Ps.  xlv.  0). 
There  had  also  been  a  tendency  to  repose  ex- 
traordinary faith  in  the  dynasty  founded  by 
David.  The  reason  for  this  may  have  been  its 
remarkable  longevit}';  perhaps  also  its  promised 
prosperity.  As  long  as  princes  of  this  family  lived 
and  received  signal  honors  at  the  liands  of  Clial- 
diean  and  Persian  kings,  as  was  the  case  with  .Je- 
hoia<'hin,  Sheshbazzar,  and  Zerubbabel,  the  hope 
of  national  independence  naturally  connected 
itself  with  these  shoots  of  the  old  stock.  Tlius  the 
elevation  of  .Jehoiachin  from  his  dungeon  to  royal 
dignity  in  B.C.  501  and  the  birth  of  his  son,  Sin- 
apaluzur  (.Sheshbazzar).  seem  according  to  some 
to  have  led  a  poet  to  express  the  hopes  of  Isaiah 
ix.  1-0,  xi.  1-0,  and  the  presence  of  .lehoiachin's 
grandson,  Zerubbabel  (q.v.).  as  Governor  in 
.Jerusalem  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Darius 
Hystaspis  raised  expectations  of  his  restoring 
the  old  dynasty  (Hag.  ii.  2.3;  Zech.  viii.  8;  iv. 
C  s(]f|, :  vi.  12).  The  gradual  disappearance  of 
prominent  members  of  the  Davidie  family  no 
doubt  gave  room  for  independent  aspirations. 
Sanballat  (q.v.)  m.ay  have  been  right  when  he 
declared  that  prophets  in  .Jerusalem  had  an- 
nounced Xehemiah  as  tlie  coming  King  (Neh.  vi. 
7).  Simon  became  prince  as  well  as  higli  priest, 
and  .\ri'<tol)ulus  I.  king,  without  Ixdonging  to  tlie 
Davidie  family.  But  the  strength  of  tlie  legiti- 
mist feeling  may  be  seen  both  in  tlie  fiction  by 
which  the  occupant  of  David's  throne  was  desig- 
nated as  his  son.  and  in  the  indignant  protest 
of  the  Pharisees  against  this  fiction.  This 
loyalty  to  the  legitimate  line  and  the  increasing 
"lifticulty  of  finding  a  leader  who  should  also  be 
a  genuine  descendant  of  David,  necessarily  re- 
moved into  the  future  the  Messianic  King.  Of 
great  importance  was  also  the  tendency,  always 
strong  in  Israel,  to  look  beyond  present  condi- 
tions f(n'  better  things  to  come.  While  the  great 
prophets  before  the  Exile  announced  impending 
judgment,  there  were  always  thosp  who  held  up 
oheerful  pictures  of  the  future  to  the  people. 
.■\fter  the  Exile,  it  was  especially  the  author  of 
Isaiah  xl.-xlviii.  who  inspired  liope  and  courage 
by  his  promises  of  good.     He  indeed  did  not  look 


forward  to  a  Messiah,  but  he  did  much  to  develop 
that  apocalyptic  mood  out  of  which  this  figure 
was  born.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  written  about  u.c.  105.  It  reveals  a 
marked  growth  of  the  apocalyptic  imagery,  but 
it  is  contended  by  many  that  the  Jlessiah  holds 
as  yet  no  place  among  its  esehatological  figures. 
The  man-like  being  appearing  on  the  cloud  (eh. 
vii.)  is  probably  Michael,  the  celestial  represen- 
tative of  Israel.  The  Jlaccabean  uprising  and  the 
establishment  of  a  native  dynasty  encouraged 
this  disposition  to  map  out  the  future.  But  while 
Yahweh's  anointed  actually  sat  upon  the  throne 
of  David  and  was  eomiuering  the  neighboring  na- 
tions, there  was  no  reason  for  putting  the  Mes- 
siah in  the  future.  The  atmosphere  of  the 
Psalter  is  saturated  with  a  desire  for  divine 
judgment  upon  the  heathen  nations  and  breathes 
a  pathetic  confidence  in  the  dynasty  occupying 
the  Davidie  throne.  The  enthusiasm  seems  to 
have  been  shared  by  the  Egyptian  Jews.  Isaiah 
xix.  10-25  shows  how  the  recognition  of  Jonathan 
by  Alexander  Balas  on  the  occasion  of  his  mar- 
riage to  Cleopatra  in  B.C.  150  afiectcd  the  Jewish 
colony  at  Leontopolis.  (See  Oxi.\.s's  Temple.) 
.Jonathan  is  probabh-  the  deliverer  of  verse  20. 
In  the  Sibylline  Oracles  (iii.  052  sqq. )  there 
seems  to  be  a  reference  to  Simon  as  a  god-sent 
king  who  will  put  an  end  to  evil  war.  From  the 
standpoint  of  the  Erythrean  Sibyl,  Simon  may 
be  said  to  be  a  king,  sent  'from  the  sun,'  even 
as  Cyrus  is  called  a  king  'from  heaven'  (iii. 
286).  The  passage  was  probably  written  in  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  IX.,  Euergetes  II.  (B.C.  145-117). 
Neither  the  apocalypse  in  Isaiah  xxiv.-xxvii., 
written  e.l28  B.C.,  nor  Etliioine  Enoch  i.-x.xxvi., 
written  later  in  the  reign  of  .John  Hyrcanus  (B.C. 
135-105),  contains  any  allusion  to  a  king,  and 
Ethiopic  Enoch  xc.  37,  38  seems  to  be  a  late  ad- 
dition to  the  book  Ixxxiii.-xc,  which  apparently 
was  written  c.106  B.C.  An  elaborate  eschatology 
had  thus  been  developed  before  the  Roman  pe- 
riod in  which  the  Messiah,  according  to  this  view, 
held  no  place.  But  the  way  was  prepared  by 
veneration  for  the  anointed  ruler  of  the  State, 
loyalty  to  the  old  d.'S'nasty,  and  speculation  about 
the  world's  future.  Roman  oppression  caused  a 
fusion  of  these  elements.  The  anointed  king  that 
was  needed  must  be  a  genuine  son  of  David,  and 
as  no  claimant  to  the  throne  of  the  legitimate 
line  presented  himself,  he  necessarily  belonged  to 
the  future.  The  Roman  yoke  was  all  the  more 
galling  as  the  .Jewish  people  had  for  a  century 
indulged  in  a  dream  of  empire  and  imagined  it- 
self in  the  midst  of  the  actual  conquest  of  the 
world.  But  even  this  cruel  disenchantment  could 
not  quench  the  spark  of  ambition.  The  Pharisees 
saw  the  cause  of  the  ciilamity  in  the  .Asmono'an 
usurpation  of  the  throne  of  David,  as  tlie  I'.inller 
of  Solomon  shows,  and  looked  to  Cod  to  provide 
the  genuine  'Son  of  David,'  strengthening  their 
faith  by  the  prophetic  word.  They  iinderstood 
the  Psalms  of  David  to  be  songs  indited  by  the 
great  monarch,  and  naturally  interpreted  the  lan- 
guage in  which  the  actually  reigning  King  had 
been  referred  to  as  prophecies  of  the  coming  Jles- 
siah.  Similarly  the  words  of  ancient  prophets 
originally  referring  to  their  eontem]ioraries  of 
the  Davidie  family  or  to  the  dynasty  itself  were 
explained  as  divine  announcements  of  the  coming 
deliverer.  But  in  spite  of  this  suiqiort  in  the 
popular  exegesis  of  the  Bible,  the  !\Iessianic  hope 
seems   to    have   been   cherished   onlv    in    limited 


MESSIAH. 


360 


MESSIAH. 


circles.  Whether  the  idea  was  influenced  at  the 
outset  by  Mazdayasnian  thought  is  doubtful ;  in 
its  later  develuinneiit  it  may  liavo  burrowed  some 
features  from  the  Saoshyant  (q.v.).  This  Per- 
sian Messiah  has  no  jjolitical  character,  lie  was 
expected  to  raise  the  dead  and  to  renew  the  world 
(Yasht,  xix.  92  sqq. ).  The  Messianic  idea  seems 
to  have  had  little  hold  upon  the  Alexandrian 
Jews.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  translators  of 
Isaiah  ix.  5  and  Psalm  ex.  3  had  tlie  Jlessiah 
in  mind;  in  Numbers  xxiv.  7  the  Davidic  house 
is  meant,  and  tlie  rendering  of  Cienesis  xlix.  10, 
'he  is  the  expeetatiun  of  the  nations,'  is  not  like- 
ly to  be  original.  It  is  doubtful  whether  l/iibyl- 
line  Oracles  iii.  46-IJ2,  75-92  belongs  to  the  time 
of  the  First  Triumvirate  and  Cleopatra,  or  to 
the  time  of  Gall)a.  Otho,  and  Vitellius:  in  the 
latter  case  the  "widow'  is  Kome.and  the  'holy  ruler' 
may  be  none  else  than  the  'immortal  God'  and 
'great  king'  mentioned  in  the  same  connection. 
The  Book  of  Wisdom  contains  no  allusion  to  the 
Messiah.  Pliilo  declares  that  the  Israelites  shall 
return  to  Palestine  'led  by  a  divine  or  more  than 
human  apparition'  (Dr  Exreriitionibiis.  iii.  437), 
and  that  if  tlie  future  kingdom  of  peace  shall 
be  disturbed  a  man  will  come,  according  to  the 
promise,  to  sulxhie  the  nations,  God  granting  to 
the  pious  auxiliaries  in  psychic  power  and  physi- 
cal strengtii  (De  Prwmiis  et  Parnifs,  ii.  421-428). 
But  he  seems  to  have  thought  of  the  divine  glory 
and  of  deliverance  through  manly  qualities  rather 
tluiii  througli  a  man.  Tlie  SJaiionic  Enoch  knows 
nothing  of  a  ilessiah.  The  same  silence  concern- 
ing this  figure  is  found  in  such  Palestinian  works 
as  Ecclesiastes,  written  c.30  B.C.;  the  Axfiumittinn 
of  Moses  (i.-vi.),  written  in  the  beginning  of 
our  era;  the  Book  of  Jubilees;  and  the  original 
Testamenis  of  the  Tireh-e  Patriarchs.  It  is  held 
by  many  that  aside  from  the  Psalter  of  Solomon 
there  is  no  unmistakalile  reference  to  the  Mes- 
siah in  any  literary  production  that  can  be  dated 
with  certainty  as  earlier  than  tlie  time  of  Jesus. 
But  the  description  given  in  tliis  work  (xvii., 
xviii.)  of  the  coming  king  sliows  with  sufficient 
clearness  that  some  men  in  Israel  in  the  first 
century  B.C.  looked  forward  to  the  appearance  of 
a  descendant  of  David,  who  would  be  a  con- 
queror of  nations  and  a  righteous  ruler  and 
whom  they  called  the  Messiah.  According  to 
Matthew  xxii.  I'l,  Ifi  CMark  xii.  13)  there  was 
a  party  of  'the  Ilerodians.'  Tert\illian  <leclares 
that  'the  Herodians  said  Herod  was  the  Clirist' 
(Prwser.  4.5).  It  is  not  improliable  that  the 
king  who  built  the  most  splendid  temple  .Terusa- 
lem  had  ever  had  and  restored  the  Davidic  king- 
dom, even  though  it  was  by  the  favor  of  Rome, 
was  thus  looked  upon  as  the  promised  Messiah 
by  his  courtiers.  .ludali  of  Gamala  in  Galilee 
seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  the  Jlessiah  by 
many  and  undertook  an  insurrection  in  A.n,  7. 
(See  .JlPAS  OF  G.M.ir.F;E.)  He  was  sujiported  by 
Zadok.  a  disciple  of  Sliammai.  The  immediate 
cause  of  the  rebellion  was  the  census  of  Quirinius 
on  the  accession  of  Arehelaus.  He  was  put  to 
death,  but  his  followers  continued  ns  a  sect 
(Josephus,   llV/r.'!,   ii.,   118). 

Jesus  of  Xazareth  was  crucified  by  Pontius 
Pilate  as  a  political  criminal  claiming,  in  de- 
fiance of  the  authority  of  Rome,  to  hi'  'King  of 
the  .Tews.'  It  is  ))elieved  by  some  that  he  never 
claimed  himself  to  be  the  Messiah.  The  Synoptic 
Kviiiigelists  believed,  indeed,  that  he  was  the 
Messiah.     But  this  belief  may  have  been  based 


on  his  resurrection  from  the  dead.  For  a  time 
at  any  rate  he  avoided  assuming  any  distinctive 
Messianic  title,  and  on  several  occasions  forbade 
his  disciples  to  say  that  he  was  the  Messiali, 
From  their  point  of  view  they  could  ex|ilain  this 
attitude  only  as  a  persistent  attempt  to  keep  his 
Jlessiahship  a  secret.  This  secret  was  known  to 
God,  who  might  in  due  time  reveal  it,  and  to  tha 
demons,  who  were  punished  for  prematurely  an- 
nouncing it,  but  not  to  men.  The  disei]iles  seem, 
however,  to  have  regarded  the  term  'Son  of  Man' 
as  a  self-designation  of  Jesus  by  which  he  in- 
tended to  hint  at  his  Messianic  claims  without 
directly  disclosing  them.  But  this  belief,  it  is 
argiu'd,  may  have  been  erroneous,  and  so  in- 
definite a  term  as  'man'  cannot  have  been  a 
Messianic  title  and  is  not  found  in  Jewish  litera- 
ture as  svuh.  The  life  and  teaching  of 
Jesus  offended  all  influential  parties  in  the  na- 
tion, while  the  entluisiasm  and  indiscretion  of 
his  disciples  readily  furnislied  immeiliate  excuse 
for  a  false  accusation.  Pilate  could  scarcely 
avoid  regarding  him  as  a  disturber  of  tlic  peace,  « 
and  executed  liim  on  the  ground  of  the  loose  i! 
charge  preferred  against  him.  Similarly  there  > 
is  no  evidence  that  John  the  Baptist  regarded 
himself  as  the  Messiah,  though  his  disciples  at  ' 
a  later  time  seem  to  have  considered  him  as  such. 

It  is  only  just,  however,  to  state  that  from  ' 
the  traditional  Jewish  and  Christian  standpoint, 
the  Messianic  belief  was  imliedded  in  Hebrew 
history  and  interwoven  witli  the  deepest  life  of 
tlie  people.  The  promises  which  formed  and 
fed  it  are  thouglit  to  reach  back  to  tlie  earliest 
Jewish  annals  and  the  belief  itself  is  thought  to 
rest  uiKui  sacred  traditions  coeval  witli  the  origin 
of  the  human  race.  According  to  this  view  the 
Messianic  idea  was  inse|)arably  connected  with 
the  provision  for  the  redemidion  of  man  after  the 
fall  and  was  gradually  unfolded  through  the 
history  of  the  chosen  people  of  God.  Tlie  hope 
of  a  Messiah  was  centred  in  a  single  race.  With 
the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  came  at  once 
an  enlargement  of  the  conception  of  the  Anointed 
One's  person  and  work  and  a  narrower  limitation 
of  the  stock  from  which  he  was  to  spring.  One 
family  was  selected  from  the  chosen  tribe  and 
the  'sceptre'  fell  to  the  House  of  David.  With 
the  later  development  of  the  kingdom  and  the 
idolatrous  faithlessness  of  the  jieople  came  the 
clearer  conception  of  Messianic  teaching.  The 
captivity  com])leted  the  circle  of  Jlessianic  hopes 
by  turning  the  eyes  of  the  people  to  tlie  divine 
glory  of  the  coming  king  and  the  universal  extent 
of  his  kingdom.  The  son  of  Daviil  aeipiired  the 
wider  title  of  'the  Son  of  Man'  and  his  kingdom 
appeared  as  the  last,  but  mightiest,  pf  the  mon- 
arch ies  of  the  world. 

.Veeording  to  this  traditional  view  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  Messianic  idea  may  be  traced  through 
four  distinct  epochs,  three  within  the  limits 
of  the  Hebrew  canon  and  the  fourth  outside 
it.  The  first  of  these  emls  with  :Moscs.  In  the 
protevangelium  we  have  the  primal  prom- 
ise. 'The  seed  of  the  woman'  is  to  bruise  the 
serpent's  head.  This  promise  takes  shape  in  the 
family  of  .\braham.  in  whose  .seed  all  the  n.Ttions 
of  the  earth  are  to  be  blessed.  Saint  Paul  argiies 
in  Gal.  iii.  10  that  the  'seed'  is  a  personal  Mes- 
siah. His  characteristics  are  gi-adiially  un- 
folded in  the  '.Shiloh'  of  the  dying  Jacob  (Gen. 
xlix.  lOK  in  the  'Star'  of  Bal.nnm  (Num.  xxiv. 
17)   and  the  'prophet'  of  Moses   (Deut.  xviii.  18, 


MESSIAH. 


361 


MESSIAH. 


19),  wlio  was  to  be  the  lawgiver,  teacher,  and 
deliverer  of  Israel.  The  second  period  centres  in 
tlie  reijins  of  David  and  Solomon;  tlic  promise  of 
a  kingdom  to  David  and  his  house  'forever' 
could  uot  be  literally  fullilled  by  any  mere  con- 
tinuation of  his  dynasty  on  an  earthly  throne.  It 
implied  a  superhuman  royalty  of  wliicli  we  have 
a  scries  of  pictures  in  the  Jlessianic  psalms, which 
are  believed  to  be  pervaded  with  tlie  expectation 
of  a  coming  deliverer,  based  on  delinit*  promises 
of  God  and  confirmed  by  His  repeated  assurances. 
In  Ps.  ii.,  xlv.,  Ixxii.,  and  ex.,  for  instance,  we 
have  de])icted  not  only  the  Messiah's  inheritance 
and  the  blessings  and  extent  of  his  kingdom,  but 
the  King  himself  reigning  among  men  and  bring- 
ing to  his  subjects  righteous  judgment,  salvation, 
and  redemption.  He  is  both  priest  and  king.  He 
is  David's  Lord  as  well  as  his  son.  His  empire 
is  spiritual.  Its  rule  is  world-wide  and  time- 
enibraeing.  He  is  to  reign  until  his  enemies  be- 
come his  footstool.  These  Psalms,  as  is  widely 
contended,  cannot  be  applied  exclusively  to  Solo- 
mon or  any  temporal  ruler  without  excgetieal 
violence  and  the  New  Testament  interpretation  of 
the  regal  triumph  over  the  rebellious  heathen 
(Heb.  i.  8)  referred  it  to  the  anointed  Saviour. 
The  third  period  extends  to  the  close  of  the 
Hebrew  canon  and  includes,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, the  richest  mine  of  Messianic  prophecy  in 
the  Old  Testament.  Messiah,  as  the  "servant  of 
God,'  is  the  central  figure  of  Isaiah's  prophecies. 
This  expected  king,  this  "root  of  -Jesse,'  will 
'stand  for  an  ensign  of  the  people.'  He  will  be 
the  rallying-point  of  the  world's  hopes,  the  true 
centre  of  its  government  ( Isa.  xi.  10).  He  is 
portrayed  as  "the  mighty  God,  the  everlasting 
Father,  the  Prince  of  Peace' (Isa.  ix.)  The  picture 
of  the  suffering  jMessiah  in  the  fifty-third  chapter 
is  so  accurate  in  its  prophetic  anticipations  of  the 
events  in  the  judgment  hall  of  Caiaphas  and  be- 
fore Pilate's  bar  as  to  have  given  Isaiah  the  title 
of  the  "Evangelical  prophet.'  .Jeremiah  depicts 
the  future  deliverer  as  a  king  executing  judgment 
and  justice  in  the  earth  ( .Jer.  xxiii.  .5)  and 
Zeehariah  paints  him  as  an  enthroned  priest 
(Zech.  vi.  1.3).  Daniel  is  taught  that  at  the 
anointing  of  the  most  holy.  God  will  'make  recon- 
ciliation for  iniquity'  and  "tring  in  everlasting 
righteousness'  (Dan.  ix.  24).  In  chapter  vii.  he 
applies,  according  to  this  view,  to  the  coming 
Messiah  the  title  'Son  of  Man.'  whose  dominion  is 
'an  everlasting  dominion  which  shall  not  pass 
away.'  Finally  IMalachi  speaks  of  him  as  'the 
angel  of  the  covenant'  whom  Israel  was  seeking 
and  who  would  "suddenly  come  to  his  temple' 
(Mai.  iii.  1).  The  fourth  epoch  extends  from 
the  close  of  the  Hebrew  canon  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Gospel  era.  Among  the  .Jews  of  Alex- 
andria the  ilessianic  hope  at  this  time  is  sup- 
posed to  have  deteriorated,  while  among  the 
Palestinian  Jews  it  survived  and  flourished.  The 
Hcllenized  peoples  would  naturally  be  absorbed  in 
the  current  speculations  regarding  the  Sophia 
and  the  Logos  and  long  absence  from  Palestine, 
and  a  hesitancy  to  avow  startling  beliefs  among 
unfriendly  critics  would  tend  to  quench  all  inter- 
est in  the  future  of  .Jewish  nationality.  Xever- 
theless  the  expectation  of  a  ^Messiah  was  a  promi- 
nent feature  of  both  the  popular  and  the  intel- 
lectual mind  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
Era.  The  Galilean  peasantry  and  the  Pharisees 
alike  expected  the  fulfillment  of  the  national 
hopes.     An  oppressed  and  suffering  people  natu- 


rally looked  for  a  secular  prince  who  would  free 
them  from  the  heathen  yoke,  and  when  Jesus 
entered  upon  his  public  ministry,  Messiah- 
ship  meant  to  the  masses  and  the  classes 
of  Jewry  simply  emancipation  from  Koman 
rule.  But  .Jesus  did  not  lend  himself  to  this 
narrow  and  penertcd  type  of  Messiahship. 
He  claimed  to  be  the  divine  Messiah  of  David 
and  Isaiah.  At  C'tesarea  Philippi  (Matt,  xvi.; 
Mark  viii.,  Luke  i.x. )  he  clearly  accepted  the 
recognition  of  himself  as  the  Messiah-King  of 
the  Old  Testament.  The  term  'Christ'  or  Anointed 
is  synonymous  with  Messiah,  and  Saint  Peter's 
confession  "Thou  art  Christ — the  Christ  of  God 
(Luke),  the  Son  of  the  living  (Jod  (ilatt.)"  ex- 
presses in  unmistakable  language  the  supernat- 
urally  imparted  recognition  of  Jesus  as  the  Mes- 
siah. The  same  designation  of  him  was  used 
by  the  Samaritan  woman  (.John  iv.  "25,  26)  and 
accepted  by  Jesus,  and  Andrew  said  to  his 
brother  Simon:  "We  have  found  the  Messiah, 
which  is,  being  interpreted,  the  Christ"  (John 
i.  41  sqq.). 

According  to  the  traditional  view,  the  title 
'Son  of  Man'  was  the  Christ's  self-chosen  desig- 
nation of  himself,  and  with  two  exceptions  was 
applied  to  him  by  his  own  lips.  To  Jewish  ears 
it  is  thought  to  have  been  a  clear  assertion  of 
ilessiahship.  Some  suppose  that  in  consequence 
of  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  it  became  a  popular 
and  official  title  of  the  Messiah.  In  one  part  of 
the  Book  of  Enoch  (q.v.),  which,  however,  is  of 
uncertain  date,  the  judgment  day  of  Messiah, 
identified  with  Daniel's  "Son  of  Jlan,'  stands  in 
the  forefront  of  the  eschatological  picture.  Jesus, 
when  standing  at  the  tribunal  of  Caiaphas.  said 
to  his  judges:  "Hereafter  shall  ye  see  the  son  of 
man  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  power  and  com- 
ing in  the  clouds  of  heaven"  (Matt.  xxvi.  64),  and 
he  uttered  a  similar  prediction  in  his  prophecy 
over  Jerusalem  (^latt.  xxiv.  30).  Those  who 
accept  the  genuineness  of  these  sayings  think  that 
it  was  no  merely  generic  title,  but  the  constant 
setting  forth  of  his  Messianic  claims  and  that, 
coupled  as  it  was  with  his  repeated  assertions  of 
his  divine  origin,  it  brought  down  upon  him  the 
wrath  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees.  The  San- 
hedrin.  the  highest  court  of  Jewry,  condemned 
him  because  he  claimed  divinity.  "We  have  a 
law  and  by  our  law  he  ought  to  die  because  he 
made  himself  the  son  of  God."  said  the  mem- 
bers of  this  court  to  the  Roman  Governor.  "He 
hath  spoken  blasphemy."  cried  the  High  Priest 
(Matt,  xxvi,  65).  This  was  the  culmination  of 
the  Nazarene's  olfense  against  the  current  concep- 
tions of  Messiahship.  "'They  all  condemned  him 
to  be  guilty  of  death."  But  having  lost  the 
power  of  capital  punishment,  in  their  subjection 
to  the  Roman  Government,  the  .Jews  had  to  go  to 
Pontius  Pilate  to  attain  their  ends,  and  Jesus 
was  crucified  by  order  of  the  Governor. 

It  should  also  be  stated  that  between  the  criti- 
cal estimate  first  given  and  the  traditiimal  inter- 
pretation just  outlined  many  scholars  have  as- 
sumed a  mediating  position,  rejecting  the  bulk  of 
supix)sed  Messianic  prophecy  and  the  accuracy 
of  the  Xew  Testament  interpretation  of  it.  while 
still  maintaining  that  .Jesus  regai'ded  himself  as 
the  Messiah  and  gave  to  the  ilessiahship  as  to 
the  kingdom  a  more  spiritiial  significance. 

In  A.D.  37  a  Samaritan  appeared  as  a  leader 
of  a  rebellion  in  Tirathana.  Precisely  what 
claims   he   made   for   himself   is  not   clear   from 


MESSIAH. 


362 


MESSIAH. 


the  account  of  Josephus  {Ant.  xviii.  8.5  sqq.). 
There  are  many  indications  that  after  this  time 
a  more  transcendental  cliaracter  was  given  to 
the  ilessianic  conception,  not  only  among  the 
Jews  who  looked  forward  to  a  return  of  Jesiis 
as  the  ^lessiah,  but  also  in  other  circles  of 
Jewry.  Theudas,  who  announced  himself  as  the 
Jtessiah  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  did  not  depend 
upon  military  strength  or  political  diplomacy, 
but  looked  for  a  miraculous  establishment  by 
God  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel  in  place  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  He  was  beheaded  by  Cuspius 
Fadus  in  a.d.  4G  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx.  07  sqq.). 
The  Egyptian  (c..58  a.u.  )  mentioned  by  .Jo- 
sephus {Ant.  XX.  169  sqq.)  probably  only  claimed 
to  be  what  the  historian  calls  him — a  prophet. 
But  Menahem,  son  of  .Judah,  the  Galilean,  who 
appeared  during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  led  the 
attack  upon  the  Koman  garrison  clothed  in  royal 
garments,  and  fell  a  victim  of  his  ilessianic 
pride  and  arbitrariness.  An  apocalyptic  frag- 
ment of  Jewish  origin,  preserved  in  Revelation 
xi.  1,  2,  xii.,  sets  forth  figuratively  how  the 
ilcs-siah  has  already  l)een  born,  but  is  hidden 
secure  against  Roman  persecution,  to  appear  in 
due  time.  This  idea  that  the  Jlessiah  has  been 
born  in  the  Jewish  community,  but  has  already 
as  a  chihl  been  translated,  is  similar  to  the  con- 
ception found  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  {San- 
hedrin,  08  b ) ,  where  the  Messiah  is  a  deceased 
descendant  of  David  who  rises  from  the  dead  to 
accomplish  the  delivery  of  Israel.  Both  of  tliese 
notions  were  due  to  the  conviction  that  God 
would  provide  a  genuine  son  of  David.  .V  trans- 
lated hero  would  naturally  return  on  the  clouds 
of  heaven.  Thus  in  the  .Ifjonilifpsr  of  Baruch, 
written  after  the  fall  of  .Terusaleiii,  the  Messiah 
is  'revealed'  (xxix.  3:  xxxix.  7),  and  'returns  in 
glory'  ( xx.x.  I )  to  rule  until  the  world  of  cor- 
ruption is  at  an  end  (xl.  3),  sparing  some  and 
putting  others  to  death  (Ixxii.  2-0).  In  the 
Apocalypse  of  Ezra,  written  in  A.u.  07,  the  Mes- 
siah is  to  be  revealed  during  four  hundred  years 
and  then  die  together  with  all  men,  whereupon 
the  present  age  will  end  and  a  new  world  begin, 
after  .seven  days  of  silence,  with  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead  and  the  appearance  of  the  Most  High 
on  the  judgment  seat  (vii.  iS  sqq.).  The  woman 
that  brings  forth  a  child,  as  in  Revelation  xii., 
loses  him  when  she  is  about  to  give  him  a  wife 
and  flees  into  the  wilderness  (ix.  43  sqq.).  The 
lion  rebuking  the  eagle  is  said  to  be  the  Mes- 
siah who  has  been  preserved  for  the  end  from  the 
seed  of  David  (xii.  3  sqq.).  Finally  the  man- 
like or  angelic  being  that  rises  from  the  sea  and 
flies  with  the  clouds  of  heaven,  destroying  an 
army  with  the  fire  proceeding  from  his  mouth, 
is  declared  to  be  tin-  ifessiah  (xiii.).  In  spite 
of  tlio  marked  influence  of  JeAvish-Christian 
thought,  the  emphasis  is  strongly  put  upon  the 
assertion  that  God  is  not  to  judge  His  creation 
tlirongh  any  one  (v.  56,  vi.  0).  It  is  po.ssible, 
however,  that  even  this  step  was  taken  by  the 
.Tewish  interpolator  of  the  hortatorr  addresses  of 
Knoch  il'.lhiopir  Knoch,  37-71.  (On  the  Cfimposite 
character  of  this  section  of  the  book,  consult 
Schmidt,  article  "ICnoch."  in  the  .fnri.ih  F.n- 
ciiclopmlln.)  In  the  original  vision  God  alone 
is  the  judge,  and  there  is  no  Messiah;  but  the 
hook  seems  to  have  Iteen  annotated  and  expanded 
by  a  writer  who  lookeil  forward  to  the  revelation 
of  n  chosen  instrument,  not  merely  for  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  nations,  but  for  the  judgment  of 


the  world — a  man  destined  to  sit  upon  a  glorious 
throne  to  judge  angels  and  men  (xlv.  3,  4;  xlvi. ; 
li.;  liii.  0;  Iv.  4;  Ixi.  S,  9).  This  picture  has 
finally  been  retouched  by  a  Christian  hand.  The 
Ai-amaic  original  is  lost,  but  even  the  IClhiopie 
translation  renders  it  possible  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  early  passages,  where  a  bar  nasha  in 
the  generic  sense  of  'man'  occurred,  and  the 
places  where  the  Christian  title  has  been  subse- 
quently introduced.  The  Jewish  expansion  prob- 
ably took  place  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  After 
this  a  reaction  against  the  transcendental  -Mes- 
sianic idea  set  in.  This  was  developed  in  Chris- 
tianity as  it  separated  itself  from  .hidaisni.  The 
Messianic  ide.a  became  fused  with  metaphysical 
speculation  of  (ireck  origin  to  sucli  an  extent 
that  6  XP'""''*';  '""'  anointed  one.'  the  etymolog- 
ical e(|uivalent  of  "the  Messiah,'  finally  conveyed 
a  meaning  absolutely  foreign  to  the  original  con- 
ception. 

The  figure  of  Simon  bar  Kozeba  (or  Bar-Coch- 
ba  was  probably  as  close  a  realization  of  the 
popular  Jewish  i<leal  of  a  Messiah  as  history 
ever  produced.  Of  him  alone  can  it  be  saiil 
that  he  was  not  only  recognized  by  his  peo- 
ple as  the  Messiah  at  a  time  when  the  Mes- 
sianic idea  had  reached  its  full  development 
and  regarded  himself  as  such,  but  also  suc- 
ceeded temporarily  in  redeeming  Jerusalem 
from  foreign  oppression.  In  less  than  a 
year  he  conquered  ,50  fortified  cities  and  045 
towns  and  villages.  His  army  consisted  of  "iOO,- 
000  men.  For  two  years  and  a  half  he  reigned 
as  king.  Only  after  52  battles  coiild  Julius 
Severus  vanquish  liim  in  .v.n.  13.5.  There  is  some- 
thing sublime  in  this  King  of  Zion  bidding  Im- 
perial Rome  defiance.  The  terrible  persecutions 
that  followed  the  lladrianic  insurrection  did  not 
quench  the  Jlessianic  hope.  This  is  shown  by 
the  "Eighteen  Prayers"  by  Trypho.  who  told 
Justin  JIartyr  that  all  Jews  believed  the  Mes- 
siah would  come,  a  man  born  of  men ;  and  by 
Celsus,  who  in  a.d.  178  no  doubt  correctly  repre- 
sented his  Jew  as  cherishing  this  exi)ectation. 
The  Targums  also  indicate  its  continuance.  The 
idea  of  a  Messiah  ben  .Joseph  who  is  to  rule  untQ 
Messiah  ben  David  comes  may  be  an  early  Jew- 
ish concession  to  the  Ebionitish  Christians  who 
believed  that  .Jesus  was  the  son  of  .Joseph.  Only 
in  late  writings  is  there  any  reference  to  a  suf- 
fering Jlessiah,  though  the  notion  of  sutTeringI 
of  Israel  previous  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Jfessianic  kingdom  is  common.  The  end  of  the 
Roman  Knipire  and  the  victories  of  the  .Mohani- 
niedans  naturally  stirred  afresh  the  Impc  of  a 
return  (o  Palestine  and  the  coming  of  the  .Mes- 
siah. In  71(5-721  Serenus,  a  Galilean,  appeared 
as  a  Messianic  refmmer,  after  the  fasliion  ol 
Mohammed,  rejecling  certain  Rabbinic  regula- 
tions as  to  food  and  marriage  and  gaining  many 
followers.  But  when  he  was  brought  to  task  by 
Yezid.  the  Caliph,  he  lacked  the  courage  of  his 
convictions,  ami  was  handed  over  to  the  .Tewish 
authorities  for  punishment.  From  74.5  to  755 
.\bu  Isa  exerci-icd  a  great  inlluence  as  a  reformer, 
abolishing  the  law  of  divorce  and  the  sacrificial 
cult,  an<I  maintaining  himself  with  a  large  army 
against  Merwan  II.  and  Abdallah.  .\fter  hl» 
death  he  had  followers  into  the  tenth  century. 
Yudghan  of  Hamadan.  on  the  other  hand,  pur- 
sued no  political  ends.  He  sought  only  to  re- 
form .Tudaism.  being  an  ascetic  and  a  believer 
in  the  transmigration  of  souls  and  the  allegorical 


MESSIAH. 


363 


MESSINA. 


intcrprptation  of  tlio  Bible,  lie  died  c.800  a.d., 
tliou'di  his  followers  believed  him  to  be  still  liv- 
in"  and  destined  to  return  in  tlie  uiipointed  time. 
In  llliO  l):ivi<l  Alrui,  of  Amadia,  Persia,  pro- 
olainied  liimself  to  be  the  Jlcssiah  in  Azer- 
baijan. His  plan  was  to  use  the  weakness  of  the 
caliphate  for  the  establishment  of  .a  free  Jew- 
ish State,  and  he  attracted  to  himself  large 
masses  of  Jews;  but  he  was  murdered  by  his 
father-in-law  before  lie  could  carry  out  his  vast 
enterprise.  A  Messianic  cult-community,  the 
Mcnahemites,  cherished  long  his  memory  and 
ideal.  Abrahain  ben  Samuel  Abulafia.  of  Sara- 
gossa,  announced  himself  as  the  Messiah  in  1280. 
He  was  a  mystic,  and  occupied  himself  much 
with  cabbalistic  speculations.  The  expulsion  of 
the  Jews  from  Spain  drove  many  earnest  minds 
to  the  prophetic  writings.  Even  such  a  states- 
man as  Isaac  Abarbanel  wrote  works  in  which 
he  announced  that  1503  would  be  the  year  of  re- 
demption. In  the  sixteenth  century  David  Reu- 
bcni  and  Solomon  Molko  appeared  in  the  role 
of  the  Messiah.  The  former  pretended  to  be  the 
brother  of  a  prince  reigning  in  Arabia,  and  was 
received  with  great  honor  by  Pope  Clement  VII. 
The  latter,  born  in  1.500,  was  a  Clnistian  who 
became  a  convert  to  .ludaism  and  seems  to  have 
sincerely  believed  in  his  mission.  He  is  said  to 
have  prophesied  accurately  the  inundation  of 
Rome  in  1.5.30  and  the  earthquake  in  Portugal 
in  1531,  and  thereby  gained  a  great  reputation. 
He  was  .saved  from  death  in  Rome  by  Clement 
VII.  substituting  another  man  for  him,  but  suf- 
fered martyrdom  courageously  in  1532.  His  fol- 
lowers long  lielieved  that  he  had  escaped  death 
this  time  also.  The  most  important  Jlessiah 
after  Solomon  Molko  was  Sabbathai  Zewi  { 1G26- 
76).  He  was  born  in  Smyrna,  and  belonged  to  a 
family  of  Spanish  Jews.  His  brother  was  the 
agent  in  Smyrna  of  an  English  mercantile  house, 
and  through  him  Sabbathai  became  acqiiainted 
with  the  speculations  of  Christian  pietists  who 
expected  the  second  advent  of  Christ  in  1000. 
He  was  an  eager  student  of  cabbalistic  works. 
His  personality  was  very  attractive,  and  in  all 
lands  .Jews  were  drawn  to  him  and  accepted  him 
as  their  heaven-sent  leader.  The  enthusiasm  was 
boundless,  and  the  hope  of  a  return  to  Palestine 
filled  thousands  of  hearts.  Sabbathai  intended 
to  abrogate  the  law,  establish  a  new  code  based 
on  the  Cabbala,  introduce  the  doctrine  of  a  Trin- 
ity consisting  of  three  persons — the  Ancient  of 
Days,  the  Messiah,  and  the  female  Shechinah. 
In  the  year  1600,  however,  he  was  ordered  to 
appear  before  the  Turkish  authorities  at  Con- 
stantinople. Here  he  finally  abandoned  the  Jew- 
ish faith  and  became  a  Moslem.  The  disenchant- 
ment was  great,  but  a  sect  of  Sabbatians  con- 
tinued to  honor  him  as  the  Messiah.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  the  Messiahs  of  Judaism  have  some- 
times been  mystics,  obeying  what  seemed  to  them 
a  divine  call,  sometimes  political  leaders  taking 
up  a  heroic  struggle  for  liberty,  sometimes  men 
of  personal  ambition  and  unscrupulous  methods. 
But  .Tews,  Cliristians,  and  !Mohammedans  owe 
I  much  moral  vigor  and  spiritual  uplift  to  the 
I  Me.ssianie  hope. 

I  BiBLioGR.xpiiT.  Bertholdt.  Chrlsfologia  JudfE- 
onim  (Erlangen,  1811)  ;  Orelli,  Die  altiestament- 
I  liche  ^ycissagll)lp  (Vienna,  1882)  ;  Riehm,  Die 
;  messianiitrhc  Weissarruvfi  (Gotha.  1885)  :  De- 
1  litz.sch,  Mrxxianischc  Wcia.inriunrien  (Leipzig, 
I  1890)  ;  Volz,  Die  vorcxilische  Yahicc-Propliefie 
Vol.  XIII.— 21. 


iiiid  (ler  Messias  (Gfjttingen,  1S97)  ;  Hiihn,  Die 
mess-ianischeii  M'cissagungen  (Freiburg,  IS'J'J)  ; 
Castelli,  //  Mcssia  secumlo  gli  Ehrei  (Milan, 
1874)  ;  Colani,  Jesus  Christ  et  Ics  croyances 
messianiqtics  de  son  temps  (Paris,  1802);  Ver- 
nes,  Uistoire  des  idees  incssianiqucs  (Paris, 
1874)  ;  Drummond,  The  Jeuisli  Messiah  (London, 
1877);  Stanton,  The  Jewish  and  the  Christian 
Messiah  (Edinburgh,  1880);  Briggs,  Messianic 
Prophecy  (Xew  York,  188G)  ;  id.,  The  Messiah 
of  the  (Jospels  (Xew  York,  1895)  ;  Dalman,  Der 
leidende  nnd  der  stei-beitdc  Messias  (Leipzig, 
1888)  ;  Wiinsehe,  Die  Jjciden  des  Messias  (Leip- 
zig, 1870)  ;  Graetz.  Gesehichte  der  Judcn  (Leip- 
zig, 1888-1902) J  Bacher,  Die  Agada  der  Tan- 
naiten  (Strassburg,  1884-90)  ;  Die  Agada  der 
palest  inensischen  Amoriier  (Strassburg,  1892- 
99)  ;  \^'ebe^,  Jiidisehe  Theologie  (M  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1897);  Hamburger,  "Messiasse,"  in  Real-Ency- 
elopddie  des  J udent ums Cl^n-pzig,  1890)  ;  Schmidt, 
The  Son  of  Man  and  the  Son  of  God  in  Mod- 
ern Theology  (New  York,  1903)  ;  Bousset,  Die 
Religion  drs  Judentums  (Berlin,  1903)  ;  West- 
cott,  Introduetion  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels 
(Cambridge,   1800). 

MESSIAH,  The.  ( 1 )  A  poem  by  Alexander 
Pope,  which  appeared  in  the  Spectator,  May  14, 
1712.  It  is  a  sacred  eclogue,  imitating  Vergil's 
Pollio.  (2)  An  epic  poem  by  Klopstock  (q.V. ). 
(3)  An  oratorio  by  Handel,  composed  in  1741, 
and  given  first  in  Dublin,  April  13,  1742,  in  aid 
of  charity.  The  words  were  arranged  by  Han- 
del's friend  Charles  .Tennens.  This  ever-popular 
masterpiece  may  be  described  as  a  musical 
counterpart  of  ililton's  Paradise  Lost. 

MESSIDOB,  mes'se'dor'  (Fr..  from  Lat.  mcs- 
sis,  harvcr-t  +  Gk.  SQpov,  dOron.  gift).  Tlie 
tenth  month  of  the  French  Revolutionaiy  Calen- 
dar, beginning  on  .June  19th  in  years  one  to 
seven,  and  on  .June  20th  in  years  eight  to  thir- 
teen. 

MESSINA,  mes-se'na  (anciently  Messana). 
Tlie  capital  of  the  Province  of  ilessina.  and,  after 
Palermo,  the  most  important  city  of  Sicily.  It  is 
in  the  northeast  comer  of  the  island, on  the  Strait 
of  Messina,  59  miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Catania 
I  Jlap  :  Italy,  K  9) .  It  is  situated  between  a  sickle- 
shaped  harbor  on  the  ea.st,  with  its  two  sightly 
lighthouses,  and  a  chain  of  abrupt  conical  peaks 
on  the  west,  rising  to  a  height  of  3700  feet.  The 
climate  is  very  even.  The  mean  temperature  is 
00°  F.  IMessina  is  substantially  built,  is  forti- 
fied, and  has  some  fine  lava-paved  thoroughfares, 
which  afford  views  of  the  bay  and  of  Calabria 
across  the  strait.  The  city  itself  has  no  very 
famous  attractions  for  sightseers,  having  retained 
few  of  its  striking  antiquities,  owing  to  a  rather 
calamitous  career.  It  has  suffered  especially 
from  earthquakes.  The  most  interesting  struc- 
ture is  the  cathedral,  dating  from  Xorman  times 
(1098).  Little  of  the  original  edifice,  however, 
remains;  it  is  a  mixture  of  different  architectural 
periods. 

Among  the  leading  secular  edifices  are  the 
municipal  palace,  completed  in  1829,  and  the 
Villa  Rocca  Guelfonia.  with  Xorman  remains. 
The  museum  in  the  Convent  of  San  Gregorio 
contains  a  few  paintings,  some  niai-bles  and  other 
antiquities,  and  a  collection  of  majolica  vases. 
The  fish  .of  the  neighboring  waters  are  highly 
esteemed,  as  well  as  the  Mamertine  wines  of  the 
district.     The   manufacturing   interests   are   not 


MESSINA. 


364 


META. 


extensive.  The  cliii'I"  products  are  hardware, 
silk,  muslin,  and  linen.  JMessina  has  some 
fame  for  salins  and  damasks.  The  eonimeree  is 
important,  though  not  as  great  as  formerly.  Ihe 
harl.or  is  very  busy  at  all  times.  Silk,  oil,  wine, 
coral,  fruit  essemes.  argol,  oranges,  lenions,  and 
other  articles  are  dealt  in.  The  town  ranks  fourth 
amonf  Italian  cities  in  the  volume  of  its  com- 
merce'; the  total  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  in 
inoO  beiii"  over  .S.SOO.OOO.  The  imports  were 
about  $4,oTk),000,  the  exports  $10,000,000.  There 
is  direct  stcamsliip  coiiimunieation  with  Naples 
and  AlarsciUi's,  The  university,  opened  in  l.>:i8, 
is  attended  bv  some  000  students.  Tliere  is  also 
a  technical  institute  in  the  city.  The  """"f'P"! 
hospital  is  a  vast  structure  built  prior  to  K.OO. 
IMessina  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop.  Popula- 
tion  (commune),  in  1001,  140,778, 

The  outskirts  and  environs  are  delightful,  at- 
fordin"  ma-rniticent  views  of  the  sea  as  well  as 
of  -Mount  iCtna.  On  the  west  rises  the  former 
fort  of  Castellaccio,  and  not  far  away  to  the  south 
is  Fort  Gonzaga,  on  a  historic  spot.  The  new 
Campo  Santo  is  beautiful,  with  its  graceful 
Greek  colonnades  and  wonderful  views,  1  he  1  ele- 
„rafo— the  summit  of  a  pass  near  Jlessma— is 
niuch  visited  for  its  scenery.  Here  was  supposed 
to  be  the  Charybdis  of  the  familiar  legend,  oppo- 
site Scvlla,  on  the  Calabrian  coast. 

lIi.sTOKY     Messina  is  a  town  of  great  antiquity, 
its    foundation    being   ascribed    to   pirates    from 
Curaa>   in  the  eighth  century  n.c,  when   it  was 
known  as  Zancle    (a  sickle),  in  »11"^><'"  '■'  the 
shape  of  its  harbor.     At  the  end  of  the  litth  een- 
turv    BC     the    town    was    occupied    by    fugitives 
from  Samos  and  Miletus,  and  it  soon  after  pa.ssed 
to   \naxilas,  the  tvrant  of  Rhegium.  who  intro- 
duced there   Messenians   from    the   Peloponnesus, 
bv  whom  the  name  of  the  city  was  changed  to 
Messana.     After  tlic  death  of  Anaxilas.  Messana 
became  a   republic,   and   maintained  that  status 
until  its  destruction  bv  the  Carthaginians  during 
their   wars    with    Dionvsius    of    Syracuse    at   the 
betrinning  of  the  fourtli  century  B.C.     It  was  re- 
buUt  bv  Dionvsius.  but  soon   fell  again   into  the 
hands   of    the'  Carthaginians,   who   were    finally 
expelled  bv  Timoleon   in   n.c.   .•?43.     During  the 
-ft-ar  between   Agathoclcs   of   Syracuse   and   Car- 
thage    Messana    sided    with    the   Carthaginians. 
TheVirst  Piinie  War  left  Messana  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Komo.  and  the  town  subsequently  iittained 
considerable  commercial  importance.     In  ■>■"•  •<•; 
the  town  was  taken  by  the  Saracens    and  in  K  l.l 
was  conqiK'red  by  the  X.un.ans.     The  town  be- 
came a   flourishing  seat   of  trade   in  the   Middle 
\nes,    and    received    important    inivileges    from 
Charles   I,  of  Spain,  which  achl.^d  gr.atly  to  its 
prosneritv.     Puring    the    struggle    between    the 
arisln.ratie  fa.tion,  or  Merli.  and  the  democratic 
faction,  or  Mavizzi.  the  Senate,  in  1074,  appealed 
for  aid  to  the  Freneh.  who  occupied  the  city,  but 
soon  ahandone.l  it,  after  having  defeatc.l  the  com- 
bined  fleet   of   Spain   and    Holland,      Lett    in   the 
hands  of  the  Spaniards,  the  city  was  deprived  of 
its  political   lilK-rties.  and   soon  lost   its  commer- 
cial   importance.      The    plague    of    1,43    and   the 
earth.iu'ike  of  17S3  .arried  olT  a  eonsi.lerable  part 
of  its  population.     In  ia«0  the  place  was  occupied 
In-  Garibaldi,  and  in  IStll  became  a  part  of  united 
Halv.  ,.    „ 

MESSINA,  Str.mt  of  (It.  Fnro  ,h  Ifrs.'ii.m. 
Lat  \l.,wr,li„um  frrlum).  The  channel  sepa- 
rating Sicilv  from  the  smithem   point  of  Italy. 


and  connecting  the  Ionian  with  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea  It  is  24  miles  in  length,  and  from  1  to  12 
miles  in  breadlli.  Kegiilar  tidal  currents  run 
through  the  strait,  whieli  is  of  great  depth,  m 
some    places   exceeding    4000    feet.     See  Sctlla. 

AND  CU.VRVBDIS. 

MESSMATES,  A.mmal.  See  Commen-s.\lism. 
MESSUAGE.  A  legal  term  employed  in  con- 
vcvaiicing  as  substantially  equivalent  to  the 
idi'rase  -dwelling  house  and  appurleiiances,'  and 
most  coinnumlv  construed  as  meaning  the  cur- 
tilage, eourtvard.  and  an  orchard,  if  there  a 
one.''  See  Aiu-Vrtexaxce  :  Cuhtilage. 

MESTIZO,  mes-te'zA  ( Sp.,  mongrel,  from  LaU 
mixtus,  past  part,  of  misccre,  to  mix).  The  or- 
dinary term  in  use  in  Spanish  American  coun- 
tries to  denote  the  ofl'spring  of  white  and  Indian 
p-irenta-'c  and  usually  understood  to  mean  the 
offspring  of  a  white  father  by  an  Indian  mother. 
The  eiiuivalent  term  in  French  Canada  is  metis, 
and  in  the  United  States  half-breed.  The  off- 
sprin"  of  an  Indian  and  a  mestizo  is  called  mesti- 
M-clm-o.  of  a  negro  and  mestizo  a  mulato-oscuro,  ] 
of  a  mulatto  and  mestizo  a  chino. 

MES'TOME  (from  Gk,  /i^oru/ia,  mestoma, 
fullness,  from  /lifff-Of,  vicstns,  full).  The  conduct- 
in"  portion  (hadrome  and  Icptome)  of  a  vascular 
bimdle.  The  term  does  not  include  the  bast 
fibres,  lihriform  cells,  or  pericyclc, 

MESTBE,  mes'tra,  A  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
in  the  Province  of  Venice,  live  miles  northwest 
of  tlie  city  of  Venice,  on  the  border  of  a  lagoon 
(Map-  Italv.  G  2),  It  is  connected  with  \  eiiice, 
Padua,  and"  other  places  by  railway.  There  are 
manv  villas  around  the  town  and  along  the  road 
to  i'adua.  Mestre  has  a  considerable  transit 
trade  There  arc  manufactures  of  machinery. 
Popuiati.m  (commune),  in  1001,  ll.tiSO,  includ- 
ing  ^lalgbera, 

MESTU'RTJS  (Xeo-Lat,,  from  Gk.  fieardi 
mcstos,  full  +  oiim,  oura,  tail).  A  fossil 
actinoptervgian  fish  of  the  family  P.vcnodontidje, 
found  in  the  .Turassie  iwks  of  Kurope.  The  body 
WIS  Hat  and  high,  and  was  eovere.l  with  rhombic 
"anoid  scales  that  are  most  peculiar  in  being 
united  to  each  other  by  jagged  sutures,  Ihe 
mouth  is  small  and  provided  with  powerful 
"rindiu"  teeth  on  the  palate  and  sharp  cutting 
reetb  in  the  jaws.     See  GANOinEl. 

MESZAROS.  ma'sa-rosh,  LAzAr  (17001858). 
\  lluii-arian  patriot.  He  was  horn  at  Baja, 
;tudie,r  theology-  and  law,  and  in  1S13  joined 
the  Hungarian' armv  in  the  campaign  against 
Xapcdeon,  He  was  colonel  of  a  llus.ar  'egmient 
in  184S,  when  Batthvfinyi  called  him  to  he 
Minister  of  War  in  his  Cabinet.  In  the  same 
year  MeszAros  took  command  of  an  expedition 
"acainst  the  Rascians  in  his  native  .onnly  oi 
PAcs,  This  proved  a  complete  f-olyc-  »"<•*" 
.Tanuarv  184!).  his  armv  was  defeated  with  great 
loss  before  Kaschau,  For  a  brief  lime  he  was 
noininallv  commander-in-chief  o     the  """P;"^ 

forces,  and  shared  with  Tl-''";r'^',;V  nV^aS 
at  Szi-.reg  and  Temesvar.  H.'  then  lied  to  Turk^- 
After  lesi.ling  for  some  years  ""/"'-'''•":';,X?*^ 
and  the  island  of  .lersey.  MeszAros  ••i-'Y'««">  ^ 
11,..  Ti.ited  States,  He  died  at  Kywond  lleieford 
shire    iMi.'land.  on  his  way  to  Switzerla.Kl. 

METa",  ma'IA.  One  of  the  P'-i"'';P-'''  *"""; 
t,,i,.s  „f  tb,.  Orinoco.  It  rises  in  the  Eastern 
Cordillera  of  the  Colombian  Andes,  near  Bogota, 


META. 


365 


METACHROSIS. 


and  flows  in  a  nojilipa.stcrly  direct  inn  to  its 
junction  with  tlie  Orinoco,  on  the  boundarj'  be- 
tween Coloniliia  and  Venezuela  (Map:  Colombia, 
D  2).  Its  length  is  aljout  700  miles,  for  the 
greater  part  of  which  it  is  navigable  for  small 
steamers,  though  its  channel  is  tilled  with  nu- 
merous islands. 

METABETCHOTTAN,  m5t'a-bet-chCU-;in'.  The 
princi]ial  siiiith.Tn  alliuent  of  Lake  Saint  John 
(q.v.  I,  Canada.  Jt  is  00  miles  long  and  near  its 
mouth  occur  its  fine  falls  236  feet  high. 

METAB'OLISM  (from  Gk.  ii£ra(3n?,ij,mct<iholP, 
ciiangc,  from  fiiva3d/./,cn>,  metatallein,  to  change, 
from  iiirii,  iii'.ld,  beyond  -\-  AaAAtiv,  Tjollein,  to 
throw).  The  continual  molecular  or  physico- 
chemical  changes  taking  place  in  the  protoplasm 
of  organisms,  during  growth  and  throughout  life. 
Upon  it  the  life-processes  rest.  Verworn  says 
that  it  is  solely  a  process  that  distinguishes  the 
living  organism  from  the  dead  organism,  and  not 
from  inorganic  substance;  it  occurs  also  among 
inorganic  bodies.  Verworn  defines  it  as  the 
thing  in  which  the  living  organism  differs  from 
the  lifeless,  and  saj's  that  it  consists  in  the  con- 
tinual self-decomposition  of  living  substance,  the 
giving  oil"  to  the  outside  of  the  decomposition- 
products,  and,  in  return,  the  taking  in  from  the 
cutside  of  certain  substances,  which  give  to  the 
organism  the  material  with  which  to  regenerate 
itself  and  grow  by  the  fornuition  of  similar 
groups  of  atoms,  i.e.  by  'polymerization.'  This 
IS  characteristic  of  all  living  substance.  During 
the  process  of  metabolism  the  living  cell-sub- 
stance is  being  continually  broken  down  and 
reformed  by  the  continual  giving  off  and  taking 
in  of  material.  The  metabolism  of  living  sub- 
stance, says  Verworn,  upon  which  all  life  is 
based,  is  conditioned  by  tlie  existence  of  certain 
very  labile  compounds,  which  stand  next  to  the 
proteids  and  on  account  of  their  elementary 
significance  in  life  are  best  termed  "biogens.' 
Their  continual  decomposition  and  reformation 
constitute  the  life-process. 

In  plant  physiology  the  term  metabolism  is 
used  in  essentially  the  same  sense  as  in  animal 
physiology-.  Two  .series  of  processes  arc  distin- 
guishable: (1)  Processes  which  result  in  the  up- 
building of  complex  substances,  particularly  such 
as  contain  a  gi'cater  amount  of  potential  energy 
than  the  ones  from  which  they  are  constructed. 
These  processes  are  designated  as  'constructive' 
metabolism  or  'anabolism.'  (2)  Processes  which 
result  in  the  decomposition  of  complex  substances 
into  simpler  ones,  designated  as  'destructive' 
metabolism  or  'katabolism.'  For  special  di.scus- 
sions  of  metaljolic  processes  see  A.ssimilation  in 
Plants;  Digestion  ix  Plants;  Fermentation; 
Nutrition;  Photosynthesis;  Respiration  in 
Plants.  Consult  Verworn,  General  Physiology : 
An  Outline  of  the  Seience  of  Life    (New  York, 

METACENTRE  (from  Ok.  iiitci,  mrta.  after 
+  KeyTpov,  h-entron,  centre).  It  is  shown  in  hydro- 
statics that  a  floating  body  is  acted  on  by  two  equal 
forces  in  opposite  directions  ;  one,  vertically  down 
through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  body  itself; 
the  other,  vertically  up  through  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  volume  which  was  occupied  by 
the  liquid  now  displaced  by  the  body.  If  the 
body  is  at  rest,  these  two  forces  must  lie  in  the 
same  vertical  line;  but  the  question  of  the  sta- 
bility  of   this   equilibrium   depends   upon   what 


happens  when  the  floating  body  is  tipped  slight- 
ly. If  the  forces  bring  it  back  to  its  former  posi- 
tion, the  equilibrium  is  stable;  if  they  make  it 
tip  still  farther,  the  equilibrium  is  unstable. 
Imagine  a  line  drawn  in  the  floating  body  so  as 
to  pass  through  the  centres  of  gravity'  of  the 
body  and  of  the  displaced  liquid,  when  the  body 
is  in  equilibrium  ;  this  line  is  called  the  'axis.' 
Xow  imagine  tlic  body  tipped  slightly,  thus  mak- 
ing the  axis  inclined  to  the  vertical;  the  line  of 
action  of  the  vertical  upward  force  will  intersect 
this  line  at  a  point  called  the  'metacentre.'  If 
the  metacentre  lies  above  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  body,  the  two  forces  will  form  a  couple 
tending  to  restore  the  body  to  its  former  posi- 
tion, where  the  equilibrium  was  stable.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  metacentre  is  below  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  body,  the  forces  form  a 
couple  tending  to  tip  the  body  farther,  and  so  the 
equilibrium  was  unstable.  An  elongated  floating 
body  like  a  ship  has  a  transverse  metacentre  and 
a  longitudinal  metacentre.  The  former  is  the  one 
most  commonly  considered.  The  metacentric 
height  is  the  vertical  distance  between  the  centre 
of  gravity  and  the  metacentre.  It  is  evident  that 
this  must  always  be  a  positive  quantity;  for  if 
the  centre  of  gravity  were  above  the  metacentre 
there  would  be  no  force  tending  to  keep  the  ves- 
sel upright  and  it  would  capsize.  See  Ship- 
building. 

MET'ACHRO'SIS  (from  Gk.  fieraxpavvitvai, 
nietacli njiui yna i , to  change  color,  from  /itrdj  meta, 
after  +  xp"''"'vi'ai.  chronnymii,  xp^^^i'".  chrosein, 
to  color,  from  ;i'pu(7(f,  chrosis,  color,  from  XP"'", 
chroia,  xp^o-,  e'l roa,  skin,  color) .  Color-change,  as 
that  of  the  chameleon,  in  adaptation  to  surround- 
ings, and  due  to  changes  in  the  size  of  the  pigment- 
cells  of  the  inner  layer  of  the  skin.  These  special- 
ized pigment-cells  are  called  'chromatophores,'  and 
the  remarkable  changes  in  the  color  of  the  skin 
of  the  chameleon,  of  the  tree-toad,  the  squid,  etc., 
depend  on  the  distribution  of  these  pigment-cells, 
which  dilate  (becoming  highly  ramified)  and 
contract  under  certain  kinds  of  irritation.  The 
pigment  (q.v.)  varies  in  color  in  different  species 
and  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  being  black, 

/        «  c  a 


h 


CHROMATOPHORES  OF   A    FROG. 

.7,  Wholly  contrai'tod  :  b,  c,  half  relaxed  ;  d.  wholly  re- 
laxed ;  e,  wholly  contracted  (a  capillary  vessel);  f,  g,  h,  ex- 
panded color-cells. 

brow^n,  yellow,  and  sometimes  even  red  or  green. 
In  the  goby  Heineke  found  that  the  chromato- 
phores which  are  yellow  or  greenish-yellow  when 
distended  become  orange-colored  when  contracted, 
wliile  the  orange  or  red  ones  when  shrunk  become 
brown  or  even  black:  and  he  detected  in  the  goby 
a  special  kind  of  chromatophores  which  were 
filled  with  iridescent  crystals  of  marvelous  deli- 


METACHROSIS. 


366 


METAL  TRADES  ASSOCIATION. 


SEITIOS   OF  A   FBOB's    BKIK. 


caey,  appearing  wlu-ii  dilated  as  species  of  metallic 
sheen. 

These  changes  may  be  due  to  the  direct  in- 
fluence of  the  stimulus  of  light,  or  indirectly 
through  the  eyesight.     Semper  says  that  Lister 

demonstrated       as 
^  long   ago    as    1858 

that  the  activity 
of  the  chromato- 
phores  depends 
solely  on  the 
healthy  condition 
of  the  eye.  As  soon 
«.  EpUlermi-s:  d.  cutis,  with  a^  the  eyes  are  dc- 
black,  star- shaped,  d«'ii-Beat*d  stroyed  or  the  ojitic 
c<'lls ;  r,  (/,  ypllow  itifrinent  cells  in  nerve  is  divi<le(l 
a  thic]<,  eiiiKie  lawr  close  under  ji  i  "  *  i  ' 
the  epidermis.  thechroniatophon-s 

do  not  function.  He 
was  confirmed  in  this  view  by  Pouchot's  experi- 
ments on  fishes  and  crabs,  showing  that  the 
chroniatophores  lost  their  power  of  contraction 
if  the  two  sympathetic  'nerves  were  destroyed  at 
the  root. 

Heincke's  observations  in  some  respects  contra- 
dict those  of  Pouchct.  Biedemann  (1802),  on 
the  other  hand,  has  claimed  tliat  the  color-cells 
change  their  shape  owing  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  light  and  of  temperature.  He  shows  that  the 
slightest  change  of  tciiiperature  affects  the  mu- 
tual disposition  of  the  pigment-cells,  and  conse- 
quentlv  the  color,  of  the  frog.  It  is  enough  to 
keep  the  animal  in  the  hand  to  provoke  a  con- 
traction of  its  black  cells.  The  amount  of  hlood- 
supply  also  has  a  definite  eflfect.  Steinach  also 
(18!)1)  has  proved  that  light  acts  as  a  direct 
stimulus.  Biedemann  therefore  appears  to  have 
proved  that  the  chief  agency  of  changes  of  color 
is  not  in  the  sensations  derived  from  the  eyes, 
but  in  those  derived  from  the  skin. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  under  side  of  flatfish 
is  white  or  colorless.  This  is  due  to  absence 
there  of  pigment-cells.  These,  however,  are 
present  in  very  young  flounders,  but  as  they  grow 
unsymnielrical  the  fish  turns  the  left  side  up- 
ward, and  the  chroniatophores  disappear  from 
the  right  or  under  side.  Ciinninghan)  experi- 
menti'd  with  young  flounders  liy  ])lacing  a  mir- 
ror below  the  aquarium  at  an  angle  of  4.5°.  and 
cut  off  the  light  from  above.  In  the  larger  nuni- 
lier  of  specimens  thus  treated,  after  several 
months,  more  or  less  of  the  .skin  of  the  lower  side 
was  pigmented.  He  thus  proved  that  the  absence 
of  pigment  on  that  side  in  the  normal  fish  is  due 
to  its  position  in  shadow.  It  thus  appears  that 
the  absence  of  the  pigment  or  of  color  is  due  to 
the  absence  of  light,  a  mechanical  or  physical 
cause. 

Binr.ior.nAPHV.  Semper.  Animal  Life  as  Af- 
fected hji  the  Xnttiral  Con/iilions  of  Existence 
(New  York,  1881)  :  Biedemann,  "Ueber  den  Far- 
benwechsel  der  Friische,"  in  Arehiv  fiir  die  (je- 
samnitc  Phimiotoijie.  vol.  li.  (Bonn.  1802)  ; 
Gadow,  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  (London  and 
New  Y..rk.   10(1-2). 

MET  AGEN'ESIS.       See     Alternation     of 

GeNKK A  I  Mi\S  ;     I'aUTIIKNOOEXESIS. 

MET'AKINE'SIS  (Gk.  /teTaiilvi/aic.  trans- 
position, from  fieraxivtiv,  metakincin,  to  trans- 
pose, from  /ifrii,  meta,  after  -|-  Kivelv,  Jcincin, 
to  move).  A  term  suggested  by  .Jaekel  to  ex- 
press the  results  of  cenogenetie  modification. 
since  the  process  involves  a  thoroughgoing  modi- 
fication of  a  form  in  a  way  impossible  in  the 


adult,  and  only  possible  in  a  larval  or  early 
stage,  in  which  the  various  organs  are  not  yet 
specialized  and  are  still  more  or  less  plastic. 
Consult  Jaekel,  Ueber  i-erseliiedeiie  wcge  phi/lo- 
(jenetischer  Eutunckelung  (.Tena,  1902;  reviewed 
in  Science,  vol.  xvii.  p.  380,  Xew  York,  1903). 
Compare  Palikgexesis. 

METAL.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  three  classes 
of  tiiuturi's,  the  others  being  colors  and  furs.  See 
IlEiiALimv. 

METAL-CASTING.      See  Foixdi.ng. 

METAL'DEHYDE.     See  Aldehyde. 

METALLIC  PAINT.     See  :Mjxebal  Paint. 

METALLURGY  (from  Gk.  fi£ra/,?.o.'/j>(}(, 
nui(ill()urg(js,  metal-working,  from  tuTtt'/J.ov,  met- 
allon.  metal,  mine  +  ipyov,  eryon,  work).  That 
branch  of  applied  science  which  lias  for  its  ob- 
ject the  preparation  of  metals  from  their  ores. 
The  ojjerations  of  metallurgy-  are  partly  mechani- 
cal and  partly  chemical.  The  mechanical  opera- 
tions of  metallurgy-  are  fully  described  under  ; 
Ore  DKE.S.SI.NG,  and  the  chemical  operations, 
which  differ  in  detail  for  each  metal,  are  de-  : 
scrilied  in  the  articles  on  the  various  nietnU. 
Briefly  stated,  ore  dressing  consists  in  separating  . 
tlie  valuable  ore  or  mineral  from  some  of  the 
barren  rock  with  which  it  is  mixed  upon  coming 
from  the  mines  and  in  otherwise  rendering  it  by 
mechanical  means,  such  as  crushing,  sorting,  anil 
washing,  better  fitted  for  the  smelting  or  other 
operations  of  extraction  which  follow.  The  proc- 
esses of  extraction  may  be  separated  into;  (1) 
Smelting  processes,  in  whicli  tlie  metal  is  extracted 
from  its  ore  by  fire;  (2)  amalgaiiiatinn  jirocesses, 
in  which  the  metal  forms  an  amalgam  with  mer- 
cury, the  mercury  being  afterwards  distilled  off, 
leaving  the  metal:  (3)  extraction  by  aqueous 
solutiims,  in  which  the  metal  is  dissolved  by  suit- 
able chemical  solutions  and  then  precipitated  in 
solid  form  by  suitable  precipitants;  (4)  elec- 
trolytic processes,  in  whicli  the  metal  is  separated 
from  its  impurities  by  electrolysis.  Two  or  more 
of  these  processes  are  often  combined  in  the 
metallurgy  of  a  single  metal.  See  Al.l'MlxifM; 
Coi'i'F.R;  (Jold:  Iro.n  and  Steel;  Lead:  Xkkel; 
I'l.ATixrM:  ^Ifrciry:   Sh.vkr;   Tin;   Zinc;  etc, 

METALS  AND  METALLOIDS.     Sec  Pebi- 

(iiuc  Law. 

METAL     TRADES     ASSOCIATION,     TliE 

N.\rio.\'AL.  An  association  compii>cMl  of  about 
200  firms  in  the  metal  trades,  organized  in -Au- 
gust, 1800,  for  the  puriiose  of  resisting  what  the 
association  regards  as  the  excessive  demands  of 
labor  organizations.  The  declaration  of  prin- 
ciples disavows  "any  intention  to  interfere  with 
the  proper  functions  of  labor  organizations,"  an- 
nounces that  "no  discrimination  will  lie  made 
against  any  man  because  of  his  membership  in 
any  society  or  organization."  indcuses  arbitrn- 
tion.  but  asserts  tliat  the  fiilhnving  qiiestiniH 
must  be  decided  by  the  employer  alone;  (1)  the 
selection  or  rejection  of  workmen  for  the  per- 
formance of  particular  tasks;  (2)  the  number 
of  apprentices,  helpers,  and  handy  men  to  be 
employed;  (3)  the  method  of  wage  payment, 
whether  by  time,  piece,  contract,  or  premiuBI 
rate.  The  association  further  declares  that  it* 
members  will  not  arbitrate  any  question  after 
cmplnyees  have  gone  on  a  strike:  neither  will  the 
association  countenance  a  lockout  on  any  arbi- 
trable question,  unless  arbitration  has  failed. 


METAL  WORK. 


367 


METAL-WORKING  MACHINERY. 


METAL  WORK.  A  tunii  usually  applied  to 
artistic  wurk  in  metal.  The  metals  generally 
used  for  tliis  purpose  are  gold,  silver,  copper, 
iron,  and  lead,  and  the  i)rineipal  methods  of 
treatment  employed  are  casting  and  repousse. 
(For  a  description  of  these  processes,  see  Found- 
ixo  and  Hei'OIS.se.  )  By  reason  of  its  scarcity  and 
value,  gold  has  been  generally  used  in  the  fine 
arts  for  small  objects  of  luxury  ami  adornment, 
altliough  tlie  (ireeks  frequently  used  it,  in  con- 
nection with  ivory,  for  statues  of  great  sanctity. 
(See  CioLDSMiTii's  Work;  Jewelry.)  The  use 
of  silver  is  also  thus  limited,  though  to  a  less 
extent.  Although  copper  in  a  pure  state  was 
used  for  ecclesiastical  ornaments  from  the  twelfth 
to  the  fifteenth  century,  its  chief  use  has  always 
been  as  an  alloy  with  tin  in  tlie  form  of  bronze. 
In  this  form  it  is  the  metal  most  used  in  the 
fine  aits,  being  more  used  than  any  other  ma- 
terial except  marble,  both  in  statuary  and  relief. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  its  high  lluidity  when 
melted,  its  slight  contraction  upon  cooling,  and 
its  hardness  render  it  peculiarly  adapted  for  cast- 
ing, (See  Bronze.)  Brass,  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  zinc,  was  also  used  during  the  Jliddle  Ages 
for  sepulchral  slabs,  the  image  being  engraved 
upon  the  brass  plate,  (See  Bras.ses,  Sepul- 
chral. )  By  reason  of  its  great  contraction  upon 
cooling,  iron  is  less  adapted  to  casting;  but  its 
extreme  malleability  and  adhesive  qualities  when 
heated  render  it  easy  to  forge  under  the  stroke 
of  the  hammer.  From  the  thirteenth  century  to 
the  eighteenth  it  was  extensively  used  with  high 
artistic  success  for  screens,  gates,  and  the  like, 
though  the  attempted  revival  in  our  day  can- 
not be  pronounced  eipially  successful,  (See 
Irox  axi)  Steel.)  Steel  is  also  extensively  used 
in  the  beautiful  inlay  work  of  Oriental  luitions. 
See  Damaskeening;  Inlaying;  Indian  Art. 
BiBLiOGRAPin'.  The  autliorities  on  the  technique 
and  history  of  the  special  kinds  of  metal  work 
will  he  found  under  the  titles  cited  above.  Among 
the  special  manuals  on  the  subject,  which  have 
been  written  at  different  periods,  are:  The  treat- 
ise of  the  j\Ioid<  Theophilus.  '"Diversarum  Artium 
Schedula"  (twelfth  century),  published  in  Qiicl- 
hnschiiftcii  fiir  Kiinstgeschichie,  ^'[[.  (Vienna, 
1877)  ;  Cellini,  Trutia'li  dclV  oreficeriu  c  deUa 
scultnra,  ed,  Milanesi  (Florence,  I85G)  ;  Vasari, 
Tre  arii  del  disegnq^.  pt,  ii..  ed.  Milanesi  (ib., 
1882)  ;  Garnier,  Manuel  du  ciselcur  (Paris, 
1859)  ;  Codron,  Travail  des  metaiix  duns  les 
atHiers  de  construction  mecanique  (ib..  1001); 
Haas,  Der  Metnllarheiter  (Landeshut,  Schlesien, 
n'n-2)  ;  Lc.ricrin  drr  MrhiJteehnik   (Vienna,  1!)00). 

METAL-WORKING  MACHINERY.  The 
number  and  variety  of  metal-working  machines 
are  very  large,  the  term  comprehending  prac- 
tically all  machines  by  which  metals  are  wrought 
into  useful  shapes.  For  ordinary  purposes  melal- 
working  machines  may  be  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing classes:  Planing  machinery  or  jdaners; 
turning  machinery  or  lathes;  boring  machinery  or 
drills;  punching  machinery  or  punches;  milling 
machines;  shearing  machines  or  shears:  riveting 
machinery  or  riveters;  presses;  bending  machin- 
ery: saws;  and  special  machinery. 

Planixo  ■NIaciiine.s.  Planing  machines  or 
planers  are  employed  for  working  metal  surfaces 
to  accurate  planes  by  cutting  off  the  projections 
by  the  planing  or  cutting  action  of  a  suitable 
tool,  past  which  the  work  reciprocates  or  revolves 
in  a  fixed  plane.    One  of  the  most  common  forms 


of  planing  machines  is  shown  by  the  illustration. 
(Fig.  3,  Plate  of  Metal-Wokking  Machinery.) 
Tlie  tool  is  carried  by  a  tool  head  having  a  slid- 
ing motion  on  a  cross-bar  which  can  be  moved 
up  or  down  on  two  vertical  guides.  The  table 
which  carries  the  work  clamped  to  it  slides  back 
and  forth  between  the  two  vertical  guides,  and 
thus  brings  the  work  against  the  tool,  which  takes 
off  a  narrow,  thin  shaving  of  metal.  By  a  suc- 
cession of  such  shavings  following  each  other 
like  the  furrows  of  a  plowed  field,  a  plane  surface 
is  secured.  Machines  of  this  character  are  built 
in  various  sizes,  some  of  them  having  tables  21 
feet  long  and  7  feet  wide.  In  rotary  planers 
tlie  work  has  a  rotary  motion  with  respect  to  the 


Fia.  1.    DRILL. 

tool  instead  of  a  rectilinear  motion.  Planes  for 
smoothing  the  edges  of  metal  plates  usually  have 
tlie  work  clamped  fast  while  the  tool  is  carried 
along  the  edge  taking  off  a  thin  shaving.  Power 
is  usually  supplied  to  planing  machines  from 
shafting  by  means  of  belt  transmission,  and  the 
rotary  motion  of  the  belt  is  transformed  into 
the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  table  by  means 
of  gearing.  When  in  operation  the  motion  of  the 
table  and  the  motion  of  the  tool  head  necessary 
to  produce  successive  cuts  are  automatic, 

TiRNiNG  Machinery  or  Lathes,  Lathes  are 
tools  for  producing  cylindrical  surfaces  by  ro- 
tating or  turning  a  bar  before  a  cutting  tool.  The 
bar  to  be  turned  is  clamped  between  a  fixed  point 
at  one  end  and  a  rotating  di.sk  at  the  other  end, 
while  the  tool  head  and  carriage  move  parallel 
with  the  axis  of  the  bar,  the  tool  removing  a 
spiral  shaving  from  the  surface  of  the  bar. 
Lathes  are  driven  by  belts  from  shafting  or 
may  be  operated  by  electric  motors.     They  are 


METAL- WORKING  MACHINERY.        368 

built  in  a  iiiultitudi'  of  foriiis  ami  of  various 
sizes,  from  the  small  machine  used  by  jewelers 
to  the  large  gun  and  ingot  lathes  capable  of 
turning  a  eylin<ler  10  feet  in  diameter.  See  Fig. 
2  on  Plate  of  ilETAL-WoEIilNG  ilAcmxEKi'. 


METAL- WORKING  MACHINERY. 


FlO.  2.      THREE-SPINDLB    BOBINO    MACBIXE. 

Boring  if.\citlXK.s.  Boring  machines  are  tools 
for  l>oring  cylindrical  holes  by  means  of  an 
axially  rotating  tool;  they  vary  greatly  in  form 
according  to  the  ])urpose  for  which  they  are 
used,  being  made  with  from  one  to  a  dozen  or 
more  spindles,  and  for  drilling  horizontal  or 
inclined  holes.  Boring  machines  for  boring 
holes  of  large  diameter,  such  as  engine  cylinders. 


Fia.  3.    PFXcB. 

ordnance,  hollow  shafting,  usually  have  a 
cylindrical  tool  head  in  which  two  or  more 
separate  tools  are  clamped.  They  are  designed 
to  drill  horizontal,  vertical  or  inclined  holes. 
Fig.  2  shows  a  three-spindle  vertical  boring  ma- 
chine. Drills  and  boring  machines  are  often 
used  for  reaming  holes  made  by  |iunehing  or  for 
giving  an  exact  cylindrical  interior  surface  to  a 


Pi>ciii.\G  >l.vcui.\ES  OR  PiMiiE.s.  Punchcs 
are  used  like  drills  for  perforating  metal  plates 
and  shapes  for  riveted  connections,  the  hole  be- 
ing made  by  the  thrust  of  a  cylindrical  puncli  in- 
stead of  by  a  rotating  drill.  Single  and  multiple 
punches  are  built  capable  of  ])unching  one  or 
sever.al  holes  at  once.  For  light  work  punches 
are  usually  driven  by  belts,  but  for  heavy  work 
individual  steam-engines  or  hydraulic  cylinders 
are  the  nibtive  powers  used.  Where  holes  are  to 
be  punched  at  regular  intervals  automatic  spac- 
ing tables  are  often  used  in  connection  with 
punches.  Fig.  3  shows  a  single  punch  of  familiar 
construction.  Horizontally  acting  inmclies  arc 
also  constructed. 


Fig.  i.      8BEAR8. 

Shearing  Machines.  Shears  are  used  for 
cutting  oir  or  shearing  metal  plates  and  shapes, 
and  resemble  punches  in  const ru<'t ion  and  opera- 
tion except  that  the  punching  tool  and  ilie  are 
replaced  by  cutting  edges  which  slide  past  each 
other  like  the  blades  of  ordinary  .shears  or  scis- 
sors. Fig.  4  shows  a  familiar  construction  of 
plate  shears;  machines  of  this  type  are  built 
wide  enough  to  shear  plates  10  feet  wide.  For 
shearing  angle  iron  and  other  shapes  special 
forms  of  shears  are  often  made. 


FlO.   5.      mVETKR, 

RrvETiNO  Machines  on  Riveters.  Riveter* 
are  employed  for  driving  and  heading  hot  rivet* 
in    making    riveted    connections    in    lioiler   work, 


hollow  casting,  as.  for  example,  au  engine  cylin-     structural  work,  etc.     They  arc  built  in  a  great 
der.  variety  of  forms,  but  most  usual  is  a  U-shapcd 


METAL-WORKING    MACHINERY 


^^s^Mii 


1.   HORIZONTAL   BENDING  ROLLS 


METAL-WORKING  MACHINERY. 


369 


METAL-WORKING  MACHINERY. 


franie  ur  yoke  having  at  tlie  eiuls  cif  tlii'  arms 
interiorly  projecting  dies  one  of  which  is  sta- 
tionary while  the  other  has  a  reciprocating  mo- 
tion. The  rivet  after  being  inserted  in  the  hole  is 
squeezed  endwise  between  these  two  dies  until 
it  clamps  the  work  together  and  a  head  is  formed. 
l'"ig.  r>  shows  a  common  form  of  riveter.  The  mov- 
ing die  is  operated  by  means  of  a  steam  or  com- 
pressed air  cylinder.  Riveters  are  made  sta- 
tionary as  well  as  portable;  stationary  riveters 
are  usually  employed  for  heavier  work  and  are 
often  (i])eratcd  by  hydraulic  power. 

Pbe.sses.  Presses  are  used  for  forming  sheet 
metal  into  utensils  of  various  forms  by  means  of 
pressure  between  dies.  They  may  be  operated 
bv  steam,  hydraulic,  or  other  power.  Fig.  6 
sfiows  a  hydraulic  press  for  such  work  as  watch- 


FlG.  7.      BCLLDOZEB   PRESS. 


tween  which  the  plate  is  drawn  by  the  rotation 
of  the  rolls.  The  relative  adjustment  of  the  rolls 
determines  the  curve  to  which  the  plate  is  bent. 
The  accompanying  plate  shows  a  horizontal  bend- 
ing roll  operated  by  a  special  steam-engine  and 


used  by  the  United  States  Government  for  bend- 
ing 1  inch  thick  steel  plates.  These  rolls  will 
take  in  plates  24  feet  wide.  Vertical  rolls  of 
similar  construction  are  also  made. 

Sawing  JIaciiines.  Saws  are  used  extensively 
in  metal-working  for  cutting  plates  and  shapes 
into  shorter  lengths.  They  are  built  in  a  large 
number  of  forms  both  portable  and  stationary. 
In  the  illustration   (Fig.  8)    a  familiar  form  of 


Fig.  6.    HVDnACLic  press. 

case  making,  which  is  operated  by  a  belt-driven 
pump.  The  operation  of  presses  of  this  style  is 
described  in  the  article  on  Hydraulic  Press. 
Presses  are  made  for  both  the  hot  and  cold  work- 
ing of  metals.  A  form  of  hot-working  press,  gen- 
erally horizontal  in  action,  u.sed  in  bending  struc- 
tural shapes,  is  called  a  bulldozer.  The  illustra- 
tion shows  a  familiar  form  of  bulldozer  press. 

Be.ndixg  iI.\CHiNES.  Bending  rolls  are  used 
for  bending  metal  plates  to  suitable  curves  for 
boiler  and  lank  work.  They  usually  consist  of 
three  rolls  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  triangle  be- 


FlG.  8.      COLD   METAL. SAWIXG   MACHINES. 

toothed  saw  for  cutting  oft"  steel  beams  and  simi- 
lar shapes  is  shown;  the  beam  is  clamped  to  a 
carriage  and  moved  into  contact  with  the  edge  of 
a  circular  saw  as  is  done  in  sawing  lumber  by 
similar  saws.  The  toothless  cold  metal  saw  con- 
sists simply  of  a  plain  soft  steel  or  iron  disk  with- 
out teethj  about  42  inches  in  diameter  and  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick.  The  velocity  of  the 
circumference  in  operation  is  about  15,000  feet 
per  minute.  One  of  these  saws  will  cut  through 
an  ordinary  steel  rail  in  about  one  minute.  In 
this  saw  the  iron  or  steel  is  ground  oil'  by  the 
friction  of  the  disk,  and  is  not  cut  as  with  the 


Fig.  9.   plain  milling  machine. 

teeth  of  an  ordinary  saw.  It  has  generally  been 
found  more  profitable,  however,  to  saw  iron  with 
disks  or  band  saws,  fitted  with  cutting  teeth, 
which  run  at  moderate  speeds  and  cut  the  metals 
as  do  the  teeth  of  a  milling  cutter  such  as  is  de- 
scribed in  the  succeeding  section.  A  novel  appli- 
cation of  the  cold  saw  is  known  as  Reese's  fusing 
disk.  This  saw  is  used  to  cut  iron  or  steel  in 
the  form  of  bars,  tubes,  cylinders,  etc.,  and  the 


METAL- WORKING  MACHINEB.Y. 


370 


METAMORPHIC    ROCKS. 


piece  to  be  cut  is  made  to  revolve  as  well  as  the 
saw,  but  at  a  slower  speed.  By  this  means  only 
a  small  surface  of  the  bar  to  be  cut  is  presented 
at  a  time  to  the  circunifcience  of  the  saw.  The 
saw  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  cold  saw  de- 
scribed above,  and  is  rotated  at  a  velocity  of 
about  25.000  feet  per  minule.  The  heat  generated 
by  the  friction  of  this  saw  against  the  small  sur- 
face of  the  bar  exposed  to  its  action  at  one  time 
is  so  great  that  the  particles  of  iron  or  steel  in 
tlie  bar  are  actually  fused  and  the  'sawdust" 
wehls  into  a  solji!  mass  as  it  falls.  This  disk 
will  cut  either  east  iron  or  wrought  iron  or  steel. 
JllLLl.NG  Machines.  Milling  machines  are 
used  for  forming  exact  surfaces  of  various  forms 
by  means  of  revolving  cutting  tools  or  cutters. 
By  means  of  dilTercnt  shaped  cutters  an  almost 
unlimited  variety  of  surfaces  can  be  cut  by  mill- 
ing machines.  They  are  used  extensively  for 
sliaping  small  articles  such  as  scwingiuachine 
and  gim  parts.  Tlicy  vary  greatly  in  form,  being 
vertical,  horizontal,  and  universal,  with  one  or 
several  cutters.  Fig.  0  shows  a  form  of  ])Iain 
milling  machine  with  ,a  horizontal  spindle,  and 
Fig.  10  shows  representative  forms  of  cutlers  and 
tools,  of  which  there  are  many  special  shajjes. 


FlO.  10.      MILI.INi;    1 MTTKRS    ANIl  TOOL9. 


Special  Machines.  The  term  special  ma- 
chines includes  all  metal-working  machines  fur 
tapping  nuts,  threading  bolls,  and  nutking  jiins, 
screws,  nails,  rivets,  pens,  etc.  Tlie  use  of  mclal- 
working  machines  has  largely  replaced  hand 
labor  in  metal-working  in  all  eounlries.  Iiut  it 
has  become  particularlv  extended  in  the  United 
States. 

METAMTERISM  (from  Gk.  ^ni,  nirla.  after 
-^  /iz/ior,  )/i<)(,s-.  part).  ,-V  term  equivalent  to 
segmentation,  as  seen  in  the  worms  whose  bod.v 
is  divided  along  the  prinniry  or  longitudinal  axis 
into  segments,  homiilogiiu*  with  each  other,  which 
arc  technically  called  'somites'  or  'metamercs.' 
Each  metamere  or  segment  contains  a  chamber 


or  compartment  of  the  body-cavity,  and  a  section 
of  the  aliiucutaiy  canal  and  other  organs.  The 
external  appendages  or  the  so-called  'segmental 
organs'  are  said  to  be  segmcnlally  or  nu'tanieri- 
cally  arranged.  Metamerism  is  most  obviously 
exhibited  in  worms  and  arthropods,  as  the  lob- 
ster, myriapods,  and  insects.  Vertebrate  animals, 
also,  in  the  vertebral  column,  and  some  of  the 
other  organs,  show  a  tendency  to  a  repetition  of 
segments,  i.e.  to  metamerism. 

METAM'NEH.      \   town   of  Galabat    (q.v.). 

METAMORPHIC  ROCKS.  One  of  the  three 
great  divisions  of  the  rocks  (see  Rock)  char- 
acterized generally  by  a  foliated  or  schistose 
structure  and  including:  (1)  rocks  which  have 
been  shown  to  be  altered  (metamorphosed)  igne- 
ous rocks  (q.v.);  ("i)  rocks  which  have  been 
shown  to  be  altered  sedimentary  rocks  (q.v.)  ; 
and  (.3)  rocks  which,  while  resembling  one  or 
both  of  these  types,  do  not  allow  of  a  definite 
(li'termination  of  their  origin.  This  implies  that 
the  product  pf  metamorphism  acting  u])on  a  sedi- 
mentary rock  may  be  indistinguishable  from  the 
result  of  the  same  agencies  acting  upon  an 
igneous  rock.  There  are,  however,  certain  limits 
of  composition  fixed  by  the  laws  of  consolidation 
of  I'ock  magmas  that  restrict  somewhat  the 
composition  of  metamorpbic  rocks  which  can 
have  bad  an  igneous  origin,  the  processes  of  meta- 
morphism having  been  shown  in  the  great  ma- 
jority of  instances  not  to  have  altered  in  an  im- 
portant way  the  ultimate  comjiosition  of  the  rock 
as  a  whole.  The  metamorpbic  rocks  are  as  a 
class  those  of  which  the  processes  involved  in 
their  alteration  have  been  active  within  the  crust 
of  the  earth,  and  are  exclusive  of  those  formed 
through  the  chemical  action  of  the  atmosiiheric 
agencies,  the  latter  class  being  generally  desig- 
nated residual  rocks  (q.v.).    See  ilETAiioni'ili.SM. 

Metamori'IIIC  SEnniENTARY  Koc'KS.  The  prin- 
cipal metamoriihic  sedimentary  rocks  are  delinitc- 
ly  related  to  the  unaltered  sedimentary  rocks, 
principally,  however,  in  respect  to  composition. 
Thus  marble  (q.v.)  and  crystalline  limestone 
(q.v.)  are  metamorphosed  limestone,  and  dolo- 
mitic  marble  is  the  product  of  metamorphism  of 
dolomite.  Quartzito  (q.v.)  anil  quartz  schist  re- 
sult from  the  nu-taniorphosis  of  arenaceous  rocks, 
and  by  the  rccrystallization  of  contained  iron 
ore  or  by  the  impregnation  by  ferruginous  ma- 
terial they  become  jas])ilite  (q.v.)  or  hematite 
rock.  The  argillaceous  rocks  produced  by  the 
same  processes  are  slate,  phvUite,  mica  schist, 
hornblende  or  aetinolite  schist,  garnetifcrous 
schist,  stanrolitie  schist,  and  the  rarer  types 
of  hornfcis  or  hornstones  (q.v.),  albite  schist 
and  chiastolitc  schist. 

METAMORPHIC  IGNEOUS  RocKS.  The  types  in- 
cluded under  this  head  may  generally  be  recog- 
nized by  the  partial  preservation  of  the  peculiar 
textures  of  igneous  rocks;  such,  for  example,  as 
the  granitic^  porphyritic,  vitreous  or  glassy, 
spherulitic,  pearlitic,"  etc.  (See  loNEor.s  Rocks.) 
These  structures  are,  however,  almost  always  ob- 
scured by  the  presence  of  parallel  or  ai)proxi- 
matelv  parallel  sets  of  fissile  planes  which  are 
collectively  referred  to  as  the  schistosity  of  the 
rock.  (Sec  MhrrAMoiiiMiis>f.)  There  may  be 
several  sets  of  these  l']s<iilc  planes,  but  when  two 
or  more  arc  present  it  is  generally  impossible  to 
di'teniiinc  whether  the  rock  had  nn  jgncoiis  or 
sedimentary  origin,  and  it  would  be  relegated  to 


METAMORPHIC    ROCKS. 


371 


METAMORPHOSIS. 


tlic  lliird  class  of  iiietamorphic  rocks.  It  has 
been  found  that  igneous  rocks  whicli  were  origi- 
nally glassy  in  te.xture  are  liable  to  devitrifica- 
tion, the  ])roduet  of  which  ])roccss  is  a  rock  of 
niicrocrystulline  or  crypto-ervstalline  texture. 
Jletaniorphic  rocks  of  this  derivation  are  named 
in  terms  of  the  rocks  from  which  tliey  have  been 
derived  with  the  addition  of  the  prefix  apu;  as, 
for  example,  aporhyolite  from  rhyolite  (q.v.). 
If,  however,  the  induced  texture  is  that  of 
scliistosity  or  foliation  alone,  a  structure  which 
nmst  be  referred  to  the  processes  known  as  dy- 
namic metamorphisra,  the  original  name  of  the 
igneous  type  is  joined  to  the  textural  term  gneiss; 
as,  for  exam])le,  fininite-r/nciss  from  metamor- 
pbism  of  granite  (q.v.).  G-ranitoid  gneiss  is  the 
equivalent  of  granite-gneiss.  The  third  class  of 
inet.Tmorphic  igneous  rocks  owe  their  origin 
ehielly  to  the  chemical  alteration  (recrystalliza- 
tion )  of  igneous  rock  types  with  the  abundant 
development  of  new  minerals  out  of  old  ones. 
Such  rocks  are  steatite  or  soapstone  (q.v.),  from 
the  development  of  talc,  and  serpentine  rock 
(q.v.  I,  from  the  development  of  serpentine,  in 
rocks  of  dominant  magnesian  composition. 

Consult:  Rosenbuscli,  Elemeiitc  dcr  dcstcln.'!- 
lehre  (Stuttgart.  1898)  ;  Zirkel.  Lehibmh  der 
I'etrofirdiiliic,  vol.  iii.  (Leipzig.  1894):  Diller, 
"Tlie  Educational  Scries  of  Rock  Specimens  Col- 
lected and  Distributed  by  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,"  in  Bulletin  150,  United 
States  Geologieal  Survey   (Washington,  1898). 

MET'AMOR'PHISM.  A  term  commonly 
used  liy  gcolugists  to  indicate  the  profound 
changes  whicli  some  rocks  have  undergone.  The 
term  is  not  applied  to  the  changes  induced  by 
weatliering  and  decomposition,  but  is  appli- 
cable onjy  to  the  profound  modifications  that 
are  usually  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  hard- 
ness anil  degree  of  crystallization  from  the  origi- 
nal conditions.  Metamorphism  may  lead  also 
to  the  mineriilogical  reconstruction  of  rocks.  In 
a  way  it  may  be  contrasted  with  weathering, 
which  tends  to  break  down  the  surface  strata 
and  thus  promotes  their  removal  to  the  sea  by 
rivers;  metamorphism,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
solidates the  sediments  when  they  are  deeply 
buried.  The  phenomena  of  metamorphism  are 
commonly  met  wMth  in  nature  particularly  in  the 
regions  underlain  by  ancient  rocks,  where  the 
processes  of  upheaval  and  subsidence  and  vol- 
canic forces  have  operated  through  long  periods 
of  time.  The  degree  to  which  rocks  have  been 
changed  varies  from  mere  hardening  in  some 
cases  to  an  extreme  marked  by  complete  altera- 
tion  in  structure  and  composition. 

KixD.s  OF  Metamorphism.  Strata  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  igneous  intrusions,  as  dykes  and  bosses 
of  granite,  are  more  or  less  metamorphosed  and 
show  an  increase  in  hardness  and  cryst:ilIization. 
In  tliis  kind  of  metamorphism,  called  eoiilaet 
meinmnrphism,  the  amount  of  change  effected  de- 
pends upon  the  character  of  the  invading  rock 
and  the  rock  tliat  has  been  invaded,  and  also 
upon  the  proximity  to  the  contact.  Deep-seated 
igneous  masses  exert  gi-eater  influence  than  s;ir- 
face  flows  of  lava,  doubtless  because  of  the 
greater  heat  and  longer  period  of  cooling:  while 
those  of  aciil  composition  in  which  there  are  large 
quantities  of  occluded  gases  and  vapors  are  more 
effective  than  basic  types.  The  character  of  the 
strata  invaded  by  the  igneous  rock  largely  de- 
termines the   extent  to  which  new  minerals  are 


found;  sandstone  usually  shows  no  change  be- 
yond a  hardening  or  recrystallization  of  the 
quartz  particles,  but  cla.y  rocks,  such  as  shales 
and  slates,  exhibit  a  complete  rearrangement  of 
the  chemical  constituents  with  the  formation  of 
new  minerals. 

A  second  form  of  metamorphism  by  which 
rocks  have  been  influenced  over  wide  areas  de- 
pends upon  the  energy  develojjed  by  the  great 
stresses  and  movements  within  the  earth's  crust : 
this  is  called  regional  or  dynamic  metamorphism . 
The  first  stages  of  regional  metamorphism  are  in- 
dicated by  hardening  and  the  loss  of  volatile  sub- 
stances ;  but,  as  the  strains  of  compression  and 
shearing  increase,  the  rock  assumes  a  schistose 
structure  and  its  constituent  minerals  are  more  or 
less  completely  recrystallized.  The  change  ef- 
fected may  amount  to  a  tliorough  transformation, 
as  from  an  unaltered  sediment  to  a  homogeneous 
crystalline  mass  resembling  an  igneous  rock. 

Causes  of  Metamorphism.  Heat,  pressure, 
and  moisture  are  the  most  eft'ective  agencies  in 
producing  the  changes  known  as  metamorphism. 
The  influence  of  heat  is  shown  in  igneous  con- 
tacts, but  it  is  also  an  acces.sory  in  regional 
metamorphism,  although  pressure  is  here  the 
dominant  factor.  Moisture  which  is  present  in 
all  classes  of  rocks  assists  in  decomposing  min- 
erals and  in  the  formation  of  new  compounds. 
The  phenomena  of  metamorphism  have  been  imi- 
tated in  an  experimental  way  by  subjecting  speci- 
mens of  various  rocks  to  the  influence  of  heat  and 
pressure.  Consult  G!eikie,  Text-Book  of  Oeology 
(London,  1893).  See  Geology;  Metamorphic 
Rocks. 

MET'AMOR'PHOSIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^ra- 
^pcpuiais,  from  ^€Taixop(pou(r6at^  nietamorphousthai. 
to  be  transformed,  from /jfTi,  meta,  over  +  uop0i), 
morphe,  form) .  In  the  mythology  of  the  ancients, 
those  transformations  of  human  lieings  into 
bea.sts,  stones,  trees,  and  even  into  fire,  water, 
etc.,  in  fables  of  which  that  mythology  abounded. 
See  Ovid;  Folklore;  Werwolf. 

METAMORPHOSIS  (in  animals).  A  change 
of  form  in  the  ])ost-embryonic  life  of  an  indi- 
vidual animal.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
change  in  form  of  homologous  parts  in  difl'crent 
species. 

The  young  of  many  animals  pass  through  a 
series  of  changes  of  form,  in  each  of  which  the 
animal  is  adapted  to  changes  in  its  surround- 
ings,  involving  alterations   in   its   mode   of   life. 


METAMORPB08I8  OF  OIL-BEETLE. 

n.  First  larva  :  b,  second  larva  ;  c,  third  larva  ;  d,  pupa; 
e,  mature  beetle. 

sliglit  if  the  change  of  body-form  is  slight,  thor- 
oughgoing  and  radical  if  its  body  becomes  pro- 
foundly modified.  As  examples  of  a  complete 
metamorphosis  may  be  cited  the  life-histories  of 
the  jellyfish  (q.v.),  the  starfish,  midlusks,  crus- 
taceans, insects,  and  also  the  salamanders,  toads, 
and  frogs.  Most  shrimps  and  crabs  undergo  a 
complicated   metamorphosis,   for  in   the  different 


METAMORPHOSIS. 


372 


METAMORPHOSIS. 


stages  they  lead  different  lives  and  are  subjected 
to  different  environments,  the  huvie  for  the  most 
part  being  frecswininiinfr  and  living  near  the 
surface  of  the  water,  \vhih>  the  parents  arc  sta- 
tionary. The  result  of  this  change  of  haliits  and 
form  undoubtedly  is  to  prevent  the  extinction  of 
the  species,  since  if  at  a  given  moment  tlie  par- 
ents were  swept  out  of  existence,  the  young,  living 
under  very  different  circumstances,  would  sur- 
vive, deveh)]),  and  represent  the  species.  Again 
in  the  marine  species  of  worms,  Crustacea, etc. .the 
free-swinnning  young  (larva")  are  borne  about  by 
oceanic  and  tidal  currents,  and  in  this  way  what 
in  adult  life  are  the  most  scdenlary  forms  be- 
cotue  widely  distributed  from  one  part  of  the 
world  to  another.  On  the  other  hand,  the  larval 
forms  of  fixed  marine  animals  serve  as  food  for 
fishes,  especially  young  fishes,  and  numerous 
invertebrates.  Thus  were  it  not  for  the  meta- 
morphoses of  animals,  many  species  would  be- 
come extinct  sooner  than  they  do,  while  the  great 
overplus  of  larval  forms  gives  to  many  other  spe- 
cies of  animals  a  secure  hold  on  existence. 

As  an  example  of  metamorphosis  we  may  cite 
that  of  a  butterlly.  lly.  (U'  bee.  Their  life  is  di- 
vided into  four  stages,  the  embryo  passed  within 
the  egg,  the  larva.  puj)a  or  chrysalis,  and  imago. 
An  insect  after  hatching  lives,  so  to  speak,  three 
different  lives,  having  distinct  bodily  struc- 
tures and  existing  under  very  different 
conditions  as  regards  food,  enemies,  etc. 
The  caterpillar,  for  example,  has  big  jaws,  which 
in  the  winged  or  adult  state  are  entirely  want- 
ing. Other  radical  changes  are  observable  in 
the  body  and  a])])endages,  and  also  in  the  inter- 
nal organs.  The  term  'larva'  (q.v.),  as  applied 
to  the  first  stage  of  animals,  is  a  very  variable 
and  indefinite  one,  that  of  insects  in  general  be- 
ing a  much  more  higlily  organized  animal  than 
the  larva  of  a  worm,  starfish,  or  crustacean.  Wing- 
less insects  (synaptera)  do  not  pass  through  a 
metamorphosis.  That  of  winged  insects  is  said  to 
be  "incomplete' or 'complete.'  An  example  of  incom- 
plete metamorphosis  is  that  of  locusts  and  grass- 
ho])pcrs.  In  these  insects  the  freshly  hatched 
young  differs  from  the  adult  only  in  being  witli- 
out  wings.  The  different  stages  of  metamor- 
phosis are  not  primitive,  inherited  from  some 
early  form,  but  arc  acquired  characters;  the  nau- 
plius  stage  of  most  Crustacea,  and  the  caterpillar, 
maggot,  or  grub  of  insects,  are  forms  which  were 
adaptations  to  changed  modes  of  life,  inducing  use 
or  disuse  of  certain  organs.  At  first  insects  were 
ametabolous.  and  it  was  not  until  perhaps  the 
middle  of  the  Paleozoic  era  that  insects  with  a 
metamorphosis  began  to  exist. 

IlYPERMPrAMOHi'iin.sis.  A  condition  in  insects 
wherein  they  pass  through  more  than  the  three 
normal  stages.  The  best  known  examples  are  the 
supernumerary  stages  of  ^[eloe.  Stylops.  etc.  In 
the  oil-beetle  (Meloi-)  the  freshly  hatched  young 
is  an  active,  minute  campiidia-like  larva,  which 
inhaluts  the  nests  of  wilil  bees,  feeding  upon  the 
eggs  of  Iheir  hosts.  This  .sedentary  mode  of  life 
reacts  upon  the  organism,  and  after  molting  in 
the  second  larval  stage  it  is  grub  like,  the  body 
thick,  soft  and  fleshy  (carabidoid  stage),  and  it 
feeds  on  honey.  At  the  next  molt  the  insect  is 
motionless  and  nearly  footles.s  (semipupal  stage). 
It  then  changes  to  a  third  larval  form,  wlien 
it  resembles  the  maggot  or  lnrv,a  of  a  bee.  It 
then  transforms  into  a  genuine  pupa,  and  finally 
into  the  beetle.      It  will   be  seen   that   at   nearlv 


each  stage  its  mode  of  life,   kind  of  food,  etc., 
cliange. 

Slppbessed  Metamorphosis.  This  phenome- 
non, or  "direct  development,'  is  a  curtailment  or 
absolute  loss  of  primitive  larval  characters,  or  a 
forcing  back  of  larval  features  or  structures,  until 
they  are  either  passed  through  in  the  embryo  be- 
fore hatching  or  entirely  lost,  due  to  the  lapse  of 
heredity.  Thus  in  all  the  insects  with  a  meta- 
morphosis there  exists  what  is  called  "polypody' 
in  the  embryo,  except  in  the  Diptera.  where  "it 
has  been  known  to  exist  only  in  one  case.  The 
embryos  of  other  metabolous  insects  than  flies 
at  a  certain  period  have  abdominal  legs,  showing 
their  descent  from  a  Peripatus  or  myriapodous 
ancestry.  The  eam]iodeoid  characters  of  the  larva 
of  Coleoptera  also  become  suppressed  and  lost  in 
the  more  specialized  moths,  bees  (Hymenoptera), 
and  Diptera.  This  is  ex]dained  by  their  being 
crowded  out,  due  to  the  acquisition  of  later  ac- 
quired characters  better  adapted  to  their  changed, 
new  mode  of  life. 

This  abbreviated  metamorphosis  is  seen  also 
in  the  Crustacea,  as  the  lobster  (q.v.),  and  more 
cs]iceially  in  certain  shrimps  and  crabs,  which, 
owing  to  changed  conditions,  hatch  in  the  adult 
form,  passing  through  the  nauplius  and  zo8a 
stages  in  the  embryo.  It  is  also  seen  in  the  frogs 
(q.v.),  where  the  different  degrees  of  metamor- 
phosis are  plainly  due  to  great  dift'erenccs  in  the 
conditions  of  life.     See  Nidificatiox. 

Causes  of  Metamoupiiosis.  These  are  obscure, 
but  it  is  plain  that  the  different  stages  are  ex- 
aggerated or  proiKiunccd  ])cri(icls  in  tlie  growth 
of  the  animal,  and  that  the  fundamental  causes 
are  the  same  as  those  which  have  initiated  and 
controlled  the  origin  of  species.  This  is  plainly 
seen  in  aquatic  larvtc,  the  young  of  forms  whose 
larva;  were  originally  terrestrial.  The  mmiber- 
less  contrivances  and  temporary  larval  organs, 
especially  seen  in  dipterous  larva",  are  evidently 
adaptations  to  the  needs  of  the  insect  during  its 
temporary  aquatic  life,  these  being  cast  aside 
when  the  animals  jiass  to  .a  different  medium. 

Bim.iOGRAPiiY.  Weismann.  '"Die  naehenibry- 
onale  Entwicklung  der  JInseidcn."  in  Zcitschrift 
fiir  ■ic-ifisenscluiftliche  Znolofiic,  vol.  xiv.  ( 1864) ; 
Korschelt  and  Heider.  Trxl-hook  of  the  Einbry- 
oloqy  of  Jnvcrlchratc.i  (London.  1895-1000)  :  Lub- 
bock. The  Mctnmnriiltoscs  of  hmcctsi  (ib.,  1874); 
Packard,  Text-hook  of  Entomologti  (New  York, 
1808). 

METAMORPHOSIS  (in  plants).  Goethe's 
doctrine  which  seeks  to  account  for  the  observed 
connection  between  the  dilVerent  organs  of  a  leafy 
nature  in  (he  same  plant,  and  chielly  developed 
and  applied  to  what  may  be  called  foliar  organs. 
The  stem  came  into  consideration  only  as  carry- 
ing leaves,  and  the  root  was  almost  entirely  disre- 
garded. The  theory  assumes  for  foliar  structures 
an  ideal  fundamental  organ,  from  which  different 
leaf  forms  could  be  derived.  In  its  applica- 
tion this  ideal  form  came  to  niean  (o  nioxt 
botanists  an  ordinary  foliage  leaf,  and  foliar 
structures  have  been  in  the  main  presented  from 
this  standpoint.  l'"or  exnni])le.  the  parts  of  the 
flower  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  modified  or 
metamorphosed  leaves;  and  when  petals  or  sta- 
mens are  abnormally  replaced  by  foliage-like 
structures  they  are  said  to  revert  to  the  primi- 
tive condition  and  to  prove  derivation  from  leaves 
by  modification.  ]\forpholog^"  long  ago  disproved 
this  iilealistic  metamorphosis,  and  it  does  not  re- 


METAMORPHOSIS. 


373 


METASTASIO. 


gaiil  the  occasional  lejilaceniciit  of  a  usual  organ 
by  ail  unusual  one  as  any  argument  in  favor  of 
such  a  view.  Consult  Sachs,  (Jeachichte  der 
Botantk  com  16.  Juhrhundvrt  bis  IStiO  (Munich, 
1875),  trans,  by  Garnsey    (Oxford,   1890). 

METAPHOR  (Gk.  furacpopd,  mclai>hora,  a 
transference ) .  A  figure  of  speech  by  means  of 
which  one  thing  is  put  for  another  which  it  only 
resembles.  Thus,  the  Psalmist  speaks  of  God's 
law  as  being  "a  light  to  his  feet  and  a  lamp  to 
his  jialli.''  The  metaphor  is  a  kind  of  comparison 
in  wliich  the  sjieaker  or  writer,  casting  aside  the 
circumlocution  of  the  ordinary  similitude,  seeks 
to  attain  his  end  at  once  by  boldly  identifying 
his  illu~tratiuu  with  the  thing  illustrated. 

METAPHYSICS  (Lat.  mcluphijsica,  from 
Gk.  n(Ta  tA  (pva-cKo..  nictu  la  plti/silia,  following 
the  physics;  because  of  the  position  this  subject 
occupied  in  Aristotle's  collected  works ) .  The 
name  given  to  the  science  which  deals  with  ulti- 
mate reality,  iletaphysics  or  ontologj'  is  a 
tenn  used  to  designate  a  branch  of  philosophy, 
but  much  difl'erence  of  opinion  prevails  as  to 
the  precise  character  and  function  of  this  philo- 
sophic discipline,  and  even  as  to  its  possibility. 
Its  possibility  naturally  depends  upon  its  task 
and  scope.  According  to  the  older  view,  meta- 
physics had  to  do,  not  with  the  world  of  experi- 
ence, but  with  a  metempirical  world— i.e.  a  world 
other  than  the  world  of  experience,  and  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  more  real  than  the  latter. 
But  there  are  many,  especially  in  modern  times, 
who  take  a  different  view  of  the  task  of  meta- 
physics. They  regard  it  as  a  science  dealing  with 
tlie  world  of  experience  as  every  other  science 
does,  but  studying  that  w'orld  with  a  view  to 
answering  certain  questions  which  the  so-called 
natural  sciences  do  not  raise.  The  natural  sci- 
ences take  up  certain  isolated  aspects  of  ex- 
perienced reality,  and  by  means  of  this  speciali- 
zation are  able  to  obtain  much  more  detailed 
knowledge.  But  this  knowledge  does  not  pretend 
to  go  beyond  appearances.  'The  question  is  al- 
ways left  open  whether  after  all  the  things  may 
not  be  a  surface  show  while  true  being  lies  below 
in  unfatliomable  deeps.  This  question  some  mod- 
ern metaphysicians  take  up  and  claim  to  answer 
in  the  negative,  not  dogmatically,  but  scientifical- 
ly. According  to  this  school  the  proper  point 
of  departure  for  metaphysical  inquiry  is  the 
epistemological  conclusion  that  knowledge  and 
reality  are  two  sides  of  one  and  the  same  con- 
crete experience.  (See  Know'ledge,  Theory  of.) 
Any  attcm]it  to  divorce  reality  from  knowledge 
involves  tile  logical  fallacy  of  supposing  that 
what  is  always  validated  to  us  by  ex])erience 
can  be  sundered  from  experience  and  yet  remain 
real.  The  error  is  of  the  same  kind  as  would  be 
committed  by  one  who  should  say  that  because 
color  and  extension  are  distinguishable,  therefore 
color  can  exist  when  separated  from  extension. 
According  to  this  school,  metaphysics  is  the  sci- 
ence which  draws  conclusions  as  to  the  nature 
of  reality  from  the  scientifie  findings  of  epis- 
tenlolog^■.  As  epistemology  is  an  experiential 
and  inductive  science,  metaphysics  is  based  on 
experience:  it  is  not  an  attempt  to  spin  cobwebs 
in  the  brain.  Among  metaphysical  problems  are 
those  as  to  the  nature  of  cause  (see  C,\r.s.\UTY) , 
of  time  and  space  (q.v.),  of  substance  (q.v.), 
of  infinity  (see  Infinite),  of  the  absolute  (q.v.), 
of  the  freedom  of  the  will    (see  Determinism), 


of  mechanism  and  teleology  (q.v.),  of  monism 
and  pluralism  (q.v.),  and  of  the  relation  be- 
tween mind  and  body.     See  Dualism  and  Ma- 

TEBIAXISM. 

As  Kiilpe  has  remarked,  the  bibliography  of 
metaphysics  is  that  of  philosophj'  (q.v.)  itself. 
Some  systematic  treatises  on  the  subject  may 
be  mentioned  here:  Deussen.  Elcmcitle  dcr  Mcta- 
physik  (Aix-la-Chapelle,  1S77:  2d  ed.  1800;  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  18'J4)  ;  Dietrich,  (JnituhiU/c  der 
Metaphysik  (Freiburg,  ISS,"?)  ;  Bowne,  Metaphys- 
ics (2d  ed..  New  York,  1895)  ;  Ladd,  A  Thcorxj 
of  Reality  (ib.,  1899)  ;  Lotze,  System  dcr  I'hiloso- 
phie,  part  ii.,  Metuphysik  (Leipzig,  1879;  Eng. 
trans.,  O.xford,  1884,  1887);  Bradley,  Appear- 
ance and  Reality  1 2d  cd..  London,  1897).  See 
akso  Philosophy  and  its  bibliograpliy. 

MET'APON'TUM,      or     METAPONTIUM. 

(Lat.,  from  Gk.  MeTair6>Tio;'.  ilclapontiun) .  An 
ancient  city  of  ilagna  Gnecia.  Ital.v,  24  miles 
from  Tarentum  and  14  from  Heraclea.  It  w-as 
founded  at  the  instigation  of  the  S.vbarites,  who 
wished  to  check  the  advance  of  "Tarentuin,  by 
Achiean  and  probably  ilessenian  emigrants,  early 
in  the  seventh  century  B.C.  To  this  place  the 
philosopher  P;y'thagoras  was  said  to  have  retired, 
and  here  his  tomb  was  shown.  In  D.c.  415  we  find 
the  inhabitants  allies  of  the  Athenians  in  their 
invasion  of  Sicilv,  and  for  some  time  previous 
the  town  had  evidently  been  in  a  condition  of 
constantly  increasing  prosperity.  In  .the  wars 
waged  against  Rome  by  Pyrrhus  and  Hannibal, 
the  Metapontines  were  hostile  to  the  Imperial  cit,v. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  of  Pyrrhus  the.v  were  sub- 
jugated completely  by  the  Romans,  but  in  B.C. 
212  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  yoke  by  ad- 
mitting the  Carthaginians.  After  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Carthaginians  the  city  was  deserted,  and 
soon  fell  into  ruin.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the 
modern  railway  station  are  some  remains  of 
ancient  temples,  and  excavation  has  brought  to 
light  some  inscriptions  and  architectural  frag- 
ments. Consult  Lacava.  Topografia  e  storia  di 
Metaponto    (Naples,  1891). 

METAB'GON  (Neo-Lat,  from  Gk.  /lera, 
mcta,  after  +  Eng.  argon).  A  name  applied  by 
Ramsay  to  what  he  erroneousl.v  thought  to  be  a 
new  chemical  element  contained  in  minute  quanti- 
ties in  atmospheric  air. 

METASTASIO,  ma'ta-stii'ze-o  (originally 
Trapassi),  Pietro  (1698-1782).  One  of  Italy's 
most  admired  poets.  He  was  born  at  Rome, 
.January  13,  1698,  of  humble  parents,  and  gave 
early  evidence  of  his  genius  by  his  boyish  im- 
provisations. Metastasio  having  attracted  the 
casual  notice  of  Gravina,  a  famous  jurisconsult 
of  the  day,  the  latter  undertook  the  entire  educa- 
tion and  career  of  the  youth,  whose  paternal 
name  of  Trapassi  had  thenceforward  the  Greek 
form  Metastasio.  In  1724  he  published  one  of 
his  most  celebrated  dramas.  La  Dione  abbando- 
nata,  which,  with  I!  Catone  and  IlSiroe.  conferred 
on  the  poet  a  European  name.  In  17.30  Meta- 
stasio accepted  the  post  of  Court  poet  at  Vienna. 
During  his  sojourn  in  Vienna  Jletastasio  com- 
posed his  Giuseppe  riconosciiito.  II  Demofoontc, 
and  the  Olimpiade.  Among  the  best  of  his  pieces 
are  the  melodramas  Clemen:a  di  Tito  (1734) 
and  Attilio  Regolo,  this  latter  being  usually 
considered  his  masterpiece.  He  died  at  Vienn;i, 
April    12,    1782.     Metastasio   was    distinguished 


METASTASIO. 


374 


METAYE?,. 


for  the  generosity,  integrity,  and  candor  of  his 
nature.  His  works  enjoy  iiiioxaniplcd  [x)])!!- 
larity  among  all  grades  of  his  coimtrynien;  in 
their  pure  classical  subjects  and  foinis  the  edu- 
cated student  finds  instruction  and  deli^dit,  while 
their  facile  musical  grace  and  verbal  simplicity 
adapt  them  to  the  popular  apineciation.  They 
were  translated  into  many  languages  and  set  to 
music  by  celebrated  composers.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  ':Metastasio  is  that  of  Paris  ( 12  vols., 
1780),  with  useful  suiiplements  in  the  Opcre 
postume  (Vienna,  1795),  and  in  the  Floren- 
tine editions  of  1820  and  1821).  Consult:  Ver- 
non Lee.  Studies  of  the  Eifihtecnth  Ccniury  in 
Ilahj  (1880);  Mussafia,  Fieiro  Melastasio  (Vi- 
enna, 1882)  ;  Carducci,  Lettcrc  disperse  c  inedile 
di  Pietro  Metastasio  (Bologna,  1883);  Antona- 
Traversi,  Lettere  inedile  e  disperse  di  Pietro 
Metastasio,  con  un'  appendice  (Rome,  188G)  ;  O. 
Tommasini,  "Pietro  ilctastasio  e  lo  svolgimento 
del  melodramma  italiano,"  in  his  Hcritti  di  sturia 
e  critica  (ib.,  1891)  ;  Masi,  "Pietro  Metastasio," 
in  his  Parrueche  e  Sanculotti  nel  sccolo  AT///. 
(Jlihin.   18SG). 

METAS'TASIS  (Nco-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /itTO- 
craa((,  removal,  change,  from  litSinrdvai,^  methi- 
stanai,  to  remove,  change  place,  from  fieru,  meta, 
after  +  laravai,  hislmuii.  to  place,  stand).  A 
change  in  the  seat  of  a  disease  from  one  part  of 
the  body  to  another.  Rheumatism  and  gout  are 
examples.  Muscular  rheumatism  is  more  or  less 
movable,  changing  from  one  set  of  muscles  to  an- 
other. Arthritic  rheumatism  is  more  liable  to 
change  persistently  from  one  joint  to  another,  or 
it  may  pass  to  an  analogous  tissue  in  another 
kind  of  organ,  as  to  the  serous  membranes  of  the 
heart,  or  pericardium.  Gout  is  well  known  for 
its  flights  from  one  point  to  anotlicr.  A  gouty 
manifestation,  such  as  eczema,  may  disappear 
and  be  replaced  by  an  attack  of  asttnna.  In 
mumps  (q.v.)  metastasis  may  take  place  to  the 
ovaries  in  girls  or  to  the  testicles  in  boys,  with 
resulting  ovaritis  or  orchitis  respectively.  In 
abscess,  metastasis  may  take  place  to  distant 
points  as  a  joint  or  the  kidneys.  The  courses  of 
metastasis  are  oliscure. 

ME'TA  SU'DANS  (Lat.,  dripping  goal).  A 
great  fountain  facing  the  Coliseum  at  Rome, 
said  to  have  been  erected  by  Domitian  and  com- 
pleted in  A.I).  97.  Representations  on  mod;ils  and 
references  in  literature,  however,  seem  t"  indicate 
that  Domitian  enlarged  a  fountain  already  in 
existence.  Its  name  was  given  from  its  shape, 
which  represented  the  goal  of  a  circus.  Only  the 
partially  restored  brick  interior  of  the  fountain 
remains. 

MET'ATHETRIA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  inrd.  iikIii.  after  +  %)/oi',  fln'rion.  diminu- 
tive of  %),  llti'r.  wild  beast ) .  The  order  Marsn- 
pialia.  or  marsupial  manunals.  In  tlie  classi- 
fieation  of  the  Manunalia  prepared  by  Huxley 
(t'rncredinijs  of  the  Xniiloflietil  NKrie/.i/  of  l.nndon. 
1S80).  the  inarsupials  were  placed  in  a  class 
'Melatheria'  (compare  HM)KI.imii.\  ) .  between  the 
Prototheria,  or  monotremcs,  below  them,  and  the 
Kntheria.  or  ordinary  mammals,  above  them,  and 
equivalent  to  both  in  rank.  He  enumerated  eleven 
ehnrncters  as  distinguisliing  the  JTetatheria  and 
giving  it  the  rank  he  proposed.  Subsequent  in- 
vestigations, however,  liave  shown  the  invalidity 
of  some  of  the  supposed  facts  relied  upon,  and  the 
prei)onderance   of  evidence   that    the   niariupials 


cannot  be  separated  from  the  higher  mammals 
by  any  such  a  gap  as  separates  them  from 
tiie  Prototheria.  The  term  Metatheria  is  now 
retained,  therefore,  only  as  tlie  designation  of  a 
section  of  the  subclass  Euthcria  embracing  the 
marsu]iials.  Consult  Ueddard,  Maiiiiiitilia  (Lon- 
don,  l;i02). 

METATJKtrS,  mc-tii'rus  (It.  Mctiiuro).  A 
small  river  of  Central  Italy,  emptying  into  the 
Adriatic,  4  miles  south  of  Fano  (.Map:  Italy, 
G  4) .  It  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Hasdrubal, 
brother  of  Hannibal,  by  Caius  Nero  and  Marcus 
Li\'i\is  in  i!.c.  207. 

METAYER,  ma'tu'yi'i'  (Fr.  metai/cr,  farmer 
who  tills  the  land  for  half  the  produce).  An 
agricultural  tenant  who  works  the  land  with 
capital  owned  by  the  landlord,  and  |)ays  as  rental 
a  fixed  proportion  of  the  crop.  It  may  in  general 
be  said  to  be  the  resource  of  ;i  eomnumity  where 
cultivators  are  without  capital.  In  tlie  United 
States  such  a  system  of  renting  lanil  on  shares 
prevails  mainly  in  the  Soiitli,  but  as  time  pro-  ' 
gresses  money  rents  are  substituted  nuue  and  more  ] 
for  share  rents,  and  this  seems  to  be  the  natural 
tendency  where  the  economic  position  of  tlic  ten- 
ants improves.  The  .system  of  metayage  is  still 
very  common  in  Italy,  parts  of  A\istria  and  Rus- 
sia, and  in  Portiigal  and  in  the  West  Indies.  It  ' 
is,  however,  less  common  at  )n'esent  than  it  was 
fonnerly,  the  system  of  leasing  land  for  a  cash 
rental  tending  to  displace  it  as  agi-icultural  capi- 
tal becomes  more  plentiful.  Metayage  is  a  sys- 
tem which  possesses  marked  social  adviint;iges, 
but  equally  marked  economic  disadvantages.  The 
metayer  cannot  be  rack-rented ;  bad  seiisons  can- 
not drive  him  into  bankruptcy;  the  increase  in 
value  of  produce  due  to  improved  means  of  trans- 
portation redound  to  liis  advantage  as  well  as  to 
that  of  the  landlord.  Metayage,  therefore,  tends 
to  create  a  class  of  peasantry  who  are  in  Inr^ 
measure  independent  of  the  ]irice  movements 
which  are  so  great  a  source  of  anxiety  to  the 
small  farmer  who  is  compelled  to  make  periodic 
money  payments  for  rent.  But.  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  slight  inducement  for  either  niOta- 
yer  or  landowner  to  make  improvements,  since 
"one-half  of  the  resulting  increase  in  product  goes 
to  the  other  party  on  the  division  of  the  crop. 
Metayage  has  for  this  reason  tcmlcd  to  perpetu- 
ate primitive  conditions  of  agriculture.  This 
evil  is.  however,  not  necessarily  inherent  in  the 
.system,  since  it  would  be  quite  possible  for  land- 
owner and  metayer  to  unite  in  making  improve- 
ments, and  this  practice  is  not  uncommon  in 
France.  It  is  also  possible  to  make  an  agree- 
ment as  to  a  separate  return  f(U-  the  capital  in- 
vested. The  economic  disadvantages  of  divided 
responsibility  would  still  remain,  and  for  this 
reason  mOtayage  can  hardly  survive  in  highly  ad- 
vanced economic  condiliims.  Its  existence  in  80 
large  a  part  of  Kurope  is  probably  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  persistency  of  custom  among  the 
agricultural  population.  See  Cruveilhier,  Etude 
siir  le  m(laijaije  (Paris.  1894).  An  excellent  ac- 
count of  the  .system  in  practice  is  to.be  found  in 
Higgs,  "Mf'tavage  in  Western  France,"  in  Eco- 
nomicJnurnai  (March.  1894) .  See  also  article  on 
"iMf'tayage"  in  Palgrave.  Dietinnarii  (if  I'dlilical 
Eeonnmi/.  The  standard  works  on  political  econ- 
omy usually  devote  some  attention  to  the  merits 
of  iuf'tayage.  Consult:  Kspccially.  .\ilam  Smith, 
Wriillh'nf  Xntions;  .Mill,  I'ulilieul  Eeimomy. 


METAZOA. 


METELLTJS. 


MET'AZO'A  (XooLat.  noiii.  pi,,  from  Ok. 
fuTii,  iiirhi,  alter  +  C^oi',  zOoii,  animal).  The 
nanw.  applit'il  (o  all  tlic  animals  al)c)v<'  llu'  I'roto- 
zoa.  'I  lie  animal  kinjjilom  is  lliiis  sulnliviiU'd  into 
two  divisions,  namely,  tlie  Protozoa,  or  one-celled 
animals,  and  the  Jletazoa,  or  inany-e(dled  ani- 
nials.  The  latter  inclnde  all  the  hranches  or 
phyla  of  the  animal  kingdom  from  the  sponges 
(I'orifera)  to  the  Verteljrata.  Eaeh  motazoan, 
liowever,  develops  from  a  single  cell,  the  egg. 

The  Jletazoa  have  been  defined  as  "Animals  in 
which  the  ordinary  (so-called  adult)  form  of  the 
species  has  always  more  than  one  nucleus,  and 
in  which  the  nuclei  are  for  the  most  part  ar- 
ranged regularly  and  with  a  deliuile  relation  to 
the  functional  tissues  of  the  animal  (so-called 
'cellular  arrangement').  Special  conjugating  in- 
dividuals of  the  form  of  ova  and  spermatozoa 
arc  always  formed,"  Jletazoa  re])roduee  by  ova 
and  spermatozoa.  These  reproductive  products 
originate  by  a  process  of  unerpial  tissiun  from 
their  parent,  and  may  both  be  produced  by  one 
or  dill'erent  individuals.  When  they  arc  both 
produced  by  the  same  individual,  that  individual 
is  said  to  be  hcrmaplir<jililr.  When  they  are  pro- 
duced by  dilTerent  individuals,  that  parent  giv- 
ing rise  to  the  egg  is  called  female,  and  that 
producing  sperm  cells  or  spermatozoa  is  called 
the  mule,  and  the  individuals  are  said  to  be  'uni- 
sexual' and  the  species  'dicecious.'  In  certain 
forms,  probably  under  given  conditions  of  food 
or  temiierature,  the  ova  may  devcloi)  without 
being  fertilized  by  a  sperm  cell,  the  ])rocess  being 
called  'parthenogenesis'  (q.v. ).  Reproduction  by 
ova  and  spermatozoa  is  called  'sexual  reproduc- 
tion,' and  that  by  parthenogenesis  'asexmil  re- 
production.' Consult  Bourne,  The  Cccloinate 
Mctiizoa  (London  and  New  York,  1901).  See 
Cla.s.sific.\tiox  of  Animals. 

MET'CALFE,    Charles    Tiieopiiih-.s,    Baron 
(lT8.'j-I84(l).     A  British  statesman,  born  in  Cal- 
cutta,  India.      At  an   early  age   he   was   sent  to 
England,    where    he    was    educated    in    a    pre- 
paratory school  at  Bromley,  and  then  at  Eton. 
After    holding   various    other    positions,    he    be- 
came   a    member    of    the    Supreme    Council    of 
India  in   1S27.  and  from   18.3o  to   I8:i(!  was  Pro- 
visional   (iovernor-tieneral.      He   was   next   made 
I.ieutenant-liiivernor     of    the    Northwest     Prov- 
inces, but  resigned  in  18.38  and  returned  to  Eng- 
land.    The  next  year  he  was  sent  out  as  Gov- 
ernor of  Jamaica,  where  he  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing about   better   relations  between   the  planters 
and   the   emancipated    blacks.      In    1842    he    re- 
I    turned  to  England,  and  the  next  year  was  made 
I    Governor-Ceneral  of  Canada,  where  he  soon  came 
[    into  conllict  with  the  Executive  Council  and  the 
I    Representative  .Assembly.     In  consequence  of  his 
refusal  (o  admit  their  riglit  to  be  consulted  about 
[    otlicial    appointments,    all    the    meud)crs    of    the 
i    Council   save   one   resigned,   and   for  some   time 
he  was  without  a  full  Council :   hut  in  the  clcc- 
I    tion  of  November,  1844,  the  Government  received 
a  sni.ill   majority,   and   he   was  able  to   fill   the 
vacancies  with  men  of  his  own  views.     In   184.5 
he  was  created  Baron  Metcalfe  of  Fern  Hill,  but 
in  th(!  same  year  an  incurable  disease  forc<>d  him 
j    to   return    to    England,    where    he    died.      Consult 
I    Kaye,  Life  anff  ('t)rrcspond€ncr  of  Chaj'lcfi,  Lord 
Metcalfe   (rev,  ed..  London,  18.58). 

METCALFE,  Frriikiuck  (181.5-8.5).  An 
English  scholar  and  educator.     lie  graduated  at 


Saint  .John's  College.  Cambridge,  in  I8"8,  and 
was  elected  fellow  of  Lincoln  I'ollege,  O.xford. 
In  1848  he  became  head-master  of  Brighton  Ccd- 
lege,  an  institution  founded  in  1847  for  the  sons 
of  noblemen.  In  1844  lie  publislicd  a  translation 
of  Professor  W.  A.  Bekker's  (Jallits,  with  notes 
and  excursus,  considered  of  great  historical  value 
(2d  ed.  18.53).  In  1845  followed  his  trans- 
lation of  Bekker's  Charieles,  a  tale  similarly  il- 
lustrative of  private  life  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  also  with  notes  and  excursus.  He  ]uib- 
lished  a  History  of  Oerman  Literature  (1858)  ; 
The  Oxonian  in  Norway  (1850);  and  The  Oxo- 
nian in  IrrhinrJ    (1801). 

METCHNIKOFF,  mSeh'nl-kfif,  Iliya  (1845 
■ — ).  A  Kussian  embryologist  and  cytologist, 
born  in  the  Province  of  Khaikov,  May  15,  1845. 
He  was  educated  at  Kharkov,  and  afterwards 
studied  at  Giesscn  and  at  Municli.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  zoology  at  Odessa  in 
1S70,  but  resigned  in  1882  to  devote  himself 
to  private  researches.  In  1884,  as  the  result  of 
work  on  sponges  and  polyps,  he  published  an 
epoch-making  memoir  on  tlie  intracellular  diges- 
tion of  invertebrates.  He  found  that  the  in- 
dividual cells  of  sponges  took  in  solid  particles 
of  food  and  digested  tbeni  in  order  to  provide 
material  for  the  growth  of  the  young;  and  he 
saw  the  amoeba-like  eggs  of  a  polyp  (Tubularia) 
eat  and  digest  the  neighboring  follicular  cells. 
He  also  established  the  fact  that  certain  wander- 
ing amoeboid  cells  attack,  ingest,  or  absorb  parts 
of  the  body  which  become  either  useless  or  septic 
and  thus  harmful  to  the  organism  ;  and  even  hard 
objects,  as  also  microbes  or  disease  germs  and 
the  bacteria  which  have  entered  a  wound.  He 
called  these  microbe-eaters  '])hagocytes'  (q.v.). 
He  boldly  (1884)  threw  out  the"  remarkable 
theory  that  inflammation  in  the  vertebrates  is 
due  to  the  struggle  between  the  white  or  amoeboid 
corpuscles  of  the  blood  and  the  disease'  germs 
within  it.  He  went  to  Paris,  became  ehef-dc- 
service  in  Pasteur's  Institute  in  1892,  and  at  the 
death  of  Pasteur  in  I8!)5  succeeded  him  as  the 
director  of  the  Pasteur  Instil ute.  He  is  a  for- 
eign member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
JletchnikolV  has  shown  the  value  of  and  the  close 
relation  lietweeu  studies  in  the  development  of  the 
lower  animals  and  physiological  and  medical  stud- 
ies and  practice.  His  chief  later  works  are:  "Un- 
tersuchungen  iiber  die  intracelhiliire  Verdauung 
bei  wirbellosen  Thieren,"  in  Arheitcn  atts  dem 
zooloqi.ichen.  Inxtitiit  der  Vniver.iitiit  Wien,  vol. 
v.  (1883;  ib.,  1884);  "Ueber  die  Beziehung  der 
Phagocyten  zu  Milzbrandbacillen,"  in  \'ircliow's 
Arehio  fiir  patholoriisehc  Analotnie  und  Physio- 
logic, etc.,  .xcvii., 'p.  502  (1884;  ib.,  1892); 
Lerons  sur  la  pathologic  comparec  de  Vinflam- 
malion    (Paris,   1892). 

METEL'LTJS.  The  name  of  a  Roman  family 
of  the  plebeian  gens  Ciccilia,  which  rose  to  be  one 
of  the  first  families  of  the  Roman  nobility.  One 
of  the  most  distinguished  members  of  the  family 
was  QrixTcs  C.KciiJus  Meteli.v.s  Macedonicus, 
wlio  received  his  surname  from  his  victory  over 
.\ndriscus,  a  claimant  to  the  throne  of  Jlacedonia 
(M.c.  148).  His  life  was  considered  by  ancient 
writers  an  example  of  the  greatest  felicity.  He 
died  n.c.  115. — Quintu.s  C.Kcn.rts  Metei.li'.s 
Ni'MiDicus  twice  defeated  .Tugurtha  in  Numidia 
(n.c.  108) ,  but  was  superseded  in  his  command  by 
Marius.      He   was   celebrated    for   his    integrity. 


METELLTJS. 


376 


METEMPSYCHOSIS. 


His  son.  QriNTUS  C.ECILIUS  Metellus,  sur- 
nameil  Pius,  joined  Sulla  in  B.C.  83,  but  sought 
to  moderate  tlie  severity  of  liis  proscriptions.  IJc, 
too,  bore  a  distinguished  character  for  virtue. — 
QiiXTis  C.ECii.us  >Ietei,lus  Creticus  con- 
quered Crete,  and  reduced  it  to  a  Roman  province 
(D.c.  G7). — l^iixTis  C.ECiLus  Metelixs  Pius 
Scirio.  sometimes  called  QnxTus  Scipio,  and 
sometimes  Scipio  IMetelus,  was  a  son  of  Pub- 
lius  Cornelius  Scipio,  wlio  was  adopted  by  one 
of  the  Jletelli,  and  berame  the  fatherin-l.'iw  of 
Pompey,  and  his  zealous  partisan.  He  com- 
manded under  him  at  Pharsalia.  maintained  war 
on  his  behalf  for  some  time  in  Africa,  and  after 
the  battle  of  Trapsus  (B.C.  40)  died  by  his  own 
hand. 

METEM'PSYCHO'SIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk. /xo-e^- 
^i^X'^o'is,  from  fuTenipvxovv,  metcmpsychoun,  to 
malu'  llie  soul  pass  from  one  body  to  another, 
fnini  ^^To,  mr(((,  over  +  ifi\j/vxoOt',  cniitxi/clwun,  to 
animate,  iion\  tixfvxos,  einiisyclios,  animate,  from 
iv,  en,  in  +  /-kxt?,  imyche,  soul).  Transmigration 
of  souls,  or,  more  accurately,  the  reincorporation 
of  a  soul.  In  a  crude  form  this  is  the  usual  belief 
of  all  animistic  forms  of  religion,  and  is  not  a 
religious,  but  a  philosophical  opinion.  That  is  to 
say,  it  is  not  believed  that  any  religious  factors, 
such  as  the  state  of  the  soul,  or  the  will  of  the 
deity,  decide  the  soul's  fate,  but  that  every  soul 
necessaril.v  finds  another  habitation  after  death 
in  a  body  similar  to  the  one  it  has  just  quilted 
or  has  been  accustomed  to  occupy.  To  the  primi- 
tive mind  the  soul  is  air,  breath,  and  at  death 
disappears  from  one  body  either  to  be  lost  in 
general  air  or  to  hold  together,  as  before,  sepa- 
rated from  other  air  and  screened  by  a  new 
body.  But  as  any  soul  during  a  man's  life  may 
enter  at  will  the  body  of  a  beast,  so  after  death 
the  soul  of  the  departed  may  find  shelter  either 
in  a  man's  body  or  in  the  frame  of  a  beast.  Some 
savages  believe  that  at  the  instant  when  one  dies 
one's  soul  enters  a  new  body.  Others  believe  that 
the  spirit  can  remain  for  some  time  disembodied, 
and  that  it  seeks  reincarnation,  not  from  neces- 
sity, but  for  pleasure.  At  the  same  time  it  is  be- 
lieved that  souls  may  take  quite  dilferent  habita- 
tions, such  as  trees,  streams,  and  stars,  sometimes 
remaining  tliere  forever,  and  sometimes  descend- 
ing or  ascending  to  be  born  again.  The  next  stage 
is  where  this  animistic  belief  appears  sporadical- 
ly in  a  much  more  developed  environment  and  is 
evidently  a  reversion.  Thus  in  the  midst  of  the 
nature-gods  of  the  Teutons  we  find  once  in  legend 
and  often  in  folk-lore  a  revcj-sion  to  the  lielief 
that  men  are  often  liable  to  be  reborn  on  earth 
either  in  human  or  in  animal  bodies.  Sometimes  no 
rel)irth  is  necessary,  but  the  soul,  leaps  from  one 
body  and  drives  out  the  soul  of  the  animal  whose 
body  it  enters.  .Ml  these  beliefs,  more  or  less 
confused  and  vague,  but  persistent  through  va- 
rious stages  of  social  development,  arc  found  in 
Europe.  India,  Asia,  and  .\nierica,  while  in  .Vf- 
riea,  where  verj'  little  social  change  has  taken 
place,  and  in  Polynesia,  where  the  same  holds 
good,  it  may  be  said  to  \w  in  its  crudest  form 
the  usual   faith  of  the  people. 

Quite  ilifTerent  are  the  coniplex  systems  of 
metempsychosis  built  upon  this  animistic  basis. 
Three  such  systems  are  known.  The  latest  in 
time,  (hat  of  the  fJreeks.  has  been  derived  by 
various  scholars  from  the  Kgj'ptian  system  on 
the  one  hand,  and  from  the  Hindu  system  on  the 
other.    Others  hold  that  it  was  indigenous.    The 


correct  opinion  must  be  based  upon  considera- 
tions often  neglected  in  the  discussion.  Tliese 
are,  first,  that  the  Greek  belief  ditVers  essentially 
from  both  the  Hindu  and  Egyptian  systems;  sec- 
ond, that  Pythagoras  traveled  in  the  East,  but 
did  not  invent  tlie  notions  nor  borrow  the  plan 
of  his  own  system ;  third,  that  metempsychosis 
to  the  Greeks  was  always  as  a  system  a  matter 
of  poetry  and  philosophy,  whereas  in  India  and 
in  !'"g>pt  it  was  a  national  belief.  Herodotus  says 
that  tlie  Greek  .system  was  derived  from  the 
Egj^ptian;  but  he  adds  that  the  Greeks  have 
made  it  their  own.  and  in  this  he  is  probably 
right.  The  chief  diirerences  between  tlie  three 
systems  are  as  follows:  The  Hindu  system  is 
an  outgrowth  from  a  general  belief  in  transmi- 
gration of  souls.  There  was  at  first  no  notion 
of  retribution  connected  with  this  belief.  The 
soul  that  sinned  perished.  The  good  soul  per- 
sisted in  a  new  body,  or,  if  it  chose,  lived  in 
heaven  in  a  'body  of  light.'  About  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  however,  arose  the  doctrine  of  Kar- 
ma (q.v. ),  which  turns  this  belief  into  a  .system 
based  on  morality.  According  to  this  system,  the 
soul  is  doomed  to  expiate  by  future  reliirths  in 
low  forms  of  life  the  sins  committed  in  this  life. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  highly  moral  life  results 
in  one  being  reborn  in  a  higher  plane,  either  as  ' 
an  aristocrat,  a  king,  or  a  priest,  or  even  as  a  i 
godling.  By  incessant  and  unrelaxing  endeavors 
in  every  new  birth  a  soul  may,  however,  finally 
reach  emancipation,  and  become  pure  and  one 
with  God.  no  longer  to  be  reborn.  In  this  sys- 
tem the  length  of  the  series  of  rebirths  depends 
wholly  upon  the  individual,  who  works  out  his  own 
salvation  by  his  own  acts.  As  Buddhism  denies 
the  existence  of  a  soul,  metempsychosis  in  India  is 
confined  to  Hinduism.  But  Buddhism  had  an 
analogous  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  char- 
acter-entities, also  conditioned  by  acts,  ending,  if 
at  all,  in  N'irvana.  unconscious  existence  or  ex- 
tinction of  personality  resulting  from  extinction 
of  desire,  volition,  tlio  animating  principle  in 
Buddhistic  psycholog\'.  The  Egyptian  system 
puts  a  term  of  years  to  the  series  of  rebirths. 
Further,  the  soul  at  the  end  of  this  series  of 
three  thousand  yeai-s  returns  to  its  first  cor- 
poral environment,  an  idea  not  found  in  India, 
Again,  what  was  sporadic  in  India,  namely,  the 
termination  of  the  series  by  divine  favor,  is  cus- 
tomary, according  to  the  Egyptian  doctrine.  But 
the  third  diirerence  between  the  two  .systems  is 
most  important.  In  Egypt,  namely,  metempsycho- 
sis is  not  the  fate  of  the  good,  but  of  tlic  sinful, 
the  good  being  united  with  Osiris,  and  even  this 
is  only  very  generally  true,  for  the  sinful  .nre 
sini])ly  deprived  of  union  with  the  good,  while 
even  the  good  may,  if  they  will,  continue  on  the 
round  of  existences,  or  if  they  prefer  may  live 
in  Elysium.  So.  too.  in  the  Greek  system,  the 
Elysian  fields  are  the  reward  of  the  good,  Imt 
transmigration  is  here  the  necessary  consequence 
of  sin.  iloreover.  both  in  India  and  in  Greece 
the  whole  system  of  metempsychosis  was  crossed 
by  the  beli<'f  in  hell,  and  amalgamated  with  it 
rather  roughly.  In  India,  for  examjile.  the  soul 
first  expiates  its  sins  in  hell  and  then  enters 
upon  rebirth.  Roman  writers  adopted  the  Greek 
idea,  but  it  seems  to  have  taken  little  liobl  on  the 
peojile  either  in  Greece  or  in  Rome. 

Metempsychosis  has  always  had  an  attraction 
for  some  minds.  It  has  even  been  attributed  In 
a  refined  form  to  Christ,  and  the  Church  fathers 


METEMPSYCHOSIS. 


377 


METEOROLOGY. 


vrcre  not  iininlluenced  liy  it,  just  as  the  Jewish 
rabliis  adopted  it  in  holdinj;  that  Adam  was  re- 
incarnated as  David.  It  has  been  held  by  Chris- 
tian sects  at  various  times  since  tlie  Xeo-Pla- 
tonists'  doctrine  was  received  by  the  Gnostics,  but 
always  in  the  form  of  a  belief  that  a  man's  soul 
has  preexisted  in  the  soul  of  some  previous  man; 
seldom  in  the  form  of  Hindu  belief,  that  an  ani- 
mal as  well  as  a  man  may  receive  tlie  soul  of  a 
man  tliat  has  just  died.  Consult:  Hopkins.  Re- 
ligions of  India  (Boston,  1S!).5)  ;  Wiedermann, 
The  Ancient  Efiyptian  Doctrine  of  the  Iminorlul- 
ity  of  the  <S'oh7(  London,  1S!)5)  ;  Zeller,  Urundriss 
dcr  Gcschichte  der  griechisehen  I'hilosophie  {-ith 
ed.,  Leipzig.  189.3)  ;  Jevons,  Introduction  to  the 
History  of  Religion    (London,  1890). 

METEORIC   STONE.      See   Ai?ROLiTE. 

METEOROLOGICAL  SOCIETY,  The  Roy- 
al. A  learned  association  established  in  1850 
and  incorporated  in  1866.  The  society  has  its 
headquarters  in  London.  The  objects  are  the 
promotion  of  meteorology  in  all  its  branches, 
and  the  record  of  data  and  theories  relating  to 
the  subject.  Its  membership  consists  of  fel- 
lows and  honorary  members,  the  latter  being 
foreigners  of  distinction.  The  two  quarterly 
publications  of  the  society  are  the  Quarterly 
■hiurnnl  and  the  Meteorological  Record. 

ME'TEOROL'OGY  (Gk.  /lereupo'Aoyia.meteor- 
ologitt.  treatise  on  celestial  phenomena,  from 
litreupoMyog,  meteorologos,  discussing  celestial 
phenomena,  from  utrcupov,  meteoron,  meteor  -+- 
Uyea>,  legein,  to  say).  The  study  of  the  at- 
mosphere and  its  phenomena.     Efforts  are  being 


telegraph  daily,  compile  weather  maps,  issue 
forecasts,  and  ]niblisli  weekly,  monthly,  or 
annual  climatological  summaries,  together  with 
frequent  special  meteorological  memoirs.  Among 
the  most  prominent  of  these,  on  account 
of  the  extent  of  their  territory  and  the  value 
of  their  publications,  are  those  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Great  Britain,  France,  (iermany,  Italy, 
Kussia,  India,  Argentine  Republic,  Canada, 
and  the  L'nited  States.  The  total  annual  ex- 
penditure by  all  Government  services  on  meteoro- 
logical work  is  not  less  than  three  million  dol- 
lars, to  which  should  be  added  an  equal  sum  to 
represent  the  great  amount  of  work  that  is  done 
without  pay  by  voluntary  observers.  Several 
private  meteorological  establishments  are  main- 
tained by  wealthy  lovers  of  science,  most  promi- 
nent among  which  are  those  of  Vallot.  on  Jlont 
Blanc;  A.  Lawrence  Rotch  at  Blue  Hill,  near 
Boston;  L.  Teisserenc  de  Bort  at  Trappes,  near 
Paris.  There  are  also  numerous  municipal  ob- 
servatories, prominent  among  which  are  that  of 
the  Xew  York  City  Central  Park.  Dr.  Daniel 
Draper,  director,  and  those  of  Montsouris  and 
the  Tour  Saint  Jacques  in  Paris,  of  w'hich  Dr.  .T. 
.Toubert  is  director.  Observatories  are  also  main- 
tained by  special  associations,  such  as  those  on 
the  Santis,  Austria,  the  Jesuit  observatories  of 
Saint  Helier,  Havana,  Zikawei,  Manila,  and  the' 
one  recently  destroyed  at  Antananarivo,  in  Mada- 
gascar. Special  mention  should  be  made  of 
S3'mons's  British  Rainfall  System,  to  the  devel- 
opment of  which  his  life  was  devoted  and  the 
perpetuity  of  which  is  now  assured  by  the  terms 
of  his  will.     Over  three   thousand  stations   are 


O  <:'^ir 

(t)  Partfy  Chudy. 


A  %  Run 


WEATHEB   MAP    FOR   SUXDAY,   APRIL  3,   1892.  8   A.M. 

I    made  by  every  civilized  nation  to  apply  to  the  maintained  in  the  British  Isles.     Organized  sys- 

'    benefit   of   mankind    the    knowledge    we   possess  tems  of  rainfall  stations  have  also  been  main- 

of  nieteorologj-,  especially  to  foretell   the  winds  tained    in    Mauritius,    Jamaica,    Barbados,    An- 

and  weather  from  day  to  day  and  the  general  tigua,  and  Saint  Kitts. 

character   of   the    seasons    from    season    to    sea-  In   addition   to    its   material    progress   in   ob- 

8on.     About  fifty  official   governmental   weather  servers   and   apparatus,   theoretical   meteorology 

bureaus  receive   reports   from   their  stations   by  has  especially  profited  by  the  labors  of  eminent 


METEOROLOGY. 


378 


METEOROLOGY. 


physicists.  Those  who  have,  since  1850,  contrib- 
uted most  to  our  knowh'dj^e  of  the  mechanics  and 
pliysics  of  the  atniosi)liere  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows:  Adolpli  Kriiian.  who  published  in  18G8 
a  memoir  on  llic  distrilnilion  of  winds  and  pres- 
sure over  the  globe;  ,J.  C.  Redfield.  who  showed 
the  mechanism  of  extended  hurricanes;  .James 
P.  Espy,  who  published  several  reports  and  a  vol- 
ume on  the  ))hil()sopliy  of  storms,  explaining  in 
"eneral  how  atinnsplieric  moisture,  by  its  con- 
densation into  cloud  and  rain,  disturbs  the  equilib- 
rium of  the  atniosj)here  and  produces  both  local 
and  general  storms;  William  Ferrel,  who  pub- 
lished numerous  jiapers  developing  the  laws  of 
the  motions  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  and  its 
general  and  local  phenomena  as  resulting  from 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  the  evapora- 
tion and  condensation  of  a(picous  vapor,  and  the 
general  influence  of  the  solar  heat ;  l.ord  Kelvin, 
who    first   gave    the   laws    of   thermal    convective 


Our  knowledge  of  meteorological  conditions  has 
been  obtaineil  for  the  most  part  by  observation 
of  the  clouds  or  by  stations  on  mountain  lops, 
ilore  recently  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  study 
conditions  at  considerable  altitudes  above  sta- 
tions and  places.  In  order  to  obtain  better  data 
for  the  lower  atmosphere,  at  least  jiartially 
to  meet  the  needs  of  tile  case,  Americans 
have  developed  the  art  of  obtaining  meteoro- 
graphic  records  by  sending  up  meteorogra])hs  on 
kites  to  heights  of  one  or  two  miles ;  on  the  other 
hand,  Europeans  have  given  attention  to  the 
development  of  the  Ijalloon  and  especially  the 
small  sounding  balloon  which  can  carry  a  meteor- 
ograph to  an  elevation  of  six  or  eight  miles  above 
seii  level,  where  man  cannot  live.  The  exposure 
of  meteorological  apjiaratus  so  that  the  records 
from  dilTerent  stations  on  the  earth's  surface  and 
from  vessels  on  the  ocean  and  from  kites  or 
balloons  in  the  atmosphere  shall  be  comparable 


WK.VTIIKR   M.Ve    FOR   MONil.W.    APRIL   4,    lpy2,   »  A..M. 


'equilibrium  for  dry  air;  Peslin,  who  gave  the 
laws  of  thermal  equilibrium  for  moist  air;  Von 
Helmhollz,  Willy  Wien,  Obcrbeek,  Guldberg  and 
ilohn,  Jlargules,  Diro  Kitao,  Rayleigh,  Pockels, 
Sprung,  and  F.  H.  Pigelow  have  niadi'  important 
contributions  to  the  bydrodynamic  problems  of 
the  atmosphere;  Prof.  H.  Hertz,  W.  von  liezold, 
and  JIarcel  Hrilloiiin  have  contril)Uteil  greatly 
to  the  perfection  of  our  knowledge  of  the  thermo- 
dynamic problems.  The  most  recent  contribu- 
tions in  this  fielil  include  that  of  Pockels,  on  the 
Theory  of  the  Formation  of  Rain  in  slowly  as- 
cending currents  of  moist  air  (see  Wicd-fiiifiini's 
Annalen.  .January,  inOl)  ;  Prof.  F.  H,  Bipelow's 
tables  in  his  reports  on  International  (loud 
Work  (Washington,  1000)  ;  his  report  on  l!a- 
romotri-  (Washington,  1!102)  ;  XeuhofT's  memoir 
on  .\<lia!iatic  Changes  in  the  .\tmosphere  (Ber- 
lin, inOO)  ;  Person  and  Assmann's  Sricniifir  Ilnl- 
lonn  Aurrnsions.  3  vols.,  quarto  (Perlin.  1000)  : 
all  which  respectively  contain  highly  important 
investigations. 


with  each  other  olTers  many  dillicult  problems, 
but  the  progress  toward  uniforniity  throughout 
the  world  has  been  apiireciable  during  the  past 
twenty-five  years.  Kvcry  lirst-class  wcatlier  serv- 
ice now  keeps  close  watch  of  the  condition  of 
its  apparatus  and  the  correctness  of  tlu'  mctliodo 
in  vogue  at  its  stations.  Although  nnich  remains 
to  be  done,  yet  the  contrast  between  the  condi- 
tion of  afl'aiis  in  IS.'iO  and  that  in  lOOfl  is  very 
great,  and  the  picsent  outlook  is  veiy  encourag- 
ing. 

In  some  eases  the  larger  portion  of  the  funds 
and  forces  of  a  weather  service  is  spent  upon 
observations  and  i  limatologieal  work,  but  in 
most  cases  the  daily  forecast  work  takes  prece- 
dence, since  that  promises  immediate  ri'sults  in 
saving  life  and  ]>roperty.  In  order  to  carry  on 
this  work  properly,  numerous  stations  must  be 
connected  by  telegrajih  with  the  central  bureau, 
at  which  several  simultaneous  observations  must 
be  received  daily  from  the  observers,  and  weather 
charts  must  be  promptly  made  out  showing  the 


METEOROLOGY. 


3T9 


METEOROLOGY. 


Uoliars.  isotliPrnis,  state  of  tlu'  -niiul  ami  «i'atlii'r. 
moisture  and  clouds  over  a  large  rei^ion  of 
country.  The  accompanying  charts,  for  Ajjril 
3d,  8  A..\I.,  and  4tli,  8  A.St.,  ISO'2,  show  the  gen- 
eral character  of  such  daily  weather  maps;  they 
will  easilj-  be  understood  by  studying  the  respec- 
tive legends.  On  these  charts  the  reader  will 
see  the  development  of  a  storm  that  began  with 
an  area  uf  low  pressure  in  Colorado  and  rapidly 
developed  into  the  great  storm  centre  shown  on 
Chart  2;  the  latter  then  passed  northeastward 
over  the  Lake  Region  and  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence  and  was  followed  by  an  extensive  area 
of  clear  cool  weather  on  April  i5tli.  The  move- 
ments and  changes  of  storms  and  weather  will 
undoubtedly  be  fully  understood  only  in  propor- 
tion as  we  have  better  knowledge  of  the  facts  and 
of  the  mechanical  anil  physical  laws  that  govern 
the  atmosphere,  but  their  approximate  prediction 
from  day  to  day  is  expected  and  demanded  by 
reason  of  the  many  interests  that  depend  upon  the 
wind,  temperature,  and  weather.  At  present  such 
forecasts  are  generally  based  on  the  evident  trend 
of  events,  as  shown  by  comparing  together  the 
two  or  three  latest  weather  maps,  and  in  part 
also  on  empirical  rules  or  generalizations,  based 
on  the  study  of  similar  types  of  maps  in  preced- 
ing years;  but  in  some  cases  also  one  may  be 
guided  in  part  by  general  physical  principles 
that  must  appl.y  to  the  case  in  hand.  Tlie  gen- 
eralizations relative  to  storm  movements  for  the 
United  States,  that  is  to  say,  the  statistics  of 
storms,  have  been  presented  in  three  memoirs  by 
Prof.  Elias  Loomis,  and  printed  in  the  .l/emo-ics  of 
the  Xntional  Acaiienii/  of  Sciences.  Similar  data 
for  the  Northern  Hemisphere  as  a  whole  were 
published  in  1893  in  Bulletin  A  of  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau;  this  compilation  is 
mostly  the  work  of  Prof.  E.  15.  Garriott  and  is 
based  upon  ten  years  of  daily  maps  (1878  to 
1887).  originally  published  in  the  Bulletin  of 
Intcrnntionul  Himultaneous  Obserrations.  In  this 
volume  the  paths  of  the  storm  centres  are  classi- 
fied by  different  types  and  displayed  on  charts 
that  show  the  frequency  with  which  storm  cen- 
tres pass  over  each  square  of  latitmle  and  longi- 
1    tude. 

Charts  of  storm   paths   for  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Japan  have  been  published  by  Germany,  Russia. 
I    and  .lapan  respectively,  and  monthly  charts  for 
;    the  United  States  have  been  published  regularly 
,    since  .January,  1873.     By  means  of  these  charts 
.    one  may,  in  a  general  way,  anticipate  the  path 
and  velocity  of  a  storm  centre  when  once  it  has 
;    appeared    in    any    part    of    the    Northern    Hemi- 
,   sphere.    In  the  Northern  Hemisphere  such  centres 
I    move  westward  when  thev  lie  between  the  equator 
.    and  the   parallels   of  25°   or   30°    N. ;    they   then 
;    curve    poleward    and    move    northeastward    with 
,   increasing  rapidity  toward  the  parallel  of  (10°  or 
70°.     The  variations  from  this  general   rtile  can 
i   be.st   be   understood   by   studying   the   charts   of 
!   storm  frequency.     A  similar  ftile  holds  good  for 
'  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  substituting  only  south 
[   for  north.     But  little  is  known  about  the  tracks 
■   of  storms  within  the  Arctic  Circle.     The  region 
I   of  greatest  storm  frequency  extends  in  a  narrow- 
belt  east  and  west  from  Lake  Superior  to  New- 
.   foundland  and  its  prolongation  eastward  ends  in 
I  the  interior  of  Northern  Russia.     The  region  of 
1  next  greatest  storm  frequency  covers  the  islands 
j   of  Japan.     The  north   polar  region  of  cold   air. 
whose  tendency   is   to   flow   outward   toward   the 
Vol.  XIII.— 25. 


equator,  is  inclosed  within  an  oval  curve  extend- 
ing from  Luzon  over  Japan,  Southern  Alaska, 
British  Columbia,  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
Newfoundland,  the  Hebrides,  Northern  Norway 
afld  Sweden,  and  ending  in  Siberia  at  latitude 
00°  and  longitude  90'  east  of  Greenwich.  South 
of  this  oval  tile  prevailing  winds  are  west  and 
southwest;  north  of  it  they  are  north  and  east 
in  the  stormy  season  of  the  year. 

The  great  whirls  that  we  call  general  storms 
occur  in  connection  with  these  polar  and  equa- 
torial currents,  but  not  necessarily  between 
them.  The  whirls  are  explained  as  partially  due 
to  mechanical  reactions  between  the  northern 
and  southern  currents,  but  they  are  not  merely 
h.ydrodynamic  jjhenomena,  since  they  have  also 
an  additional  thermodynamic  relationship  which 
is  quite  as  important.  The  warm,  moist  south- 
erly winds  are  underrun  by  the  colder  and  drier 
northerly  winds.  This  enforced  elevation  of  the 
southerly  winds  is  accompanied  by  a  correspond- 
ing expansion  and  cooling  of  the  air  that  is  thus 
elevated,  and  generally  it  is  soon  cooled  to  its 
dew  ])oint  or  below.  This  is  followed  by  con- 
densation of  aqueous  vapor  and  the  formation  of 
cloud,  rain,  hail,  or  snow  with  a  great  liberation 
of  latent  heat.  Consequently  the  cloiuiy  region 
will  be  warmer,  but  especially  will  it  have  a 
ratich  smaller  specific  gravity  than  before. 

In  very  small  storms,  such  as  tornadoes,  water- 
spouts, etc.,  this  process  gives  rise  to  verj'  rapid 
uprising  currents,  a  very  rapid  whirl  around  the 
central  axis  and  a  very  low  barometric  pressure 
at  the  centre,  but  in  extensive  storms  the  vertical 
current  is  not  so  conspicuous,  although  the  btioy- 
ancy  of  the  central  air  tends  very  strongly  to 
maintain  the  disturbance.  The  storm  centre  un- 
doubtedly has  a  tendency  to  move  toward  the 
region  in  which  the  temperature  and  buoyancy 
are  most  disturbed ;  but  as  this  region  is  al- 
ways moving  in  advance,  the  storm  centre  will 
remain  in  the  rear  and  its  path  will  advance 
somewhat  to  the  left  of  the  direction  of  the 
greatest  disturbance.  But  the  uplifting  of  the 
lower  moist  air  may  be  greatly  intensified  if  the 
southerly  winds  on  the  eastern  half  of  the  storm 
area  are  being  pu.shed  up  over  high  lands,'  or 
it  may  be  almost  wholly  ann\illed  if  these  winds 
must  necessarily  descend  from  the  high  lands  to 
the  ocean  level.  Therefore  the  relation  of  the 
storm's  motion  to  the  continents  must  be  care- 
fully worked  out. 

As  regards  weather  prediction,  it  is  evident  at 
once  that  the  descending  %vinds  and  those  that 
are  coming  from  the  north  southward  are  being 
warmed  up.  and  therefore  in  their  presence  the 
storm  disappears  and  the  weather  clears  away. 
For  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  rain 
is  to  be  forecasted  only  when  a  south  and  east 
wind  prevails,  and  especially  when  it  is  blowing 
on  the  coast.  The  actiutl  effect  of  mountains, 
plateaus,  continents,  and  the  underflow  of  cold 
air  varies  so  much  on  every  occasion  that  the 
best  one  can  do  in  forecasting  is  to  familiarize 
himself  thoroughly  with  the  illustrations  and 
exceptions  that  appear  on  every  daily  weather 
map.  • 

The  atmosphere  wotild  be  at  rest  on  the  earth's 
surface  and  whirl  about  with  the  globe  were  it 
not  for  the  sun's  heat.  All  the  important 
meteorological  phenomena  may  be  considered  as 
resulting  from  the  interaction  of  the  solar  heat, 
the  moisture  in  the  air,  the  varying  temperature, 


METEOROLOGY. 


380 


METEORS. 


and  the  centiifugijl  reaction  due  to  the  rapid 
diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  The 
solar  radiation  maintains  the  lenijieraturc  of  the 
equatorial  rej;ioiis.  Tlie  cold  air  of  the  ]>olar 
region  is  both  by  '■ravity  and  by  centrifugal 
force  driven  toward  the  equator.  Thus  tlie  gen- 
eral currents  are  maintained  niovinf;  from  tlie 
poles  toward  the  tropics  and  return.  They  are 
most  intense  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  in 
•January,  when  the  sun  is  farthest  south  or  over 
the  Tropic  of  t'apricorn.  because  at  that  time  and 
subsequently  the  dilTerence  of  lcm|M'rature  be- 
tween the  ecpiator  and  tlie  North  Pole  is  greatest. 
and  the  reverse  holds  gixid  in  .Tune,  «  hen  the  sun 
is  north  of  the  equator.  Tlie  general  circulation 
is  greatly  moditied  by  the  dirterence  in  tempera- 
ture and  moisture  of  the  air  over  the  hind  and 
the  ocean,  so  that  in  summertime  the  tendency 
of  the  air  to  flow  inward  toward  a  continent  or 
mountain  is  very  decided.  The  general  circul.a- 
tion  is  also  greatly  modified  by  the  presence  of 
snow,  ice,  movuitains,  plateaus,  clouds,  forest, 
etc.  The  winds,  when  once  formed  by  differences 
of  temperature  and  moisture,  are  themselves  af- 
fecteil  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth.  No  matter 
in  what  direction  they  may  be  moving  they  are 
at  once  deflected  from  their  polar  ])atli;  in  the 
Northern  Hemis|)herc  they  turn  to  the  right :  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere  to  the  left.  Therefore 
those  flowing  toward  the  equator  become  the 
northeast  and  southeast  trade  winds  and  those 
flowing  toward  the  poles,  or  the  upper  return 
trade  winds,  become  the  westerly  winds  of  the 
north  and  south  temperate  zones. 

The  diflferences  in  temperature  between  the  con- 
tinents and  the  ocean  give  rise  to  the  so-called 
monsoon  winds.  The  general  centrifugal  action 
of  the  winds  produces  a  low  jiiessure  in  the 
regions  about  which  the  winds  rotate,  namely, 
a  low  pressure  in  the  Arctic  and  .\ntarctic  re- 
gions: a  low  pressure  on  the  left  of  the  winds 
blowing  around  a  storm  centre,  and  on  the  right 
hand  side  of  these  same  winds  considered  as 
blowing  around  an  adjacent  region  of  high  pres- 
sure: a  low  pressure  at  the  equator  between 
the  northeast  and  southeast  trades.  The  reaction 
of  the  easterlv  winds  near  the  equator  and  the 
westerly  winds  farther  north  also  produces  a 
similar  area  of  high  pressure  between  these  two 
systems  of  wind  corresponding  to  the  high  pres- 
sure under  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn. 

.\  full  exposition  on  these  and  other  theorems 
by  Prof.  William  Ferrel  will  be  found  in  his  Trra- 
t'inr  on  the  Winih-  (New  York,  ISD.SI,  The  results 
of  later  researches  are  presented  in  Prof.  F.  H. 
Bigelow's  report  on  international  cloud  observa- 
tions (Washington.  lilOOl.  and  his  Keport  on 
Barometrj'  (Washington.  1!I02).  but  these  are 
written  for  purely  technical  and  mathematical 
readers.  .\  general  rf'sume  of  the  laws  of  atmos- 
pheric motion  is  given  in  the  aiipendix  to  Hann, 
Lihrhiirh  iler  Mrtrornhifiir  (T.ei]i/.ig.  1001).  .\n 
elementary  presentation  of  the  subject,  especially 
adapted  to  those  who  are  beginning  the  study  of 
meteorology,  will  be  found  in  Davis.  Hlrtiirnlnrji 
Mrlrnrolofin  (Itaston.  ISOt)  :  and  in  Ward,  I'rnc- 
liriil  F-Trrrinrn  in  h'lrnicntarii  M<  tidifiliiiiii  (Bos- 
ton. ISO!)).  For  the  history  of  practical  nieteor- 
ologj-  in  the  I'niteH  States,  see  Weather  BfREAU. 

Some  details  as  to  the  instruments  used  in 
meteorology  will  lie  found  under  the  topics: 
AcTiNOMCTKB:  .Vnemometek:  Harometer;  Pyr- 
IIELIOMETER;     Nephoscope;     Rai.n'    CiAfOE;     and 


TuERMOsrETER.  Somc  of  the  results  of  obser- 
vation will  be  found  treated  under  the  topics: 
Atm().si'iiere:  Atmospheric  Electricity;  Au- 
rora lioRKALis;  Blizzard:  Climate;  Clouds; 
Dark  Day:  Dew;  Doldrums;  Dust;  Equi- 
noctial Storm;  Fog;  Frost;  Hail;  Halo; 
Humidity:  1.\diax  Summer;  Isob.arometrio 
Lines;  Isothermal  Lines;  Lightning:  Mon- 
soon; Polarization  of  Skylight;  Scintil- 
lation: Simoom;  Snow;  Snow  Line;  Storms; 
Heat;  Typhoons;  Weather;  Whirlwinds; 
Wind. 

METEORS  (OF.  meteore,  Fr.  m6tiorc,  from 
Gk.  /jiTu.iptti',  melcOron,  meteor,  from  /leTFuim^^ 
mcicOrus,  <m  high,  from  /icrd,  tncta,  beyond  + 
aeipeiv,  aeirein,  to  lift).  A  term  now  ap|ilicil 
by  astronomers  to  those  shooting  stars  that  flash 
into  view  without  detonation  or  explosion.  .As 
thus  characterized,  meteors  fonn  a  class  of  IhxI- 
ies  distinct  from  the  aerolites  (q.v.).  Some- 
times those  meteors  of  which  fragments  are  not 
known  to  reach  the  earth  are  called  bolides.  The 
phenomena  are  exactly  the  same  e.xcept  that  the 
fragments  arc  not  actuallv  found. 

The  brilliant  display  of  November  13,  186i;, 
gave  a  vigorous  impulse  to  astronomical  investi- 
gation of  shooting  stars,  leading  to  the  discovery 
that  the  November  meteors  move  in  an  orbit 
round  the  sun.  and  that  in  all  probability  this 
orbit  forms  a  ring  or  belt  of  innumerable  small 
fragments  of  matter,  distributed  with  very  varia- 
ble density  of  grouping  along  it,  thus  correspond- 
ing so  far  to  the  planetoid  (q.v.)  group  be- 
tween Mars  and  .lupiter.  It  is  also  known  that 
the  motion  of  this  meteor  ring  round  the  sun  is 
retrograde;  that  the  earth's  orbit  at  that  puint 
where  she  is  situated  on  November  1314  inter- 
sects this  ring;  and  that,  probably  in  1700.  ISSS- 
34.  and  IS(!fl-07,  it  is  the  same  group  of  meteors 
which  has  been  observed.  The  last-mentioned 
hypothesis  has  been  made  the  foundation  of  a 
calculaticm  of  the  probable  orbit  and  periodic 
time  of  this  meteor  ring.  The  fact  that  a  Xo- 
yeinber  star-shower  may  occur  for  two  years  in 
succession,  and  then  recur  at  an  interval  of  32 
or  33  years,  seems  to  indicate  that  though  the 
earth  I'nay  pass  through  the  meteor-orbit  every 
year,  the  meteors  are  so  grouped  at  intervals 
along  the  ring  and  their  periodic  time  dilTers  so 
much  from  that  of  the  earth  that  it  recpiires  32- 
33  years  In-fore  this  accumulating  ditTerence 
amounts  to  a  complete  revolution  of  either  the 
earth  or  the  ring,  and  a  repetition  of  the  star- 
shower  becomes  possible. 

Professor  Newton  of  Yale,  who  entered  into  an 
elaborate  investigation  of  the  suliject.  concluded 
that  there  were  five  possible  periodic  times  for 
the  meteor  ring:  33%  years.  371!  days,  3.54  days, 
1S8  days.  177  days.  The  F.nglish  astronomer 
Adams 'then  showed  that  of  these  the  33i4-.vettP 
jieriod  was  the  only  one  aetuall.y  consistent  with 
known  facts,  and  this  is  therefore  now  accepted 
as  the  time  required  b.v  the  November  meteors  to 
complete  a   revolution  around  the  sun. 

That  there  is  an  intimate  relation  between  mete- 
ors and  comets  is  an  ascertained  fact  of  much 
interest.  There  is  a  great  similarity  lietween  the 
orbits  of  some  of  the  more  important  shower* 
and  certain  of  the  comets,  a  similarity  so  cloee 
as  to  establish  some  kind  of  mysterious  rela- 
tionship beyond  the  possibility  of  mere  coinci' 
dence. 

Popular  interest  has  been  very  keen  in  the  mafr 


METEORS. 


381 


METHODISM. 


ter  of  meteors  since  the  brilliant  display  of 
ISOO.  This  star-shower,  perhaps  the  grandest 
that  has  ever  heen  observed,  was  conlideully  pre- 
dicted from  the  occurrence  of  a  similar  shower 
at  the  corresponding  date  in  1799,  18.S3,  and 
18S4.  The  shower  connnenced  about  11:30  P.M., 
with  the  appearance  at  brief  intervals  of  single 
meteors;  then  they  came  in  twos  and  threes, 
^teadily  ami  rapidly  increasing  in  number  till 
1:13  .\'..M.  o"  November  14th,  when  no  fewer  than 
.i7  appeared  in  one  minute.  From  this  time  the 
intensity  of  the  shower  diminished  gradually, 
wholly  ceasing  about  4  A.ii.  The  total  number 
of  meteors  which  at  that  time  came  within  the 
limits  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  was  estimated 
at  about  240.000,  and  the  number  seen  at  each 
of  the  several  observatories  in  Great  Britain 
averaged  nearly  ti.OOO.  This  star-shower,  like 
'.hose  ot  1833  and  1834,  seemed  to  proceed  from 
the  region  of  the  heavens  marked  by  the  stars  f 
and  7  in  the  constellation  Leo;  and  it  has  been 
shown  by  astronomers  that  this  was  the  point 
toward  which  the  earth  in  her  orbit  was  mov- 
ing at  the  time;  consequently  she  had  either  over- 
taken the  meteoric  shower  or  had  met  it  proceed- 
ing in  a  contrary  direction.  The  meteors  on  that 
occasion  presented  the  usual  variety  of  color, 
size,  and  duration;  the  great  majority  were 
white,  with  a  bluish  or  yellowish  tinge;  a  con- 
siderable number  were  red  and  orange,  and  a 
few  were  blue ;  many  surpassed  the  fixed  stars  in 
lustre,  and  some  were  even  brighter  than  Venus 
at  her  maximum.  Host  of  the  meteors  left 
trains  of  vivid  light  .5°  to  1.5°  in  length,  which 
marked  their  course  through  the  heavens,  and  en- 
dured for  three  seconds  on  an  average,  then  be- 
coming dissipated,  though  some  ot  the  trains 
were  almost  40°  in  length,  and  remained  in  sight 
for  several  minutes.  On  the  morning  of  Nch 
veniber  14,  1807,  a  star-shower  nearly  equal  in 
magnitude  to  that  of  1866  was  obsei-ved  in  this 
country  and  in  France,  but  was  almost  wholly 
invisible  in  England  on  account  of  the  cloudy 
state  ot  the  atmosphere. 

METER.     See  INIetbic  System. 

METER,  Electric.     See  Electric  Meter. 

METER,  C4as.     See  Gas,  Illuminating. 

,  METH'ANE  (from  methyl),  Mab.sii  Gas, 
1  Fire-Damp  (Ger.  Suiiipffjas) ,  CH^.  The  simplest 
'  of  the  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  usu- 
;  ally  prepared  by  heating  a  mixture  of  sodium 
'•■  acetate  and  soda-lime.  It  is  one  of  the  gase- 
;  ous  products  of  the  decay  of  vegetable  niat- 
;  ter  lespeciallj'  cellulose)  under  water,  and  it  is 
j  therefore  a  constituent  of  the  gases  bubbling  up 
1  in  the  stagnant  water  of  marshes:  it  is  also  one 
\  of  the  gases  evolved  in  petroleum  wells.     It  oc- 

•  curs  in  considerable  quantities  in  some  coal 
I  mines,  where  it  has  often  caused  disastrous  ex- 
:  plosions.  It  is  a  colorless  and  odorless  gas  burn- 
I  ing  with  a  non-luminous  flame.  It  is  formed  in 
■  the   destructive    distillation    of   organic    matter. 

•  sneh  as  wood,  coal,  etc.,  and  is,  therefore,  one  of 
'  the  principal  constituents  of  ordinary  illuminat- 
i  ing  gas,  wliicli  contains  30-40  per  cciit.  of  meth- 
I  ane.  A  very  large  number  of  organic  compounds 
I  can  be  derived  from  methane.  And  since  the 
I  gradual  building  up  of  these  compounds  from  the 
I  elements  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  in  or- 
:  panic  chemistry,  the  synthesis  of  methane  it- 
,self.  as  the  first  step  in  innumerable  processes 
I  employed      in      producing     organic    compounds. 


formed  a  valuable  contribution  to  chemical 
seience.  The  synthesis  of  methane  was  first  ef- 
fected by  Berthelot,  who  showed  that  the  gas  is 
produced  when  a  mixture  of  carbon  disulphide 
and  water-vapor  is  passed  over  red-hot  copper. 
The  reaction  taking  place  is  represented  by  the 
following  chemical  equation : 

CSj  +  2H,0  +  6Cu  =  CH,  +  2CU2S  +  2CuO. 

Carbon  di-  Water    Copper  Methane  Cuprous       Cupric 
sulphide  sulphide         oxide 

In  this  manner  any  quantity  of  methane  can 
be  obtained  by  using  nothing  but  elementary  sub- 
stances as  starting  material;  for  carbon  disul- 
phide and  water  can  be  prepared  by  the  direct 
union  of  their  elements. 

METHANE    SERIES.      See   Hydrocarbons. 

METHODISM.  The  name  given  to  the  reli- 
gious movement  in  England  led  by  -John  Wesley, 
appropriated  by  the  numerous  churches  which 
have  sprung  from  that  movement,  and  by  others 
which,  though  not  bearing  the  name,  are  both 
historically  and  spiritually  in  the  Methodist  suc- 
cession. Wesley  himself  was  impatient  of  all 
sectarian  names,  and  called  the  people  whom 
he  enrolled  in  classes  for  religious  culture  sim- 
ply the  United  Societies,  and  proudly  appealed 
to"  the  fact  that  to  join  the  Societies  there  was- 
no  dogmatic  or  ecclesiastical  test,  all  Christians, 
from  Anglicans  to  Quakers  being  alike  welcome. 
His  definition  of  a  Methodist  (abridged)  was  ag 
follows :  "A  Slethodist  is  one  wdio  has  the  love  of 
God  shed  abroad  in  his  heart  b.y  the  Holy  Ghost 
given  unto  him ;  one  who  loves  the  Lord  his  God 
with  all  his  heart,  and  soul,  and  mind,  and 
strength.  He  rejoices  evermore,  prays  without 
ceasing,  and  in  everything  gives  thanks.  His 
heart  is  full  of  love  to  all  mankind,  and  is  puri- 
fied from  envy,  malice,  wrath,  and  every  unkind 
atTection.  His  one  desire,  and  the  one  design  of 
his  life,  is  not  to  do  his  own  will,  but  the  will 
of  Him  that  sent  him.  He  keeps  all  God's  com- 
mandments, from  the  least  to  the  greatest.  He 
follows  not  the  customs  of  the  world;  for  vice 
does  not  lose  its  nature  through  its  becoming 
fashionable.  He  fares  not  sumptuously  every 
day.  He  cannot  lay  up  treasure  upon  the  earth; 
nor  can  he  adorn  himself  with  gold  or  costly  ap- 
parel. He  cannot  join  in  any  diversion  that  has 
the  least  tendency  to  vice.  He  cannot  speak  evil 
of  his  neighbor  any  more  than  he  can  tell  a  lie. 
He  cannot  utter  unkind  or  evil  words.  No  cor- 
rupt communication  ever  comes  out  of  his  mouth. 
He  does  good  unto  all  men ;  unto  neighbors, 
strangers,  friends,  and  enemies.  These  are  the 
principles  and  practices  of  our  sect.  These  are 
the  marks  of  a  true  Methodist.  By  these  alone 
do  ^Methodists  desire  to  be  distinguished  from 
other  men."  Wesley's  catholicity  was  so  broad 
that  it  was  indiflferent  to  him  whether  the  books 
he  reprinted  for  his  people  were  by  Roman  Catho- 
lics or  Unitarians.  It  was  his  hope  that  hi.^ 
movement  \:ould  be  the  nucleus  of  a  reunited 
Christendom,  and  it  was  with  sorrow  he  saw 
forces  which  he  could  not  control  carrying  his 
people  into  permanent  separation  both  from  An- 
glicanism and  Dissent.  The  title  ^Methodist  was 
not  .a  word  of  his  own  choosing — it  was  given 
by  Oxford  students  because  of  the  strict  life  of 
Charles  Wesley  and  his  band  in  the  univeTsity — - 
and  he  detested  it  as  soon  as  it  became  an  eccle- 
siastical watchword. 

Polity.     The  polity  of  early  Methodisnn  was 


KETHODISia. 


382 


METHODISM. 


suggested  by  exigencies  in  the  growth  of  the  re- 
vival of  whicli  it  was  the  outcome.  Methodism 
as  an  organization  dates  from  1739,  the  loosest 
possible  in  form.  A  few  Christians  met  together 
weekly  in  'classes'  (the  'class  meeting")  to  pray 
and  to  talk  concerning  the  things  of  God.  over 
whom  a  leader  {a,  layman)  was  a])point('d.  whose 
duty  it  was  to  watch  over  their  souls  and  tn  give 
spiritual  counsel.  The  societies  were  independent 
of  each  other,  except  a.s  they  were  held  together 
by  the  itinerating  Wesley,  who  appointed  their 
leaders,  and  to  whom  the.se  leaders  were  re- 
sponsible. In  1743  Wesley  drew  up  the  rules  for 
tile  United  Societies,  which  have  remained  the 
ethical  and  almost  theohigical  standard  of  teach- 
ing and  practice  from  (hat  day  to  tliis.  As  the 
work  extended,  preachers  were  aiijjointed.  They 
were  of  two  kinds :  clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
England  who  alliliatcd  with  the  movement,  and 
who  were  permanent  pastors;  and  laymen,  who 
were  'itinerants,'  moving  at  first  every  six  months 
and  then  every  year.  In  its  inception  Methodism 
was  preeminently  an  episcopal  movement,  over- 
siglit,  as  in  the  Society  of  Jesus,  being  reduced  to 
an  exact  science.  Over  the  classes  were  the  lead- 
ers, over  both  were  the  preachers  assisted  in  out- 
appointments  by  'hK'al  preachers,'  who  were  lay- 
men with  the  gift  of  public  address,  and  from 
■whom  the  itinerants  were  recruited.  Each 
preacher  had  his  'circuit;'  and  several  circuit 
preachers  were  under  a  head  (whence  arose  the 
'district,'  and,  in  North  .\merica.  the  'presiding 
elder').  There  were  'quarterly'  and  'district  con- 
ferences.' and,  afler  1744.  the  'annual  conference.' 
composed  of  both  clergymen  and  lay  preachers. 
Finally  over  the  whole  movement  was  Wesley 
himself,  giving  it  vitality.  dei)tli  of  im|)ression, 
and  breadth  of  view,  saving  it  from  fanaticism 
on  the  one  hand,  and  la.xity  on  the  other,  ever 
guiding  and  really,  though  not  ollicially  and 
narrowly,  dominating  it.  A  'general  conference.' 
meeting  every  four  years,  arose  in  the  United 
States  afler  179'2,  owing  to  the  great  extent  of 
the  country. 

Tlic  relation  of  the  movement  to  the  Church 
of  England  is  not  hard  to  define.  Wesley  was 
a  sincere  lover  of  the  Church  of  his  fatlicrs.  and 
hoped  that  the  bishops  would  ordain  his  preach- 
ers and  in  some  way  articidate  his  ivsults  into 
the  normal  ecclesiastical  life  of  the  <ountry.  In 
this  he  was  disappointed,  but  nothing  daiuited  he 
went  on  his  way  independently,  holding  that  ho 
was  justified  in  this  by  the  unique  position  he 
occupied  as  the  providential  leader  of  the  move- 
ment, and  consolidating  what  became  a  vast  ec- 
elesiasticism.  Wesley  tried  to  be  a  loyal  ehunli- 
man  as  far  as  circumstances  allowed.  Hut  Eng- 
land's call  always  sounded  louder  than  the 
Church's,  so  that  he  came  to  feel  that  he  was 
sen'ing  the  Church  l)est  when  disregarding  her 
most. 

.\fter  Wesley's  death  in  1791  'the  people  called 
Methodists'  were  governed  by  the  .\nnual  Con- 
ference, composed  of  the  Legal  Hundred,  as  the 
lawnuiking  body,  and  all  the  itinerant  preachers 
as  advisory  and  eoi">]>erative.  The  new  di'iiomina- 
tion — as  it  has  been  le;;ally  since  17.S4,  when 
Wesley  ent<Meil  a  deed  into  the  Court  of  Chancery 
<iinstituting  the  Conference,  and  as  it  has  lieen 
practically  since  1740.  when  the  movement  sep- 
nrnteil  from  both  Moravianism  and  Calvinism — 
came  to  be  called  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Con- 
nection  or   Church.     The   territory   was   divided 


into  districts  for  more  efficient  supervision,  whose 
interests  were  looked  after  by  the  district  meet- 
ing, and  subdivided  into  circuits  whose  alTain 
were  governed  by  a  quarterly  meeting  composed 
of  ministers,  local  preachers,  and  stewards,  of 
whom  the  two  last  were  appointed  by  tlie  super- 
intending pastor.  \'arious  cll'orts  were  made  to 
tone  down  the  hierarchical  spirit  and  constitution 
of  the  Church  by  introducing  laymen  into  the 
Annual  Conference  and  by  giving  the  local  church 
tlie  right  to  elect  its  own  olhccrs,  but  these  ef- 
forts were  successful  only  at  the  cost  of  numerous 
divisions.  Finally,  in  1878.  the  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odist Church  introduced  tlie  principle  of  lay 
representation  thus  far:  that  it  allowed  laymen 
to  sit  in  the  Annual  Conference  and  deliberate 
with  the  ministers  on  all  financial  and  benevo- 
lent causes,  those  of  a  pastoral  nature  l)eing  re- 
served to  the  clergy.  In  all  the  Methodist 
churches  of  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies 
there  is  oidy  one  order  of  ministers. 

In  17S4  Wesley  ordained  Thomas  Coke  (q.v.) 
superintendent  for  America,  and  at  the  Christ-  ', 
mas  Conference  of  1784-85.  held  in  Baltimore, 
!Md.,  the  Jlethodist  Episcopal  Church  was  con-  ' 
slitutcd  by  the  ordination  of  Francis  Asbury  a 
superintendent  and  tlic  drawing  up  of  an  episco-  \ 
pal  Cluirch  constitution.  The  new  overseers  as- 
sumed the  title  of  bishop,  much  to  Wesley's  dis- 
gust, who,  out  of  deference  to  the  Church  of 
England, desired  them  to  be  called  sim|dy  su])erin- 
tendents.  But  that  he  considered  thcni  to  be 
bishops  in  the  full  sense  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
In  his  letter  to  the  Conference  stating  and  de- 
fciuling  his  position  he  says:  "Lord  King's  ac- 
count of  the  Primitive  Church  convinced  me 
many  years  ago  that  bishops  and  ])rcsbytcrs  are 
of  the  same  order,  and  consequently  have  the 
same  right  to  ordain.  For  many  years  I  have 
been  importuned  to  exercise  this  right:"  but  he 
refused  out  of  deference  to  the  established  order. 
But  in  America  the  case  was  ditrcrent.  There 
there  were  no  bishops,  so  that  for  hundreds  of 
miles  there  was  no  one  to  administer  the  sacra- 
ments. "Here,  therefore,  my  scrujdes  are  at  an 
end,  and  I  conceive  myself  at  full  liberty,  as  I 
violate  no  order  ami  invade  no  man's  right  by  ap- 
]iointing  and  sending  laborers  into  the  harvest." 
Of  course  it  is  understood  that  the  .\nierican 
^Methodist  Episcopacy  is  in  order  presbytcrial 
l)urely.  though  it  is  certainly  sufiiciently  catho- 
lic in  its  powers  of  supervision.  cspeeiall\  in  its 
absolute  control  over  pastoral  a|)pointments — a 
control  that  is.  however,  limited  in  jiraetice  when 
dealing  with  popidar  preachers  and  wealthy 
churches.  The  other  of  the  two  orilers  is  that  ot 
deacons,  who  are  strictly  diircrcntiated  from  eld- 
ers. It  is,  however,  a  principle  of  Methodism 
that  no  one  type  of  Church  order  is  of  exclusite 
authority,  tliat  the  Scripture  lays  down  no  moddi 
and  tlnit  therefore  a  Church  may  exercise  lib- 
erty in  matters  of  polity  if  she  is  true  to  the 
spirit  and  general  complexion  of  the  .\po.stohe 
Church.  The  non-episcopal  Methodist  Cluirches 
are  true  to  Wesley's  idea  of  oversight  through 
their  conferences  and  districts,  but  presbyterian 
in  ministry  and  congregational  in  some  features 
of  their  administration.  .\  peculiar  feature  of 
all  Methodist  polity  is  the  itinerancy,  or  the  IS- 
nioval  of  preachers  from  one  charge  to  another, 
which  is  done  by  the  bishops  witli  the  advice  of 
the  presiding  elders  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
churches,  and  bv  a  stationing  conunittec  in  the 


METHODISM. 


383 


METHODISM. 


other  churplips.  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  the  pastoral  limit  was  placed  at  two 
years  in  1804.  at  three  in  1804.  at  five  in  1888, 
and  in  IHOO  tlie  limit  was  removed  entirely. 
Preachers  arc  now'  reappointed  from  year  to  year 
hy  the  bishop. 

TiiKOLoiiY.  Few  Churches  have  had  less  doc- 
trinal disturbances  than  the  Methotlist,  and  this 
because  the  main  lines  of  belief  have  always 
been  accepted  with  Tuiauimity,  and  because  the 
stress  of  evan^jelism  to  which  she  has  been  called 
has  not  given  opportunity  for  speculative  dis- 
cussions. No  one  has  expressed  more  briefly  and 
admirably  tlie  doctrines  received  by  all  Metho- 
dists than  I'.ishiip  .Tiihn  H.  Vincent:  "I.  I  be- 
lieve all  men  are  sinners.  II.  I  believe  that 
God  the  Father  loves  all  men  and  bates  all  sin. 
ITT.  I  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  died  for  all 
men  to  mal<e  possible  tlieir  salvation  from  sin, 
and  to  make  sure  the  salvation  of  all  who  be- 
lieve in  II im.  IV.  I  believe  the  Holy  .Spirit  is 
given  to  all  men  to  enlighten  and  to  incline  tliem 
to  rei)ent  of  their  sins  and  to  believe  on  tlie  Lord 
.Jesus  Clirist.  V.  I  believe  that  all  wlio  re- 
pent of  their  sins  and  believe  on  the  Lord  .Testis 
Christ  receive  the  forgiveness  of  sin.  This  is 
JHstitication.  VI.  I  believe  that  all  who  re- 
ceive the  forgiveness  of  sin  are  at  the  same 
time  made  new  creatures  in  Christ  Jesus.  This 
is  regeneration.  A'll.  I  believe  that  all  who 
are  made  new  creatures  in  Christ  Jesus  are 
adopted  as  tlie  children  of  C4od.  This  is  adop- 
tion. VllT.  I  believe  that  all  wdio  are  accepted 
as  the  children  of  find  may  receive  the  inward 
assurance  of  tlie  Holy  Spirit  to  that  fact.  This 
is  the  witness  of  the  Spirit.  IX.  I  believe  that 
all  who  trvily  desire  and  seek  it  may  love  God 
with  all  their  heart  and  soul,  mind  and  strength, 
and  their  neighbors  as  themselves.  This  is  entire 
sanctification.  X.  I  believe  that  all  who  perse- 
vere to  the  end,  and  only  those,  shall  be  saved 
in  heaven  forever."  As  to  the  sacraments  Jletlio- 
dism  liolds  that  the  Lord's  Supper  is  a  memorial 
of  Christ's  death  for  the  spiritual  feeding  on 
Him,  that  He  is  really  present  only  in  the 
hearts  of  those  who  receive  Him.  and  that 
baptism  is  a  sign  of  a  regeneration  already 
accomplished  by  faith,  and  as  to  adults  should 
be  given  only  to  believers.  As  to  infants, 
baptism  is  allowed,  but  not  required,  and 
when  given  is  on  the  ground  that  the  child  is 
alrea<ly  a  member  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  .As  to 
atonement.  .Mcthodist.s  universally  hold  to  the 
fact,  but  ari'  not  agreed  as  to  theory.  In  Eng- 
land the  penal  substitutionan'  theory  has  been 
held,  at  least  until  recently,  and  that  was  the 
common  view  in  America  until  Professor  Miley.  of 
Drew  Theological  Seminary,  published  his  book 
on  the  .\tonement  in  1879.  advocating  the  govern- 
mental theory.  But  it  has  been  the  universal 
conviction  of  Methodists  that  a  real  atonement 
was  ])aid  to  God  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  though 
in  moo  Professor  Bowne  of  Boston  advocated 
the  view  that  it  was  an  act  of  love  to  influence 
men.  .\s  to  depravity.  Methodists  hold  that  it  is 
total  in  the  sense  that  no  man  is  saved  except 
through  God's  inciting  and  enabling  grace,  but 
not  total  in  the  sense  of  the  Reformation  creeds. 
In  eschatology  opinions  differ.  Unlike  the  older 
Methodists,  many  hold  now  to  an  intermediate 
state,  and  to  processes  of  salvation  there  for 
those  who  never  heard  of  Christ.  Dr.  Pope  pre- 
sented this  view  in  his  Theology   (1875-76),  and 


his  hook  was  placed  on  the  course  of  study  for 
preachers.  The  natviral  immortality  of  the  soul 
has  always  been  maintained,  the  first  dissentient 
being  Professor  Bi'et  in  his  The  Ln.it  Things 
(1897;  3d  ed.,  enl.,  1899)  and  more  explicitly  in 
his  hnmortalitij  of  the  Houl:  A  I'rotcut  (1901). 
Eternal  punishment  in  some'  sense  is  a  cardinal 
tenet. 

Etuics.  Wesley-  always  retained  some  of  the 
ascetic  fervor  of  his  High  Church  days,  and  set 
forth  in  his  "General  Rules  for  the  United  So- 
cieties" (1743)  a  standard  of  conduct  of  a  strict 
and  self-denying  type.  These  rules  forbade  soft- 
ness and  needless  self-indulgence,  the  using  of 
many  words  in  buying  or  selling,  the  use  of  in- 
toxicants as  a  beverage,  and  the  reading  of  books 
or  the  taking  of  diversions  that  could  not  be 
indulged  in  in  the  name  of  Jesus.  The  early 
Methodists  were  accordingly  noted  for  their  Qua- 
ker-like strictness  of  life,  this  even  showing  it- 
self in  regard  to  dress  and  jewelry.  Amusements 
like  theatre-going,  dancing,  and  card-playing 
were  looked  upon,  as  by  the  Puritans,  with  whom 
Methodists  had  many  points  of  contact,  with 
abhorrence. 

Worship.  Wesley  was  attached  to  the  liturgy 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  drew-  up 
for  the  societies  at  home  and  in  America  a 
service  based  on  the  Prayer-Book,  which  he 
abridged  and  changed  remorselessly.  This  was 
not  adapted  to  American  needs  and  was  never 
used  in  this  country  to  any  extent  until  re- 
cently. It  was  republished  by  the  Rev.  Charles 
S.  narrower  in  1891,  and  the  I'esponsive  parts 
have  been  widely  adopte<l.  But  the  spirit  of 
Methodism  seems  opposed  to  read  prayers,  and 
though  a  modest  liturgical  service  was  suggested 
by  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  in  1890,  it  goes  no  further  than  a 
responsive  reading,  the  Gloria,  and  the  recitation 
of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  even  this  is  too  rit- 
ualistic for  some  churches.  In  special  rites,  how- 
ever, like  baptism,  marriage,  and  burial,  all 
^lethodists  use  a  prepared   service. 

History  and  jSIethodi.st  Denominationalism. 
England.  (For  the  so-called  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dists, see  Calvini.stic  Methodists  ;  and  for  the 
"Calvinistic  Methodist  Church"  of  Wales,  see 
PRE.SByTERlANlSM.)  The  paternal  absolutism 
which  Wesley  exercised  he  left  to  his  legal  suc- 
cessors— the  Hundred  Ministers — but  the  control 
which  he  had  exercised  as  father  of  the  move- 
ment could  not  be  held  by  his  successors.  Swung 
loose  from  Wesley's  hand  it  was  inevitable  thaf; 
the  societies  would  assert  their  liberties.  Tliese 
liberties  had  reference  to  (1)  holding  service  in 
church  hours,  which  \^'esley  bad  opposed  out  of 
regard  for  the  Established  Church  ;  (2)  receiving 
the  sacraments  in  their  own  chapels  from  their 
own  ministers;  (3)  lay  representation  in  the 
conferences;  and  (4)  the  right  of  the  local 
church  to  have  a  voice  in  the  reception  and  ex- 
pulsion of  members,  in  the'  choice  of  local  olhcers, 
and  in  the  calling  out  of  candidates  for  the  min- 
istry. All  these  principles  except  the  last  have 
lieen  incorporated  into  all  types  of  Methodism, 
but  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  found  a  so- 
cietv  upon  them  belongs  to  .Xlexander  Kilham 
(17'62-98).  In  1795  Kilham  published  a  pam- 
phlet. The  Progress  of  Liberty,  which  is  a  land- 
mark in  Jlethodism,  as  it  is  the  first  systematic 
presentation  of  the  rights  of  ministers  and  lay- 
men.    For  this  book  and  for  statements  which 


METHODISM. 


384 


METHODISM. 


were  interpreted  a.s  relleetiii^'  on  tlic  Conference 
he  was  expelled  in  IVilfi.  Three  ministers  joined 
themselves  to  him  immediately,  and  soon  .5000 
members  were  enrolled,  the  body  taking  the  name 
of  the  Methodist  Xcw  Connection  at  the  date  of 
its  organization  in  1797.  In  theoIogT  and  polity 
it  is  similar  to  Wesleyan  Methodism,  except  in 
the  principle  of  representation.  It  was  the  first 
efToctive  effort  to  adjust  Metho<lism  to  the  non- 
eonforniist  principle,  and  thus  brins;  it  to  its 
logical   conclusion. 

With  the  building  of  chapels  there  had  been  a 
decline  in  the  aggressive  zeal  of  the  field-preach- 
ing days  of  original  Jlethodism.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  news  was  borne 
across  the  Atlantic  of  the  marvelous  success  of 
camp  meetings  as  a  revival  agency,  and  desire' 
was  felt  by  some  to  revive  open-air  meetings  in 
England.  Accordingly  Hugh  Bourne  (1772- 
1852),  assisted  by  \^'illiam  Clowes  and  other 
zealous  \Yesleyan  local  preachers  and  exhort<>rs. 
held  a  camp  me<ting  at  JIow  Cap,  a  hill  between 
Stalfordshire  and  Cheshire,  May  13,  1807.  and 
with  such  favorable  results  that  several  similar 
meetings  followed.  The  parent  Conference  in 
1807  passed  a  resolution  severely  condemning 
such  meetings,  but  Bourne  persisted  in  his  use 
of  an  evangelism  .so  congenial  to  early  Metliodism. 
For  this  he  and  his  companions  were  expelled, 
and  in  1810  thev  organized  an  independent 
Church,  which  in'  1812  took  the  title  of  the 
Primitive  Melhodist  Connection.  In  polity  this 
body  i.s  similar  to  the  New  Connection  Church, 
except  that  it  has  two  laj-nien  instead  of  one  to 
every  minister  in  their  Conference,  and  is  espe- 
cially noted  for  its  large  use  of  laymen  both  in 
Chui'-ch  government  and  in  evangelism.  It  pub- 
lishes an  able  review,  the  Primilire  Methodist 
Quarterly,  and  sustains  numerous  schools  and 
missions  and  all  the  appliances  of  a  strong 
Church. 

A  zealous  young  Wesleyan,  William  O'Bryan, 
felt  called  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  destitute  vil- 
lages of  East  Cornwall  and  West  Devon  in  t!io 
early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  had 
great  success  in  tliese  tours.  As  this  necessarily 
carried  him  beyond  the  bounds  of  Wesleyan  cir- 
cuits, and  as  he  could  not  limit  his  work  to  their 
liarncss,  he  was  exp<dled  for  his  zealous  follow- 
ing of  Wesley.  In  1816  0'Bry*n  organized  his 
first  society,  the  work  developed,  other  preachers 
were  received,  rules  were  drawn  up  in  1818.  and 
in  181!)  the  first  conference  was  held.  His  so- 
cieties came  to  be  calh-d  liihle  Christians,  al- 
though that  was  not  adopted  as  the  ollicial  name 
until  1828.  In  IH'iO  they  sent  Way  and  Rowe 
1o  .•\\istralia,  where  a  strong  cause  has  been  built 
up.  They  also  have  missions  in  (liina.  The 
polity  of  the  Bible  Christians  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  other  bodies  of  reformed  ^tcthodists. 

The  forcing  of  an  organ  on  the  Brunswick  Wes- 
leyan Methodist  Chapel  in  Leeds  in  1828  against 
the  wishes  of  tlie  leaders  and  stewards  caused  the 
withdrawal  of  more  than  a  thousand  members 
and  the  formation  of  the  U'ra/eiynn  Protestant 
Methodists.  The  dominating  influence  of  .Tabez 
Bunting  (minister  I'DO-ISHS) .  who  exercised  an 
autocratic  power  over  the  Conference,  was  the  in- 
direct cause  of  the  next  scliism — that  over  tlie 
formation  of  a  theological  institution.  The  oppo- 
sition to  this  scheme  was  led  by  Dr.  Samuel 
Warren,  who  was  then  minister  at  Manchester, 
and   who  was  expelled   in    1835.     Tliousands  of 


members  sympathized  with  liim  and  left  the 
Churcli,  forming  the  Wesleyan  Mclhodi.tt  A.iso- 
ciation,  which  in  ten  years  luimhcrcd  21.17ti  niem- 
I)ers.  Independent  speech  and  action  in  the  Con- 
ference being  impossible  under  Bunting,  an  out- 
let for  criticism  was  found  in  anonymous  publica- 
tions and  periodicals.  To  find  out  the  authors  of 
these  articles  strong  measures  were  adopted,  and 
every  member  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Con- 
ference was  suliject  to  a  system  of  rigid  question- 
ing. For  failure  to  answer  these  and  other  ques- 
tions .lames  Everett  and  other  ministers  of  stand- 
ing were  expelled  in  1849.  The  revulsion  against 
these  proceedings  was  equal  to  that  against  State 
control  in  Scotland  six  years  before.  One  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  members  left  witliin  three 
years  and  the  contributions  fell  off  £100.000.  This 
separation  helped  to  swell  the  nonconfonnist 
churches,  but  many  kept  up  a  Methodist  organi- 
zation— generally  called  the  Wesleyan  Reformer! 
— until  1857.  when  they  united  with  the  I'rotet- 
tant  ( I^eeds )  and  A  ssociti  I  ion  ( Warren )  ^  let  hod  ista 
to  form  the  United  Methodist  Free  Churchet. 
This  body  carries  on  large  missionary  and  edu- 
cational work.  Its  polity  is  thoroughly  represen- 
tative, and  is  congregational  as  to  the  supremacy 
of  the  local  church   in  purely  local  alTairs. 

I'nder  the  charge  of  English  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odism in  1854  the  Connectional  Relief  and  Ex- 
tension Fund  was  inaugurated,  in  the  same  year 
that  tlie  Wesley  Cliaixd  l'"und  was  established  on 
a  new  basis,  and  in  ISOl  the  Metropolitan  Chapel 
Building  Fund  for  the  building  of  fifty  new 
churches  in  and  near  London  was  founded  by 
the  gift  of  £50,000  by  Sir  Francis  Lycett.  The 
Children's  Home  was  established  in  1873  by  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Bowman  Stephenson,  which  has  de- 
^■eloped  into  a  magnificent  charity,  witli  branches 
in  several  cities  and  a  liouse  in  Canada.  In  1873 
the  Sunday  School  I'nion  was  founded  for  the 
extension  of  that  cause.  But  the  most  important 
change  is  the  introduction  of  laymen  into  the 
Annual  Conference  since  1878.  There  are  now 
two  sections  of  the  Conference — a  ministerial  for 
the  consideration  of  matters  relating  to  the  cler- 
gymen, and  a  mixed  section  for  the  financial  and 
other  matters  in  which  all  are  interested.  This 
tanly  and  partial  recognition  of  laymen  has  given 
an  impetus  to  tlie  ])arcnt  Cliurch.  seen  especially 
in  the  munificent  gifts  for  the  Million  Uuinea 
Century   Fund    in   18!1!)-1!)02. 

Irki.am).  In  Ireland,  Wesley  had  been  preceded 
by  'Hiomas  Williams,  who  in  1747  gathered  a 
society  in  Dublin.  Wesley  came  in  that  same 
year  and  was  greatly  encouraged,  and  all  through 
the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  cent  my  both 
English  ami  native  itinerants  traveh-d  through 
the  country,  establisliing  societies  in  some  toMms, 
but  being  frequently  moblied.  fined,  and  im- 
prisoned. In  the  Irish  Hebellion  of  1708  the 
Methodists  were  the  special  objects  of  Irish 
wrath  and  sufi'ered  numerous  tortures.  It  WHS 
they  who  saved  Dublin  from  being  sacked  by 
timely  communication  of  the  intentions  of  the 
rebels.  Tlie  first  Irish  Conference  was  held  in 
17.52.  But  Jfethodism  was  unable  to  affect  Irish 
life  deeply.  The  membership  has  never  reached 
30.000.  aiid  the  highest  nunilier  was.  as  far  back 
as  1814.  20.388.  The  Irish  were  even  more  in- 
sistent on  receiving  the  sacrament  at  the  hands 
of  their  own  ministers  (rather  than  going  to  the 
Episcopal  Church)  than  the  English  were,  and 
in    this    thev    were    favored    bv    Dr.    Coke,   whO 


METHODISM. 


385 


METHODISM. 


frequently  presided  over  the  conferences.  In 
January,  1818,  the  Primitive  Weslcyoii  Methodist 
Socii'lii  was  formed  under  the  leadersliip  of  the 
apostolic  Adam  Averell.  whose  banner  was  "The 
Sacrament  from  the  Established  ('lunch."  The 
regular  Jlethodist  Church  in  Ireland  declared  for 
independence.     In  1S78  the  two  united. 

SfOTL.iXD.  ^^'esley  found  Scotland  stony 
ground.  He  received  an  attentive  hearing,  but 
not  much  response.  \Yhitefield  told  him  plainly 
that  he  liad  "no  business  in  Scotland."  But  he 
persevered  and  established  his  societies.  The 
Rev.  1).  Butler  has  recently  shown  in  two  inter- 
esting studies  the  inlluence  of  Wesley  on  Scot- 
land and  tlie  debt  which  Wesley  himself  owed 
to  Scougal's  Life  of  (lod  in  the  Soiit  of  ilaii 
(1071).  a  book  that  he  had  reprinted  in  1744. 
Consult  Butler.  Wesley  and  Whitefield  in  Scot- 
land 1  Edinburgh.  1898)  :  Henry  hScougal  and  the 
Oxford  Methodists  (Edinburgh,  1899). 

Fraxce.  English  soldiers  carried  ^Methodism 
to  .Jersey,  in  the  Channel  Islands,  as  early  as 
1779,  and  Robert  Carr  Brackenbuiy,  a  wealthy 
layman,  who  could  speak  French,  was  sent  there 
in  response  to  their  converts.  Wesley  himself 
spent  a  fortnight  in  the  islands  in  1787,  preach- 
ing and  e.\)iorting  from  house  to  house.  In  1790 
the  mainland  was  invaded,  and  from  that  day  to 
this  Jlethodism  has  always  had  a  foothold  in 
France.  In  1818  Charles  Cook  began  his  min- 
istry there.  Cook  died  in  1858  and  left  his  two 
sons  to  carry  on  his  work.  In  1852  France  was 
made  a  separate  conference,  and  the  full  super- 
vision of  the  mission  was  left  in  her  own  hands. 
Some  notable  men  have  wrought  their  lives  into 
French  evangelization — Cook  and  his  two  sons, 
Eniile  F.  and  Jean  Paul,  Giallienne,  Hocart,  and 
Gibson.  One  of  the  best  lives  of  Wesley  ever 
written  we  owe  to  this  mission,  that  bv  J.  W. 
LeliJvre   1 1868,  trans.  1871,  new  ed.  1900). 

Gebsiaxt.  a  young  Wiirttemberger,  C.  G. 
Miiller.  went  to  London  in  1805  on  business,  was 
converted,  became  a  local  preacher,  in  1830  re- 
turned to  South  Giermany,  became  a  missionary 
of  the  Wcsleyan  Conference,  and  when  he  died 
in  185,S  left  07  preaching  places,  20  local  preach- 
ers, and  1100  members,  chiefly  in  Wiirttemberg. 
In  1S49  Ludwig  S.  .Jacoby  went  out  from  Amer- 
ica, and  for  fifty  years  English  and  American 
Methodism  labored  in  different  sections  of  the 
German  Empire.  In  1898  England  handed  over 
to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  her  missions 
in  Germany,  and  a  union  was  eft'ected. 

Italy.  In  1852  the  French  Jlethodists  sent 
M.  Rostan  to  the  Piedmont  valleys,  who  estab- 
lished several  stations.  In  1801  the  Wcsleyan 
Methodist  Conference  in  England  sent  Green  and 
Piggott  to  Florence,  and  they  soon  had  flourish- 
ing missions  in  North  Italy."  In  1872  Leroy  M. 
Vernon  began  his  work  in  Bologna  as  represent- 
ing the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Further 
particulars  as  to  European  Jlethodism  will  be 
found  uniler  Missions. 

America.  Tlie  first  Jlethodist  society  in  the' 
New  World  was  recruited  from  the  German 
refugees  to  Ireland  driven  out  of  the  Palatinate 
by  Louis  XIV.  Two  of  these.  Philip  Embury 
and  Barbara  Heck,  had  been  converted  in  Ire- 
land, and  upon  arriving  in  New  York,  in  1700, 
the.v  began  preaching.  Thomas  Webb,  an  army 
captain  and  local  preacher,  also  preached  in  New 
York  and  elsewhere,  and  about  the  same  time 
(176G)    Robert    Strawbridge,   another   Irishman, 


started  the  work  in  Maryland,  where  he  was  as- 
sisted by  Robert  Williams,  who  was  the  apostle 
of  Virginia,  In  170!)  Wesley  sent  out  Richard 
Broadman  and  Joseph  Pilmoor,  and  two  years 
later  Francis  Asbury  and  Richard  Wright,  In 
1773  their  first  Conference  was  held — 10  min- 
isters with  1100  members.  In  spite  of  the  dis- 
astrous infiuence  of  the  Revolutionarv  War,  at 
its  end  they  had  80  preachers  and  nearly  15,000 
members.  Slost  of  the  Episco[)al  clergv-  had  fled, 
and  Wesley  tried  to  get  a  bishop  in  England  to 
ordain  one  of  his  preachers  for  America.  Failing 
in  this,  he  concluded  that  he  himself  had  au- 
thority. The  societies  in  America,  Wesley  said, 
"are'  now  at  full  liberty  to  follow  the  Scriptures 
and  the  primitive  Church,  and  we  judge  it  best 
that  they  should  stand  fast  in  that  liberty  where- 
with God  has  so  strangely  made  them  free."  He 
accordingly  ordained,  September  1,  1784,  \Vhat- 
coat  and  Vasey  as  deacons,  on  the  next  day 
elders,  and  Coke  superintendent.  He  furnished 
them  with  a  liturgy  an<l  collection  of  psalms  and 
hymns,  articles  of  religion  abridged  from  the 
Thirty -nine  Articles  of  the  Churcli  of  England, 
and  told  them  to  organize  the  American  societies 
into  a  church.  This  was  done  at  the  celebrated 
Christmas  Conference  in  Lovely  Lane  Chapel, 
Baltimore,  December  24,  I784-.January  2,  1785, 
where  Asbury  was  ordained  deacon,  elder,  and 
superintendent,  the  societies  taking  the  name  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

The  catholicity  of  the  new  Church  was  shown 
by  \^'esley's  method  in  regard  to  both  doctrine 
and  discipline.  Ever\-thing  of  a  sectarian  nature 
was  stricken  out  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  so 
that  as  they  left  Wesley's  hands  they  could  be  sul>- 
scribed  to  by  almost  any  evangelical  Christian. 
Nor  did  he  insert  any  of  his  own  teachings.  His 
design  was  to  provide  a  generous  platform  on 
which  all  who  loved  the  Lord  could  rally.  As  to 
discipline,  no  mode  of  baptism  was  made  obliga- 
tory, and  even  rebaptism  of  such  as  had  scruples 
of  their  baptism  in  infancy  was  allowed,  and 
although  kneeling  was  recommended  on  the  re- 
ception of  the  Lord's  Supper,  it  was  distinctly 
allowed  that  it  might  be  received  standing  or 
sitting.  Nor  was  it  necessary  for  people  to  give 
up  membershi])  in  their  own  Church  in  order  to 
become  Methodist :  so  long  as  they  'complied  with 
our  rules'  they  were  to  have  full  liberty  of  at- 
tending their  own  churches.  On  the  other  hand, 
no  one  could  be  admitted  to  communion  but  mem- 
bers of  the  society,  or  such  as  had  received  tickets 
from  the  preacher.  Members  who  neglected  their 
class-meetings  were  liable  to  expulsion,  and  also 
members  who  married  'unawakened  persons' — 
rules  that  have  gone  by  the  board  long  since. 

During  the  national  period  the  growth  of 
Methodism  has  been  extraordinary.  Its  polity  is 
vigorous  yet  elastic,  and  provides  for  close  suiicr- 
vision  of  all  parts  of  the  field.  Tliis  it  does  by 
reviving  the  apostolate  or  apostolic  episcopate, 
and  adapting  it  to  present  day  needs.  Itineracy 
has  given  it  the  opportunity  to  meet  the  im- 
migrant face  to  face  while  establishing  bis  family 
in  their  new  home,  and  it  has  thus  been  able  to 
proclaim  the  Gospel  ever\nvhere  on  American 
soil.  But  this  would  have  been  impossible  with- 
out a  band  of  preachers  alert,  brave,  consecrated, 
self-sacrificing,  ready  to  go  anywhere  with  the 
message  of  salvation.  Perhaps  historj-  has  never 
seen  a  truer  type  of  home  missionary  than  the 
itinerant  preachers  of  Methodism.  Ready  to  obey 


METHODISM. 


386 


METHODISM. 


orders  like  the  .Jesuits,  stroiifr  to  prcaeh  like  the 
Domiiiiians.  tliey  liave  gone  everywhere,  thread- 
iiij?  forests,  fordinj;  and  swimming  rivers,  making 
friends  with  Indians  or  witli  chanee  settlers, 
traveling  through  parishes  a  hundred  miles  or 
more  in  extent,  meeting  tlieir  appointments  with 
the  regularity  of  a  machine,  running  the 
gauntlet  of  all  kinds  of  dangers.  These  men  of 
the  first  geiierations  of  ilethodists  revived  the 
earliest  traditions  of  Christianity.  The  emphasis 
put  on  preaching  has  been  another  cause  of  suc- 
cess. Necessarily  deficient  in  learning,  the 
preacher.?  made  up  for  that  hy  study  (a  course 
of  study  was  early  prescribed),  reading,  and  con- 
tact with  men.  Hut  they  learned  above  all  to  be 
preachers — ready,  powerful,  interesting  extemi)0- 
raneous  pi'eachers.  Kmphasis  on  religious  ex- 
perience, personal  knowledge  of  Christ,  and  vic- 
tory over  all  sin,  gave  botli  prcacliers  and  people 
a  buoyant,  triumphant  life,  and  this  sense  of 
reality  and  power  invested  the  pulpit  with  au- 
thority and  fascination,  and  its  pco])l('  with  a 
vitalizing  inlluence  over  others.  At  a  time  when 
the  prevailing  type  of  Christianity  was  Cal- 
vinistic,  the  Methodists  came  with  the  Gospel  of 
a  free,  full  and  present  salvation,  which  they 
preaciied  with  tremendous  earnestness  and  with- 
o>it  philosophical  refinements.  Methodism  has 
therefore  been  a  revival  Church. 

The  government  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  was  completely  in  the  hands  of  the 
preachers,  who  received  their  appointments  an- 
nually from  the  superintendents,  who  were  thus 
invested  with  large  legal  and  indefinite  moral 
power.  This  excessive  clericalism  was  the  occa- 
sion of  the  first  two  schisms.  .Tames  O'Kelly,  an 
earnest  Irishman  of  warm  piety  and  strong  ))er- 
sonality,  tried  to  have  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
Conference  recognized  in  the  case  of  a  preacher 
who  felt  oppressed  by  an  appointment  by  the 
bishop,  and.  failing  in  this,  led  a  schism  in 
Virginia  in  ITflii.  lie  organized  the  Ucpiihliran 
Mctliddiyl  Clniich.  which  was  finally  absorbed 
hy  other  movements.  Of  greater  significance  was 
the  agitation  to  adiuit  laymen  into  the  Church 
councils,  which,  being  refused  by  the  General 
Conference  of  1824.  led  to  a  new  Church,  in  1828, 
which  took  the  name  of  the  Mrthodist  I'rotrxtaiit 
Church  in  18.30.  This  Church  repudiated  the 
episcopate,  gave  laymen  their  full  rights,  and 
thus  disentangled  Methodism  from  hierarchical 
methods. 

To  many  minds  at  one  time  slavery  seemed 
the  article"  of  a  standing  or  falling  Church.  At 
the  beginning  Methodism  had  taken  strong 
ground  against  slavery,  but  exigencies  of  the 
work  in  the  Southern  States  led  to  an  abandon- 
ment of  the  old  ground.  The  anti-slavery  men  of 
the  North  would  not  yield,  however,  and  in  184,3 
organized  the  1V«.>.7ri/rtH  MrthmVmt  Coniicctinii  at 
I'tica.  X.  Y.  In  government  they  are  similar  to 
the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.  Tliey  liold 
stricter  ground  in  regard  to  secret  societies  and 
intemperance  than  tlie  old  Church.  The  great 
division  on  slavery  was  that  in  1844-4.5.  in  con- 
nection with  the  ease  of  Bisbop  .Tames  O.  Andrew, 
who  had  married  a  slave-holding  wife.  The 
Mrthndixl  I'.iiisropiil  Church,  fiouth,  was  organ- 
ized, taking  most  of  the  societies  in  the  South. 
This  Church  has  the  same  laws  and  customs  as 
the  elder  body,  with  some  niodilication  of  the 
disciplinary  provisions.  The  latest  division  of 
consequence  was  that  in  Western  New  York  in 


1800,  when  the  I'rcc  Mvllwdisl  Church  was  or- 
ganized, a  reaction  toward  the  strciuious  ideals 
of  primitive  Methodism  in  regard  to  secret  so- 
cieties, plainness  of  dress,  the  use  of  tobacco,  and 
in  the  interests  of  positive  Christian  teaching 
and  practice.  Other  and  smaller  separations 
have  taken  place  prompted  by  a  desire  eitlier  for 
a  more  democratic  or  for  a  purer  Christianity,  or 
both,  the  latest  being  the  organization  of  the 
Independent  Methodist  Church,  at  Newark,  N.  J., 
in  I'JOO. 

Colored  Methodism  has  had  free  course  in  the 
United  States.  Housed  at  first  in  tlie  parent 
Cluirch,  the  colored  i)i'ople  came  out  in  I'hiladel- 
phia  under  Richard  Allen  in  181G.  and  organized 
the  African  Methodist  Epiacopal  Church,  with 
doctrine  and  polity  similar  to  the  old  Church. 
Four  years  later  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Zion  Church  was  organized  in  New  York.  The 
Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  America 
was  organized  by  action  of  the  JMcthodist  Kpis- 
copal  Church.  South,  December  10.  1870.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has  colored  con- 
ferences in  the  South,  an  integral  part  of  her 
organization,  hut  she  has  never  elected  a  colored 
bishop  since  the  death  of  Francis  Burns  in  1863. 

The  struggle  for  the  rights  of  laymen  in 
America  has  been  similar  to  that  in  England. 
The  Jlethodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  not  only 
(since  18(i9)  admits  laymen  to  the  General  Con- 
ference in  ecpial  numbers.  l)ut  admits  four  lay- 
men from  every  district  in  tlie  .-Vnnual  Confer- 
ence. Tlie  African  Churches  do  the  same.  After 
the  organization  of  tlie  Metliodist  Protestant 
Church.  1828-30,  the  agitation  rested  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  until  1852.  But  it 
was  not  until  1872  that  that  Church  granted  place 
to  laymen  in  her  supreme  council;  and  then  only 
to  the  extent  of  two  laymen  from  each  Annual 
Conference,  which  gave  the  preponderance  to  the 
ministers  three  to  one.  In  lliOO  the  ratio  of  rep- 
resentation was  made  eipial. 

C.\N.\I)A.  The  Palatines,  who  did  so  much  for 
Irish  Methodism  and  who  founded  the  Cluirch  in 
the  New  World,  were  also  the  organizers  of  the 
first  class  in  Canada — at  Augusta.  Ontario,  in 
1778.  In  fact,  it  was  the  same  Paul  and  Barbara 
Heck,  their  sons  and  relatives,  and  the  widow  and 
son  of  Philip  Embury,  who  constituted  that  class. 
George  Neal,  a  school  teacher  in  the  Niagara  dis- 
trict, preached  to  the  ])Cople  on  Sunday  and  on 
week  evenings  after  !78('>.  and  gathered  his  cnn-  ' 
verts  into  classes.  He  kept  u|i  this  work  for 
years,  but  was  not  ordained  unt  il  ISIO.  William 
Losee  was  the  first  itinerant  minister.  He 
preached  in  and  around  Kingston  in  1700  and 
following  years,  and  in  1701  and  thereafter  Can- 
ada was  regularly  supplied  with  ministers  from 
the  United  States.  In  1800  there  were  one  dis- 
trict, four  circuits,  seven  |>reacbers.  and  936 
members.  Relations  with  the  ICpiscopalians  were 
not  always  friendly.  Canada  was  a  part  of  the 
Genesee  Conference  of  the  Jlethodist  Episcopal 
Church  until  1824.  when  the  Canada  Conference 
was  orgartized.  In  1828  the  Church  was  made 
independent  and  became  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  Canada.  The  English  Jlcthodists  be- 
gan work  in  Montreal  in  1814,  extended  it  into 
Ontario  in  18IS.  and  took  over  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  18.32.  though  the  latter  re- 
sumed an  independent  existence  in  1834.  Metho- 
dism in  the  eastern  provinces  was  founded  by 
the  apostolic   William   Black,  a  notable   figure, 


METHODISM. 


387 


METHODISM. 


who  began  his  work  iu  Xova  Scotia  in  1782. 
Other  branches  of  English  Methodism  were  like- 
wise planted  in  Canada.  In  1874  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Church  of  the  Dominion  united  with 
the  New  Connection  Cluirch,  and  in  1SS,3  these 
united  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal,  Primitive 
Methodist,  and  Bible  Christian — making  one 
Methodism  in  Canada.  The  union  has  been  emi- 
nently successful.  There  are  also  colored 
churches. 

AiSTBALi.\.  Two  schoolmasters  and  farmers, 
who  were  sent  out  from  England  to  take  charge 
of  the  convict  schools,  established  the  first  class, 
in  Sydney.  March  G,  1812.  They  soon  applied 
for  a  missionary  and  in  1815  Samuel  Leigh,  the 
Apostle  of  Australia,  landed  and  took  up  the 
work.  Others  followed,  and  wonderful  success  at- 
tended their  labors,  often  wrought  with  heroic 
self-sacrifice  and  bravery.  In  1820  ilethodism 
went  to  Tasmania,  1822  "to  the  Friendly  Islands, 
1823  to  Xew  Zealand.  1835  to  the  Fiji  Islands, 
1838  to  South  Australia,  and  183!)  to  Western 
Australia,  In  1854  all  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Churches  were  united  in  one  conference  ( includ- 
ing New  Zealand),  and  in  1873  those  of  Tasmania 
and  the  South  Sea  Islands  were  luiited  with  these, 
making  the  Australasian  Church.  The  Primitive 
Methodist  and  other  Engli-sh  ilethodist  denom- 
inations were  also  established  in  Australia,  but 
in  1900-02  these  all  united  with  the  Wesleyans, 
making  one  Methodism  in  the  South  Pacific, 

Mi-ssioxs.  All  the  Methodist  Churches  sus- 
tain extended  missionary  operations,  but  it  is 
impossible  here  to  do  justice  to  their  work.  A 
society  was  gathered  in  Sierra  Leone  in  1792, 
and  in  1811  the  Wesleyan  Conference  sent  George 
Warren  as  the  first  missionary  to  Africa. 
Churches  have  been  established  among  both  na- 
tives and  Europeans,  and  in  1884  William  Tay- 
lor opened  up  the  Congo  country,  Bisho])  Hartzell 
has  done  much  toward  coordinating  the  work  o\er 
a  vast  territory  with  the  progress  of  civilization. 
In  1814  Thomas  Coke,  with  six  missionaries, 
founded  the  first  Methodist  missions  in  Asia, 
whicli  have  realized  great  results  in  converts,  lit- 
erature, and  scholarship.  The  American  Churcli 
sent  Melville  B.  Cox  to  Africa  in  1833,  and  William 
Butler  founded  missions  in  India  in  185(5,  which 
have  recently  achieved  notable  results  among  the 
peasants  of  North  India — the  natives  coming  into 
Christianity  faster  than  they  can  be  cared  for. 
In  1873  Butler  also  began  work  in  Mexico,  where 
hospitals,  schools,  and  churches  have  been  estab- 
lished. Numerous  missions  exist  in  South 
America.  Scandinavia  has  proved  a  good  soil  for 
Methodism ;  even  Finland  has  been  entered,  and 
Switzerland  has  several  societies.  In  1900  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  made  John  H.  Vin- 
cent resident  Bishop  in  Europe,  where  there  are 
already  five  conferences.  Mission  work  in  (^hina 
has  had  marvelous  success,  considering  the  cir- 
cumstances, where  various  ^lethodist  bodies  are 
working  in  harmony.  This  is  eminently  true  of 
Japan,  though  here  efforts  have  been  made  to 
merge  the  Methodist  denominations  into  a  single 
Japanese  Church.  The  ilalay  country  has  lieen 
entered,  and  in  1900  missionaries  were  sent  to 
the  Philippine  Islands, 

Enic.\TioN,  Though  Wesley  was  obliged  to  use 
uneducated  men  as  preachers,  he  insisted  on  their 
diligence  in  reading  and  study.  He  was  wont  at 
times  to  gather  them  at  Kingswood,  near  Bristol, 
where   he   instructed   them    in   Pearson,   On    the 


Creed,  Aldrich's  Loyic,  and  rules  for  action  and 
utterance;  but  it  was  not  till  1834  that  it  was 
decided  to  open  institutions  for  the  training  of 
ministers,  and  even  then  amid  much  opposition, 
partly  on  account  of  fear  of  loss  of  the  old 
spirituality,  freshness,  and  independence,  and 
partly  on  account  of  tlie  preponderating  infiu- 
ence  of  Bunting.  In  1834  an  institution  was 
opened  at  Ho.xton,  London,  removed  to  Riclimond, 
Surrey,  in  1843 ;  another  was  opened  in  Stoke 
Newington  in  1839,  merged  in  the  Kichmond 
school  in  1843.  The  Didsbury  institution  near 
Manchester  received  students  in  1842 ;  that  at 
Headingly,  near  Leeds,  in  1808;  that  at  Hands- 
worth,  near  Birmingham,  in  1891.  These  schools 
are  both  academic  and  theological,  and  not  on 
the  grade  of  American  theological  seminaries. 
These,  as  well  as  Wesley  College  for  boys  at  Shef- 
field, the  Leys  school  in  Cambridge,  and  Trinity 
College,  Taunton,  are  in  connection  with  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Church,  which  also  supports 
a  system  of  day  schools  having  159,000  scholars 
and  an  annual  expenditure  of  £259,000,  with 
training  colleges  for  teachers  in  Westminster  and 
Southlands.  In  Ireland  there  are  Wesley  College, 
Dublin,  and  the  Belfast  Methodist  College.  In 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  there  are  three 
theological  institutions  and  ten  .  colleges.  The 
Primitive  Methodists  have  a  college  for  min- 
isters at  Manchester,  and  colleges  for  youths  in 
York  and  Birmingham.  The  New  Connection 
Church  has  a  theological  instittition  at  Ranmoor, 
near  Sheffield,  opened  in  18t)4.  The  Bible  Chris- 
tians have  Shebbear  College  at  Highampton, 
Devon,  and  a  girls'  school  at  Edgehill.  The  other 
ilethodist  churches  of  England  have  their  own 
schools,  of  which  there  are  also  many — especially 
among  the  Wesleyans — in  mission  fields. 

In  America  foundations  for  a  college  were 
laid  as  early  as  1785,  and  in  1787  Cokesbury 
College  was  opened  at  Abingdon,  Md.  After  eight 
years  of  prosperous  life  it  was  Inirned,  It  was 
rebuilt,  btit  was  burned  again  in  1797,  After 
this  Asbui-y  turned  his  attention  to  founding 
humbler  schools  here  and  there.  In  1817  an 
academy  was  built  at  Newmarket,  N,  H.,  closed 
December  30,  1823,  btit  opened  again  at  Wil- 
braham,  Mass,,  November  5,  1825,  The  oldest 
academy  having  a  continuous  existence  is  at 
Kent's  Hill,  Maine,  founded  in  1821.  Cazenovia 
Seminary,  at  Cazenovia,  N,  Y.,  was  founded  in 
1825.  The  oldest  college  is  Wesleyan  University 
(1831),  at  Middletown,  Conn.  A  regular  course 
of  study  for  probationers  for  the  ministry,  con- 
tinuing four  years,  with  annual  examinations  at 
the  Conference,  was  marked  out  in  1810,  Between 
1820  and  1847,  however,  academies  and  colleges 
furnished  all  the  education  received  in  school  in 
theological  branches  by  candidates  for  the  min- 
istry, and  that  was  meagre,  as  classical  and  scien- 
tific studies  necessarily  predominated.  There 
was  in  fact  a  deep-seated  prejudice  against  theo- 
logical schools,  lest  they  should  become  centres 
of  heresy,  as  well  as  deprive  men  of  that  spiritu- 
ality, earnestness,  and  self-sacrifice  which  char- 
acterized early  Methodist  preachers.  It  was  not 
till  1840  that  the  first  theological  institution 
was  opened,  that  at  Newbury.  Vt.,  removed  to 
Concord,  N.  H.,  in  1847,  to  Boston  in  1807,  and 
incorporated  in  Boston  University  in  1871.  Car- 
rett  Biblical  Institute  at  Evanston,  HI.,  now  in 
connection  with  Northwestern  LTniversity  (the 
largest    university     in    Methodism),    began     in 


METHODISM. 


388 


METHODISM. 


185G,  and  Drew  Theologic.il  Seminary  at  Madi- 
son. N.  J.,  in  1SG7.  Ganinion  Theological  Sem- 
inary, for  colored  preachers,  was  founded  in 
South  Atlanta,  Ga..  in  1883,  and  the  (Jrant  Uni- 
versity School  of  Theology-,  for  whites,  at  Chat- 
tanooga, Tenn.,  began  work  in  188G.  In  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  there  are  25  theo- 
logical institutions,  5G  colleges  and  universities, 
60  classical  seminaries,  8  women's  seminaries 
and  colleges.  0!)  foreign  mission  schools,  and  4 
missionary  training  schools.  There  is  an  im- 
portant .school  for  classical  and  theological  in- 
stniction  at  Frankfort -on-the-ilain.  another  at 
Bareilly,  India,  and  smaller  schools  of  the  same 
kind    in    other    mission    fields.      The   Jlethodist 


are  many  weekly  and  montlily  periodicals.  Th« 
M'esleyan  Mrthodist  Magazine,  London,  was  es- 
tablished under  the  name  of  the  Arminian  ilaga- 
zine  in  1778.  the  Lmtdon  Qiiailerli/  Hcvictr  in 
1853,  the  Primitive  Methodist  Quarterly  in  1858, 
the  Methodixt  Ilevieir,  Xew  York,  in  1818  (qtiar- 
terly.  1830.  bi-monthly,  1885).  the  Mcthodifi  He- 
rieu;  Xashville.  1847.  and  the  Canadian  Metho- 
dist Qiinrtrrli/  in  1880  (merged  in  the  Mrtltodiil 
Magazine,  Toronto,  in  1890). 

Statistics.  According  to  the  latest  issue  of 
the  Methodist  Year  Book  (New  York.  1!)03), 
and  the  best  figures  that  can  be  olitained,  the  sta- 
tistics of  Methodism  at  the  close  of  the  year  1902 
were  as  follows: 


DEXOMI.XATIOX 

Weslejan  MethodiBt  Cburch : 

Great  Britain 

Ireland 

French  Conference 

South  African  Conference 

West  Indian  Conferences 

Fnn'ipn  .Missions 

Metluidist:  Npw  Connection 

Primitive  Methodist  Cliurrh 

Bible  Christian  C»-)nnectiun 

Weslcyan  Ueform  Union 

United  Methodist  Free  Churches 

Indepemlent  Met liodist  Churches 

The  Metliodist  Cliun-h,  .\ustralasia 

The  Methodist  Cluiri'li,  Canada 

Metliodist  Episcojial  Church  (Ilorae  and  Foreign) 

Methodist  I'loti-staiit  Clnirch 

Weslevail  .M  ft  liodist  Cnmiertion 

Methodist  Kpiscopal  Church,  South 

Free  Methodist  Church 

Union  AiuiM-ican  Methodist  Episcopal 

Coni^rewational  Methodist 

New  CoiiKretratioTial  Methodist 

P^iniiti^■e  Metliodist  Church,  United  States 

Inilepen.lelit  .Methodist 

Evnui-'eliral  Missionary 

Afrieatt  Methodist  Episcopal 

African  Metliodist  Episcopal  (Zion) 

Afrieari  ruion  Methodist  Protestant 

Conjrn'iratioiial  Methodist  (Colored) 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal 

ZioD  UniOQ  Apostolic 


Ministers 

Churches 

Communicanta 

2.238 

8.508 

496.710 

253 

468 

28.650 

37 

143 

1.646 

202 

826 

93,660 

93 

431 

45,726 

395 

2,404 

64.614 

207 

674 

42.929 

1.048 

5.413 

196.651 

212 

793 

2S.8n 

18 

188 

7.849 

m 

1.392 

93.684 

397 

156 

8.644 

932 

5.639 

131.774 

2.030 

291.895 

l-,92-2 

27,876 

2.997.772 

1,647 

2,401 

184.097 

700 

516 

17.000 

6.247 

14.774 

1,618.854 

1.1)01 

1,009 

28.038 

180 

206 

16.500 

400 

398 

22.000 

192 

366 

4.000 

73 

112 

0>..')2O 

8 

16 

2.569 

&4 

U 

2,036 

6.429 

6,715 

728.354 

3,310 

2.985 

642.422 

68 

68 

2.930 

5 

6 

319 

2,061 

1,433 

204,972 

30 

32 

2.34« 

48.843 


84,888 


;  ,813,0; 


Episcopal  Church,  South,  reports  147  schools  and 
colleges,  one  of  the  largest  being  Vandcrl)ilt  Uni- 
Tersity  at  Nashville,  Tenn..  with  a  theological 
school,  organized  in  1875.  The  Methodist  Prot- 
estant Church  has  colleges  at  Adrian,  Mich. 
(1859:  theological  department.  1882);  West- 
minster, Md.  (1808;  theological  department, 
18821  :  and  Kansas  City,  Kan.  ( 189G).  The  Free 
Methodists  have  seminaries  at  North  Chili.  X.  Y. ; 
Spring  Arbor.  Mich.;  Greenville.  111.;  Ross, 
Wash.;  and  ICvansville.  Wis.  Canada  established 
an  academy  at  Cobourg.  Ontario,  in  183fi.  which 
was  made  a  college  in  1841,  the  first  degree- 
conferring  body  in  Ontario:  a  medical  faculty 
was  added  in  1854.  law  in  1800.  theology  in  1871, 
and  the  wliole  (Victoria  I'nivcrsity)  removed  to 
Toronto  in  1892.  The  Wesleyan  Theological 
CoUcoc  in  Montreal  was  established  in  1873.  and 
the  Mount  Allison  College  at  Sackville,  X.  B.,  in 
1859.  There  are  several  academies  and  female 
colleges. 

.ToiRVAi.isM  ANnPrnLiSHiNo  Intkrksts.  Every 
branch  of  Methodism  has  its  book  room  and 
publishing  house.  Tliose  of  the  Weslcvan  Metho- 
dists in  London  and  Methodist  Episcopal 
Churches.  North  and  South,  in  Xew  York  and 
Nashville  (with  their  brandies),  are  among  the 
largest  publishing  houses  in  the  world,  and  the 
house  in  Toronto  is  the  largest  in  Canada.  There 


Bibliography.  Only  a  few  representative 
works  can  be  mentioned.  Theologj':  Watson, 
Theological  Institutes  (Xew  York,  1824: 
many  later  eds. )  ;  Pope,  Theology  (new 
ed.,  enl.,  London,  1875-7GI  :  Milcy,  Si/stvninlir 
Theology  (X'ew  \"ork.  1893);  "Bank*.  A'/. 
ments  of  Theology  (London,  1887)  :  Sheldon, 
Christian  Theology  (Boston,  1901);  Burwosli. 
Systematic  Theology  (London,  1901):  Tigert. 
editor,  Doctrines  of  the  Methodist  Fpiscofinl 
Church  in  America  (Cincinnati,  1002).  a  re 
print  of  the  doctrinal  tracts  of  Discipline- 
from  1788  to  1808;  Lidgett.  The  Fatherhood  oj 
(!od  (Edinburgh,  1902).  Wesley's  sermons  and 
notes  are  standards  of  doctrine  in  England  and 
her  dependencies.  Polity:  Williams.  Constitu- 
tion and  Polity  of  ^Veslryan  Melhodifntn  (London. 
1882)  :  Gregorv.  Handbook  of  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dist Polity  and  History  (I^ndon.  1888):  KigS, 
Church  Organization  (London,  1887:  3d  eil..  enl.. 
1900)  ;  Pcrrine.  Principles  of  Church  flnvem- 
ment  (New  York,  1887);  Rigg.  Comparative 
Vieir  of  Church  Organizations  (3d  ed..  London, 
1900)  :  Barclay,  editor.  Constitution  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Churches  in  America  (Nashville, 
1902).  Historv:  Histories  of  Methodism,  by 
Stevens  (3  vols.,  London,  1858-01;  supp.  VOL 
1900):  George  Smith  (London.  1857-02).  able, 
but     uartisan     for    Wesleyanism     in     treatment 


METHODISM. 


389 


METHYL. 


of  late  separations;  McTycire  (Nashville,  1884)  ; 
Hyde  (New  York,  18S7);  Histories  of  Meth- 
odist J-^jjisto/xil  Church,  by  Bangs  (New- 
York,  I80U-4I):  Stevens  (New  York,  18U4-U7: 
eupp.  vol.  1899)  ;  and  Buckley  (New  York, 
189li)  ;  Basset,  History  of  the  Methodist  Protes- 
tant Church  (  Pittsbnrg,  1878 ;  3il  ed.,  rev.  and  enl., 
1887)  :  Atkinson.  Centennial  Ui»torij  of  Amei-C- 
can  Methodism  (New  Y'ork,  1884)  ;  Tigert,  Con- 
stitutional  History  of  American  Episcopal  Metho- 
dism (Nashville,  1894)  ;  Drinkhousc,  History 
of  Methodist  Heform  (Baltimore,  1900)  ;  At- 
kinson, licginnings  of  ^Vesleyan  Movement  in 
America  (New  York,  1890).  Special  topics: 
Matlaok,  Anti-Hlavery  Struggle  and  Triumph  in 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (New  Y'ork, 
1881);  Slater,  Methodism  in  the  Light  of  the 
Early  Church  (London,  1885)  ;  Ciiinniings,  Early 
Schools  of  Methodism  (New  Y'ork,  1880)  ;  Green, 
Mission  of  Methodism  (London,  1890)  ;  Neely, 
Evolution  of  Episcopacy  and  Organic  Methodis^n 
(New  Y'ork,  1888)  ;  and  Governing  Conference  of 
Methodism  (New  Y'ork,  1892)  ;  Stephens,  Wesley 
and  Episcopacy  (Pittsburg,  1892)  ;  Crooks,  Life 
of  Bishop  .Simpson  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Lanahan, 
Era  of  Frauds  in  the  Methodis^t  Book  Concern, 
A'eti'  York  (Baltimore,  189ff)  ;  Tigert,  The  Mak- 
ing of  Methodism  (Nashville,  1898)  ;  Oliver,  Our 
Lay  Office  Bearers   (Cincinnati,   1902). 

METHODIST  CHURCH,  Free.     See  Meth- 

OUI.SM. 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.    See 

Metiioiiism. 

METHODIST    EPISCOPAL    CHURCH, 

SoiTii.     See  ilETiiooi.s^r. 

METHODIST    NEW    CONNECTION.      See 
JIetiiow.sm. 
METHODIST     PROTESTANT     CHURCH. 

See  Metiioiiism. 

METHO'DIUS  (also  called  Eubulius)  (  ?- 
C.311).  A  noted  Greek  theologian  of  the  third 
century,  a  martyr  and  Church  father.  He  was 
Bishop  of  Olympus  in  Lycia  and  perhaps  of  Tyre. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Porphyry  and  suffered 
martyrdom  about  311.  Epiphanius  calls  him 
"a  very  learned  man.  and  a  strenuous  assertcr  of 
the  truth."  He  vigorously  opposed  Origen.  Of 
his  numerous  works,  which  are  mostly  dialogues, 
several  exist  complete  either  in  Greek  or  Syriac, 
the  must  important  being  the  l}<in(/urt,  a  Chris- 
tian cciuiitcrpart  to  Plato's  iSymiiosiinn.  II  is  in 
Migne.  I'alrol.  dneca.  xviii..  and  has  been  edited 
by  Honwetsch  (Leipzig,  1801)  ;  there  is  an  Eng- 
lish    translation     in    the    Ante-Nicene    Fathers 

(V..I.   vi.). 

METHODIUS.  The  apostle  to  the  Slavs.  See 
CyRH,  AXLl  !METiiooirs. 

METHOD   OF   CHARACTERISTICS.      See 

ClIARAtTERlSTIC. 

METHOD  OF  DIFFERENCE  (in  logic). 
See  IxiircTiox. 

METHUEN,  me-thu'en.  .\  town  in  Essex 
Co\mty.  ^lass..  two  miles  north  of  Lawrence,  on 
the  Spicket  River,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
Railroad  (Map:  Massachusetts.  E  2).  It  has  the 
Kevins  Memorial  Library;  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  knit  goods, 
worsted  goods,  yarns,  baskets,  bells,  organs,  and 
hats.  The  government  is  administered  by  town 
meetings.    First  settled  about  1641,  Methuen  was 


part  of  Haverhill  until  1725,  when  it  was  in- 
corporated as  a  separate  town.  Population,  iu 
1890,  4814;  in  1900,  7512. 

METHUEN,  me-tfm',  Paul  Sanfobd  Me- 
thuen, Baron  ( 1S4.5 — ) .  An  English  general,  born 
at  Corsham  Court,  Wiltshire,  and  educated  at 
Eton.  He  entered  the  army  in  1804  as  lieutenant 
of  the  Scots  Guards;  served  in  the  second  cam- 
paign of  the  Ashanti  War  in  1874,  and  after  tour 
years  as  attache  in  Berlin  bi^came  assistant  quar- 
termaster-general for  the  Home  District  in  1881. 
In  the  Egyptian  War  (1882)  he  was  staff  otlicer 
and  quartermaster-general,  and  in  Bcchuanaland 
in  1884-85  he  won  a  C.M.G.  From  1892  to  1897 
he  was  commander  of  the  Home  District,  and 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Boer  War  was  |nit  at  the 
head  of  the  first  of  Buller's  three  divisions,  to 
relieve  Kimberley.  He  was  entirely  unsuccess- 
ful in  this  attempt,  being  severely  cheeked  and 
wounded  at  Modder  River,  anil,  a  week  after, 
November  30,  1899,  losing  in  a  frontal  attack  on 
Magersfontein  nearly  1000  men.  He  retired  to 
Modder  River,  and  did  nothing  further  to  hinder 
Cronje's  works.  Methuen,  together  with  Hunter, 
formed  the  left  in  Lord  Roberts's  victorious 
movement  on  Pretoria  in  May  and  .Tunc.  1900.  In 
March,  1902,  lie  was  captured  by  1)  ■  I-  Rey  and 
Kemp  on  the  way  from  Vryburg  to  l>ichtenburg. 
The  troops  were  almost  inunediatcly  released, 
and  with  them  Lord  ^Methuen,  who  had  been 
wounded  in  the  brief  engagement. 

METHUEN  TREATY.  A  treaty  concluded 
May  10,  1703,  between  England  and  Portugal. 
Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  the  Span- 
ish Succession  Portugal  agreed  to  support  Eng- 
land against  France,  and  hence  a  formal  treaty 
was  negotiated  by  Sir  Paul  Methneii,  the  English 
Ambassador  at  Lisbon.  Politically  this  treaty 
had  the  effect  of  making  Portugal  the  devoted 
political  adherent  of  England  for  more  than  a 
century.  In  its  commercial  aspects  the  treaty 
is  almost  still  more  interesting.  The  wines  of 
Portugal  were  to  be  admitted  into  England  u])on 
tlie  payment  of  a  duty  33V2  per  cent,  less  than 
tlie  duty  paid  upon  French  wines.  For  this 
England  received  proportionate  advantages.  The 
result  was  that  for  generations  the  English  gen- 
try were  addicted  to  the  drinking  of  port,  the 
Portuguese  wine. 

METHU'SELAH.  According  to  Gen.  v.  21- 
27.  son  of  Enoch  and  one  of  the  descendants  of 
Seth,  who  attained  to  the  age  of  969  years  and 
hence  has  become  known  as  the  'oldest  man  who 
ever  lived.'  The  list  of  ten  antediluvian  jiatri- 
archs  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Genesis  is  thought 
by  modern  scholars  to  have  some  relationship  to 
the  legendary  list  of  ten  dynasties  who  ruled 
Babylonia  before  the  flood  and  which  Bcrosus 
embodied  in  his  Babyhinian  history.  The  name 
Methuselah  is  composed  of  two  elements.  Melhu 
(=  Babylonian  mutu).  'man.'  and  Shi-lah,  prob- 
ably the  name  of  a  deity:  though  in  regard  to  all 
the  names  in  Gen.  v.,  we  cannot  be  certain  that 
the  traditional  forms  liave  been  correctly  pre- 
ser\-ed.  Consult  Zimmern.  Keilinsehriften  und 
das  alte  Testament,  pp.  535-543    (Berlin.  1902). 

METHY.     The  burbot   (q.v.). 

METHYL  (from  Gk.  fiidv,  methy.  mead  + 
6X77,  hyle,  wood),  CH,.  The  simplest  monovalent 
radicle  found  in  carbon  compounds.  Like  any 
other  radicle,  it  is  a  group  of  atoms  that  can- 
not exist  independently,  and  that  remains  unde- 


METHYL. 


390 


METONIC  CYCLE. 


composed  during  many  chemical  transformations 
of  till!  substaiues  whose  molecules  contain  it. 
See  Carbon  CoMPorND:  Cuemistby  (historical 
sect  ion ) . 

METHYL  ALCOHOL,  W'oou  Alcohol,  or 
Pykoxylic  Spirit,  C'lljOH.  A  colorless  liquid 
having  a  peculiar  aromatic  odor.  It  boils  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  ordinary  alcohol,  and, 
like  the  latter,  mixes  with  water  in  all  propor- 
tions. It  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
varnishes  and  for  the  preparation  of  'methylated 
spirit'  (q.v.).  diethyl  alcoliol  is  one  of  the 
products  obtained  when  wood  is  heateil  in  retorts, 
out  of  contact  wuth  the  air.  It  is  contained  in 
the  aqueous  portion  of  the  distillate,  mixed  with 
pyroligneous  (crude  acetic)  acid,  ammonia, 
acetone,  etc.  To  separate  the  acid,  the  mixture  is 
neutralized  with  slaked  lime  and  distilled,  the 
acid  then  remaining  fixed  as  calcium  acetate. 
Ammonia  may  be  eliminated  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, by  adding  sulphuric  acid  and  distilling. 
Further,  to  separate  tlie  alcoliol  from  acetone 
(which  is  especially  objectionable  if  the  alcohol 
is  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  dyes), 
oxalic  acid  may  be  added  to  the  mixture  and  a 
gentle  heat  applied.  Methyl  alcohol  acts  like 
a  weak  base;  when  brought  in  contact  with  oxalic 
acid  it  forms  the  crystalline  solid  substance 
called  methyl  oxalate,  while  acetone  does  not 
react  with  oxalic  acid,  and  renuiins  in  solution. 
After  separating  the  .solid  methyl  oxalate  from 
the  remaining  liquid,  methyl  alcohol  may  be  re- 
obtained  from  it  by  dissolving  it  in  potash  and 
distilling.  Finally,  the  alcohol  may  be  freed 
from  water  and  any  remaining  impurity  by  recti- 
fying it  over  quicklime.  An  excellent  way  to 
obtain  pure  methyl  alcohol  from  commercial 
W(H)d  spirit  is  to  add  to  the  latter  about  one- 
tenth  of  its  weight  of  iodine  and  just  enough 
caustic  soda  to  decolorize  the  solution,  to  distill 
off  the  liquid,  and  dehydrate  the  distillate  by 
means  of  quicklime.  All  the  onlinary  ini|Mnities 
of  wood  spirit,  including  etliyl  alcoliol.  acetone. 
aldehyde,  etc..  are  thus  converted,  by  the  iodine 
and  caustic  soda,  into  iodoform,  which  remains 
behind  when  the  mixture  is  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion. To  eliminate  the  odor  of  iodoform  in  the 
distillate,  a  little  silver  nitrate  may  be  added. 
and   the  solution   redistilled. 

METHTTLATED    SPIRIT.      A    mixture    of 

about  '."I  per  eeiil.  iif  unliriary  alcohol  and  about 
10  per  pent,  of  methyl  (wood)  alcohol.  .\  small 
amount  of  parallln  oil  is  also  added,  wliich  ren- 
ders the  mixture  unfit  for  drinking,  while  it 
scarcely  interferes  with  its  propertie-  as  a  sol- 
vent. Methylated  spirit  is  cheaper  than  ordinary 
alcohol,  and  can  he  used,  for  most  purposes,  in 
place   of   it. 

METHTTLENE  BLUE.  An  aniline  dye.  oc- 
curring in  the  foriii  of  a  bluish,  finely  crystalline 
powder  with  a  hronzelike  lustre.  It  is  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  and  much  more  freely  upon 
thQ  addition  of  alcohol.  It  is  largely  used  ns  a 
stain  for  pathological  and  normal  tissues  and  for 
specimens  of  blood.  An  attempt  has  been  made 
to  determine  tlie  comlition  of  the  kiilneys  by 
noting  the  time  which  elapses  ln'tween  tlie  nd- 
ministrntion  of  methylene  blue  and  its  appear- 
ance in  the  urine.  Aside  from  the  variability 
of  the  rr><ults  obtained  with  both  healthy  and 
diseased  kidnevs.  it  cannot  be  axsumi*  that  per- 
meability of  those  organs  for  this  drug  bears  a 


definite  relation  to  that  for  the  normal  urinary 
constituents.  It  has,  however,  proved  of  some 
value  in  the  treatment  of  gonorrhica,  and  claims 
are  made  for  it  as  a  substitute  for  quinine  in 
malaria. 

METHYLENE  (from  methyl)  BICHLO- 
RIDE, ur  Ui-CuLORO-.MeTIIAXE,  CUX'L.  A  ehelll- 
ical  com])ound  of  carbon,  liydrogen,  and  chlorine. 
It  can  be  obtained  by  the  direct  action  of  chlorine 
gas  on  methane  (marsh-gas),  or  by  the  action  of 
nascent  hydrogen  on  chloroform.  It  is  a  color- 
less lieav}'  liquid,  liaving  a  chloroform-like  odor. 
It  is  a  powerful  ana'sthetic,  and  has  been  used  as 
a  substitute  for  chloroform.  Its  effect  on  the 
organism  is  more  even  than  that  of  similar 
anaisthetics. 

METIS.  The  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys 
and  wife  of  Zeus,  who  devoured  her  in  the  fear 
that  the  son  whom  she  should  bear  would  be 
more  powerful  than  Iiimself. 

METITTS,  ma'te-ns.  Adriaan  (1.571-1035).  A 
Dutch  geometer.  born  at  Alkmaar.  He 
studied  law  and  medicine,  but  later  de- 
voted his  attention  to  astronomy,  and  from 
lo98  until  his  death  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  University  of  Franeker.  His 
mathematical  works  include:  Doctrinm  Spheric(e 
Libri  (1598);  Universw  Astronomi(e  Institutio 
(1605;  2d  ed.  1630);  Praxis  Nova  Oeonutrica 
(1623)  ;  Froblemata  Astronomica  (1625)  ;  Calm- 
darlum  Ferpetuiim  (1627):  Opera  Astronomica 
(1633)  :  Aritlimctim'  Libri  2.  ct  lleomftriir  lAbri 
6" .  .  .  Trigonometria'  I'hinoriim  Metiiodus(  1626)  ; 
De  Oenvino  Utriusqiie  (llobi  Travtiitus  (  1624)  ; 
Prim  urn  Mobile  Astronomice,  etc.  (1631:  2d  ed. 
1632-33). 

METLAKAHTLA,  mct'la-kii'tla  (properly 
ildtUikhntUi) .  A  prosperous  mission  settlement 
of  .(.'himesyan  or  Tsimshian  Indians,  on  an 
island  near  the  extreme  southern  end  of  Alaska. 
The  original  settlement  was  some  seventy  miles, 
farther  south,  below  Port  Simpson,  on  the  main- 
land of  British  Columbia.  Here  the  Episcopal 
missionary  William  Duncan  in  1S62  established 
a  mission,  which  within  a  few  months  was 
joined  by  the  whole  body  of  Indians  residing 
near  Port  Simpson,  and  prosjiered  so  rapidly  that 
in  1880  it  had  devclojied  into  a  town  of  1500 
civilized  Indians,  with  two-story  houses,  regtilar 
streets,  a  salmon  cannery,  a  sash  and  door  fac- 
tory, a  sa\^^nill,  a  brickyard,  and  one  oi  the 
largest  churches  in  British  Columbia.  An  ex- 
tensive shawl- weaving  industry  was  also  carried 
on.  X'nfortunately  the  British  Government  un- 
dertook to  place  the  Indians  of  the  town  under 
the  charge  of  an  agent  and  reduce  them  to  a 
reservation  status,  with  the  result  that  almost 
the  entire  settlement,  led  by  Duncan,  abandoned 
the  place  and  established  themselves  at  the  pres- 
ent location  in  United  States  territory,  whew 
they  continue  to  maintain  their  advanced  civili- 
zation. The  original  settlement,  now  called  I'M 
Metlakahtla.  is  almost  in  ruins,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  perhaps  inn  snuls  still  remaining. 

METONIC  CYCLE  (so  called  from  its  in- 
ventor. Meton.  who  flourished  at  ,\thens  about 
n.r.  432).  A  cycle  of  nineteen  years  of  2.35 
lunar  months,  or  6040  days,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  new  moon  falls  on  the  same  day  of 
the  year  ns  it  did  at  the  beginning  of  the 
cycle,  and  eclip.ses  recur  in  nearly  the  same 
order.     This  arises  from   the  circumstance  that 


METONIC  CYCLE. 


391 


METRE. 


19  solar  years  are  nearly  ocjual  to  235  lunations. 
their  average  values  being  (J!i;ilt.li8835  and 
6939.li0249  days  respectively.  As  the  Greek 
States  reckoned  by  lunar  months,  and  on  this 
reckoning  depended  the  recurrence  of  many  re- 
ligious festivals,  while  on  the  other  hand  certain 
other  rites  were  connecteil  with  the  recurrence  of 
the  seasons,  there  was  a  constant  effort  to  bring 
the  solar  year  (365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  46 
seconds)  into  accord  with  the  period  of  twelve 
lunar  months  (354  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes, 
33. U  seconds) .  Before  Meton  the  favorite  cycle  was 
the  Oetaeteris  (or,  as  it  was  sometimes  called, 
Enneateris) ,  of  eight  years  with  three  intercalary 
months  of  30  days.  The  inaccuracy  thus  arising 
was  removed  by  Jleton,  who  in  the  period  of  19 
vears  inserted  7  intercalary  months,  of  which  5 
had  30  and  2  had  29  davs.  Tliev  were  inserted 
in  the  3d.  Gth,  8th,  11th.  14th.  "l7th.  and  19th 
years.  The  slight  inaccuracy  that  remained 
was  reduced  by  C'allippus  about  a  century  later, 
by  combining  four  Metonic  periods  into  a  'great 
year'  of  76  calendar  years,  and  omitting  one  day 
in  the  intercalation,  obtaining  27,759  days.  The 
details  of  Meton's  cycle  are  not  very  clear,  and 
there  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  among 
scholars  in  regard  to  them.  I'nger  i)laces  the 
beginning  of  Meton's  cycle  on  .July  16th.  B.C.  432; 
Oppert  on  July  28th,  B.C.  433.  It  is  agreed  that 
the  I'allippie  cycle  began  .June  29th,  B.C.  330. 
The  Attic  calendar,  as  laid  down  by  Unger,  is  as 
follows: 


rciirlii   rlr   VAcafli'mif-  dcs  Iitscriplioiis   cl   BcUrs- 
Lclhfs    I  Paris.    1898). 

METON'YMY  (Gk.  fieron'iila,  iiieloiiumia, 
change  of  name).  A  figure  of  rhetoric  by  which 
one  thing  is  put  for  anotlier  to  which  it  bears  an 
important  relation,  as  a  |)art  for  the  whole,  the 
effect  for  the  cause,  the  abstract  for  the  concrete, 
etc.  For  example.  "Lying  lips  are  an  abomina- 
tion  to   the   Jjord." 

METOPE,  met'6-pe  (Lat.  mctopu,  from  Gk. 
ficroTTTi,  iiictoi)!',  space  between  beam-ends,  from 
/i£rd,  meta,  between  +  ojr//,  ope,  aperture).  The 
space  between  the  triglyphs  in  the  frieze  of  the 
Doric  order.  As  this  space  in  the  developed 
Greek  architecture  is  always  filled,  the  name  is 
generally  applied  to  the  thin  slab  thus  used.  This 
was  often  decorated  with  sculpture  in  high  relief, 
or  with  painting.  Even  where  sculpture  was 
used,  the  background  and  the  relief  seem  to  have 
been  painted  in  contrasting  colors. 

METRE.  In  music,  the  division  of  a  compo- 
sition into  parts  whose  rhythm  is  similar  and 
whose  time  is  equal.  The  smallest  element  in 
metre  is  the  measure  (q.v. )  ;  a  section  comprises 
two  measures,  and  two  sections  make  a  phrase. 
The  largest  division  is  the  period,  which  consists 
of  two  phrases.  Theoretically  metre  differs  from 
rhythm  in  that  the  latter  deals  with  accents  and 
with  actual  and  typical  patterns  which  metre 
arranges  in  groups  in  accordance  with  their  time- 
value.      But   this    definition    is    not    universally 


Tear  of  the  Cycle 


MONTHS 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

30 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
3D 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

30 

Meta^vitnioa  

30 

29 

Pyaiifpsiou  

30 

29 

30 

29 

30 

29 

30 

Thar^^flion 

29 
30 

355 

354 

3B1 

355 

354 

381 

354 

384 

354 

355 

XVI. 


XVII.  xvin. 


XIX. 


Hepatombeon 

MetaKeitnion 

BoHdromion 

I'yanepaion. 

Meiinict^Tion 

Pusptdeon 

Pow'iiipon  II.  (in  leap  yeare).. 

Ganiflinn 

Aiith('st4?rion 

Elaiilifbolion 

Muiiycliion 

Tharjjplion 

Sclrophorion 


29 
80 
29 
30 
29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 


29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 


30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 


30 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 


30 
29 
30 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 


29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
30 
29 
30 


,S0 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
.30 
29 


30 
29 
SO 
29 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 

30 
29 


Number  of  days  in  a  year.. 


354 


384 


355 


354 


384 


354 


30 
29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 


384 


Consult:  Ideler,  Handhnch  der  Chronologie 
(Berlin,  1825-26)  :  Boeckh.  Zxir  Geschiehte  der 
lUotidci/cleit  der  Hellenen  (Leipzig.  1855):  and 
Veher  die  vierjahrigen  f^onnenkreise  der  Alien 
(Berlin,  1863)  ;  A.  Jlommsen.  Chronologie 
(Leipzig.  1883);  A.  Schmidt,  Handhnch  der 
griechischeii  Chronologie  (ib.,  1888)  ;  Unger, 
"Zeitrccluunig  der  Griechen  und  Riimer,"  in  Mill- 
ler'g  Bandhnch  der  klassischen  AltcrtnmsaHssen- 
schaft,  vol.  i.  (ilunicli,  1892)  ;  Oppert,  in  Compte 


accepted,  and  exactly  opposite  significations  are 
often  given  to  the  two  terms. 

METRE.  A  designation  applied  without  great 
precision  to  measured  or  rhythmic  language 
called  verse;  also  the  rhythmical  measure  of 
verse.  In  those  languages  whose  versification  de- 
pends not  only  on  the  number  of  feet  in  a  line, 
but  also  on  the  length  of  the  syllable  or  syllables 
in  each. foot,  metre  designates  both  the  charac- 
ter of  the  line  as  a  whole  and  that  of  the  feet 


METBE. 


392 


METRIC  SYSTEM. 


composing  the  line.  This  is  true,  for  example,  of 
Latin  and  of  Greek.  In  such  languages  as  do  not 
depend  on  tlie  length  of  individual  syllables  for 
tlieir  verse  systems,  metre  applies  to  the  number 
of  stresses  or  beats  in  a  line,  or  on  the  number 
of  counted  syllables.  This  is  true,  for  example, 
of  the  Germanic  and  the  Romance  languages,  al- 
though attempts  have  been  made  to  employ  long 
and  short  syllables  as  in  the  ancient  languages. 
See  \kusificatio.n. 

METRICAL  FOOT.  In  versification,  the 
designation  of  the  rhythmical  unit  in  a  verse. 
In  Circek  or  Latin  poetry  this  unit  may  be  com- 
l>osed  of  one  or  more  syUables.  all  long,  or  short 
and  long,  in  various  arrangements,  as  the  spon- 
dee, diictyl,  atiapast,  etc.  In  the  Germanic 
and  Romance  languages  the  unit  may  I'e  a 
single  stres.sed  syllable,  or  a  combination  of 
a  stressed  and  one  or  more  unstressed  sylla- 
bles. The  metrical  foot  is  marke<l  here  not  by 
quantity  of  individual  syllables,  but  simply  by 
this  thesis  or  accentuation,  which  corresponds 
with  the  regular  accentual  system  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  not  necessarily,  as  in  Greek  or  Ro- 
man poetry,  with  a  long  syllable.  See  Vebsifi- 
CATIOX. 

METRIC  SYSTEM  (from  Lat.  metrum, 
from  <.ik.  K^r/ioi',  measure,  from  /iCTfieh'^  to 
measure).  A  system  of  weights  and  measures 
invented  by  the  French  in  the  lafter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  From  earliest  times,  civil- 
ized people  ha\e  possessed  two  ideas  concern- 
ing their  standards  of  weights  and  measures: 
that  they  should  be  invariable,  and  that  their 
prototype  should  be  found  in  nature.  .-\11  na- 
tions have  zealously  guarded  their  standards. 
The  Hebrews  deposited  theirs  in  their  temples, 
the  Romans  preserved  theirs  in  the  Temple  of 
Jupiter;  .lustinian  standardized  the  weiglits  and 
measures  of  the  Empire  and  deposited  them  in 
a  church  in  Constantinople.  Dagobert  (died  in 
038)  kept  the  standards  of  the  Franks  in  the 
King's  palace,  and  modern  nations  preserve  their 
units  in  special  archives  at  their  cai)ital  cities. 

Great  diversity  in  the  kinds  of  vmits  and  in 
the  size  of  the  same  units  has  always  character- 
ized systems  of  measures.  As  early  as  1558 
Ilenrv"  II.  tried  to  correct  the  standard  units 
of  France,  and  a  Gabriel  Mouton.  vicar  of  Saint 
Paul  at  Lyons  proposed  in  IfiTO  a  system 
remarkably  similar  to  the  metric  system  of  to- 
day. But  not  until  1790  did  the  French  Gov- 
ernment undertake  the  making  of  a  new  system. 
For  this  purpose  a  committee  of  the  .\cademy 
of  Sciences  was  a])pointed  under  the  authority 
of  the  Xational  -Vssembly  and  sanctioned  by 
I^uis  Wl.  The  committee  consisted  of  Borda. 
Lagrange.  Laplace.  Monge.  and  Condorcet.  Of 
the  three  linear  bases  proposed,  the  length  of  a 
seconds  pendulum,  a  cpiarter  of  the  terrestrial 
equator,  and  a  quarter  of  a  terrestrial  meridian, 
the  committee  reported  in  favor  of  the  last,  one 
ten-millionth  of  which  should  lie  the  standard 
unit  of  linear  measure.  Delambre  and  Mechain 
were  appointed  tomeasurethe  meridional  distance 
from  Dunkirk  to  Barcehma.  the  same  tflsk  which 
Cassini  had  undertaken  in  IfiTi!!.  This  task,  difli- 
eult  in  itself,  was  made  the  niori'  so  by  the  politi- 
cal revolutions  of  the  times,  and  required  seven 
years  for  its  completion.  The  finally  computed 
length  of  the  terrestrial  quadrant  was  in  part 
verified  by  a   comparison   with  a  similar  result 


found  by  Bougucr  and  La  Condamine  in  Peru 
(1736).  The  length,  expressed  in  English  meas- 
ure, is  32,808,St92  feet.  Sir  John  Hersehel  has 
since  estimated  the  quadrant  to  be  32.813,000 
feet,  which  makes  the  meter  1-208  of  an  inch 
shorter  than  one  ten-millionth  of  a  meridional 
quadrant.  In  1793  a  temporary  commission  of 
twelve  was  appointed,  with  Borda  as  president, 
to  make  a  comparison  of  all  the  units  then  used 
in  France,  and  to  determine  the  kinds  and  com- 
position of  the  metals  to  be  used  in  constructing 
the  new  standard  units,  their  forms  of  construc- 
tion, and  finally  the  place  and  means  of  their 
preservation.  In  1708  the  European  States  were 
invited  to  send  representatives  to  a  conference  at 
Paris,  the  object  being  to  examine  the  work  exe- 
cuted during  the  preceding  eight  years  by  the 
various  commissions.  Xine  States  resjjonded. 
Their  delegates,  together  with  the  ten  French 
commissioners,  were  divided  into  couunittees, 
which  reviewed  the  work  so  far  accomplished. 

On  June  22,  1799,  the  standard  units,  the 
meter  and  kilogram,  were  presented  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Five  Hundred,  and  deposited  in  the  archives 
at  Paris.  In  December  of  the  same  year  the 
Council  adopted  these  standards.  The  use  of  the 
new  system,  however,  was  not  made  obligatory  in 
all  departments  until  1837. 

The  hope  of  the  inventors  of  the  metric  sys- 
tem, that  it  would  become  the  imiversal  system 
of  all  civilized  nations,  seems  likely  to  be  realized, 
for.  in  one  century,  its  use  has  been  made 
obligatory  in  Germany,  Austria-Hungary.  Bel- 
gium, Brazil,  Chile.  Argentina.  Spain.  France, 
Greece,  Italy,  ilexico,  the  Netherlands,  Peru, 
Portugal.  Rumania,  Servia.  Norway  and 
Sweden,  Switzerland,  and  Venezuela ;  its  use  has 
been  legalized  in  Egy])t,  the  United  States.  Great 
Britain.  .Lipan.  Russia,  and  Turkey.  The  popula- 
tions comprised  in  these  two  lists  of  nations  are 
about  equal,  each  l)eing  nearly  300  millions. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce 
the  French  system  in  the  United  .States  or  to 
adopt  a  similar  system.  On  .Linuary  15.  1790, 
Congiess  ordered  the  Secretarv  of  State.  Thomas 
.lelTerson.  to  prepare  a  uniform  system  of  weights 
and  measures.  .lelVerson.  who  had  been  Minister 
to  France,  reported,  on  -July  14tli.  a  system 
founded  on  the  length  of  a  seconds  pendulum 
in  the  7nean  latitude  of  the  United  States 
(38°),  or  in  the  latitude  of  45°.  But  the  Eng- 
lish system  was  not  disturbed.  Again,  in  1821, 
Congress  sought  to  revise  the  system  of  weights 
and  measures,  and  .Tohn  Qnine.v  .\dams.  Secre- 
tarv of  State,  recommended  in  the  strongest 
terms  the  adoption  of  the  metric  system. 

In  ISfifi  the  law  which  made  the  metric  system 
legal  in  the  United  States  was  passed.  The  same 
legislation  directed  tliat  the  5-cent  piece  should 
weigh  five  grams  and  have  a  diameter  of  two 
centimeters;  that  the  unit  for  weighing  letters 
in  post-offices  shojild  Iw  the  gram.  B>it  these 
details  were  imperfectlv  carried  out.  The  use  of 
\mits  in  electrical  engineering,  based  on  the 
metric  system,  was  determined  bv  the  law  of 
1894.  Bills  have  been  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Representatives  several  times,  proposing  to 
make  the  metric  svstem  obligatory.  Tlic  most 
recent  bill  of  this  kind  was  that  of  1902.  Al- 
though compulsorv  legislation  ma.v  not  be  imme- 
diate, the  adoption  of  the  metric  system  is  eon- 
stantlv  extending,  as  shown  by  its  use  in  weigh- 
ing   foreign    mail    matter,    in    weighing    at   the 


METRIC   SYSTEM. 


393 


METRIC   SYSTEM. 


mints,  in  oertain  Oovfiniiiont.  ])ul)lifations,  in 
tlif  Pliarmacopceia  and  the  Dispensatory,  in  cer- 
tain measurements  of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 
vey, and  in  much  of  the  work  of  the  arts  and 
sciences. 

The  basal  units  of  the  metric  system  are:  for 
length  the  meter,  for  small  surfaces  the  square 
meter,  for  area  of  land  the  square  dekameter  (or 
are),  for  volume  the  cubic  meter,  for  capacity 
the  liter,  for  weight  the  gram,  and  ioy  the 
monetary  system  the  franc.  The  scale  selected 
for  the  multiples  and  subdivisions  of  the  various 
units  is  10.  The  prefixes  used  to  designate  the 
nuiltiples  of  the  measuring  unit  are  deka  (10), 
hekto  (100),  kilo  (1000).  and  myria  (10.000), 
all  from  the  Greek,  and  those  used  to  designate 
■iuhdivisions  are  deci  (0.1),  ocnti  (0.01),  and 
niilli  (0.001),  from  the  Latin. 

Tlie  ratio  between  the  successive  denomination.? 
in  the  system  of  linear  measure,  of  weight,  of 
capacity,'  and  of  money  is  10,  the  ratio  between 
the  successive  denominations  of  surface  measure 
is  100.  and  that  of  cubic  measure  is  1000.  The 
unit  of  capacity,  the  liter,  is  equal  to  a  cubic 
decimeter,  and  approximately  so  to  the  volume 
of  a  kilogram  of  water  at  the  maximum  density. 
Its  equivalent  Is  1.05671  liquid  quarts  (U.  S. 
standard),  or  .88030  liquid  quart  (British). 
The  unit  of  weight,  the  gram,  is  the  mass  weight 
of  one  cubic  centimeter  of  water,  standard  pure, 
at  the  maximum  density.  Its  equivalent  in  the 
English  system  is  1.5. 4.32 -f  troy  grains. 

The  abbreviations  of  the  following  tables  are 
those  adojjted  by  the  International  Commission 
of  Weights  and  Measures: 

Table  of  Lixeab  Measure 

A  mTriameter         =  10.000  meters 
A  kilometer  (km.)  =    l.OOU      ■• 


A  hektoaieter         = 

100      " 

A  dekameter          = 

10      " 

Meter  (m.) 

A  decimeter  (dm.)  = 

0.1  of  a  meter 

A  centimeter(cm.)  = 

0.01 

-A  mi]liraeter{mm.)= 

0.001       " 

A  mikron  (^j          = 

0.000001  ■• 

=  10'-  cubic  meters 

=  1U» 

=  1,000.000    •• 

=         1,000    ■■ 


A  cubic  in.vriamet.er 
"       kilometer 
"      hektomet^r 
"       dekameter 
Cubic  meter  (m.^) 

A  cubic  decimeter  (dra.^'i    =  0.001  <)f  a  cubic  met«r 
centimeter  (cm.^)  =  O.OOOOOl 
millimeter  (mm.')  =  0.000000001 

A  cubic  meter  is  also  called  a  sterc,  a  unit  used 
in  measuring  wood. 

Table  of  Weigbts 

A  metric  ton  (t.)  =  l.OOO.OOO  grams 

A  quintal  (q.)        =      llXJ.OflO 

A  mvriaiiram        =       10.000 

A  kilORram  (kg.)  =        1.0(X) 

A  hektogram        =  l(»i      " 

A  dekagram  =  10      •• 

Gram  (k.') 

A  deci^^ram  (dg.)  =  0.1   of  a  gram 

A  ceutigram  (CK.)  =  0.01 

A  milliKram(mg.)=0.001 

A  mikrogram  (7)  =  0.000001    ■■ 


Table  of  Capacitv 

A  hektnliter  (111.)  =  100  liters 

-A  dekaliter  (dal.)=^    10     •• 

Liter  (1.) 

.%.  deciliter  (dl.)     =0.1    of  a  liter 

A  centiliter  (cl.)    =  0.01  " 

A  milliliter  (ml.)  =0.001 

A  mikrolit«r  (/,)  =  O.ouOOOl     " 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Approximate  Equivalents 


A  meter 
A  kilometer 
A  liter 
A  kilogram 
A  gram 
A  hectare 


=  39.37  indies  =  SVi  feet 
=  g  of  a  mile 
=  1  quart 
=  2J  lbs.  avoir. 
=  15^/2  grains 
=  2Vi  acres 


A  square  meter  =  10  square  feet 
More  Nearly  Accurate  Equivalents 

LENGTH 


Millimeter.. 
Centimeter. 
Decimeter... 

Met#r 

Kilometer.. 


Inches 


0.03937 

0.;J9371 

3.9;J708 

39.37079 

39370.79000 


Feet 


0.0O3 
0.032 
0.32,s 
3.280 
3280.899 


Yards 


0.001 
0.010 
0.109 
1.093 
1093.633 


Path's 


0.000 
0.005 
0.051 
0.646 
546.816 


Miles 


0.000 
0.000 
0.000 
0.000 
0.621 


CAPACITY 


Milliliter... 
Centiliter.. 
Deciliter.... 

Liter 

Hektoliter 


Cubic  in.      Cubic  ft.   Dry  pints  Gallons  Bsbls 


0.00103 

0.61027 

6.10271 

61.02705 

6102.70515 


0.000 
0.000 
0.003 
0.035 
3.631 


0.0018 
0.0182 
0.1816 
1.8162 
181.6211 


0.000 
0.002 
0.022 
0.227 
22.703 


0.000 
O.OOO 
0.003 
0.028 
2,838 


Table  of  Square  Measure 

A  square  mvriameter  =  100,(HMi.ooosquare  meters 

kilometer  (km.2)  =      1.0<.i0.000 
hektometer  orhektare=  10.000 

dekameter  or  are  =  100 

Sqdbre  meter  {iii.^) 

A  square  decimeter  (dm. 2)  =  0.01  of  a  square  meter 

centimeter  (cm.«)  =  0.0001 

millimeter  (mm.=)  =0.000001 

Table  of  Cubic  Measure 


weight 

Grains 

Troy  oz. 

Avoir,  lb. 

15.4;«35 
16432.34880 

0.032 
32.150 

0.002 

2.204 

SQUARE    MEASURE 

Square  feet      Sq.  yards , 

Acres 

10.764299 

1076.429934 

107642.993419 

1.196 

119.603 

11960.332 

0.000 

Are                

0.025 

2.471 

Table  for  Reducing  from  One  System  to  the  Othee 

(The  figures  in  heavier  tjpe  represent  either  of  the  two 
columns  beside  them,  as  the  case  may  be,  viz.  with 
hektares  and  acres  in  the  first  setof  oolumns,  1  acre=*o.405 
hektare,  and  vice  versa  1  hektare=  2.471  acres,  and  so  on.) 


Yard 


0.914 

1 

1.829 

2 

2.743 

3 

3.658 

4. 

4.572 

5 

5.486 

6 

6.401 

7 

7.315 

8 

S.229 

9 

9.144 

10 

18.288 

20 

27.4:)2 

SO 

36.676 

4.0 

45.719 

SO 

64.863 

60 

64.007 

70 

73.161 

SO 

82.295 

90 

91.438 

lOO 

1.093 

2.188 

3.281 

4.374 

6.468 

6.562 

7.655 

8.749 

9.843 

10.9:^6 

21.873 

32.809 

43.745 

64.682 

66.618 

76.5.54 

87.491 

98.427 

IO'J.363 


Kilogr.    Lb.  avoir. 


,ii'l 


0.464 

1 

0.907 

2 

1  361 

3 

1.814 

4. 

2.268 

5 

2.722 

6 

3.175 

7 

3.629 

8 

4.0S2 

9 

4.5:J6 

lO 

9.072 

20 

13.608 

30 

18.144 

4.0 

22.679 

SO 

27.215 

SO 

:il.7.i2 

70 

36.2SS 

80 

40.823 

90 

45.:«9 

lOO 

2.20 
4.41 
6.61 

8.S2] 

11.02 

13.23' 

15.43 

17.64' 

19.84' 

22.05 

41 .  09 

(-.6.14 

88.1K  !176 
110.23,1220 
l:i2.28  1 264 
1.14.32, ,.308, 
176.37!  3.52 
19«.42!J306, 
220.461:440 


Liter         Gallons 


40 

1 

81 

2 

21 

3 

62 

4. 

02 

5 

43 

6 

83 

7 

24 

8 

64 

9 

05 

lO 

10 

20 

14 

30 

19 

4.0 

24 

SO 

29 

60 

33 

70 

38 

SO 

43 

90 

48 

lOO 

0.23 

0.4S 

0.08 

0.91 

1.14 

1.36 

1..59 

1.82 

2.04 

2  27 

4!54 

6.81 

9.08 

11.35 

13.62 

15.89 

18.16 

20.43 

22.70 


METRIC  SYSTEM. 


394 


METRIC  SYSTEM. 


Hektare 

Acre 

Kilo- 

EnpT. 

1           .Square 
Kilo-             Enir. 

meter 

miles 

meter 

miles 

0.405 

1 

2.471 

1.609 

1 

0.621 

2.592 

1 

0.386 

0.809 

3 

4.942 

3.219 

2 

1.243 

5.184 

2 

0.772 

1.2U 

3 

7.413 

4.828 

3 

1.864 

;     7.776 

3 

1.158 

1.619 

4. 

9.8S5 

6.438 

4. 

2.486 

10.368 

4, 

1.644 

2.023 

5 

12.356 

8.1M7 

5 

3.107;     12.960 

e 

1.930 

2.428 

6 

14.227 

9.656 

e 

3.728||  15. .532 

6 

2.316 

2.833 

T 

17.898 

11.265 

7 

4.350     18.144 

7 

2.702 

S.237 

8 

19.769 

12.879 

8 

4.9Tl!i  20.736 

8 

3.088 

3.M'2 

9 

22.240 

14.484 

9 

5.592  '  23.328 

9 

3.474 

4.1W7 

lO 

24.711 

16.093 

lO 

6.214  1  25.920 

10 

3.860 

B.lWi 

30 

49.423 

32.1S6 

20 

12.428     61.840 

20 

7.720 

12.140 

30 

74.1:)4 

48.279 

30 

IS. (HI      77.760 

SO 

11.580 

1G.1K7 

4.0 

a«.K46 

64.373 

■to 

24.855    10:1. BSO 

4.0 

15.440 

20.1>34 

SO 

123.557 

80.466 

SO 

31.(I69    129.60(J 

SO 

19.300 

24.2.S6 

60 

148.26,S 

96.659 

60 

37.283    l.'i5.520 

60 

23.160 

28. 327 

70 

172.980    112.0.W 

70 

43.497    1HU440 

70 

27.020 

32.373 

SO 

197.692    lis. 746 

SO 

49.710   207.3(ai 

SO 

30.8NO 

36.421) 

90 

222.903   144.839 

90 

.55.924   233.280 

90 

34.740 

40.467 

ICO 

247.114   160.932 

lOO 

62.138  259.200 

100 

38.601 

Tlic  advantages  of  the  metric  system  over  the 
English-.Vmerican  sj-stem  are  numerous.  Al- 
though, in  both  sy.sfems,  tlie  .standard  units  of 
volume,  capacity,  and  weight  are  directly  con- 
nected with  the  standard  unit  of  measure,  the 
relation  in  tlic  l<"ren<  h  system  is  far  more  simple. 
Thus,  in  the  English  system  one  quart  has  a 
volume  of  57 %  cubic  inches,  while  in  the  French 
system  one  liter  has  the  volume  of  one  cubic 
decimeter;  in  the  English  system  the  pound  has 
the  weight  of  about  0.0150  of  a  cubic  foot  of 
standardized  water,  while  in  the  French  system 
one  gram  has  the  weight  of  one  cubic  centimeter. 
Although  the  names  used  in  the  metric  system 
are  generally  longer  than  the  names  used  in  the 
English-.Vmerican  system,  the  nomenclature  of 
the  former  has  several  advantages.  Thus,  tbe 
prefixes  deci,  centi,  niilli,  deka,  liekto.  kilo  have 
in  i)oint  of  derivation  a  numerical  significance 
and  have  other  applications  in  the  language. 
while  the  names  inch,  foot,  yard,  rod,  and  mile 
are  devoid  of  numerical  significance  and  are  dis- 
tinctive in  their  u.se.  But  the  greatest  advantage 
of  all  results  from  the  use  of  a  uniform  scale 
of  relation.  In  the  English-.\merican  system 
seldom  do  more  than  two  units  in  succession 
have  the  same  scale.  Thus,  in  tlie  metric  system, 
10  centimeters  =  1  decimeter.  10  decimeters  =  1 
meter,  .  .  .  ,  the  ratio  being  always  10;  while 
in  the  English  system.  12  inches  =  1  foot,  3 
feet  =  1  yard,  5i/>  yards  =  1  rod,  .  .  . ,  the 
ratio  changing  between  every  i>air  of  units.  The 
French  Commission  of  17110  reported  in  favor  of 
the  decimal  scale  for  reasons  of  expediency, 
althniigh  admitting  that  the  uniform  scale  of 
12  possessed  many  advantages. 

The  metric  system  was  once  thought  to  be 
su[HTior  to  all  other  systems  of  weights  and 
measures  in  being  founded  on  an  invariable 
magnitude,  one  ten-millionth  of  ,a  terrestrial 
quadrant.  But  science  has  dispelled  this  illusion 
by  showing  that  this  magmilude  is  not  a  constant 
nnd  that  the  distance  originally  taken  as  the 
basis  of  the  meter  was  inaifurately  measured. 

In  1840  the  French  Government  comelved  the 
idea  of  exchanging  sets  of  the  metric  units  for 
sets  of  the  units  of  other  nations  in  order  to 
promote  an  international  interest  in  the  metric 
system.  Tlie  international  expositions  at  Lon- 
don (1851)  and  at  Paris  (1855)  were,  on  account 
of  the  immense  variety  and  confusion  of  metrical 
imits.  the  first  practical  demonstrations  of  the 
need  of  a  tiniversal  decimal  system  of  weight.s 
and  measures.     At  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867 


a  committee,  representing  several  dilTorent  na- 
tions, was  appointed  to  consider  the  question  of 
uniformity,  and  was  called  the  Committee  of 
Weights,  -Measures,  and  Jloneys.  Slalhieu  was 
the  president  of  this  commission.  The  com- 
mittee recommended  instruction  in  the  metric 
system  in  the  public  schools  and  its  use  in  Gov- 
ernmental departments  and  in  scientific  publica- 
tions. The  Ceodetic  Association,  which  met  at 
Berlin  about  this  time,  was  also  repnsrnlative 
of  several  nations,  and  likewise  favored  the  gen- 
eral adoption  of  the  metric  system.  In  the  year 
1809  a  committee  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Paris  and  one  of  the  Saint  Petersburg  .-Vcadeniy 
recommended  the  convocation  of  an  international 
commission,  which  should  consider  the  means  of 
providing  all  nations  with  sets  of  standard  metric 
units.  Such  a  commission  was  invited  liy  the 
French  Government,  and  as,sembled  at  Paiis  in 
1870.  Twenty- four  countries  responded  by  send- 
ing delegates.  Joseph  Henry  and  .Julius  E.  Hil- 
gard  representing  the  United  States.  This  body 
was  divided  into  committees,  the  most  permanent 
one  being  the  French  swtion,  for  the  purpose  of 
devising  means  for  copying  the  standards  pr. 
served  in  tlie  archives.  Some  of  the  question> 
which  concerned  the  committee  were  the  com- 
position of  the  metal  to  be  used  in  constructing 
the  new  unit  of  length,  the  most  desirabU-  form 
of  cross-section,  ways  of  expressing  the  h'ngth, 
as  the  distiince  between  the  ends,  or  between  two 
fine  lines  made  on  the  bar,  means  of  comparing 
the  new  unit  witli  the  standard  of  the  -Vrchivca, 
means  for  determining  its  variation  due  to 
changes  in  temperature,  and  other  consideration.s. 
The  French  section  met  in  1872  and  |)ropose(l 
that  an  international  bureau  of  weights  and 
measures  be  located  at  Paris,  the  original  con- 
ception of  the  International  Bureau  being  later 
decided  upon  at  the  diplomatic  conference  of 
1875.  At  the  second  meeting  of  the  Inter- 
national Commission  in  1872  it  was  decided 
to  make  the  standard  meter  and  the  stand' 
ard  kilogram  of  the  .\rchivcs  the  actual 
bases  for  tlie  new  standards.  In  order  to 
give  the  work  of  the  ccmimission  the  character 
of  an  international  act.  its  members  so  far  Iwing 
simi)ly  citizens  of  their  respective  countries,  the 
French  Government  invited  plenipotentiaries  and 
delegates  from  all  of  the  nations  interested.  Rep- 
resentatives from  twenty  States  assembled  at 
Paris  (1875)  to  constitute  the  Diidomatic  Con- 
ference of  the  Meter.  E.  B.  Washburne  acted 
as  plenipotentiary  and  II.  Vignaiid  as  delegate 
for  the  Lniled  States.  The  Observatory  of  the 
International  Bureau,  decided  ujion  by  this  con- 
ference, was  comjileted  in  1878.  It  stands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  park  of  .'>aint  Cloud  on  a  reserva- 
tion presented  by  the  French  Government.  The 
management  of  the  Bureau  reposes  in  the  Inter- 
national Committee  under  the  authority  of  the 
(ieiieral  Conference.  In  the  Observatory  are  kept 
the  instruments  Used  in  the  determination  of  the 
international  standards,  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  comparators,  balances,  and  thermometers. 
The  extent  of  the  demands  upon  this  bureau  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  tliat  in  1882  twenty- 
three  countries  requested  twenty-nine  meters  and 
thirty  kilograms;  in  1880  they  requested  thirty- 
six  meters  and  thirty  kilograms.  The  mctetB 
are  highly  polished  metal  bars  made  of  an  alloy 
of  platinum  and  iridium,  ami  the  kilograms  aW 
cylinders  of  the  same  material. 


METRIC  SYSTEM. 


395 


METTEH.NICH. 


For  a  complete  history  of  tlie  metric  system, 
with  its  present  status,  its  oquivah-nts.  the  Inter- 
national Bureau  of  W'ciglits  and  ileasures,  and 
the  international  abbreviations,  consult  Bigour- 
dan,  Le  systiiile  inctrique  drs  poids  ct  mesures 
(Paris,  1901)  ;  Barnard,  Metric  tsystejii  (3d  ed., 
Boston,  1879)  ;  Fouvielle.  Le  mitre  international 
dffinitif  (Paris,  1875);  Mendenhall,  in  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  vol.  xlix.  (1896);  Potts,  Jile- 
menlari/  Arillimetic  (London,  1880);  Basset, 
School  of  Mines  Qnarterly  (November,  1901). 
See  Weights  axd  Measures. 

MET'BONOME  (from  Gk.  /itrpov,  metron, 
measure  +  i"'/;of,  nonws,  law).  A  small  ma- 
chine for  indicating  the  correct  time  or  speed  at 
which  a  musical  composition  should  be  played. 
It  was  invented  in  1816,  and  consists  of  a 
pendulum,  actuated  by  clockwork,  which  swings 
in  front  of  a  gi-aduated  scale.  To  the  upper  part 
of  the  pendulum-rod  is  attached  a  movable  weight 
which  can  be  set  at  any  figure  indicated  by  the 
scale.  The  figure  60  means  that  when  the  weight 
is  set  there  the  pendulum  swings  60  times  a 
minute.  Thus  it  beats  exact  seconds.  When  set 
at  120  it  beats  half  seconds.  The  metronome 
indication  appears  always  at  the  beginning  of  a 
composition.  M.  M.  (Jlalzel's  metronome,  from 
its  reputed  inventor,  Malzel)  J  =  80  means  that 
the  tempo  must  be  taken  so  that  80  half  notes 
fill  the  space  of  one  minute.  The  indications 
differ  with  the  tempo  and  time  of  each  composi- 
tion. A  work  written  as  allegro  in  conunon  time 
might  be  indicated:  M.  il.  J  ^^  100;  allegro  in 
iilla  breve:  jM.  M.  J  =100;  adagio  in  |j 
M.M.  J  =60;  scherzo  (Presto  %):  M.  M.J 
=  120.  By  means  of  the  metronome  the  com- 
poser is  enabled  to  give  the  minutest  directions 
in  respect  to  the  tempo,  for  the  old  terras  allegro, 
andante,  presto,  etc..  can  only  serve  as  approxi- 
mate indications,  leaving  much  to  the  tempera- 
ment of  the  individual  performer.  The  met- 
ronome is  of  the  greatest  value  and  is  much  used 
tn-day  in  training  beginners  to  play  strictly  in 
time. 

METEOP'OLIS  CITY.  A  city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Massac  County,  111.,  40  miles  east  by 
north  of  Cairo;  on  the  Oliio  River  and  on  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad  (Map:  Illinois,  D  6). 
It  is  built  on  a  high  bluff  which  slopes  grad- 
ually toward  the  river;  has  two  public  parks, 
the  R.  W.  JlcCartney  Public  Library,  a  sanato- 
rium, and  fine  Odd  Fellows'  Temple,  public  school, 
court-house,  music  hall,  and  city  hall  luiildings. 
There  are  potteries,  saw  and  planing  mills,  flour 
mills,  veneer,  box.  stave,  heading,  spoke,  and 
basket  factories,  and  large  lumber  interests.  The 
poveniment  is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicamei-al  council.  The 
city  owns  and  operates  the  water-works  and  elec- 
I  trie  light  plant.  Metropolis  City  is  built  on  the 
sit«  of  old  Fort  Massac,  which  was  settled  about 
I  1700  by  French  and  Indians,  but  was  not  per- 
:  manently  inlialiited  until  1838;  five  years  later  it 
w.Ts  incorporated.  Population,  in  1800.  3573;  in 
1900,  4009. 

]      METROPOLITAN'    (Lat.     metropolitanus, 
;  MGk.     fiTiTpoTro\lTes,    met ropolites,  from    iiryTpbno- 
:  Xtt,  nietrojioli^.  a  capital  city,  from  lirirrip,  nirter, 
!  mother  -|-    irAXit,    polis.  city).     An  ecclesiastical 
',  title,   in  modern  times   practically  equivalent   to 
archbishop   (q.v.).     It  arose  from  the  early  cus- 
tom of  giving  precedence  to  the  bishop   of  the 
Vol.  XIII.— 26. 


chief  city  or  metropolis  of  a  province.  In  some 
of  the  English  colonies  where  the  title  of  arch- 
bishop is  not  used  by  the  Anglican  Church,  that 
of  metropolitan  is  api^lied  to  the  chief  bislioj)  of 
a  province.  For  the  prerogatives  of  metropoli- 
tans in  canon  law,  consult  Owen,  Institutes  of 
Canon  Law  (London,  1884). 

METSir,  met'si.i,  or  METZU,  Oaiiriel  (1030- 
07).  A  Dutch  genre  painter,  lie  was  born  in 
Leyden  in  1030,  and  was  a  inijiil  of  (Jerard  Dou. 
In  1648  he  entered  the  Painters'  Ciuild  of  his  na- 
tive place,  and  in  1650  settled  in  Amsterdam.  He 
painted  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  burgher 
classes,  although  occasionally,  in  his  market 
scenes  and  kitchen-maids,  he  deals  with  humbler 
life.  In  refinement  of  drawing  and  grace  of  ex- 
pression he  ranks  among  the  best  of  the  Dutch 
School.  His  pictures  are  characterized  by  deli- 
cate treatment  and  picturesque  composition ;  the 
heads  are  animated  and  express  cheerfulness  and 
good  humor;  the  color  is  clear  and  harmonious. 
His  principal  works  include:  The  "Lady  at  the 
Piano"  and  the  "Amsterdam  Market,"  in  the 
Louvre ;  "Music  Lovers,"  at  The  Hague ;  the 
"Duet,"  in  the  Xational  Gallery,  London ;  the 
Music  Lesson"  (1659),  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum, New  York;  "Feast  of  the  King  of  Beans." 
in  which  there  is  a  touch  of  .Jan  Stocn's  humor,  in 
the  Pinakothek  at  Munich:  "Old  Poultry  Ped- 
dler" and  the  "Young  Poultry  Maid,"  l)oth  in 
the  Dresden  Ciallery. 

METTERNICH,  met'ter-niK,  Clemens  Wex- 
ZEL  Nepomuk  Lothar,  Prince  (1773-1859). 
An  Austrian  statesman.  He  was  born  at 
Coblenz.  May  15,  1773,  being  the  son  of 
Franz  Georg  Karl,  Count  von  Metternich,  an 
Austrian  diplomat  and  an  associate  of  Kaunitz. 
Young  Metternich  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Strassburg,  and  afterwards  studied  law 
at  Mainz  and  traveled  in  England.  In  1795  he 
married  the  granddaughter  of  Kaunitz,  by  whom 
he  acquired  large  estates.  His  diplomatic  career 
commenced  at  the  Congress  of  Rastadt  ( 1797-99), 
which  he  attended  as  representative  of  the  West- 
phalian  lordly  houses.  In  1801  he  became  Aus- 
trian Ambassador  at  Dresden,  and  two  years 
later  was  appointed  Ambassador  to  the  Prussian 
Court,  where  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  alliance 
between  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia  against 
France  in  1805.  In  1806  he  went  as  Aud)assador 
to  Paris.  In  1809  he  succeeded  Count  Stadion  as 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  concluded  tlic  Treaty 
of  Schonbrunn  with  France,  and  was  instrument- 
al in  bringing  about  the  marriage  of  the  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Louisa  to  Xapolcon.  He  guided 
the  course  of  Austria  amid  the  difliculties  of 
1812-13.  He  maintained  at  first  a  temporizing 
policj'  and  a  scheme  of  armed  mediation  by  Aus- 
tria :  but  the  arrogance  of  Xapoleon's  denuinds 
and  the  personal  humiliations  to  which  he  was 
subjected  at  his  famous  interview  with  the 
French  Emperor  in  Dresden  in  .Time.  1813,  led 
him  to  resolve  upon  the  declaration  of  war  by 
Austria  against  France,  and  he  subsequently  con- 
ducted with  great  ability  the  negotiations  which 
ended  in  the  completion  of  the  Qiiadriiple  .Alliance. 
He  was  afterwards  employed  in  almost  all  the  chief 
diplomatic  affairs  of  that  eventful  time.  With 
little  concern  for  the  cause  of  German  national- 
ity, which  animated  so  largely  the  Prussians 
during  the  \Var  of  Liberation.  Metternich  during 
the  last  two  years  of  Napoleon's  power  pursued 
a  policy  aiming  at   the  advancement  solely  of 


METTERNICH. 


396 


METZ. 


Austrian  interests.  Fearing  lest  the  defeat  of 
France  should  raise  up  powerful  rivals  for  Aus- 
tria in  Kussia  and  Prussia,  he  exerted  liimself 
to  preserve  for  France  its  ancient  boundaries, 
pursuing  that  end  ostensibly  in  order  to  presene 
the  balance  of  power  in  Eiirojx).  With  masterly 
dipluuiaey  he  succeeded  in  imposing  his  policy 
on  tlie  allies,  represented  Austria  in  the  Congress 
of  I'liatillun  in  February  and  ilarch,  1814,  and 
participated  in  the  deliberations  leading  to  the 
Treaty  of  Paris.  In  .hme  he  visited  England  and 
formed  a  new  Quadrujile  Alliance  for  the  i)rcserva- 
tion  of  the  peace  of  Euro])e.  As  presiding  officer 
of  the  Congress  of  ^'ienna  he  exercised  a  prepon- 
derating inlluence  on  the  delil>erations  of  that 
body,  and  succeeded  in  gaining  for  Austria  a  dom- 
inant jiosition  among  the  Powers  of  Europe,  with 
lier  interests  supreme  in  Germany  and  Italy.  After 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  he  became  tlie  leading 
statesman  of  Europe.  He  was  the  inspiring  genius 
of  the  reactionary  policy  of  the  Restoration  pe- 
riod. Crafty  and  cynical,  having  no  s\inpathy  with 
the  aspirations  of  the  people,  his  schemes  were  all 
directed  to  restoring  the  old  order  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. In  IS21  he  was  made  Austrian  Chancellor. 
With  his  customary  astuteness,  he  made  use  of 
the  Holy  Alliance  (q.v. ).  organized  by  Alexander 
of  Russia  to  further  the  cause  of  'Christian 
peace,'  as  an  instrument  for  the  repression  of  all 
liberal  or  national  movements.  I'nder  his  in- 
spiration congresses  were  held  at  Karlsbad 
(1819),  Troppau  (1820),  Laibaeh  (1821),  and 
Verona  ( 1822) .  at  which  action  was  taken  against 
the  Burschenschaft  and  the  freedom  of  the  press 
in  Germany,  the  national  movement  in  Italy,  and 
the  struggle  for  constitutionalism  in  Spain.  He 
consistently  opposed  the  Greek  movement  for 
independence,  but  there  Russia  refused  to  fol- 
low him.  With  time  his  influence  over  the 
French  and  Russian  courts  disappeared,  but  in 
Germany  and  Italy  the  reactionary  policy  of 
Metternich  remained  unabated  until  1S4S.  The 
revolutionary  movement  of  that  year,  however, 
breaking  forth  with  siulden  violence,  ended  Jlet- 
ternieh's  system  and  cau>ed  the  aged  Minister  to 
flee  from  "Austria  (March.  1S4S)  and  to  seek 
refuge  in  Englniid  ami  Pjclgium  :  nor  did  he  re- 
turn to  Vienna  till  the  end  of  1S.")1.  when  he 
received  great  marks  of  honor  and  favor  from  the 
Emperor:  but  altlunigh  sometimes  consulted,  he 
was  never  again  asked  to  undertake  the  cares  of 
office.  He  died  at  Vienna.  .Tune  11.  18.50.  His 
writings  were  ])ublished  under  the  title  .Iks  McI- 
Icniichs  nachqrla.istiuii  Piiiiirrni,  published  by 
his  son.  Prince  Richard  (8  vols..  Vienna.  1880-84; 
j)Mblished  in  English  translation  imdcr  the  title 
of  Mcmnirs).  Consult:  Gross-Hollinger.  Fiirst 
Mrttrrnich  iinil  this  iiKtcrrrichifirhc  Slaatfixiistem 
(T-eipzig.  184<'>)  :  Mazade.  V»  chnncrlUr  d'ancirn 
rrfiimr.  Le  riijnc  (liplomnti<iiir  dr  M.  dp  Mrttrr- 
nirh  (Paris,  I'sSft)  :  Beer.  "Fiirst  Clemens  Met- 
ternich." in  Drr  yriir  Plutarch,  vol.  v.  (Tyeipzig, 
1877)  :  nenuditsch,  Metternich  ii»d  nciiir  nufuciir- 
1if)c  I'nlitil;  (Stuttgart.  ISnS)  ;  Malleson.  Life  of 
Prince  Metternich  i\.n\M\on  an<l  Xew  York.  1888). 
.See  AisTRiA-HrNn.vHY:  Vienna.  Cont.ress  of: 
Caki.smai)  Dkc'rkks. 

METTRAY,  nie'trA'.  .\  great  agricultural 
anil  industrial  colony  (reformatory)  at  Mettray, 
near  Tours,  France,  which  has  for  years  been 
looked  upon  as  the  model  of  all  such  institutions. 
It  wn.s  founded  in  18.10  by  Mettray  Demetz  and 
Bretigni^^es  de  Courteilles,  who  had  gotten  their 


inspiration  from  America.  The  object  was  to 
keep  young  boys  out  of  the  regular  prisons  and 
to  teach  them,  in  addition  to  commim  school 
branches,  trades,  particularly  agriculture.  Boys 
of  the  better  classes  who  are  sent  Gy  their  parents 
to  the  school  are  kept  separately  in  the  "Maison 
Patemelle'  and  spend  tlieir  time  in  study.  In 
1899  the  colony  contained  4.50  boys.  After  the 
boys  leave  the  institution  a  supervision  is  main- 
tained over  them.  See  Bulletin  de  la  commission 
pciiitcntiaire  internationale  (Brussels  and  Berne. 
1900). 

METZ,  mets.  A  town  and  first-class  fortress 
in  Alsace-Lorraine,  Gernumy,  capital  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Lorraine,  situated  at  the  conlluence  of  the 
Seille  with  the  Jloselle,  about  11  miles  east  of  the 
French  frontier  and  (i(i  miles  by  rail  southsouth- 
west  of  Treves  (ila)i:  Germany,  B  4).  It  is  built 
])artly  between  the  two  rivers  and  jjartly  on 
islands  of  the  iloselle.  The  streets  bear  both 
German  and  French  names.  The  older  section  is 
irregularly  constructed  and  is  ancient  in  appear- 
ance. In  the  soutliwestern  portion  of  the  town 
is  a  splendid  esplanade  with  statues  of  Marshal 
Xey  and  Emperor  William  I.,  and  a  fine  fountain. 
Tlie  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral  was  begun  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  It  was  consecrated  in 
1540.  and  is  now  being  restored.  It  lias  numerous 
fine  specimens  of  stained  glass,  and  is  surmounted 
by  a  tower  3S7  feet  high.  The  Churcli  <if  Saint 
Vincent,  a  fine  (Jothic  structure  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  garrison  church,  and  the  Church 
of  Saint  Constance,  with  frescoes,  arc  also  of 
architectural  interest.  Among  the  secular  build- 
ings may  be  mentioned  the  palace  of  justice,  the 
town  hall,  the  theatre,  the  barracks,  and  the 
railway  station. 

Tlie  educational  institutions  include  a  gj'm- 
nasiuni.  a  realschule,  a  seminary  for  priests 
and  for  teachers,  schools  of  art  and  music,  and 
a  military  school.  The  municipal  library  of 
about  GO.OOO  volumes  is  ricli  in  works  relating 
to  the  history  of  Jletz,  and  the  municipal  mu- 
seum contains  collections  of  coins  and  paintings, 
and  of  antiquities  found  in  the  vicinity.  Metl 
has  lost  somewhat  in  industrial  importance  since 
its  occupation  by  the  Germans,  the  Frencli  having 
withdrawn  a  large  amount  of  capital.  The  chief 
manufactured  junducts  arc  leather  and  leather 
goods,  arms,  hats,  artificial  flowers,  coarse  cloth, 
preserves,  etc.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  agri- 
cultural products  of  the  surrounding  country. 

The  city  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  fortified 
]daces  in  Europe.  Its  fortifications,  extending 
along  the  Moselle  and  the  Seille.  consist  of  works 
begun  by  the  French  and  coiiqiletcd  liy  the  t!er- 
mans,  and  of  works  built  entirely  by  the  con- 
querors. Some  portions  of  the  old  fortifications 
have  also  been  retained.  Population,  in  1890, 
including  the  garrison  of  over  20.000  men, 
(iO.lSCi;  in  1900.  58.424.  the  decrease  being  due 
to  the  withdrawal  of  part  of  the  troops.  Over 
two-thirds  of  the  population  are  Catholics. 

Metz  was  known  to  the  (^.auls  as  Diindunun, 
and  in  mediieval  times  as  Metac.  By  the  Treaty 
of  Mersen  (870)  the  city  fell  to  East  Francia 
(later  Germany)  ami  riijiidly  attained  impor- 
tance, so  that  in  the  tliirte<'ntli  century  it  liecame 
a  free  Imperial  eitv.  It  was  here  that  Charles 
IV.  in  1.15fi  proclaimed  the  Golden  Bull.  Metl 
became  involved  in  many  conflicts  with  Lor- 
raine, and  in  the  period  of  the  Reformation  the 
eitv  was  a  centre  of  disturbance.     In  1552  it  WM 


METZ. 


397 


MEURSIUS. 


haniled  over  to  Hciirv  II.  of  Fiancp,  together 
with  Toul  and  Verdun,  by  the  Protestant  lords 
in  order  to  gain  French  aid  against  Charles  V. 
(See  Maurice  of  Saxony.)  The  latter  be- 
sieged the  city  in  vain,  and  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648)  continued  France  in  possession  of 
the  city.  Metz  was  henceforth  chieliy  inijiortant 
as  a  strong  fortress,  and  played  a  prominent  role 
in  the  campaigns  of  1814  and  ISl.'i  against 
Na|)oleon  and  again  in  the  Franco-Oernian  War. 
As  a  result  of  tlie  battles  of  Colombey-Nouilly, 
Slars-la-Tour,  and  Gravelotte  (see  Franco-Ger- 
man War),  the  German  army  occupied  the  city 
on  October  29,  1870,  and  the  Peace  of  Frankfort 
gave  Metz  to  Germany.  Consult:  Klipfl'el,  Metz, 
cite  &piscopuJe  et  imp^riale  (Brussels,  1867); 
Westphale,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  iletz  (3  vols., 
Metz.  1875-78). 

METZU.     See  :Metsu. 

MEUDON,  me'doN'.  A  town  in  the  Depart- 
ment of.  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  in  the  southwest- 
ern outskirts  of  Paris  ( Map  :  France,  A  7 ) .  Its 
ch.'iteau,  fitted  up  by  Napoleon  for  Maria  Louisa 
in  ISI'2,  was  almost  destroyed  during  the  bom- 
bardment by  the  Germans  in  1871;  it  has  been 
partly  restored.  The  church  contains  a  statue  of 
Kabelais,  who  was  cure  of  Jleudon.  A  chapel 
commemorates  a  railway  accident  in  1842,  in 
which  over  100  persons,  including  the  celebrated 
traveler  Dumont  d'Urville,  were  burned  alive. 
The  forest  near  by  is  a  favorite  holiday  resort. 
Mendon's  manufactures  comprise  glass,  chalk, 
linen,  whiting,  buttons,  and  ammunition.  Popu- 
lation, in  1001,  9702. 

METJLEW,  me'len,  Adam  Frans  van  der 
( lt).'?2-00l .  A  Flemish  painter,  born  at  Brussels 
and  the  pupil  of  Peter  Snayers,  He  afterwards 
went  to  France  on  the  invitation  of  Lebriin.  and 
was  made  Louis  XIV.'s  Court  painter  (1666) 
and  counselor  of  the  Academy  (1681).  During 
the  war  in  Flanders  he  accompanied  the  King 
and  painted  pictures  of  the  battles  in  which  he 
was  engaged.  These  are  remarkable  for  the  care 
bestowed  upon  historical  detail  and  the  fine 
grouping  of  horses.  There  are  several  of  thera 
in  the  Louvre  and  at  Versailles.  He  also  de- 
signed some  cartoons  for  the  Gobelin.s. 

MEUNG,  meN,  Jean  de  (c.12.50-  ?) .    A  French 
poet,   also   called    .Jean    Clopinel.      He    was   born 
at  Meung-sur-Loire,  and  died  at  the  beginning  of 
the    fourteenth    century.      Not    much    is    known 
about  his  early   life,  but   it  is  assumed   that  he 
studied  at  the  L'niversity  of  Paris.     His  literary 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  addition  to  the  Roman 
de  In  rose   (q.v. )   of  Guillaume  de  Lorris    (q.v. ). 
The  poem,  as  Guillaume  de  Lorris  left  it,  com- 
prised about  4000  verses.     Jean  de  Meung  added 
alinut  18,000.  of  which  12,000  can  be  found  in  the 
authors  of  whom  he  was  especially  fond — notalily 
2000  from  Ovid  alone.     Ostensibly  continuing  the 
allegory  of  his  predecessor,  who  intended  to  make 
it  a  jKiem  of  chivalry,  .lean  de  Meung  in  reality 
introduced  quite  a  different  spirit,  and  made  the 
allegory  a  mere  cloak  for  telling  stories  and  in- 
dulging in  political  and  moral  satire.     At  the  re- 
I   quest  of  King  Philippe,  he  translated  the  Coimo- 
;   Intio  of  Bocthius  into  prose  and  verse.     Toward 
I   the  end   of   his   life  he  wrote  his   Tattnmcnt.  in 
'   which,  although  praising  sincere  piety,  he  pours 
hitter  sarcasm  on  monks.     Consult :  Paris.  'Mean 
,   de  Meung."  in  the  Hisfoire  Uttfrnire  dc  hv  France, 
I  Vol.  xxviii.    (Paris,  1840)  ;   Quicherat,  "Jean  de 


Meung  et  sa  niaisou  a  Paris,"  in  the  Uibliotheque 
de  I'Ecole  des  Chartren  (ib.,  1880)  ;  and  Langlois, 
Origincs  et  sources  du  lioinuii  de  la  rose  (ib., 
1890). 

METJNIER,  me'nya',  Constantin  (1831—). 
A  Belgian  historical  and  genre  painter  and  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Brussels,  lie  was  for  a  while  pro- 
fessor at  the  Academy  of  Louvain,  and  he 
s))ont  some  time  in  Madrid,  copying  the  old  mas- 
ters. Afterwards  he  settled  at  Louvain  and  de- 
voted himself  principally  to  painting.  Both  as 
a  painter  and  as  a  sculptor  he  belongs  to  the 
naUnalistic  school.  His  subjects  usually  are 
chosen  from  scenes  in  the  colliery  district  in 
which  he  lived — episodes  of  the  foumlry  and  the 
pit;  or  else  rather  brutally  painted  martyrdoms. 
But  his  treatment  of  any  theme  is  powerful  and 
sincere.  His  sculptures  include  "The  Lost 
Son"  (in  the  Berlin  National  (Jallery)  ;  and 
there  are  also  other  bronzes  by  him  in  the  Alber- 
tinum  at  Dresden.  Among  his  paintings  are: 
"The  Peasants'  Rebellion"  ( in  the  Brussels  Mu- 
seum) ;  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Stephen"  (in 
the  Cihent  Museum)  ;  and  "The  Burial  of  a  Trap- 
pist"  ( in  the  Courtrai  Museum ) .  He  received  a 
gold  medal  in  Brussels  in  1807  and  the  Order 
of  Leopold  in  1873. 

MEITRICE,  nie'res',  Francois  Paul(1820— ). 
A  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris  and  educated 
at  the  Collfege  Charlemagne.  In  1842  he  pre- 
pared a  version  of  Falstaff  for  the  Odeon  with 
Vacquerie,  presented  at  the  same  theatre  in  1843. 
With  the  same  collaborator  he  produced  Lc  ca- 
pitainc  Paroles  and  an  imitation  of  Antigone 
(1844),  and  he  assisted  Dumas  in  a  metrical 
translation  of  Hamlet,  which  was  given  at  the 
Theatre  Historique  in  1847,  The  following  year 
he  became  chief  editor  of  Victor  Hugo's  L  Evcne- 
nieitt,  to  whose  cause  ^Meurice  was  so  devoted 
that  he  suffered  nine  months'  imprisonment 
(1851),  but  in  18G9  he  aided  in  starting  a  new 
journal  with  the  same  motive,  Lc  Rappcl,  and  he 
Avas  intrusted  by  Hugo  himself  with  the  publica- 
tion of  his  complete  works  (46  vols.,  1880-85), 
Meurice  dramatized  several  of  them,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  George  Sand's  novels,  and  his  other 
plays  include:  Benrenuto  Cellini  (1852); 
tichainyl  (1854);  L'avocat  des  pauvres  (1856); 
Fanfan  la  tulipe  (1858);  La,  ine  nourelle 
(1807)  ;  Cadio  (1868)  ;  and  an  adaptation  of  the 
Midsummer  Xight's  Dream  (1886),  Meurice  also 
wrote  romances  such  as  La  famille  Aiibri/  ( 1854), 
Ccsara   (1869),  and  Le  songe  de  I'amour  (1869). 

MEirRSITJS,  mer'si-\is  (de  Meurs),  Jo- 
hannes (1579-1639).  A  Dutch  classicist  and 
hi.storian,  born  at  Loozduincn.  near  The  llag\ie. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  finished  a  commentary 
on  Lycophron.  He  traveled  much,  and  in  1610 
was  appointed  professor  of  history  at  Leyden. 
Later  the  political  disturbances  in  his  country 
an<l  the  execution  of  Jan  Barnevcldt,  to  whose 
sons  he  had  once  been  tutor,  e.xposed  him 
to  considerable  persecution  and  cost  him  the 
high  favor  which  he  had  once  enjoyed.  He  left 
Holland,  and  in  1625  accepted  n  position  at  the 
Academy  of  Soro  in  Denmark,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  published  works 
include  many  editions  of  the  Greek  authors 
Lycophron,  Apollonius  Dyscolos,  Philostratus, 
Procopius,  and  others.  His  numerous  treatises 
on  Greek  literature  are  mostly  reprinted  in  Gro- 


MEURSIXJS. 


398 


MEXICAN  ARCHEOLOGY. 


novius's  Thesaurus  Antiriuitatum  Grwcarum. 
The  Ulossarium  Grccco-Iiarbarum  (lt)14)  and 
Athena;  Batavce  (102;))  also  deserve  mention. 
His  complete  works  were  edited  iii  12  volumes  by 
Laniie    (Florence,   1741-03). 

MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE,  m&rt'u-mA'zel'. 
.V  frontier  de|iartiiirMt  in  tl]('  iiurtheast  of  France, 
part  of  the  old  I'rovince  of  Lorraine,  and  com- 
posed of  the  remnants  of  the  departments  of 
Jlourthe  and  Jloselle  wliiih  remained  to  France 
after  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort,  1871  (;Map: 
France.  M  2) .  Area.  202.5  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  40tj,')7!);  in  li)01,  484.722.  It  is 
named  from  the  principal  rivers  which  traverse 
the  department.  The  surface  is  diversified  and 
picturesque,  the  eastern  border  beinj;  marked  by 
the  wooded  Vosj;es  Mountains,  which  attain  a 
maximum  altitude  of  2!loo  feet.  Iron,  eop])er, 
lead,  rock  salt,  pypsum,  and  building;  stone  are 
the  chief  mineral  jiroducts;  and  the  fertile  soil 
yields  abundant  crops  of  cereals,  liops,  jrrapcs, 
and  other  fruits.  There  are  manufactures  of  steel, 
iron,  railway  materials,  textiles,  pottery,  filass, 
paper,  chemicals,  wine,  and  beer.  Capital.  Xancy. 

SCETJSE,  mez.  A  frontier  department  in  the 
northeast  of  France,  part  of  the  ancient  Province 
of  Lorraine,  and  bordered  on  the  north  by  Bel- 
gium (Map:  France.  M  2).  Area.  204.5  scpiare 
miles.  Population,  in  181IG,  288.876;  in  1001, 
283,480.  It  is  traversed  from  southeast  to  north- 
west by  the  valley  of  the  Meuse.  flanked  by  the 
wooded  Arpronne  ranjjes  of  hills.  The  department 
is  well  forested,  and  the  valleys  are  fertile  and 
well  cultivated,  producing  wheat,  oats,  and  hemp; 
grapes  are  largely  grown  for  wine,  and  beet-roots 
for  sugar.  Minerals  and  manufactures  are  un- 
inqinrtant.     Capital,  linr  Ic  Due. 

MEUSE,  mez,  or  MAAS,  miis.  One  of  the 
])rincipal  rivers  of  Western  Europe.  It  rises  on 
the  Plateau  of  Langres  in  the  Department  of 
Haute-Marne,  Xortheastern  France,  and  (lows 
at  first  north  through  a  narrow,  winding  valley 
with  high  and  steep  sides,  sometimes  becoming 
canon-like  with  rocky  clilTs.  and  through  the 
wild  forest  region  of  Ardennes  (Map:  France, 
^I  2).  It  then  (lows  northeast  through  lielgiiim 
into  Holland,  the  land  Ix-eoming  gradually  lower, 
changing  through  the  heath  lands  of  Northern 
Belgium  to  the  extensive  peat-bogs  known  as  De 
Peel  in  S(mtheastern  Holland.  Finally  the  river 
turns  westward,  joins  the  Waal,  one  of  the 
arms  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  Oorkum,  and  emp- 
ties into  the  North  Sea  through  the  great  delta 
common  to  the  two  rivers,  a  large,  compound 
estuary  consisting  of  broad,  sandy,  and  shallow 
channels  inclosing  a  number  nf  low.  Hat  islands. 
The  united  Meuse  and  Waal  first  divide  into  two 
arms,  one  of  which,  the  llollandseh  Diep.  flows 
southwest,  and,  after  communieating  southward 
with  the  dclt.a  of  (he  Scheldt  (q.v.),  enters  the 
sea  through  the  broail  Haringvliet.  The  other 
arm  flows  west  and  again  divides  into  the  Old 
and  the  New  Meuse,  whii'h.  uniting  at  several 
points,  flow  parallel  to  the  sea.  The  Old  Meuse 
coinmunicates  by  side  channids  with  the  Haring- 
vliet,  and  the  S'ew  Meuse  receives  the  T.ek.  an 
:irni  of  the  Rhine.  The  New  .Meuse,  whi<'h  passes 
Rotterdam,  is  the  main  channel  for  navigation. 
The  total  length  of  the  Meuse  is  408  miles,  and 
it  is  navigable  for  .l.l;')  miles.  Its  principal  trilm- 
taries  are  the  .Sambre  from  the  left,  and  the 
Bcmov,  Ourtlie,  and  lioer  from  the  right.    It  con- 


nects with  extensive  canal  systems  in  Belgium 
and  in  Holland.  Above  XeufcliAteau.  in  the  De- 
lia rtnient  of  Vosges,  the  river  loses  itself  under- 
ground for  .some  miles.  The  chief  cities  on  its 
banks  are  Verdun  (the  head  of  navigation), 
.S'llan,  and  Charleville  in  France;  Nainur  and 
Lii'ge  in  Belgium ;  and  Maastricht,  Dordrecht, 
and  Rotterdam  in  Holland. 

MEW,    or    Sea-Mew.      In    Great    Britain,    a 

gull    (q.v.). 

MEXBOROUGH,  m6ks'bur-o.  A  town  in  the 
We.-t  Riding  uf  Yorkshire,  Kngland.  on  the  Don, 
5'.j  miles  northeast  of  Kotlierham  (Map:  Eng- 
land, E  3).  It  has  large  iron  and  jxitters'  in- 
dustries. The  markets  are  municipal  propertv. 
Population,  in  1801,  7700;    in  1000,   10.400. 

MEXCALA,  mes-kiila.  A  river  of  Mexico. 
See  .Mks<ala. 

MEXICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY.  Among  the 
many  (lilies  wliicli  occupied  .Mi'xico  in  former 
times,  six  may  be  said  to  have  attained  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  culture.  The  Nahuas.  whose 
chief  seat  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Conquest) 
was  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  had  come  from  the 
North,  and  their  influence  extended,  by  rea.son 
of  conquest  and  migration,  southward  as  far  as 
Costii  Rica.  It  is  impossilile  to  state  the  exact 
limits  of  Nahua  remains  in  Mexico,  owing  to 
our  meagre  knowledge  of  the  antiquities  of  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  country,  and  the  confused  tradi- 
tions of  the  migrations  of  the  people.  The 
Tarascans  were  settled  in  what  is  now  Michoacan 
and  probably  parts  of  .lalisco,  Tepic.  and  Colinia. 
In  Oaxaca  are  found  the  remains  of  the  Mixtees 
and  Zapotecs,  with  traces  of  an  earlier  settle- 
ment of  the  Nahuas.  In  Vera  Cruz  the  Huax 
tecs,  linguistically  a  branch  of  the  great  Maya- 
tjuichc  family,  are  found;  and  the  Totonacs, 
whose  territory  lay  between  that  of  the  Huaxtecs 
and  Nahuas,  had  a  distinct  culture,  although  un- 
doubtedly influenced  by  both  of  the  former  peo- 
ples. To  the  east  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tchuantepee, 
and  extending  eastward  over  the  States  of  Chia- 
pas, Tabasco,  and  Yucatan,  and  northward 
through  Guatemala  to  Northern  Honduras,  are 
llic  remains  of  the  Maya-(^uic)ii'  family,  whose 
civilization  was.  in  many  respects,  the  most 
advanced  in  ancient  America.  This  region  is 
geographically  as  well  as  culturally  a  part  of 
Central  America. 

Tlie  remains  found  in  Chiliuahua  show  an 
ancient  culture  similar  to  that  which  existed  in 
the  valleys  of  the  (Jila  and  Salt  rivers  in 
Arizona,  but  of  a  slightly  higher  grade.  The 
people  seem  to  have  reached  ;iii  intermediate 
stage,  between  the  Nahuas  on  the  south  and  the 
Pueblo  ])coples  on  the  north,  but  nearer  the  lat- 
ter than  the  former.  In  this  region  the  ruins  of 
Casa  Grande  (q.v.)  are  the  only  noteworthy 
gi'oup.  The  potterj-  from  the  vicinity  of  this 
ruin  is  of  an  advanced  type  and  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  ceramics  of  .\rizonn  and  New  Mexico, 
but  it  has  distinct  peculiarities  and  bears  the 
marks  of  contact  with  the  pcn|)le  of  the  south. 
In  the  dense  forests  of  (he  State  of  Taniaulipas, 
on  the  coast  of  the  (iulf  of  Mexico,  ruins  have 
been  reported  which  ari'  related  to  the  culture 
of  the  south,  and  probably  liclong  to  the  Huaxtec 
or  Tolonac  peoples.  We  lind  the  first  important 
remains  of  the  higher  Mexican  civilization  in  the 
very  centre  of  that  (lart  of  ^lexico  which  lies 
north  nf  (he  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  in  the  im- 


MEXICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 


399 


MEXICAN  ARCH^ffiOLOGY. 


menso  structure  of  La  Quemaila  in  Zacatpcas. 
•nliich  have  been  but  little  studied;  but  they 
are  probably  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Nahua  set- 
tlement. In  ilichoacau  tlie  ruins  of  Tzintzuntzan 
bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of  La  Quemada. 
This  region  of  the  Taraseos  has  been  little  ex- 
plored. The  great  ruins  of  the  Nahuas  include 
Tula,  Teotihuacan,  Xochicalco,  Tepoztlan,  Cho- 
hila,  and  Tenoehtitlan,  now  the  City  of  Mexico, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Aztecs,  the  predomi- 
nant branch  of  the  Nahuas,  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest ;  beneath  the  soil  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
lies  buried  a  vast  number  of  objects,  and  also  the 
bases  of  temples,  although  the  imposing  struc- 
tures and  the  greater  number  of  the  sculptures, 
idols,  books,  etc.,  of  Montezuma's  seat  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  Spaniards.  In  the  Huaxtecan  and 
Totonacan  districts  are  the  ruins  of  Papantla, 
Jlisantla,  Ceutla,  Tusapan,  and  Cempoalla ; 
while  in  the  State  of  Oaxaca,  Monte  Alban.  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  Zapotecs,  is  one  of  the 
most  stupendous  ruins  in  Mexico.  Mitla,  in  the 
same  district,  has  nQthing  in  common  with  Za- 
potec  remains  and  must  be  ascribed  to  the 
Xahuas.  In  the  Maya  region  are  the  remains  of 
hundreds  of  cities,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  Palenque,  Piedras  Ncgras,  Menche,  Seibal, 
Tikal,  Labna,  Kabah,  Uxmal,  Chichen  Itza, 
Quirigua,  and  Copan. 

In  the  arts  the  ancient  Jlexicans  show  a  sur- 
prising progress.  For  the  architecture  of  ancient 
Mexico,  see  Akch.eology,  American;  Mitla; 
Palencjue. 

Sculptures  in  stone  are  found,  ranging  in  size 
from  the  small  amulets,  representing  deities, 
and  designed  as  personal  ornaments,  to  monu- 
ments of  colossal  size,  such  as  the  so-called  Mexi- 
can calendar  stone,  and  the  great  stelae  of  the 
ruins  of  Quirigua.  In  wood-carving  the  Mexi- 
cans displayed  even  greater  skill  than  in  the 
working  of  stone.  Tlie  great  altar  tablets  of 
Tikal,  the  wooden  drums,  and  the  atlatls  or 
throwing-sticks  splendidly  carved,  and  in  some 
instances  covered  with  gold  leaf,  attest  their 
proficiency  in  this  branch  of  art.  Carving, 
whether  in  stone,  wood,  bone,  or  shell,  was  done 
with  stone  or  copper  tools.  Jadeite.  emerald, 
rock  ciTstal,  turquoise,  and  serpentine  were 
carved  into  numberless  varieties  of  personal  or- 
naments, chiefly  in  the  territory  of  the  Mixtecs 
and  Zapotecs  of  Oaxaca,  and  by  the  Mayas  in 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Chiapas.  The  Nahuas 
and  Zapotecs  fashioned  mosaics  on  wood,  shell, 
and  clay,  using  bits  of  shell,  jadeite,  turquoise, 
obsidian,  mother-of-pearl,  and  hematite  to  form 
the  designs. 

In  the  ceramic  art  the'  products  of  the  several 
civilized  nations  are  quite  distinct,  and  we  may 
determine  their  provenance  with  a  certain  amount 
of  exactness.  The  terracotta  figures  of  the  Ja- 
lisco district,  the  ware  from  the  vicinity  of 
Chohila.  the  funeral  urns  from  the  Oaxaca  Val- 
ley, and  the  pottery  from  the  Maya  region  are 
characteristics  of  each  ceutre.  In  metallurgv-  we 
find  the  ancient  Taraseos.  the  Aztecs.  Totonacs, 
Mixtecs,  and  Zapotecs  were  very  skillful  in  the 
manipulation  of  copper  into  axes,  tweezers,  rings, 
rattles,  and  bells.  Beautiful  objects  of  gold  have 
been  found  in  the  Matlantzinea  region  near  To- 
luca  and  in  the  Jlixtecan  and  Zapotecan  areas, 
which  are  the  very  highest  achievement  of  the 
ancient  American  goldsmiths.  Ear.  nose,  and  lip 
ornaments;     beautiful    bells,    some    representing 


symbolic  faces  and  animals'  heads:  beads;  circu- 
lar breastplates;  the  copilli  or  crown  of  rulers, 
and  even  remains  of  armor  made  of  the  precious 
metal,  have  been  found  in  ancient  graves  during 
recent  years.  Unfortunately  the  greater  part 
of  these  "finds'  go  to  the  melting  pot. 

The  ancient  ilexicans  believed  in  a  future  life 
whicli  was  graded  according  to  the  manner  of 
death,  and  among  the  Zapotecs  they  had  elaborate 
funeral  ceremonies  and  sacrificed  slaves  to  assist 
the  shades  of  important  persons  on  their  journey 
to  paradise.  They  had  greater  and  lesser  deities. 
The  principal  god  of  the  Aztecs  was  Teotl,  who 
was  worshiped  as  a  supreme  being.  Next  to 
Teotl,  Tezcatlipoca  was  venerated  as  the  soul  of 
the  world,  who  rewarded  the  righteous  and  pun- 
ished the  unrighteous.  The  great  beneficent  god 
was  Quetzalcoatl  among  the  Nahuas,  called 
Kukulcan  by  the  Mayas,  the  great  feathered 
serpent  deity,  undoubtedly  a  deified  culture  hero. 
He  invented"  the  arts  and"  taught  the  people  wis- 
dom by  his  laws.  According  to  his  various  at- 
tributes he  appears  under  different  names,  as 
do  many  other  gotls  of  the  ^lexican  pantheon. 
Tlaboc  "was  the  god  of  rain,  and  among  the 
Aztecs.  Huitzilopochtli,  the  terrible  war  god, 
was  patron  and  protector.  There  were  godrt 
of  the  hunt  and  chase,  of  play,  flowers,  wine, 
merchants,  trickery,  lust,  and  so  forth,  while 
each  trade  and  occupation  had  its  own  patroa 
deity.  The  religious  rites  were  elaborate  and 
prescribed  with  minuteness.  The  multiplicity  of 
gods  required  a  great  number  of  priests  and 
priestesses,  who  were  almost  as  highly  venerated 
as  the  deities  they  served.  There  were  degrees 
of  priesthood  and  religious  orders ;  fixed  and 
movable  festivals.  The  great  teocallis  or  god- 
houses  were  commanding  edifices  of  stone,  built 
on  high  truncated  pyramids  with  annexed  build- 
ings. Their  idols  were  many  and  hideous, 
smeared  with  the  blood  of  human  and  animal 
sacrifices. 

Among  certain  of  these  civilized  tribes  we  find 
artificial  fiattening  of  the  head :  also  trepana- 
tion, and  decoration  of  the  teeth  by  filing  and 
interlaying  with  certain  stones,  such  as  jadeite, 
turquoise,  obsidian,  and  hematite,  rock  crystal 
and  obsidian.  Labrets,  or  lip  ornaments,  made 
of  obsidian  and  gold,  were  inserted  in  holes  in 
the  lower  lip ;  V-shaped  ornaments  of  obsidian 
and  shell  were  hung  from  the  nose,  and  large 
ornaments  were  inserted  in  incisions  in  the  ears. 
JIany  of  the  musical  instruments  are  still  ex- 
tant, and  we  find  in  various  museums  examples 
of  the  teponoztli.  the  horizontal  drvun,  made 
from  a  log  of  wood  hollowed  out  on  the  under 
surface  and  having  two  tongues  cut  on  the  up- 
per one,  which  were  beaten  with  rubber-tipped 
sticks.  Among  the  instruments  were  the  upright 
drum,  of  a  hollowed  log  of  wood,  with  skin-cov- 
ered top,  beaten  with  the  hands;  flageolets,  whis- 
tles, and  rattles  of  clay;  trumpets:  and  rattles 
of  shell  and  notched  human  bones  from  the  arm 
or  leg.  rasped  with  a  bone  or  shell.  Painting 
was  another  art  in  which  the  ancient  Mexicans 
had  made  remarkable  progress.  This  is  shown 
by  the  mural  paintings  of  Teotihuacan,  Mitla, 
and  Chichen  Itza.  and  those  recently  discovered 
in  British  Honduras.  One  of  the  most  important 
sources  of  information  for  the  study  of  ancient 
Mexico  is  found  in  the  existing  pictorial  and 
hieroglyphic  codices,  or  books.  As  is  well  known, 
several  of  the  tribes  of  Jlexico  had  attained  a 


MEXICAN  ARCHEOLOGY. 


400 


MEXICAN  LITERATURE. 


degree  of  cuUiire  at  the  tiiiio  uf  the  Spanish 
Conquest  that  led  to  the  recordinj;  of  events,  not 
only  on  stone  bas-reliefs  and  seiilptures,  but  on 
material  of  a  more  perishable  nature.  These 
codices  were  on  strips  of  deerskin,  the  surface 
of  which  wa's  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of 
stucco.  They  were  folded  screen-fashion,  and 
the  paintings  were  on  both  sides.  The  Mexicans 
had  furthermore  invented  a  kind  of  paper.  In 
Mexico  proper,  in  addition  to  bark-paper,  a  paper 
was  made  from  the  leaves  of  tlie  maguey  jilant. 
Agave  Americana ;  this  paper  they  also  sized 
with  a  coating  of  lime. 

One  of  the  things  which  impressed  Corti-s, 
when  he  first  came  in  contact  with  the  mes- 
sengers sent  out  by  ^Montezuma,  was  that  some 
of  them  were  busily  employed  in  making  paint- 
ings of  the  ."Spaniards:  their  costumes,  arms,  and 
dill'erent  objects  of  interest,  giving  to  each  its 
appropriate  color.  These  were  to  convey  to 
.Montezuma  an  idea  of  the  conquerors  in  picture 
writing,  and  is  the  first  notice  we  have  of  its 
existence  in  ancient  America.  In  symbolic  and 
picture  writing  the  Mayas  approached  very  close- 
ly to  phoneticism,  and  recent  progress  has  been 
made  in  an  interpretation  of  the  codices  of  the 
Xahua  and  Jlixtec  group,  as  well-  as  signal  suc- 
cess in  the  decipherment  of  the  hieroglyphics  of 
the  Mayas,  preserved  in  codices,  tablets,  and 
stcUe.  Of  the  latter  class  of  inscriptions  certain 
dates  and  methods  of  counting  have  been  worked 
out,  and  in  some  instances  about  40  jier  cent,  of 
the  inscriptions  have  been  successfully  deciphered. 
Besides  the  two  known  sj-stems  of  i)ietogra]ihie 
and  hieroglyphic  writing,  explorations  in  Oaxaca 
have  recently  revealed  a  third  and  distinct  form 
of  inscription  among  the  Zapotecs. 

The  complex  calendar  system  of  the  Taras- 
cos,  Nahvias,  Mixtecs,  Zapotecs,  Totonaes,  and 
Mayas  is  the  same,  and  is  a  remarkable  evidence 
of  the  high  culture  which  they  had  attained,  but 
the  Mayas  had  more  extended  measures  for  the 
computation  of  time  than  the  Xahuas.  Recent 
investigation  of  the  Maya  calendar  revealed  vari- 
ous periods  and  elaborate  computations  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  movements  of  certain  planets. 
The  general  scheme  of  the  calendar  proper  was 
the  division  of  the  year  into  two  unequal  parts, 
three  hundred  and  sixty  days  being  the  year,  di- 
vided into  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days  each; 
at  the  end  of  tlie  last  month  five  days  were  added 
to  roun<l  out  the  true  solar  year:  and  each  of 
the  twenty-day  periods  had  its  own  name  and 
symbol,  blit  the  days  were  not  numbered  from 
one  to  twenty,  but  from  one  to  thirteen.  By 
this  7nethod  of  nvuneration  the  day  bearing  the 
same  name  and  number  did  not  recur  initil  the 
thirteen  months  had  elapsed;  this  made  a  pe- 
riod of  two  hundred  and  sixty  days,  which, 
among  the  .Vztees,  was  called  Tonalamall  ;  it  was 
a  year  within  a  year,  and  was  used  for  divina- 
tory  or  religious  purposes.  There  were.  also, 
many  other  intricacies  in  the  Mexican  calendar, 
some  of  which  have  not  yet  Iioen  explaineil. 

In  studying  Mexican  artifacts,  we  are  some- 
what handicapped  by  the  immense  number  of 
clever  frauds  which  have  been  made  during  re- 
cent years,  and  which  have  found  their  way  into 
all  collections  and  nniseums.  We  are  just  be- 
ginning to  study  in  a  systematic  way  the  areha-- 
olipgy  of  this  region,  and  further  resenreh  will 
unquestionably  prove  that  the  early  aeenunls  of 
the  Mexican  civilization,  handed  down  to  u-^  in 


the  writings  of  the  eye-witnesses  of  the  Spanish 
Conquest,  and  the  histories  of  the  early  mis- 
sionaries,  as    Sahagun,   Duran,   De   Landa,   and 

otliers.  were  not  very  greatly  exaggerated. 

MEXICAN  HAIRLESS  DOG.  See  II.\ib- 
LESS  Dog. 

MEXICAN  JUMPING  BEAN.  See  Jump- 
ing Bea.n. 

MEXICAN  LITERATURE.  Jlodern  Mexi- 
co, despite  the  surprising  advance  of  the  past 
quarter-century,  has  been  .so  far  outstripped  in 
the  material  elements  of  civilization  that  the 
people  of  more  progressive  nations  are  apt  to  for- 
get the  time  when  its  capital  was  the  intellectual 
and  artistic  centre  of  tlie  New  World.  The  in- 
tellectual life  of  Mexico,  therefore,  is  not  of  mod- 
ern creation,  but  dates  back  to  the  third  decade 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  whiih  the  early  cuihjiiid- 
Uiduns  marked  by  the  introduction  of  the  first 
printing  press,  to  be  followed  shortly  by  the 
establishment  of  the  first  university  upon  the 
American  continent.  That  neither  of  the.se 
establishments  was  a  matter  of  mere  formal 
enactment  is  shown  by  the  creditable  list  of  the 
writers  of  that  century,  who  were  connected  as 
teachers  or  pupils  with  the  early  educational 
institutions,  and  whose  works  bear  the  imprint 
of  the  native  Mexican  press,  whose  list  of  extant 
works,  printed  before  IGOO,  embraces  some  llti 
titles. 

Any  study  of  Mexican  literature  naturally  be- 
gins with  the  few  survivals  of  primitive  picture 
writing.  These  hieroglyphs  so  far  approached 
writing  as  to  give  clearly  names,  places,  and  the 
date  of  events — some  of  which  are  accurate — as 
far  as  the  twelfth  century,  while  more  vague 
traditions  extend  several  centuries  furtlier  l)ack. 
:Most  of  these  records  belong  to  tliat  al)original 
branch  of  Xahua  stock  known  as  tlie  Toltecs.  but 
the  famous  Poitul-Viih.  of  Quiche  origin,  al.so 
mentions  names  and  jilaces  of  Jlcxican  legendary 
history.  The  meagre  details  of  these  records  were 
supplemented,  within  a  century  after  the  Spanish 
Conquest,  by  so-called  "histories.'  written  by 
educated  natives  from  the  above  sources,  aided 
by  oral  tradition.  These  works  consist  of  songs, 
ordinances,  memoirs  of  the  native  kings,  and 
accounts  of  the  Spanish  conquerors.  Without 
them  it  would  now  be  impossible  to  read  the  few 
extant  sources;  and  if  some  of  the  early  Church 
fathers  are  to  be  blamed  for  their  fanaticism 
in  destroying  hieroglyphs,  others  deserve  equal 
credit  for  their  care  in  preserving  the  remain- 
ing few,  and  in  training  natives  who  could  still 
unravel  their  meaning. 

Jfost  writers  of  the  early  colonial  period  were 
natives  of  the  Old  World,  whom  matters  of 
Church  or  State  called  to  the  Xi'W.  .\iiiong  those 
works  of  the  sixteenth  century  whicli  relate  to 
early  native  history  we  may  mention  Motolinfa's 
Hisloria  de  los  Viuliofi  de  la  \Mcrn  Expniia 
( l.)41 )  ;  Sahagdn's  Uinloria  de  Ins  rosns  nntiiliias 
de  los  Indios  (l.iOni  ;  and  Molina's  Vorabiilario 
n.">.').'.).  a  Castilian-Mexican  work  of  240  pages, 
one  of  the  products  of  .Tuan  Pablo's  first  print- 
ing press.  The  work  of  these  men  was  largely 
utilized  by  Torquemada  in  his  Mn)inrqw<t  In- 
difinn  (irii.5).  a  work  for  which  .\lamrin  bestows 
upon  him  the  title  'the  Livy  of  Xew  Spain.' 
.\bove  the  names  of  the  adopted  European  chron- 
iclers stand  those  of  Tezozomoe,  son  of  the  last 
Mexican    Emperor,    Cuitlahuae,    whose    Cr6nira 


MEXICAN  LITERATURE. 


401 


MEXICAN  LITERATURE. 


.Utxicu/iu  (c.  lOOUj  is  an  admirable  compan- 
ion volume  to  Friar  Diego  Duran's  Histoiia 
de  los  liidios  de  Sueva  Espana  y  istas  rft  Tiirra 
firme  (loSl),  up  to  that  time  the  most  complete 
chronicle  of  the  ancient  Jlexicans ;  and  Fernando 
de  Alva-Ixtlilxochitl  (15G8-1G4S),  the  original 
chronicler  of  the  Texcuco  royal  line,  whose  wink, 
though  not  rigorously  correct  in  chronology,  in 
volume  and  importance  surpasses  all  liis  prede- 
cessors. It  is  to  these  two  native  writers  that 
we  owe  the  interpretation  of  the  early  Mexican 
hieroglyphs  then  in  existence. 

The  chroniclers  who  treated  merely  of  the  Con- 
quest did  so  from  a  European  standpoint,  and 
for  this  reason  do  not  greatly  concern  us  here. 
Anrtmg  the  Creole  population  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  however,  there  were  some  poets  of  note. 
Prominent  among  these  were  Francisco  de  Ter- 
razas,  who  was  eulogized  by  Cervantes,  but  whose 
works  have  been  lost;  and  Saavedra  Guzman^ 
whose  most  famous  poem.  El  pereijrino  indiano 
(159!)),  adds  rather  to  his  reputation  as  chron- 
icler than  as  poet. 

Though  the  modest  literary  product  of  the 
seventeenth  century  may  to  some  extent  exem- 
plify the  intellectual  decadence  of  Xew  Spain 
during  that  period,  yet  it  illustrates  in  one  phase 
the  aptitude  of  the  mestizo  caste  for  music  and 
for  poetry — an  aptitude  which  dis]jlayed  itself  in 
both  Castilian  and  Latin  verse.  Easily  the  leader 
of  this  period  stands  the  poetess  Juana  Ines  de 
la  Cruz  ( lt)ol-1095) ,  a  leading  personage  at  the 
vice-regal  court,  and  later  a  nun,  who  dazzled 
her  contemporaries  by  her  learning,  and  whose 
subtle  and  suggestive  verse  gained  for  her  the 
title  'the  Tenth  Jluse.'  Anotlier  easy  and  cor- 
rect versifier  of  the  period  was  the  Pueblan 
JIatias  Bocanegra,  wliose  popularity  lasted  well 
into  the  succeeding  century.  The  making  of  verse 
at  tliat  time  was  simply  a  pastime,  so  a  com- 
]iaratively  small  output  has  survived  until  our 
own  day.  The  man  of  letters  /jar  excellence  of 
the  century  was  the  diligent  and  versatile  Carlos 
de  Sigiicnza  y  Gongora  (1645-1700),  whose  writ- 
ings, poetical  and  prose,  embraced  a  wide  variety 
of  literary  and  scientific  subjects.  He  held  the 
post  of  Cosmographer  of  Xew  Spain,  and  for 
many  years  filled  the  chair  of  mathematics  in 
the  University  of  ilexieo.  The  most  noted  co- 
lonial dramatist  of  the  century  was  Euscbio  Vela, 
who,  if  not  equal  to  the  leaders  of  the  Spanish 
stage,  surpassed  many  of  those  of  the  second 
rank.  .Juan  Ruiz  de  Alarcon.  the  dramatist, 
was  of  Mexican  birth  and  education,  though 
his  mature  work  was  produced  in  Spain.  The 
theological  works  of  the  time  bore  the  names 
of  many  native  Church  fathers :  likewise  the 
best  work  on  the  early  compiling  of  the  Laws 
of  the  Indies  was  that  of  Eodrigo  Aguiar  y  Acufia 
(died  1()2!M.  In  the  realm  of  scientific  litera- 
ture the  work  of  Enrico  Martinez.  lieportario  de 
los  tiempos  y  historin  niitural  desia  yiievn  Es- 
paila  (160G),  and  that  of  Friar  Agnstin  de  Ve- 
tancourt,  Teatro  mexicano  (1698),  fittingly  ojien 
and  close  the  century. 

The  eighteenth  century  in  Xew  Spain  was 
marked  by  a  more  extensive  if  less  notable 
literary  culture.  This  was  especially  true  of  the 
reign  of  Carlos  IV..  when  public  fimctions  were 
the  scenes  of  notable  contests  of  poets  and  ora- 
tors, many  of  whose  productions  were  f.'tvorably 
mentioned  in  Europe.  The  book  trade  with 
^Madrid  and  other  Spanish  cities  was  very  nour- 


ishing, and  some  especially  tine  editions  of  clas- 
sical authors  were  printed  in  the  Creole  capital. 
Large  and  well-selected  private  libraries  were 
common,  both  here  and  in  the  provincial  towns. 
It  was  the  [wriod  for  the  collection  of  archives 
and  the  writnig  of  local  history — a  work  in  which 
the  names  of  \eytia  (1718-1779)  and  Morfi  (died 
1793)  hold  a  prominent  position.  Si)anish-Amer- 
ican  journalism  is  represented  by  the  monthly 
gazette  (1728-39)  of  Francisco  Sahagun  de  Are- 
valo;  by  the  Giicctas  de  Literulura  (begun  1708) 
of  Jose  Antonio  de  .Mzate  (1729-90),  wliose  ])eri- 
odical  did  much  to  stimulate  intellectual  ellort 
and  develop  a  correct  literary  sentiment;  b\-  the 
Mercurio  Yolaiite  (begun  1772)  of  .Jose  Ignacio 
Bartolaehe,  largely  a  medical  journal ;  by  the 
Gaceta  de  Mexico,  a  fortnightly  publication  from 
1784  to  1800,  devoted  to  general  news  and  literary 
and  scientific  discussions,  and  after  that  date 
a  bi-weekly;  and  the  Diario  de  Mejico  (1805) 
and  the  Diario  de  Vera  Cruz  (1805),  the  former 
devoted  to  literary  and  statistical  matters,  and 
the  latter  a  commercial  sheet.  Despite  the  strict 
censorship  of  all  these  periodicals,  they  exercised 
a  most  beneficial  eft'ect  upon  public  opinion  at 
the  close  of  the  century. 

In  the  literary  production  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  work  of  the  Mexican  historians  easily 
leads  at  home,  and  occupies  a  prominent  place 
in  the  world  at  large.  An  important  work  as  col- 
lector of  historical  documents  was  done  by  Jose 
Fernandez  Ramirez.  Among  historians  of  lesser 
note  may  be  mentioned  Mora  and  Zaniacois.  Of  un- 
usual excellence  is  the  work  of  Bustamante  (died 
1848),  whose  volumes  treat  of  the  revolutionary 
period  and  of  the  beginnings  of  the  American 
War.  The  leader  of  his  age,  and  still  easily  the 
foremost  Mexican  historian,  was  Lucas  Alainan 
(died  1853).  whose  work  as  statesman  during 
a  trying  period  has  been  eclipsed  by  his  greater 
work  as  the  historian  of  that  period.  His  Diser- 
taciones  sobre  la  Historia  de  Mejieo  (3  vols., 
1844-49)  cover  the  vice-regal  period,  and  these 
are  supplemented  by  his  Historia  de  Uejico  (5 
vols.,  1849-52 ) ,  continuing  the  narrative  to  the 
middle  of  the  century.  Among  the  raoi'e  recent 
historians  the  greatest  figure  is  that  of  Manuel 
Orozco  y  Berra  (1810-81).  who  crowned  a  life 
of  public  service  and  valuable  arclurological  re- 
search bj'  devoting  his  last  twenty  years  to  his 
Historia  Antigua  de  Mexico.  Closely  allied  with 
these  is  the  work  of  Antonio  Garcia  Cubas,  whose 
Diccionario  geogriifico,  hislorico,  y  hiografico  de 
los  Estados  tlnidos  Mexicanos  (1889)  is  a  model 
of  its  kind. 

In  the  realm  of  pure  literature  the  physician- 
poet  Manuel  Carpio  (1791-1800)  was  well  known 
for  his  vigorous  descriptive  verse,  of  which  the 
most  important  example  is  Lu  cena  dc  Baltasar. 
His  firmness  and  moderation  in  political  life,  and 
the  erudition  and  charm  of  his  pneius,  easily 
render  him  the  most  popular  Mexican  poet  of 
the  century.  Ignacio  JIanuel  .\ltamirano  (born 
1834).  a  noted  liberal  orator,  is  famous  both  as 
a  poet  and  as  a  novelist.  His  poems  are  less  vig- 
orous in  description  than  those  of  Carpio;  the 
best  known  of  his  novels,  Clemencia,  is  of  con- 
siderable merit.  To  Rodriguez  Galviin  is  given 
the  credit  of  the  first  national  drama,  but  his 
work  has  been  surpassed  by  Fernando  Calderon 
(1819-45).  whose  Rciiialdo'y  Elena.  Zadig.  and 
others  gave  promise  of  much  better  work  had 
he  lived  to  complete  it.     In  comedy  the  name  of 


MEXICAN  LITERATURE. 


402 


MEXICAN  WAR. 


Manuel  E.  Gorosiiza  ^17S1>1851)  stands  su- 
jirenie.  His  comedies,  of  wliicli  tlie  most  famous 
are  Imlulycncia  para  todos  and  Conliyv  pun  y 
cebolla.  still  hold  popular  favor.  Tn  addition 
to  an  active  military  and  diplomatic  career  he 
organized  the  present  Bibliotcca  yacionul,  and 
j;rcatl_v  advanced  the  cause  of  ])opular  education 
throughout  the  Republic.  Consult:  .\hunan, 
Diseitaciones  sohn  In  llistoria  dc  Mcjicu  (Mexi- 
co, 1844-49)  ;  Pienientel,  llintoria  crilica  dc  la 
lileratura  y  de  las  ciencias  en  Mexico  (Mexico, 
1S85)  ;  Cortez,  .ImtVien  Poitica  (Paris,  1875)  ; 
id.,  Uiccirmario  bioyriifico  Anwricdrio  (Paris, 
1S7.T)  :  and  Mexico  a  trares  dc  los  siylos  (Mexi- 
co. lSS7S!n. 
MEXICAN  POPPY.     See  Argemone. 

MEXICAN  SUBREGION.  In  zoiigcography, 
a  sulidivir-ion  of  the  Neotropical  Region  which 
embraces  Central  America  and  the  low,  hot 
coast  regions  of  ile.xico  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Grande  on  the  cast  and  about  to  the 
border  of  the  plains  of  Durango  on  the  west. 
Letween  these,  the  northern  fauna  and  flora 
are  continued  along  the  summit  of  the  Cordillera 
as  an  entering  wedge  reaching  south  to  Xica- 
ragua.  It  has  many  species  peculiar  to  itself, 
but  no  large  groups,  ilany  northern  as  well 
as  southern  forms  extend  their  range  into  this 
middle  region,  as  might  be  expected:  and  views 
differ  as  to  where  its  boundaries  should  be  drawn. 
(See  SoxoKAN  liECiiox.)  On  the  whole,  its  affini- 
ties are  So\ith  American.  See  Distbiiutiox  of 
Ammals;  Xkog.ea;  Xotog.ea. 

MEXICAN  WAR.  The  war  between  the 
VnitiMl  St;itcs  and  -Mexico  in  184(i-48.  It  was  the 
result  of  a  scries  of  outrages  upon  .\merican 
citizens,  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
Texas  by  the  United  States  (18;i7),  the  annexa- 
tion (184.5)  of  Texas  to  the  United  States,  in 
the  face  of  bitter  opposition  on  the  part  of 
Mexico,  herself  torn  with  revolution  and  con- 
tending factions,  and  finally  of  a  dispute  regard- 
ing the  boundary  of  Texas,  the  United  States 
claiming  the  Rio  Grande  as  the  boundary,  while 
Mexico  held  that  Texas  did  not  extend  farther 
south  than  the  Nueces.  During  the  fall  of  1S4.5 
a  large  part  of  the  small  regular  army  of  the 
United  Stales  was  assembled  under  (ien.  Zacbary 
Taylor  at  Corpus  Christi.  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Nueces  in  Texas,  and  on  March  12.  1S4().  under 
orders  from  the  United  States  GovernnuMit.  Tay- 
lor advanced  into  the  territory  the  possession  of 
wliich  was  then  in  dispute,  .\fter  a  march  of 
sixteen  days  he  reached  the  Rio  Grande  at  a 
point  opposite  to  the  Mexican  city  of  Mata- 
moros.  A  week  earlier,  on  the  21st.  the  Unit- 
eil  States  .Minister  to  Mexico,  Sliihdl,  un.able 
to  negotiate  a  treaty  in  accordance  with  Presi- 
ilenf  I'olk's  directions,  or  even  to  secure  official- 
recognition,  received  his  passports  and  started 
on  his  return  to  the  United  States.  The  Mexican 
army  at  this  time  numbered  at  least  .'{O.OOO  of  all 
arms,  and  comprised,  besides  troops  of  the  line, 
the  active  battalions  of  the  States  and  the  local 
national  gininls  of  the  cities.  The  cavalry 
llanciTs)  were  excidlent  horsemen,  fairly  dis- 
ciplined, but  inditferently  mounted  and  jioorly 
armed;  the  artillery,  officered  partly  by  foreign- 
ers, were  good  gunners,  Init  the  arm  lacked  mo- 
bility: the  infantry  were  well  drilled,  but  were 
armed  with  muskets  of  ancient  pattern.  .An 
undue    number    of    general    oflicers     (pcditicians 


rather  than  soldiers)  and  an  inelhcient  general 
staff  completed  the  ile.xiean  resources  for  war. 
The  effective  power  of  the  ilexicans,  however, 
was  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  they  represented 
the  "defense;'  that  they  served  among  friends, 
and  that  they  often  fought  behind  strong  fortifi- 
cations. Tile  American  army  was  inferior  in 
numerical  strength  to  tlie  enemy.  At  the  close 
of  1845  the  maximum  strength  was  7883.  What 
it  lacked  in  numbers,  however,  was  made  up  in 
ligliting  quality.  It  consisted  of  two  regiments 
of  dragoons,  four  of  artillery,  and  eight  of  in- 
fantry, with  the  usual  staff  corps.  The  dragoons 
were  well  disciplined,  drilled  as  light  cavalry,  and 
armed  with  carbines  and  sabres;  the  artillery 
garrisoned  the  fortifications,  but  had  little  in- 
struction in  gunnery,  excepting  one  company  in 
each  regiment  organized  as  liglit  artillery,  which 
had  reached  a  high  standard  of  ellicicncy ;  the 
infantry,  well  disciplined  and  familiar  with  the 
use  of  arms,  were  distributed  among  a  nimiber  of 
small  frontier  posts  and  never  in  large  bodies; 
the  officers,  a  majority  graduates  of  West  Point, 
were  generally  of  superior  ability,  with  the  ex- 
perience and  self-reliance  gained  in  Indian  ser- 
vice and  independent  comiuand.  The  navy  of  the 
United  States,  although  small,  was  exceedingly 
efficient.  The  ilexican  Repul)lic  had  only  a  few 
small  steamers  and  sailing  vessels,  and  these 
principally  on  paper.  Taylor's  command  hardly 
comprised  3000  effectives  upon  its  arrival  oppo- 
site Matamoros,  on  the  28th  of  March,  1846. 
Taylor  immediately  fortified  his  position  and 
established  a  base  of  supply  at  Point  Isabel. 
The  mouth  of  the  Rio  (4randc  was  lilockaded  by 
the  small  naval  force  accomiianying  tlie  .\nieri- 
can  army,  and  two  vessels  with  supplies  for  the 
Mexican  army  were  warned  off  and  returned  to 
sea.  General  Ampudia.  who  was  in  command  at 
ilatamoros  from  April  11th  to  April  24th,  pro- 
tested vigorously  against  the  occupation  of  dis- 
puted territory  by  Cieneral  Taylor,  and  insisted 
that,  pending  a  settlement  of  the  lioumlary  dis- 
pute, the  American  army  should  be  withdrawn  to 
the  Nueces.  On  April  24tli  General  .\rista  super- 
seded Ampudia,  and  at  once  decided  to  take  the 
offensive  and  cross  the  Rio  Grande, notifying  Tay- 
lor that  he  considered  hostilities  already  to  have 
liegun  on  the  part  of  the  I'nited  States.  On  the 
25tb  General  Taylor  learned  that  a  large  force  of 
cavalry  had  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  some  niilen 
above  his  position,  and  sent  a  small  squadron  of 
the  Second  Dragoons  under  Cajitain  Thornton  to 
obtain  definite  information.  While  endeavoring 
to  execute  the  order,  Thornton,  whose  guide  had 
deserted,  found  his  command  surrounded  by 
a  .Mexican  cavalry  force  of  more  than  .WO.  and  in 
an  attempt  to  cut  his  way  out  lost  one  officer  and 
eight  men  killed,  and  two  men  wounded:  and, 
with  the  remainder  (4(iK  was  captured.  Taylor 
notified  his  Government  that  the  first  blow  had 
been  struck,  and  called  upon  the  Governors  of 
Louisiana  and  Texas  for  5000  vcdunteers.  On  the 
30th.  General  Taylor,  leaving  a  regiment  of  infan- 
try and  two  companies  of  artillery  to  garrison  an 
earthwork,  known  as  Fort  Brown  (see  HnoWNS- 
vii.i.K.  Tex.),  in  front  of  Matamoros.  proceeded 
with  the  remainder  of  his  command  to  Point 
Isabel  in  order  to  complete  his  communications. 
During  his  absence  the  ;Mexicans  attacked  the 
fort  vigorously. but  to  no  avail.  .Vs  he  was  return- 
ing (May  Sth).  he  encountered  .Arista,  who  with 
0000  men  and  ten  guns  barred  the  road  at  a  place 


MEXICAN  WAR. 


403 


MEXICAN  WAR. 


nine  miles  from  jMatamoios,  known  as  Palo  Alto. 
Taylor's  force  numbered  -2:0)0  olKcers  and  men 
and  ten  guns.  After  a  tiglit  of  four  hours  (see 
P.4LO  Alto),  Arista  fell  back  to  Kesaca  de  la 
Piilnia,  with  a  loss  of  252.  The  American  easual- 
ties  comprised  7  killed  and  47  wounded.  On  the 
following  day  Taylor  continued  his  march.  Ar- 
riving in  front  of  the  ile.xican  position,  a 
low  ridge  commanding  the  road  to  ilataraoros, 
the  Americans  paused  to  reconnoitre.  On  ac- 
count of  the  dense  'chaparral,'  movements  en 
masse  were  impacticable,  and  the  infantry 
were  deployed  as  skirmishers,  with  the  artillery, 
supported  by  the  dragoons,  remaining  on  the 
road.  Arista  had  been  reenforced  during  the 
night  by  2000  infantry.  As  on  the  day  before,  an 
artillery  duel  ensued,  and  the  Mexican  batteries 
held  the  Americans  at  bay  for  some  time,  imtil 
Taylor  sent  a  squadron  of  dragoons  under  Captain 
.May.  who  gallantly  charged,  taking  the  guns, 
togetlier  with  the  Jlexican  general.  La  Vega,  at 
the  cost,  however,  of  1  officer,  and  7  men  killed, 
and  10  men  wounded.  Upon  this  the  enemy  gave 
wa.v  and  fled  from  the  field,  pursued  by  the 
Americans,  who  made  man,\-  captures,  includ- 
ing 14  ofhcers,  8  pieces  of  artillery,  and 
several  standards.  The  Mexicans,  in  confu- 
sion, retired  to  Matamoros,  many  being  drowned 
in  crossing  the  river.  Arista's  losses  were  esti- 
mated at  1000  men.  of  whom  200  «ere  left  dead 
upon  tlie  battle-field.  On  May  17th  Arista  evacu- 
ated Matamoros.  and  on  the  following  day  Tay- 
lor cros.sed  the  Pao  Orande  and  took  possession. 
Previously,  on  May  11th,  President  Polk  had  sent 
to  Congress  his  famous  war  message,  in  which  he 
enumerated  the  wrongs  committed  by  Mexico 
against  the  United  States,  and,  ignoring  Mexico's 
reasonable  claim  to  the  country  between  the 
Nueces  and  the  Rio  (irande,  asserted  that  "Mexi- 
co has  passed  the  boundary  of  the  United  States, 
has  invaded  our  territory,  and  shed  American 
Idood  upon  American  soil."  Two  days  later  Con- 
gress issued  a  formal  declaration  of  war,  and 
threw  the  onus  of  striking  tlie  first  blow  upon 
Mexico.  The  ensuing  three  months  were  utilized 
by  both  sides  in  raising  additional  troops.  Con- 
gress authorized  a  call  for  ;i0.000  volunteers,  and 
the  regular  army  was  increased  to  .30,000.  On 
August  10th  Taylor  marched  with  6700  men 
(including  volunteers)  upon  !Montere.v.  which 
was  held  by  Ampudia  with  10.000  men.  Previous 
to  his  arrival  before  Monterey,  liowever.  Santa 
.\nna  (q.v. )  had  subverted  the  Government  of 
Paredes.  and  had  estal)lishpd  himself  in  power. 
The  American  arm,v  arrived  in  front  of  tlie  town 
September  Iflth.  attacked  on  the  21st.  and  after 
three  da,vs  of  severe  fighting  the  defenses  were 
taken  by  assault,  and  the  Mexican  general  capitu- 
lated, being  permitted  to  march  out  'with  the 
lionors  of  war,'  and  an  armistice  of  eight  weeks 
lieing  agreed  upon.  ( See  Monterey.  Battle  of.  ) 
The  .Mexican  losses  were  estimated  at  nearly 
loot);  the  American  at  488.  General  Scott  witli- 
ilrew  from  Taylor  the  greater  part  of  his  army 
and  instructed  Taylor  to  establish  his  head- 
(piarters  at  Monterey  and  refrain  from  further 
offensive  operations.  Through  captured  dis- 
patches Santa  .\nna  learned  of  Taylor's  de- 
pleted force,  and  quietly  n<lyanced  upon  the 
American  position  near  Saltillo  witli  20.000  effec- 
tives.  Taylor's  scouts  informed  him  of  this  in 
time  for  him  to  complete  his  dispositions  for  bat- 


tle. With  4001  men,  including  several  regiments  of 
newly  enlisted  volunteers,  he  awaited  Santa 
Anna  at  Angostura,  near  Saltillo  and  on  the 
road  to  San  Luis  de  Potosf.  The  engagement 
which  followed,  known  as  the  battle  of  Buena 
Vista  (([.v.),  lasted  two  days  (February  22  and 
23,  1847),  and  more  than  once  the  result  seemed 
doubtful,  the  panic  which  seized  certain  regi- 
ments of  Taylor's  volunteers  being  counter- 
balanced by  the  steadiness  of  the  regulars, 
the  ellective  work  of  the  light  batteries,  and  the 
gallantry  of  the  Mississippi  regiment  under 
Col.  Jelierson  Davis,  afterwards  President  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy.  Notwithstanding  the  nu- 
merical superiority  of  the  Jlexican  army,  the 
obstinacy  of  the  defense  eventually  won,  and  San- 
ta Anna  was  forced  to  withdraw  with  2500  killed 
and  wounded  and  nearly  4000  missing,  of  v\hom 
the  greater  number  had  deserted  during  the  battle. 
The  American  casualties  comprised  204  killed 
and  450  wounded.  Soon  afterwards  (general  Tay- 
lor returned  home  on  leave  of  absence. 

While  the  campaign  in  Northern  Mexico  vvaa 
thus  progressing,  the  United  States  sent  expedi- 
tions into  New  Mexico  and  California.  Within 
three  months  the  American  flag  had  been  hoisted 
at  Santa  Fe,  the  navy  had  planted  the  flag  at 
San  Francisco,  and  seaports  on  the  west  coast 
of  Mexico  were  blockaded. 

On  March  9.  1847,  Scott  began  to  land  his  force 
(12,000  men)  at  Vera  Cruz,  with  materials  for  a 
siege.  By  the  22d  the  investment  of  the  city 
was  complete,  and  a  formal  demand  for  sur- 
render was  made,  which  met  with  prompt  re- 
fusal. For  four  days  the  besiegers  bombarded 
the  city  and  the  Castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua, 
their  fire  being  replied  to  with  spirit,  but  on  the 
25th  the  foreign  consuls  used  their  influence  in 
the  interests  of  non-combatants  and  to  secure  the 
burial  of  the  dead,  and  a  suspension  of  hostili- 
ties ensued.  On  the  29th  the  city  surrendered. 
(See  Ver.\  Cruz.)  After  a  brief  interval  the 
Americans  pushed  on  toward  their  goal.  At  the 
same  time  Santa  Anna,  having  reorganized  his 
army,  marched  with  more  than  12,00()  men  from 
the  City  of  Jlexico.  At  Cerro  Gordo  (q.v.) .  a  pass 
in  the  mountains,  GO  miles  from  Vera  Cruz,  he 
awaited  the  invaders,  about  8.500  strong.  On  the 
14th  of  April  Scott  arrived  and  on  the  18th 
attacked.  Although  stoutl,v  resisted,  by  noon 
the  Americans  had  swept  over  Cerro  Gordo  and 
driven  the  Mexicans  down  the  road  for  ten 
miles.  The  spoils  comprised  3000  prison- 
ers, including  5  generals,  and  40  bronze  cannon. 
The  casualties  on  the  Mexican  side  were  fnll,y 
1000;  on  the  American  side.  431.  The  advance 
to  Puebla  was  only  sliglitly  opposed,  and  on  May 
15th  Worth's  division  of  4000  men  encam]ied  in 
the  C4rand  Pla^a  of  this  'City  of  the  Angels.'  in 
the  midst  of  60,000  hostile  citizens.  75  miles 
from  the  IMexican  capital.  On  the  17th  Scott 
nmde  a  flnal  appeal  to  the  Mexicans  in  the 
interest  of  peace,  but  in  the  imbittered  state  of 
popular  feeling  it  failed.  On  the  contrary.  Santa 
Anna  strained  every  means  for  the  defense  of  his 
capital :  he  appealed  to  the  patriotism  of  the 
people,  money  was  freely  contributed,  and  almost 
every  able-bodied  man  was  enrolled  for  the  com- 
mon defense,  until  36.000  men  and  100  pieces  of 
artillery  were  in  readiness.  Sickness  and  the  dis- 
charge of  seven  regiments  of  volunteers  had  re- 
duced Scott's  army,  but  the  arrival  of  2400  men 
under  General  Pierce    (afterwards   President  of 


MEXICAN  WAR. 


404 


MEXICO. 


the  United  States)  brought  the  total  .strength  of 
the  American   forces   to    10,738,   nearly  one-half 
of    whom    were    recruits.      Leaving    a    detach- 
ment    of     500     men     at     Puebla,     where     2300 
wounded  were  in  liospitals,  Scott  advanced  upon 
the  'Halls   of  the   Montezumas.'     The   city   was 
entered  by  three  roads,  eacli  guarded   by   rocky 
hills  strongly  fortilicd,  the  most  prominent  being 
that  of  El  Pefion,  mounting  51  guns,  beliind  which 
were  long  and  narrow  causeways.  Hanked  on  one 
side  by  fields  covered  with  broken  lava,  and  on 
the  other  by  ponds  and  marshes.    On  the  east  and 
southeast  large  lakes  added  to  the  military  pro- 
tection of  tlie  city;  an  inner  lino  of  fortifications, 
made    doubly    imprcgnal)le    l)y    nature    and    art. 
(•om]ilcted  tlic  obstacles  to  a  further  advance  on 
the  part  of  the  Americans.     Undismayed  by  these, 
however.  General  Scott  sununoned  his  engineers, 
among    whom    were    Captains    George    B.    JIc- 
Clellan  and  Robert  K.  Lee,  and  a  new  road  was 
cut,   skirting  Lake   C'halco  and  by  a   circuitous 
route  of  27  miles  leading  to  the  most  vulnerable 
^ide   of  the  town.     After   careful   reconnoissance 
the  first  impediment,  the  hill  of  Contreras  (q.v.). 
was  taken   (August  2l)tli)    l)y  an  une.\i)ected  and 
desperate  assault,  witli  813  ])risoncrs    (inclnding 
four  generals), 22  cannon,  and  tliousands  of  small 
arms.     The  attacking  force  numbered  4500.  tlie 
defense  7000  men.  of  wliom  700  were  killed,  while 
the    Americans    lost    about    60    in    killed    and 
wounded.     On  the  same  day  the  strong  positions 
of    San    Antonio    and    t'hurubusco     (q.v.)     were 
carried  by  the  divisicms  of   Worth  and  Twiggs, 
with  furtlier  captures  of   1800  prisoners,  includ- 
ing 4  general  officers:   tlie  ^Mexicans  losing  more 
tlian  3000  and  the  Americans  af)(nit    1!()0   kitled 
and  wounded.     After  tlie  'outer  walls'  liad  tlius 
been  gained,   the   American   advance   was   again 
lialted,    and    on    August    23d   an    armistice    was 
agreed  upon  pending  tlie  possibility  that  the  de- 
mands of  the  I'nited  States  miglit'be  acceded  to 
without     further     liloodshed.     This     expectation 
proved    futile,   and    on    Se])teniber   7tli    the    final 
movement    began.      After    severe    hand    to    hand 
fighting,    the    defenses   of    .Moliiio    del    Key   were 
carried  by  tlie  Americans  on  September  8th,  and 
on    the    13th    the    castle    of    Cliapulteiioc    was 
stormed.     On  the  14th  the  Mexican  army  evacu- 
ated  the   capital,   and   General    Scott  made   his 
entrj-  into  the  city.     The  total  American  losses 
during   the   operations   in    the   Valley   of   Mexico 
were    2703.    including    383    officers:    that   of   the 
Mexicans    7000    kiiled    and    wounded    and    3730 
prisoners  of  war.     Tlie  sjioils  of  war  comprised 
20  standards.  132  cannon,  and  20.000  small  arms. 
General    Scott   estalilislied    liis    headipiarters    in 
the  City  of  Mexico,  was  reenforced  to  an  aggre- 
gate of  "'20,000  men.  and  levied  a  tax  of  $150,000 
upon  the  municipal  government,  to  be  largely  ex- 
pended for  the  comfort  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 
On  Feliruary  2,   1848,  a  treaty  of  peace  between 
the    I'nited    States    and    Mexico    was    signed    nt 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo.      (See  Gr.vn.vLi'PF.  HinAi.oo. 
Tkkatv    of.)      The    total    number    of    .American 
regulars   who  served    in    Mexico   and   its.  borders 
during  the  war  was  21,50!l:(if  volunteers.  22,027. 
ntni.inoRAPiiY.    Consult:  I'iplev.  T/ir  llVn- i/iV/i 
Mrxirn   ( Xew  York.   1840)  :  Mansfield,  Thr  Mrxi- 
can    UV/r    (Xew    York,    1852)  :    Ladd,    Thr    War 
vilh  Mexico   (New  York,  IS83)  :  Official  Krpnrl. 
Kcrrrfari)  of  M'ar    (Washington.   1847)  ;    Wilcox. 
Ifiston/     of     Ihr     Mr.riran     War     (Washington, 
1892)  ;  Bancroft,  //is/on/  uf  Mexico,  vol.  v.  (San 


Francisco,  1885)  ;  Autobiograpliy  of  Liiutenant- 
Goieral  ticott  (New  York,  1804);  Howard,  Gen- 
eral Taylor  (Xew  York,  1892)  ;  and  Wright, 
aeneral  ticott  (Xew  York,  1894),  in  the  "Great 
Commanders  Series."  For  furtlier  information 
concerning  the  causes  and  results  of  the  war, 
see  the  article  Uxited  St.\tes. 

MEXICO  (Sp.  Mcjico,  mri'jii-k6).  A  country 
of  Xorth  America  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
United  States  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  east  by 
the  Gulf  of  Jlexico.  the  Carililiean  Sea,  and 
British  Honduras,  south  and  west  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  Guatemala.  It  extends"  tlirougli  18 
degrees  of  latitude.  Ijetween  the  |)arallels  of  15" 
and  33°  X'.,  and  tlirough  30  degrees  of  longitude, 
between  tlie  meridians  of  87°  and  117°  W.,  and 
has  an  area  of  707,000  square  miles,  including 
the  islands.  The  Tro[)ic  of  Cancer  passes  through 
it  nearly  midway  lietween  its  northern  and  south- 
ern fjoundaries,  tlie  southern  half  of  the  country 
being  therefore  within  the  troiiics.  The  boundary 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  is  183.3 
miles  in  length,  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
country  being  its  widest  portion.  The  Is'tbmus  of 
Teliuanteiiec.  a  little  more  than  100  miles  across, 
is  the  narrowest  part.  The  country  has  1727 
miles  of  coast  line  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  and  4574  miles  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  In  form  Mexico  is  not  tmlike  a  cornu- 
coi)i;i  with  its  narrow  end  tapering  toward  the 
southeast:  and  the  country  is  concave  on  its  east- 
ern and  convex  on  its  western  coast  lines.  It  is 
junlonged  toward  the  east  by  the  low.  wide 
jieninsula  of  Yucatan ;  and  the  long,  narrow  pen- 
insula of  Lower  California  projects  through  9 
degrees  of  latitude,  the  great  Gulf  of  California 
separating  it  from  the  mainland. 

TopooRAPiiY.  The  surface  of  the  main  i)ortion 
of  Mexico  rises  steeidy  from  the  narrow 
coast  lands,  and  more  gently  from  the  great 
deiiression  of  the  lower  Kio  (Vrandc  to  the  broad 
talileland  of  the  interior.  This  central  [ilateau 
is  dominated  by  mountains  whose  great  height  is 
masked  by  the  elevated  lands  above  which  they 
rise.  The  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  main  mass 
of  Jlexico  in  its  conformation  or  geological  struc- 
ture, being  a  very  low,  level  region. 

The  eastern  coast  is  of  monotonous  aspect,  low, 
fiat,  and  sandy:  but  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz, 
where  the  lofty  mountain  edge  of  the  plateau 
most  nearly  apiiroaclies  the  coast,  the  inconspicu- 
ous shore  line  is  forgotten  by  all  who  approach  it 
from  the  gulf,  for  the  majestic  summits  of  the 
interior  arc  visible  far  out  to  sea  and  dominate 
the  view.  Long  reaches  of  sand  banks  stretch  in 
front  of  the  shore  nearly  as  far  south  as  Vera 
Cruz,  shielding  the  shallow  waters  between  the 
mainland  and  the  banks  from  the  sea  waves.  The 
Pacific  shore  is  also  generally  low.  though  here 
and  there  relieved  by  spurs  from  the  Cordillera 
that  extend  to  the  ocean.  Most  of  the  many 
small  islands  near  the  coasts  are  uninhabited, 
tliougli  some  of  them  are  very  fertile.  The  most 
important  islands  are  El  Carmen,  the  largest 
^Icxicnn  isl.nnd  in  the  fiulf  of  Mexico:  San  Juan 
de  Ulna  and  Sacrificios,  at  Vera  Cruz:  Mnjeres 
and  Cozumel.  in  the  Caribbean  .Sea:  Guadalupe, 
in  the  Pacific  off  the  coast  of  Lower  California; 
the  Trcs  Marias  group,  near  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  California;  the  Revilla  Gigedo  group,  far 
ofi'  the  coast  of  the  State  of  Colima.  (o  wliich   it 


CCPTRJIJHT,  leM,  BT  OOMi,   HEAD  A  OOMPAfll. 


_im 


r 


MEXICO. 


405 


MEXICO. 


is  assigned ;  and  Alcatras  Island,  near  the  coast 
of  JMichoacan. 

There  are  no  good  natural  harbors  on  the  Gulf 
of  ilcxieo  coast,  but  this  impediment  to  com- 
merce has  been  partly  relieved  by  the  expenditure 
of  large  sums.  Jetties  at  the  entrance  to  the 
port  of  Tampieo  have  increased  the  depth  from 
y  to  24  feet ;  and  breakwaters  at  Vera  Cruz  have 
turned  that  dangerous  roadstead  into  a  safe  and 
commodious  harbor.  The  best  natural  harbors 
are  on  the  Pacific  coast,  those  of  Acapulco,  ilan- 
zanilla,  Guaynias,  and  La  Paz,  the  chief  town  of 
Lower  California,  being  most  conspicuous.  That 
of  Acapulco  is  one  of  the  finest  natural  harbors 
in  the  world.  These  excellent  Pacific  coast  ports 
have,  however,  the  disadvantage  that  they  are 
shut  off  by  mountains  from  the  busiest  parts  of 
the  republic,  and  therefore  do  not  have  a  large 
share  of  the  country's  trade. 

The  eastern  and  western  edges  of  tlie  great 
central  tableland  are  bordered  by  two  Cordilleras 
or  high  mountain  ranges.  The  eastern  range 
(Sierra  iladre  Oriental)  extends  from  10  to  100 
miles  back  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  land 
gently  sloping  from  the  foot  of  tlie  mountains  to 
the  sea.  The  cordillcra  on  the  Pacific  side 
(Sierra  Madre  Occidental)  is  on  the  whole  nearer 
to  the  coast;  and  in  the  south,  in  the  States  of 
Michoacan  and  Guerrero,  extends  a  coastal  range, 
a  broad  and  fertile  valley  stretching  between  it 
and  the  main  cordillcra  which  trends  toward  the 
east.  The  most  continuous  range  is  the  Sierra 
!Madre  Occidental  of  the  Pacific  which  extends 
from  Arizona  to  Oaxaea  with  a  mean  elevation 
of  over  10,000  feet.  The  inland  faces  of  the  two 
border  ranges  descend  somewhat  gently  to  the 
central  tableland,  while  their  seaward  sides  are 
more  precijiitous.  presenting  many  scarps  and 
cliifs  and  furrowed  with  deep  chasms  or  gorges. 
The  border  ranges  gradually  approach  one  an- 
other toward  the  south  and  the  narrowing  plain 
between  them  terminates,  south  of  the  City  of 
ilexico,  in  a  labyrinth  of  mountains  culminating 
in  giant  peaks,  such  as  Popocatepetl  and  Orizaba. 
They  include  an  irregular  line  of  mountains, 
known  to  the  Jlexicans  as  the  Cordillera  de 
Anahuac,  extending  east  and  west  across  the 
country  without  forming  a  continuous  chain,  but 
embracing  most  of  the  active  volcanoes. 

The  numerous  volcanoes  of  ilexico,  active  and 
extinct,  which  are  confined  to  the  southern 
half  of  the  country  between  the  22d  parallel  and 
ths  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  are  the  most 
elevated  features  of  the  topography.  Ten  of  them 
are  more  or  less  active,  though  a  number  may  be 
called  dornuint,  as  their  exhalations  consist  only 
of  aqueous  or  sulphurous  vapors.  The  loftiest 
among  them  is  Orizaba  (CitLaltepetl) .  Star 
Mountain,  1.S.'250  feet  in  height,  situated  to  the 
north  of  the  line  of  the  railroad  between  Vera 
Cruz  and  the  City  of  Mexico.  It  has  not  been 
in  violent  eruption  since  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  has  been  nearly  quiescent 
since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, though 
vapors  and  sulphurous  jets  are  still  ejected  from 
its  crater,  which,  however,  is  usually  filled  with 
snow.  Popocatepetl  (Smoking  Jlountain),  17.- 
.'520  feet,  the  most  widely  known  of  the  Mexican 
volcanoes,  is  comparatively  easy  of  ascent.  Its 
yawning  crater  is  over  a  half  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference and  2.50  feet  deep,  and  thrn\igh  the  melted 
snow  aro\ind  the  orifice  frequent  jets  of  gas 
emerge,      Orizaba    and   Popocatepetl    are   among 


the  most  perfectly  formed  of  volcanic  mountains. 
Ixtaccihuatl  (White  Woman),  10,960  feet,  rises 
to  the  north  of  Popocatepetl,  and  is  now  extinct, 
though  many  legends  relating  to  its  ancient 
activity  are  still  repeated.  The  extinct  Xevado 
de  Toluca  ( 14,tl50  feet)  rises  to  the  south  of  the 
town  whose  name  it  bcar.s,  a  lake  from  melting 
snows  partly  filling  its  'crater  with  pure  cold 
water  in  which  fish  of  a  jt^culiar  species  are 
found,  ilalinche  (13,400  feet)  rises  in  isolated 
majesty  from  the  middle  of  the  Tlaxcala  plateau. 
On  the  verge  of  the  central  plateau  bordering  the 
Sierra  i\Iadre  Oriental  is  Cofre  de  Perote  ( 13,- 
400  feet),  another  great  eruptive  summit  now 
extinct,  which  owes  its  name  'coft'er'  to  the  quad- 
rilateral form  of  its  summit,  and  is  famous  for 
the  China-camote  cavern  on  its  western  side,  said 
to  be  over  30  miles  in  length,  but  difiicult  of  ac- 
cess because  its  floor  is  strewn  with  large  rocks. 
Colima  (12,970  feet). not  far  from  the  Pacific  and 
the  most  active  ^■olcano  in  ilexico.  is  in  au  almost 
incessant  state  of  ebullition.  The  view  from  its 
summit,  during  its  periods  of  quietude,  is  xm- 
rivalcd,  embracing  the  ocean,  widespread  plains, 
and  the  glittering  snow  crown  of  Popocatepetl 
far  to  the  east.  The  forested  Tancitaro  volcano 
( 12,()o0  feet)  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  Colima, 
but  nearer  to  the  Sierra  Madre.  As  the  limit 
of  perpetual  snow  is  a  little  under  15,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  only  three  of  these  lofty  sunnnits, 
Orizaba,  Popocatepetl,  and  Ixtaccihuatl,  have  an 
enduring  crown  of  snow;  and  considerable 
glaciers  develop  only  on  Ixtaccihuatl.  The  small 
volcano  of  Jorullo"  (4330  feet)  is  said  by  the 
natives  to  have  suddenly  risen  above  the  culti- 
vated plain  in  a  single  night  near  the  end  of 
1759,  though  its  period  of  construction  did  not 
end  till  1763.  Humboldt  made  it  famous  by  the 
description  he  received  from  the  natives  of  its 
terrific  energ;^-.  Columns  of  superheated  air  still 
rise  from  its  crater. 

The  wide  tableland  or  plateau  of  Anahuac 
(q.v,),  fringed  by  these  mountains,  slopes  from 
soutii  to  north,  being  from  5000  to  9000  feet 
high  in  the  States  of  Mexico  and  Puebla  and 
falling  to  3600  feet  at  El  Paso,  on  the  United 
States  border.  Its  surface  is  covered  with  long- 
continued  outpourings  from  the  volcanoes  and  the 
detritus  worn  away  from  the  mountain  slopes, 
which,  according  to  Heilprin,  filled  the  original 
depressions,  the  valleys  of  to-day  having  been 
imposed  upon  this  new  surface.  The  mountains 
of  the  plateau,  nearly  buried  by  the  accumula- 
tions of  past  ages,  still  rear  their  heads  above  the 
general  level,  and  here  and  there  are  continuous 
ridges  or  ranges  which  divide  the  surface  into 
well-defined  basins  such  as  the  Valley  of  Mexico, 
nearly  8000  feet  above  the  sea  and  completely 
inclosed  by  mountains.  The  rivers  of  the  plateau 
have  cut  deep  valleys  and  canons,  some  of  which 
are  1000  feet  below  the  general  level,  extending 
the  warmer  influence  of  the  coast  lands  into  the 
plain.  These  barrancas,  as  they  are  called,  are 
watered  by  small  streams  and  contrast,  by  the 
luxuriance  of  their  vegetation,  with  the  dry  and 
often  barren  plateau  above  them.  Tlie  most  fa- 
mous of  the  barrancas  extend  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Guadalajara  thro\igh  the  western  moun- 
tains to  Colima  and  Tepic.  On  the  whole,  the 
sTirface  of  the  plateau  is  so  level  that  there  was 
little  difliculty.  even  before  there  were  wagon 
roads,  in  traveling  by  carriage  between  the  City 
of  Mexico  and  Santa  Fe. 


MEXICO. 


406 


MEXICO. 


The  dry  and  sandy  pc'ninsula  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, tlie  most  remote  region  of  tlie  Republic, 
is  also  traversed  by  a  range  of  mountains,  broken 
in  two  places,  and  culminating  in  ilount  Santa 
Catalina,  rising  10.000  feet  above  the  sea  not  far 
south  of  the  neck  of  the  jieninsula.  Owing  to  its 
excessively  dry  climatj-  and  scanty  population, 
this  peninsula  is  still  little  known.  The  liuge 
quadrilateral  peninsula  of  Yucatan  is  projected 
beyond  tlie  continental  coast  line  toward  Cuba, 
has  no  mountain  ranges,  and  its  mean  altitude  is 
scarcely  above  100  feet. 

llYimotiR.vpiiY.  The  form  of  the  central 
plateau,  henuiied  in  by  border  ranges  parallel 
with  the  sea  and  preventing  wet  winds  from 
reaching  the  interior,  is  not  favorable  to  the 
development  of  large  fluvial  systems.  Xo  Mexi- 
can river  i.s  important  for  its  volume  or  is 
valuable  for  commerce  excepting  to  a  very  limited 
extent.  All  rivers  tributary  both  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific  are  obstructed  by  sand 
bars  at  their  mouth.  The  longest  river  is  the 
Rio  Grande,  which  rises  in  Colorado  and  for  7.50 
miles  forms  the  boundary  line  between  the  United 
States  and  Mexico.  The  waters  of  its  upper 
course  are  so  far  diverted  for  irrigation  purposes 
that  the  lower  river  is  almost  entirely  dry  dur- 
ing the  dry  season.  While  the  Mexican  jiart  of 
its  basin  comprises  94.000  s(|uare  miles,  tlie  river 
receives  scarcely  any  jiercnnial  stream.  Its 
largest  aflluent  in  Mexico  is  the  Rio  Conchos, 
which  is  fed  for  200  miles  north  and  south  by  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Madre  Occidental. 
The  Salado  tributary  comes  from  the  Sierra 
Madre  Oriental,  and  its  name.  Salt  River,  indi- 
cates that  its  waters  are  rendered  saline  by  their 
very  slow  passage  through  shallow  basins.  Other 
tributaries  have  the  same  peculiarity,  so  that 
they  give  a  brackish  taste  to  the  waters  of  the 
Rio  Grande  itself.  The  I'iinuco.  the  most  con- 
siderable river  of  the  south  tributary  to  the  tlulf 
of  Jfexieo.  rises  north  of  the  Mexican  \'alley  and 
empties  at  the  port  of  Tampico.  The  Coatzacoal- 
cos,  or  Snake  River,  drains  the  alluvial  plain  and 
low  mountain  district,  forming  the  northern  slope 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec;  small  boats  as- 
cend it  for  over  sixty  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
most  important  rivers  on  the  Pacific  coast  are 
the  Rio  de  las  Ralsas  (river  of  the  rafts),  which, 
as  its  name  indicates,  is  navigable  to  a  limited 
extent  in  its  lower  reaclu's,  and  the  Lerma  or 
Santiago,  which  rises  a  little  west  of  the  City  of 
^lexico.  and  about  fifteen  miles  from  Guadalajara 
is  precipitated  over  the  great  falls  of  .Tuanacat- 
lan.  one  of  the  finest  waterfalls  in  tlie  Western 
world. 

The  Lake  of  Cliapala.  which  receives  and  dis- 
charges the  Lcmia  River,  is  the  largest  lake  in 
Mexico;  many  fine  country  houses  have  been  built 
on  its  shores.  Mexico  has  no  really  large  lakes, 
though  some  of  the  sheets  of  water,  as  Cuitzeo 
and  I'atzcuaro.  in  the  State  of  Michoncan.  are 
famous  for  their  beauty.  .\  considerable  ])art 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  is  occupied  by  six  very 
shallow  lacustrine  basins,  four  of  the  lakes  salt. 
They  are  the  relics  of  much  larger  lakes  which 
existed  when  the  Spaniards  invaded  the  country. 

CuMATK.  .As  a  whole,  Mexico  is  a  hot  eoun- 
trv.  but  its  climate,  if  not  one  of  the  most 
salubrious,  is  among  the  most  delightful  in  the 
wrirlil:  the  normal  warm  tcmpcralure  is  modified 
by  great  contra -its  in  elevations  and  by  the  posi- 
tion and  trend  of  the  mountain  ranges,  which  in- 


fluence the  force  and  direction  of  the  winds  and 
the  distribution  and  amount  of  the  rainfall.  The 
climatic  differences  depending  upon  the  ilifl'ering 
altitudes  are  so  great  that  the  vegetable  products 
include  almost  all  that  grow  between  tlie  equator 
and  the  arctic  regions.  In  some  large  areas, 
however,  uniformity  of  climate  prevails;  thus 
the  great  plains  of  the  northern  States,  hemmed 
in  bv  mountains  from  sea  influences,  have  the 
extremes  of  temperature  characteristic  of  the 
continental  climate  in  the  United  States.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  is 
entirel.v  included  in  the  wet  tropical  zone. 

Three  zones  of  climate  are  distinctly  marked. 
The  tierra  caliente,  or  hot  land,  lies  along  the 
low  maritime  zone  of  the  Gulf  and  the  Pacific, 
and  includes  swampy  and  sandy  coast  lands  and 
well-watered  plains  and  slopes  leading  up  to 
the  mountains.  The  growth  of  luxuriant  tropical 
vegetation  is  promoted  by  a  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  77°  to  82°  v..  the  mcrcurv  seldom 
falling  below  00°.  but  often  rising  to  100°,  and 
in  the  sultry  districts  of  ^'era  Cruz  and  Aca])ulco 
to  104°.  Some  places,  as  the  port  of  La  Paz, 
are  among  the  hottest  in  the  world.  The  sea- 
coasts  are  unhealthful.  fevers  prevail,  and  in 
some  localities  vcllow  fever  and  black  vomit  are 
endemic.  The  health  conditions  ma.v  be  greatly 
improved  by  draining  tlie  swamps,  as  has  already 
been  shown  at  \'era  Cruz. 

Above  the  Gulf  and  Pacific  hot  zones  are  the 
tierras  templadns,  or  tem|)erate  lands,  from  .'SOOO 
to  0000  feet  above  the  sea,  embracing  the  higher 
terraces  and  parts  of  the  central  plateau.  The 
temperate  lands  rise  to  a  higher  elevation  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  nortliern  States.  The 
mean  temperature  is  from  62°  to  70°  F..  and  does 
not  vary  more  than  4°  to  5°  during  the  .vear. 
Thus  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  unknown; 
semitropical  products,  like  those  of  Soullnvestern 
Euro|)e,  are  almndant  and  to  some  extent,  also, 
products  both  of  the  tropical  and  cold  regions. 
Around  the  city  of  Oaxaca  wheat  and  sugar  cane 
mav  be  seen  growing  on  the  same  piece  of  ground. 

Above  the  temperate  lands  arc  the  tierras  frias, 
or  cold  lands.  7000  feet  or  more  above  sea  level, 
with  a  mean  temperature  of  from  50°  to  03°  P. 
Most  of  the  central  jdateau.  with  its  girdle  of 
mountains,  is  included  in  this  region,  but  in  great 
depressions  of  the  surface  a  warmer  temperature 
and  tropical  products  are  found.  The  less  ele- 
vated parts  of  this  region  produce  cereals 
and  apples,  while  the  higher  grounds,  some  of 
which  extend  above  the  snow  line,  have  a  sparse 
vegetation.  The  lower  cold  lands  are  the  most 
thickly  inhabited  regions  in  Mexico. 

Owing  to  tlie  difTercnces  of  temperature  and  the 
ed'ect  of  the  mountain  ranges  upon  the  dire<'tion 
of  file  winds,  the  rainfall  is  verv  uneipially  dis- 
tributed. During  the  rainy  season,  from  the 
middle  of  May  to  October,  many  torrential  storms 
occur  in  the  southern  half  of  the  Republic.  Lit- 
tle or  no  rain  falls  in  the  winter  or  dry  season. 
The  cold  lands  receive  only  about  one-fifth  as 
much  rain  as  the  temperate  lands  except  in  some 
of  the  mountain  districts,  where  the  precipitation 
is  hea\-A'.  The  City  of  Mexico  has  a  mean  rain- 
fall of  .'iO  inches  a  year,  which  is  somewhat  in 
excess  of  the  general  supply  of  the  plateau  to  the 
north  of  it.  though  the  precipitation  on  the  moun- 
tain coast  lands  is  two  to  four  times  as  great. 
The  extreme  northern  part  of  the  plateau  is  semi- 
arid,  reproducing  the  conditions  that  prevail  in 


MEXICO. 


407 


MEXICO. 


\rizona  and  New  Mexico.  The  country  lies  in 
the  zone  of  trade  winds  blowinf;  from  northeast 
to  southwest,  but,  as  mentioned  above,  the  trend 
of  the  ranges  modifies  their  normal  direction. 
Both  the  Gulf  and  Pacifie  coasts  are  exposed  to 
violent  gales,  wliich  often  do  great  damage  to 
shipping. 

Geology  and  JIixer.\^l  Resoirces.  The  moun- 
tain ranges  are  formed  chiefly  of  plutonic  and 
volcanic  rocks  such  as  granites,  gneiss,  syenites, 
mineral-bearing  trachytes,  basalts,  porphyries, 
obsidian,  sulphur,  pumice,  lavas,  and  tufa.  Sedi- 
mentary formations  are  also  represented  especial- 
ly b}'  a  carboniferous  limestone  interspersed  with 
deposits  of  anthracite.  The  land  consists  mainly 
of  metamorphic  formations  largely  penetrated 
and  overlaid  by  volcanic  outpourings  and  the 
debris  resulting  from  mountain  denudation.  The 
most  valuable  rocks  thus  far  known  are  the 
argentiferous  porphyries  and  schists  of  Sinaloa 
and  the  central  plateau.  It  has  not  yet  been  re- 
vealed whether  the  auriferous  deposits  of  Sonora 
are  destined  to  equal  them  in  economic  value. 
The  sandstones  of  the  northern  States  have  pro- 
duced the  sandy  plains  of  Xorth  Jlexieo,  but  none 
of  the  horizontal  layers  is  rich  in  ores,  which  are 
found  chiefly  in  metamorphic  rocks  of  Durango, 
Chihuahua,  and  the  south. 

Mexico  is  one  of  the  richest  mining  countries 
in  the  world.  Excepting  Sinaloa  and  Sonora, 
which  contain  vast  stores  of  tlie  precious  metals. 
nearly  all  the  historic  mines  lie  on  the  south- 
central  plateau  at  elevations  of  from  5500  to 
9500  feet.  A  line  drawn  from  the  City  of  Mexico 
to  Guanajuato,  tlience  north  to  Chihuahua  and 
south  to  Oaxaca,  incloses  a  silver-yielding  zone 
that  is  vmsurpassed  in  richness.  The  central 
group  of  mines  in  the  districts  of  Guanajuato, 
Zacatecas,  and  Catorce  in  the  States  of  Guana- 
juato, Zacatecas.  and  San  Luis  Potosi  have  thus 
far  yielded  over  half  of  the  silver  mined  in  Mex- 
ico. Tlie  Veta  ilailre  lode  of  Guanajuato  alone 
produced  $252,000,000  between  1o5G'  and  1803. 
Gold  is  found  chiefly,  not  on  the  plateau,  but  on 
the  slopes  facing  the  Pacific.  It  is  believed  to 
be  in  greatest  abundance  in  Sonora.  but  the  gold- 
mining  industry  may  be  said  as  yet  to  W  almost 
in  its  infancy,  and  the  production  is  compara- 
tively .small.  The  inferior  develoinnent  of  gold- 
mining  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  far  more 
difBcult  and  expensive  to  mine  and  reduce  gold 
than  silver;  and  most  of  the  gold  ilexico  pro- 
duces is  that  obtained  in  association  with  silver- 
mining.  Copper  in  a  pure  state  is  found  near 
the  City  of  Guanajuato  and  associated  with  gold 
in  several  States.  Iron  is  in  vast  abundance  in 
Michoacan,  Jalisco,  and  Durango,  but  until  the 
coal  fields  found  at  various  points  are  developed 
there  is  little  prospect  that  iron-mining  will  be- 
come very  important.  The  famoiis  Cerro  del 
Mercado  in  Durango.  discovered  in  1502.  is  a  hill 
of  magnetic  iron  ore,  4800  feet  long,  1100  feet  in 
width,  and  640  feet  high,  averaging  about  70  per 
cent,  of  metal  and  estimated  to  contain  over 
.300,000.000  tons  of  ore  above  the  plain,  beneath 
which  it  may  extend  to  a  great  dejith.  Fuel  is 
one  of  the  most  pressing  needs  of  Jlexico.  Fire- 
wood costs  in  the  City  of  Mexico  $14  a  cord. 
Coal  ranges  from  .$10  to  $22  a  ton.  and  is  brought 
from  England  and  the  Uniteil  States.  The  diffi- 
cnlty  is  that  most  of  tlie  coal  is  remote  from 
lines  of  transportation,  and  the  fields  cannot  be 
developed  till  means  of  cheap  carriage  are  pro- 


vided. Sonora  has  a  carlioniferous  area  with 
veins  from  5  to  16  feet  in  thickness  of 
hard  clean  anthracite  carrying  as  high  a  per- 
centage of  fixed  carbon  as  the  best  coal  of  Wales. 
When  it  can  be  trans])Orted  the  anthracite  of  this 
field  will  supply  the  Pacific  Coast  of  Xorth  Amer- 
ica with  anthracite  of  the  first  quality  for  years 
to  come.  The  coal  measures  of  Jlichoacan  and 
Oaxaca  are  also  luideveloped.  Many  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  northern  State  of  Coahuila  burn 
mesquite  bush,  straw,  and  cotton  bushes  because 
they  cannot  procure  the  coal  mined  at  Salinas 
in  their  State,  which  nov\-  supplies  fuel  for  the 
International  Railroad  Company,  a  part  of  the 
Southern  Pacifie  Railroad,  and  the  factories  in 
Jlonterey. 

iluch  lead  is  associated  with  silver,  and  tin, 
sulphur,  salt,  marble,  and  the  building  stones 
are  in  abundance.  All  other  mining  enterprises, 
however,  are  dwarfed  by  the  colossal  develop- 
ment of  silver  production.  The  value  of  the  pre- 
cious metals  presented  at  the  Mexican  mints  and 
assav  offices  in  the  year  1898-99  was:  Silver,  $57,- 
985,400:  gold,  $4,043,.374.  In  1899  there  were  in 
Mexico  1142  mines  including:  Silver,  256:  silver 
and  lead.  171 ;  silver  and  other  metals,  114;  gold, 
84 :  gold  and  silver,  278 ;  gold  and  other  metals, 
117:  copper,  31.  The  total  output  of  ore  was 
valued  at  $89,000,000,  and  the  number  of  persons 
employed  was   106,536. 

Three  mints  and  eight  Government  assay  offices 
are  maintained,  and  producers  of  gold  and  silver 
ma.v  have  their  bullion  coined  at  small  cost.  The 
total  coinage  of  Mexican  silver  from  the  time  of 
its  discovery  by  the  Spaniards  to  1895  amounted 
to  $3,398,664,400,  which  is  more  than  one-third 
of  the  world's  production  of  silver  from  1493  to 
1895.  As  a  large  amount  of  silver  is  not  coined, 
but  is  used  in  the  arts,  it  is  estiuuited  that  Mex- 
ico has  produced  nearly  one-half  of  the  world's 
silver  mined  in  the  past  four  centuries.  Tlie 
larger  part  of  the  gold  and  silver  is  exported.  In 
the  twenty-two  years  ending  in  1896  the  silver 
exports  amounted  to  $429,057,100  in  coin,  $143.- 
418.595  in  bullion,  $85,898,933  in  ores,  and  $30.- 
102.151  in  other  forms.  Europe  is  the  principal 
market  for  the  export  silver  and  the  United 
States  for  the  export  gold. 

Flor.\  axd  AgkicultuRjVL  Resources.  The 
sharp  dift'erences  in  climate  produce  rapid  transi- 
tions in  forms  of  vegetation:  in  a  few  hours' 
travel  not  only  great  differences  in  the  kinds  of 
plants,  but  also  in  the  stages  of  growth  of  the 
same  plant,  are  observed.  The  Mexican  Southern 
Railroad  from  Pnebla  to  Oaxaca  descends  by  fer- 
tile terraces  from  7000  feet  to  1750  feet  above 
the  sea.  In  March  the  green  wheat  is  just  peer- 
ing above  the  ground  in  Puebla,  while  lower  down 
along  this  railroad  fields  of  wheat  are  ripe  for 
harvest  and  still  lower  the  grain  is  being 
threshed.  The  varied  conditions  of  temperature 
and  moisture  result  in  the  greatest  contrasts, 
desert  areas  lying  contiguous  to  grassy  steppes, 
which  are  succeeded  by  cultivated  fields,  and  in 
the  lowlands  by  forests  with  an  inextricable 
tangle  of  tropical  undergrowths.  Gray,  thorny 
plants  characterize  the  northern  region,  whei-e 
rain  seldom  falls,  though  even  this  region  is 
brightened  in  the  spring  by  many  flowers.  Owing 
to  the  undcvclojied  state  of  coal-mining  and  the 
great  need  of  fnid  and  timber  for  the  mines, 
the  forests  that  once  covered  the  mountains  have 
been  largely  destroyed,  and  thus  the  conditions  of 


MEXICO. 


408 


MEXICO. 


rainfall  have  been  considerably  modified.  But 
many  varieties  of  oak  and  also  jiines  and  firs  are 
found  on  the  mountain  slopes;  and  the  hot  lands 
have  about  100  varieties  of  building  and  cabinet 
woods,  includinf;  mahogany  and  rosewood,  be- 
sides dyewoods.  gum  trees,  the  fig  and  oil-bearing 
trees  and  plants,  such  as  the  olive,  cocoa  palm, 
sesame,  and  almond.  Fifty-nine  species  of  me- 
dicinal i)lants  have  been  classified. 

Few  countries  equal  Mexico  in  the  variety  of 
its  economic  vegetable  products.  !Many  localities 
are  well  suited  for  the  raising  of  coH'ee.  an  export 
crop  of  which  about  60,000,000  pounds  are  pro- 
duced every  year,  most  of  it  in  the  temperate 
lands  of  Vera  Cruz,  Oaxaca,  Tabasco,  Cliia])as, 
and  Michoaean.  Cotton  is  grown  chiefly  in  the 
Pacific  states  and  also  in  A"era  Cr\i7.  and  Coa- 
huila.  It  is  not  so  cheaply  produced  as  in  the 
United  States,  is  wholly  consumed  Viy  the  local 
mills,  and  the  Government  endeavors  to  promote 
its  cultivation,  and  to  improve  the  facilities  for 
transportation  to  the  spinneries  so  that  the  de- 
pendence upon  foreign  supplies  of  cotton  cloth 
may  be  decreased.  i>ugar  cane  is  cultivated  in 
the"  lowlands  of  the  southern  States,  though  they 
as  yet  proiluce  scarcely  enough  sugar  for  home 
consumption.  Tobacco  grown  on  the  warm  lands 
south  of  Tampico  and  San  Bias  is  almost  eqiial 
to  Cuban  leaf  in  aroma.  Its  improved  cultiva- 
tion was  introduced  by  Cuban  planters  about 
forty  years  ago.  Maize,  the  chief  crop  through- 
out the  temperate  region,  thrives  best  south 
of  Durango.  .\nother  great  food  staple  is  the  fri- 
jole  or  brown  l>ean,  cultivated  with  peas  and  len- 
tils and  daily  eaten  by  most  Jlexieans.  The 
wheat  crop  in  the  cold  zone  is  worth  only  about 
one-fourth  as  nnuh  as  the  maize  crop. 

A  great  variety  of  tropical  fruits  are  raised 
in  the  hot  zones,  including  oranges  (up  to  2500 
feet),  lemons,  bananas  (up  to  .5000  feet),  easy 
to  cultivate  and  affording  a  large  profit,  pine- 
apples (from  sea-level  to  3000  feet),  and  cocoa- 
nuts  along  the  hot  coasts.  Many  species  of  the 
agave  grow  on  the  central  plateau,  some  of  them 
yielding,  particularly  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
plateau,  large  quantities  of  a  white  juice  which, 
when  fermented,  is  intoxicating,  and  is  the  na- 
tional beverage,  j)ulquc  holding  the  same  place 
in  the  dietary  of  Mexico  that  wine  occupies  in 
France.  Other  species  of  the  agave  yield  hene- 
quen  or  sisal  hemp,  whose  cultivation  and  i)repa- 
ration  for  market  is  by  far  the  most  important  of 
the  fibre  industries  and  has  made  the  prosperity 
of  the  State  of  Yucatan,  in  the  northern  part  of 
which  it  is  produced.  Knormous  quantities  are 
exported  to  the  United  States  for  sacking,  cord- 
age, and  binder's  twine.  The  ('(islilloa  claf:ticn 
is  the  predominant  species  of  riiblHT  tree,  and 
though  rubber-collecting  is  as  yet  little  develo|)od, 
it  is  destined  to  be  very  profitable.  The  cacao 
tree  thrives  chiefly  in  Chiapas  and  Tabasco,  but 
not  enough  cocoa  is  produced  for  home  consump- 
tion. The  vanilla  l)ean  grows  luxuriantly  on  the 
Gulf  Coast  and  brings  a  high  price  on  account  of 
its  excellent  quality.  Rice  on  the  coasts  is  usual- 
ly grown  without  irrigation,  ilepending  entirely 
upon  the  rainfall.  The  soils  of  Mexico  excepting 
in  the  sandy  north  and  some  areas  of  sand  along 
the  coasts  are  excellent.  The  agricultural  re- 
sources are  capable  of  far  larger  development  as 
soon  as  irrigation  is  applied  to  the  naturally  pro- 
ductive lands.  Much  of  the  plateau  is  semi-arid. 
but  the  neighboring  mountains  have  inexhaustible 


supplies  of  water,  which  by  the  construction  of 
reservoirs  and  other  modern  appliances  may  be 
conserved  for  agricultural  uses.  Farming  meth- 
ods are  crude  and  modern  machinery  has  been  in- 
trpduced  only  on  the  large  plantations.  Tlie  chief 
agricultural  products  of  1899  were,  in  kilograms 
la  kilogram  =  2.2  pounds)  : 

Kice 23.100.000    Cotton 22.400,000 

Wheat 252.700.000    Logwood 4r..4(io.ooo 

Sugar 68.600.000    t'arao I.IIDO.OOO 

Pauocha 59,100.000    Coffee 37.600.000 

.Molasses 62.1HJ<J.00U    Tobacco 7,800,000 

Heuequen 118,800,000 

There  were  produced  also  93,370,000  bushels  of 
maize,  29.059.000  gallons  of  spirits,  and  171,710,- 
000  gallons  of  fermented  liquors. 

Falxa.  In  the  plateau  regions  the  fauna  is 
that  of  the  North  .American  continent,  while  it 
is  more  closely  associated  with  tliat  of  the  West 
Indies  in  the  coast  lauds  of  the  Gulf;  that  of 
the  Pacific  seaboard  partakes  of  the  character  of 
the  Californian  and  South  American  fauna. 
Wolves  and  coyotes  are  common  in  the  northern 
States,  and  bears,  peccary,  the  puma,  jaguar, 
and  ocelot  are  found  among  the  mountain  forests. 
In  the  tropical  forests  are  five  varieties  of 
monkeys  and  a  species  of  sloth.  Among  tlie  other 
animal's  are  the  hare,  rabbit,  squirrel,  beaver, 
mole,  marten,  otter,  and  several  species  of  deer. 
A  few  boas  in  the  south  and  several  other  species 
of  snakes,  some  of  them  very  venomous,  as  the 
rattle  and  coral  sn-^kes,  represent  the  ophidians. 
Noxious  insects  infest  the  hot  regions  in  myriads. 
The  coast  waters  and  estuaries  of  the  rivers  teem 
with  fish,  and  turtle-shell  is  an  article  of  some 
trade  importance.  Bees  are  numerous  and  their 
wax  is  exported.  Vultures  are  the  scavengers  of 
every  town,  and  parrots,  hununing-birds,  and 
other  tropical  birds  vie  in  brilliancj'  of  plum- 
age with  iliose  of  Brazil.  The  Mexican  mocking- 
bird and  other  songsters  are  unsurpassed  by  those 
of  any  other  country.  Only  the  turkey  and  a 
species  of  duck  have  been  domesticated,  all  the 
other  farm  animals  having  been  introduced  by 
the  Spaniards  into  Mexico,  where  they  have  mul- 
tiplied prodigiously. 

AxiM.\L  IxDisTRiES.  Stock-raising  is  one  of 
the  leading  industries.  In  the  low-lying  coast 
regions,  particularly  in  Vera  Cruz  .and  Tabasco, 
are  moist  savannahs,  covered  with  nutritious 
grasses,  where  cattle  may  be  reared  ami  fattened 
at  small  expense;  and  on  the  comparatively  arid 
plateau  of  the  north  there  is  sufficient  herbage 
to  support  enormous  numbers  of  cattle.  On  some 
of  the  haciendas  10,000  to  30.000  head  are  in 
charge  of  vaqucros.  who  are  very  skillful  in 
throwing  the  lasso  and  in  all  the  oilier  arts  of 
the  cowboy.  Mexican  cattle  are  of  inferior  qual- 
itv  (long-horned  type)  and  snuUl  size,  weighing 
otily  900  to  1000  pounds.  In  recent  years  many 
of  the  stock-raisers  have  begun  to  improve  their 
herds  by  the  importation  of  better  breeds  from 
the  United  States.  Hides  are  an  important  ex- 
port to  the  United  States,  and  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  undeveloped  steers  are  sold  in  Texas. 
The  horses  are  small  but  hardy  animals ;  sheep 
produce  only  1  to  2i{;  pounds  of  coarse  and  in- 
ferior wool  to  the  fleece,  all  of  which  is  consumed 
in  the  honu-  mills,  which  import  much  wool  ol 
liner  L'rades.  while  well-to-do  Mexicans  wear  im- 
ported clothes.  The  tendency  toward  the  im- 
provement of  all  the  native  domestic  animals  and 
of  the  methods  of  stock-raising  gives  promise  of 
large  expansion  in  these  industries. 


MEXICO. 


409 


MEXICO. 


MA>'rFACTURE.s.  The  manufacturing  indus- 
tries liave  progrfssed  slowly,  though  in  recent 
years,  with  the  advent  of  much  foreign  capital 
and  the  cessation  of  political  revolutions  that 
were  long  the  curse  of  the  country,  there  has  been 
a  large  development  of  many  industries.  There- 
are  now  over  'MH)0  small  establishments  for  the 
manufacture  of  sugar.  The  first  cotton  mill  was 
erected  in  1S34.  In  1809  tliere  were  107  cotton 
spinning  and  weaving  mills  witli  4G8.547  spindles, 
13,944  looms,  consuming  37.201.573  pounds  of 
raw  cotton  and  producing  3,7115.440  pounds  of 
yarn  and  !I.S75,7G4  pieces  of  cloth.  Puebla,  Ja- 
lisco, Vera  Cruz,  C'oahuila,  Tlaxcala,  the  City  of 
Mexico.  Kio  Blanco,  near  Orizaba,  and  the  falls  of 
Juanacatlan.  near  Guadalajara,  are  the  centres 
of  largest  development  in  the  cotton  industries; 
2211  distilleries  produced  804.858  gallons  of 
spirits;  721  tobacco  factories,  with  Vera  Cruz  as 
the  chief  centre,  used  5,540,507  kilograms  of 
tobacco,  making  328,005,!U5  packages  of  ciga- 
rettes, 45,438,759  cigars,  04.302.282  cheroots,  be- 
sides pipe  tobacco  and  snuff.  Woolen  and  linen 
spinning  and  weaving  (over  20  mills  producing 
underwear,  carpets,  etc.),  the  manufacture  of 
glass,  drugs,  chocolate,  pajjer,  porcelain,  flour, 
and  soap,  and  beer  brewing  are  also  important 
industries.  The  artisans  of  the  plateau  are 
skilled  in  making  the  broad-brimmed  ^Mexican 
hats,  silver  ornaments,  jewelrv.  saddlery,  leather 
work,  and  enibroider.v.  and  in  other  arts  that 
contribute  to  the  distinctive  finery  of  Mexican 
attire  and  equipment.  The  feather  work  and 
other  products  of  the  Indians  are  still  highly 
prized.  The  (xovcrnment  encourages  the  devel- 
opment of  home  industries  by  im])osiug  a  tariff 
amounting  on  an  average  to  about  38  per  cent, 
on  the  declared  value  of  nearly  all  imported 
goods. 

Commerce.  The  value  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
Mexico  has  for  years  been  rapidly  increasing. 
The  exports  are  usually  larger  in  value  than  the 
imports.  A  peculiarit.v  of  Mexican  statistics  of 
foreign  commerce  should  be  borne  in  mind  in 
order  to  reach  correct  conclusions  as  to  the  actual 
value  of  exports  and  imports.  Duties  are  col- 
lected in  golil  upon  gold  valuations  of  the  com- 
modities imported.  The  value  of  import  articles 
is  thus  given  in  gold.  But  the  value  of  export 
commodities  is  given  in  Mexican  silver,  the  value 
of  the  peso  or  silver  dollar  fluctuating  in  1001 
between  40.4  cents  and  50.9  cents. 

The  value  of  the  exports  (in  Mexican  silver 
dollars)  in  1899-1900  was:  merchandise,  .$79.- 
031.330;  precious  metals.  $71,025,024:  total, 
.$150,050,300.  The  value  (in  ilcxican  silver  dol- 
lars) of  the  chief  exports  in  1900-01  was:  ilin- 
erals.  .$97.900.000 ;  vegetable  substances.  .$30,100.- 
000;  animals,  $11,400,000:  manufactured  prod- 
ucts, $2,300,000:  various,  $000,000. 

The  value  of  the  imports  (in  gold)  was:  in 
1899-1900.  $01,318,175:  in  1900-01,  .$05,083,451. 
The  trade  with  the  leading  countries  (in  millions 
of  dollars)   was: 


IraportiB  from 
(gold  dollars) 

Exports  to 
(silver  dollars) 

1999 

1900-01 

1899 

1900-01 

United  States 

31,0 

10.4 

6.7 

6.6 

2.2 

35.1 
9.9 
6.5 
7.0 
2.8 

116.1 

12.4 

6.6 

6.0 

0,9 

117  *> 

12  0 

France 

2  8 

5,0 

.Spain 

1,2 

The  leading  commodities  exported,  in  the  usual 
order  of  importance,  are  silver,  gold,  hcnef|uen, 
cofl'ee,  cabinet  and  dye  woods,  copper,  live  ani- 
mals, lead,  hides  and  skins,  chewing  gum,  to- 
bacco, and  vanilla.  The  commerce  of  the  two 
ports  through  which  most  of  the  internal  trade 
is  conducted  was  valued  in  1900-01  at:  Vera 
Cruz,  imports,  .$22,328,154  (gold)  ;  exports,  $21,- 
892,184  (silver).  At  Tampico,  imports,  $9,712,- 
950  (gold);  exports,  $43,880,140  (silver). 
About  one-half  of  the  imports  are  purchased  from 
tlie  United  States,  England,  France,  and  Ger- 
nuinv  suppl.ving  most  of  the  remainder.  The 
United  States  buys  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the 
exports.  Mexico  is  thus  chiefly  dependent  upon 
the  United  States  as  a  market  for  its  commodi- 
ties and  the  source  from  which  its  foreign  sup- 
plies are  drawn. 

Shipping  axd  Commuxicatioxs.  ilost  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  Mexico  is  carried  either  by  rail- 
road or  in  foreign  bottoms.  Hundreds  of  ves- 
sels, most  of  them  veiy  small  and  owned  by  Mexi- 
cans, are  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade.  The 
mercantile  marine  of  the  countn'  comprised,  in 
1000,  24  steamers  of  4200  tons  "and  50  sailing 
vessels  of  8445  tons.  About  10,000  vessels  in 
the  foreign  and  coastal  trade  enter  and  clear  at 
the  ilexican  ports  every  year,  the  tonnage  being, 
on  an  average,  over  3.000.000. 

The  first  railroad,  only  three  miles  in  length, 
connecting  the  Citv  of  ilexico  with  Guadalupe, 
was  completed  in  1854.  Since  1870  railroad  con- 
struction has  been  carried  on  rapidly.  The 
railroad  between  Vera  Cruz  and  the  City  of 
ilexico  was  completed  in  1873.  Two  trunk  lines 
connect  the  capital  with  the  United  States — the 
ilexican  Central  to  El  Paso,  Texas,  with  a  branch 
from  San  Luis  Potosf  to  the  port  of  Tampico; 
and  the  Mexican  Xatioual  to  Laredo,  Texas.  An- 
otlier  trunk  line  from  Torreon  on  the  Mexican 
Central  to  Eagle  Pass,  Texas,  makes  a  third  route 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  There 
are  now  two  lines  between  the  City  of  ilexico  and 
Vera  Cruz.  The  Tehuantepec  Railroad  from  the 
port  of  Coatzacoalcos  on  the  Gulf  of  ilexico  to 
Salina  Cruz  on  the  Pacific,  130  miles  long,  is  the 
only  road  v'et  extended  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  though  several  others  are  building.  Great 
improvements  have  been  completed  at  tlie  ports 
of  Coatzacoalcos  and  Salina  Cruz,  so  that  large 
vessels  may  enter  them,  and  it  is  expected  that 
much  trade  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  will 
pass  over  this  road.  The  railroad  s.ysteni  now 
reaches  the  principal  cities  and  commercial  and 
mining  centres,  and  extends  southward  as  far  as 
Oaxaca,  500  miles  from  the  Guatemalan  frontier, 
ilany  of  the  railroads  are  heavily  subsidized,  it 
being  the  Government's  policy  to  promote  rail- 
road building.  In  1901  there  were  9000  miles  of 
railroad  in  o]ieratinn,  most  of  which  had  been 
built  by  foreign  capital.  In  1808  9.001.046 
passengers  and  5.904,000  tons  of  freight  More 
conveyed,  the  gross  proceeds  being  $39,800,000. 
In  1900  there  were  42.843  miles  of  telegraph 
lines,  of  which  28.500  miles  belong  to  the  Federal 
(■overnment  and  the  remainder  to  the  States, 
companies,  and  railroads.  In  1001  there  were 
2082  post-offices.  In  the  cities  there  were  in 
1808  1440  miles  of  street  car  lines,  most  of  them 
using  animal  traction. 

Bankixg.  Banking  is  very  profitable  in  ilex- 
ico, though  the  s.vstcm  is  not  .vet  well  developed 
throughout  the  country.     The  great  bank  of  the 


MEXICO. 


410 


MEXICO. 


country  is  the  Xational  Bank  of  Mexico,  estab- 
lished in  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1882  and  having 
branches  in  all  the  principal  cities.  It  lias  a 
monopoly  for  the  issuiii;;  of  bank  notes,  except- 
ing that  the  same  privilege  is  exercised  by  the 
Bank  of  London  and  Mexico,  founded  during  the 
French  intervention  in  Mexico,  and  by  the  Inter- 
national and  Hypothecary  Bank  of  Mexico,  or. 
as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  Mortgage  Bank  of 
Mexico.  Both  of  these  banks  antedate  the  Na- 
tional Bank,  though  both  have  since  been  reor- 
ganized. A  general  banking  law  was  adopted  by 
the  Mexican  Congress  in  18!)ti.  establishing  the  con- 
ditions under  which  banking  institutions  may 
be  organized:  but  this  law  does  not  affect  the 
National  Bank  or  the  other  banks  in  the  capital 
that  were  chartered  before  the  law  was  pas.sed. 
In  1805  there  were  twelve  banks  in  Mexico,  three 
in  the  capital,  four  in  Chihuahua  City,  two  in 
Merida,  Yucatan,  and  one  each  in  Durango. 
Zacatecas,  and  Monterey,  besides  the  numerous 
branches  of  the  National  Bank.  The  capital  of 
the  National  Bank  is  ,$20,000,000.  of  the  Bank 
of  London  and  Mexico  .$ !r>.000.000,  and  of  the 
Mortgage  Bank  .lio.OOO.OOO.  The  capital  of 
the  other  banks  ranges  from  .$7,000,000  to  .^fiOO.- 
000,  and  the  deposits  from  about  $22,000,000  in 
the  National  Bank  and  $0,000,000  in  the  Bank 
of  London  and  Mexico  to  less  than  $100,000. 
Tlie  Central  Bank,  in  the  City  of  ^lexico.  acts  as 
a  elearins  house  for  the  provincial  banks.  Th» 
existing  banks  are  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
The  demand  for  increased  banking  facilities  is 
very  large:  new  i)anks  are  being  established  an<l 
the  old  banks  are  extending  their  facilities  in 
various  directions.  The  National  Bank,  which 
began  with  a  capital  of  $3,000,000  and  now  has 
a  reserve  fund  of  .$.^.500,000.  has  in  the  past 
decade  declared  annual  divi<lends  ranging  from 
2.'5  to  20  per  cent.  The  declared  dividends  of  the 
Bank  of  London  and  Mexico  for  seven  years 
ranged  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  When  the  stock 
of  this  bank  was  increased  from  $.3,000,000  to 
$10,000,000.  the  $5,000,000  of  new  stock  was 
subscribed  more  than  four  times  over.  The  Na- 
tional Bank  is  the  fiscal  agent  of  the  Government 
and  is  owned  almost  exclusively  by  Mexicans. 

Owing  to  the  expense  and  dangers  of  transpor- 
tation, it  was  formerh'  dilFicult  and  hazardous 
to  carry  money  from  one  city  to  another,  and  ex- 
change between  the  various  cities  was  sometimes 
as  high  as  10  per  cent.  Tlie  building  of  railroads 
has  reduced  the  rate,  but  it  is  still  high.  It  costs 
1  per  cent,  to  draw  money  from  the  City  of 
Mexico  to  the  oily  of  Oaxaca  and  vice  versa.  The 
exchange  is  much  higher  when  money  is  sent  to 
towns  without  banking  facilities. 

TlXANCE.  Mexico  still  needs  capital  to  de- 
velop her  resources  and  give  employment  to  hibor. 
A  gieat  deal  of  foreign  capital  is  invested  in  the 
country,  but  much  more  will  be  required  before 
the  natural  resources  are  adequately  developed. 
It  was  not  surprising  that  the  finances  of  the 
country  were  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition 
so  long  as  there  were  no  railroads,  little  develop- 
ment, and  the  country  almnsl  inci'ssantly  suf- 
fered from  disturbed  political  conditions.  Mex- 
ico's credit  fell  very  low  in  the  money  markets 
during  this  period  of  her  history,  and  it  was  not 
till  peace  and  order  became  firmly  established, 
after  1877,  that  her  credit  began  to  revive  and 
that  the  revenues  finally  reached  an  amount  suf- 
ficient to  pay  the  public  expenses.     It  was  osten- 


sibly for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  interests 
of  Eurojjean  holders  of  ilexican  bonds  that  a 
combined  force  of  French.  English,  and  .Sjianish 
soldiers  was  sent  to  invade  the  country  in  18(51. 
The  English  and  Spanish  soon  withdrew:  but 
•Emperor  Napoleon  111.,  proceeded  to  carry  out 
his  plan,  now  known  to  have  been  formed  before 
the  invasion,  of  founding  a  Mexican  empire  un- 
der French  protection,  and  Maximilian  ascended 
the  throne  in  1804  with  assurances  from  France 
that  it  would  help  him  to  establish  his  rule  upon 
a  firmjjasis.  The  financial  ditUculties  of  ilexico 
were  therefore  the  pretext  for  the  intervention 
out  of  which  arose  the  ill-starred  empire  of  Maxi- 
milian. 

Long  after  his  downfall,  however,  the  finances 
of  the  country  were  still  in  a  chaotic  state.  At 
the  dose  of  the  fiscal  year,  June  30,  180G,  Mexico 
was  able  for  the  first  time  since  achieving  inde- 
pendence to  show  a  surplus  of  $6,000,000.  The 
obnoxious  tax  called  alcabalas,  or  interstate 
duties  on  domestic  and  foreign  commerce,  was  a 
great  drawback  to  internal  trade,  and  was  tinally 
abolished  on  .July  1.  180ti.  The  country  was  tlKMi 
in  a  condition  when  radical  financial  ami  other 
reforms  might  be  introduced  without  danger  of 
serious  disturbances. 

The  per  capita  ex|)enses  are  necessarily  large. 
as  the  population  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
vast  extent  of  coast  line  and  the  large  area  requir- 
ing army,  revenue,  lighthouse,  and  police  ser- 
vices; and  only  a  small  ])art  of  the  inhabitants 
are  wealth-producers,  the  burden  of  taxation  fall- 
ing chiefly  upon  a  fourth  or  a  third  of  the  people. 
It  is  only  since  1888  that  the  reorganization  of 
the  Federal  Treasury  has  enabled  that  olhce  to 
keep  correct  and  complete  accounts  of  the  public 
expenses.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the 
national  receipts  and  exix'nditures,  in  Mexican 
silver  dollars,  for  several  fiscal  years: 


FISCAL  YEARS                  1 

Revenues       ' 

Expenditures 

1888-81I 

lS»l-92 1 

]S:l3-94 

$139,360,070     1 

«4,ri.-.3.6;)o 

09.116  510 
64.i61.078 
63.'284,196 

$141,959,065 

64.(V>4.0M 

<'.'.i,44i,acy 

1K99-1;KX) 

iyou-01                 

.'>».:W.1.9.34 
59,423.006 

The  apjtarent  great  excess  of  the  revenues  and 
expenditures  in  1888-80  was  partly  due  to  the 
operations  of  the  Liquidating  Bureau  which  was 
closing  the  old  accounts  and  opening  the  new 
ones  tmder  the  new  system. 

The  revenues  of  the  Mexican  States  from  18S4 
to  1805.  derived  chiefly  from  taxes  on  real  estate, 
averaged  .$15,815,585  a  year;  expenditures,  $13.- 
810.850.  In  the  same  period  the  revenues  of  the 
Federal  Government  averaged  .$41,442,877:  ex- 
penditures, $50,225,750. 

The  federal  revenue  is  derived  chiefly  from 
three  sources:  import  and  export  duties,  internal 
revenue,  and  direct  taxes  in  the  Federal  District. 
The  duties  levied  on  foreign  traile  are  highly  pro- 
tective and  yield  about  4  per  cent,  of  the  revenue. 
Export  duties  are  levied  upon  some  of  the  larg- 
est exports,  such  as  henequen,  cabinet  and  dye 
woods,  and  vanilla.  The  internal  revenue  col- 
lected through  the  use  of  stamps  supplies  about 
45  per  cent,  of  the  receipts;  and  the  direct  taxes 
levied  upon  the  real  estate,  scientific  professions, 
and  industrial  estiiblishmeiits  of  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict, together  with  some  minor  sources  of  in- 
come, make  up  the  remainder.     Taxes  on  the  pro- 


MEXICO. 


411 


MEXICO. 


fessions  vaiy  from  50  ccnLs  to  $20  a  inontli.  The 
national  debt  in  1901  was  divided  into  tlio  gold 
debt,  .^112,398,300;  and  internal  debt,  $135,509,- 
271    (silver). 

Popi'LATio>'.  It  is  difficult  to  take  a  correct 
census  in  Jlexico,  particularly  in  the  many  dis- 
tricts inhabiteil  by  Indians,  who  fear  that  they 
will  be  taxed  if  they  are  enrolled  in  tlie  census 
return.  This  table  f;'^'''^  t''«  area,  population, 
and  density  of  population  according  to  the  census 
of  1900:  and,  for  comparison,  the  pojiulation 
aceordin"  to  the  census  of  1895  is  added: 


STATES    AXD 
TERHITOR1E8 

Area  in 
square 
miles 

Popular 
tiou 
1895 

Popula- 
tion 
1900 

ATLANTIC  STATES 

32,128 
29,201 
10,072 
18,087 
35,203 

203,342 
853,892 
133,926 
87,264 
297,088 

218,948 

960,570 

158,107 

84,281 

312264 

Total          

124,691 

87,802 

63,569 

23,592 

38,009 

24,757 

25,316 

2,950 

11,370 

3,556 

8,917 

9,247 

463 

2,773 

1,595 

12,204 

1,575,512 

260,008 
237,815 
307.856 
292,549 
447,265 
662,195 
102.378 
1,047.817 
224,848 
.551,817 
837,981 
468,705 
156,786 
163.244 
973,876 

1,734,170 

INLAND    STATES 

327  004 

Coahuila 

2S0.S1I9 
326.940 

I)urango 

371.274 
462  880 

682.4S6 

101.910 

1.065.317 

Qiii-rC'taro 

Hidalgo               

228.489 
603.074 

illPXiL-O  

924.457 

Feilnral  District 

540.478 

161.697 

172,217 

1.024.446 

Total 

PACIFIC    STATES 

Lower  CalUornia  (Ter.) 

316,120 

58,328 
76,900 
33,671 
11,275 
31.846 
2.272 
22.874 
24,996 
35,382 
27,222 

6,635,140 

41,838 

189,158 

256,858 

146,805 

1,094,569 

55,264 
887,008 
417,886 
872.902 
318.730 

7,173,574 

47,082 
220,553 
296.109 
149  677 

Siualoa 

Tepic(Ter.) 

1,137,311 

65.026 

935.849 

474  .594 

Colima 

Michoacan 

Gll'MTtTO 

947  910 

Chiapas 

363.607 

Total 

Islands 

Grand  total 

324,766 
1.420 

4.281,018 

4.637.718 

766,997 

12,491,670 

13.545,462 

The  population  in  1900  included  G,71G,007 
males  and  (5,829.455  females.  Nineteen  per  cent, 
of  the  population  were  pure  white,  43  per  cent, 
mixed  bloods,  and  38  per  cent.  Indians.  The  cold 
laiiils.  being  the  most  healthful,  have  the  densest 
lK)]mlation.  about  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu- 
lation; a  relatively  small  ]iart  of  the  people,  from 
15  to  IS  per  cent.,  live  in  the  tcm]iprate  zone,  and 
only  7  to  10  per  cent,  in  the  torrid  zone.  The 
first  census  in  1795  showed  a  population  of  5,200,- 
000.  The  population  therefore  much  more  than 
d<mlded  in  the  i)ast  century.  The  increase  of  the 
Indian  population  is  comparatively  slow,  because, 
though  the  Indians  have  large  families,  they  are 
suliject  to  many  epidemics.  Of  the  foreign  ele- 
ments of  the  population  the  English.  Oermans, 
and  French  monopolize  many  branches  of  business, 
^'ery  few  foreigners,  excepting  those  engaged  in 
leading  branches  of  trade,  are  well  educated. 
The  country  is  to  some  extent  being  Americanized 
as  far  as  means  of  transportation,  electric 
Vol.  Xlll— 27. 


lighting,  improved  hotel.s,  and  other  modem  con- 
veniences are  concerned.  The  tendency  of  the 
people,  however,  is  to  cling  to  the  old  habits 
which  grew  out  of  their  Spanish  ancestry  and 
climatic  environment.  They  still  desire  their 
midday  siesta,  their  religious  feast  days  and 
holidays,  but  they  are  unwilling  to  live  abstemi- 
ously, spending  their  money  freely  and  dressing 
jioorly.     This   is   especially  true   of  the   Indians. 

Immigration  akd  I'iulic  L.^nds.  The  public 
lands  are  surveyed  by  surveying  companies,  who 
receive  title  to  one-third  of  the  lands  which  they 
demarcate.  In  the  six  years  1893-98  settlers 
acquired  title  to  750,592  hectares.  The  Govern- 
ment in  every  way  encourages  immigration  and 
the  occupancy  of  the  areas  not  yet  appropriated 
for  farms,  plantations,  and  grazing  lands.  The 
laws  permit  the  free  importation  of  personal  ef- 
fects and  the  supjilies  needed  for  the  subsistence 
of  colonists  for  a  term  of  years,  exempt  colonists 
from  taxes,  and  to  some  extent  supply  seed  or 
plants.  Thirty-two  agricultural  colonies  have 
been  established  by  the  Government  or  by  au- 
thorized companies  or  persons.  The  low  rate  of 
wages  is  an  olistacle  to  large  immigration.  Other 
difficulties  are  that  a  large  portion  of  the  public 
lands  have  already  been  disposed  of,  comparative- 
ly little  of  the  land,  either  public  or  private,  has 
yet  been  adequately  surveyed,  and  therefore  can- 
not easily  be  obtained  in  small  lots,  and  tlie  large 
land-holders  are  unwilling  to  divide  their  estates. 

Education.  In  nearly  all  the  States  educa- 
tion is  free  and  compulsory,  but  the  law  is  not 
strictly  enforced ;  illiteracy  is  very  prevalent, 
and  little  has  been  done  to  educate  the  Indians. 
In  1899  the  common  scliools,  supported  by  tlie 
Federal  and  State  governments,  numbered  6376; 
by  the  municipalities.  2989;  the  teachers  in  both, 
15,505  :  enrolled  pupils,  084,51)3  ;  average  attend- 
ance, 474.622;  cost  of  schools,  $6,805,074  (Mexi- 
can silver).  The  private  and  clerical  schools 
numbered  2560;  enrolled  ]iu])ils,  134,987,  with  an 
average  attendance  of  103.955.  The  Federal  Gov- 
ernment supports  special  schools  for  engineering, 
law,  medicine,  agriculture,  etc.,  and  most  of  the 
States  support  one  technical  college.  The  public 
and  private  libraries  are  notable,  the  largest  of 
them,  the  National  Lilirary,  containing  205,000 
volumes;  there  are  138  other  public  libraries,  33 
museums  for  scientific  and  educational  purposes, 
11  meteorological  observatories,  and  702  newspa- 
pers, including  11  in  English  and  11  in  Spanish 
and  English.  Mexico  occu])ies  the  tirst  place  in 
Latin  America  in  artistic,  literary,  and  scientifie 
advancement,  A  consideral)le  number  of  histori- 
ans, poets,  dramatists,  scientific  men,  painters, 
and  sculptors  have  conferred  honor  upon  their 
country. 

Religion.  The  Catholic  faith  is  the  prevailing 
religion,  but  there  is  no  connection  between 
Church  and  State,  and  the  Constitution  guaran- 
tees the  free  exercise  of  all  religions.  Protestant 
missionaries  from  the  United  States  entered  the 
country  in  1867  after  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  army  from  Mexico.  The  number  of 
Catholic  churches  in  1899  was  10,112,  and  of 
Protestant  places   of  worship,   119. 

Government.  The  present  Constitution  of 
Mexico  was  adopted  by  a  constituent  assembly 
on  February  5.  1857.  and  has  undergone  various 
amendments  extending  down  to  the  year  1896. 
It  is  a  written  instrument  of  great  length,  and 
is  closely  modeled  after  the  Constitution  of  the 


MEXICO. 


412 


MEXICO. 


Vnitoil  States.  TIuto  tiro  tweiity-niiic  articles 
on  llio  'rijthts  of  man.'  These  rij;lits  inelmle  main- 
Iv  personal  freeiloni.  fnviioni  of  speeeli  ami  of  llie 
press,  riylit  of  nsseinlil.v  and  petition,  rijjlit  of 
bearinjj  arms,  certain  rights  of  accused  persons 
on  trial  for  the  commission  of  crime,  and  im- 
munitv  from  the  ojieralion  of  retrouclive  laws, 
laws  which  impose  excessive  lines  or  inllict  un- 
usnal  ]iunishments  and  which  take  private  prop- 
erly williout  compensation.  In  case,  lunvcver, 
of  irreal  pulilic  danj;cr  fmni  insurrection  or  inva- 
sion tile  I'ri'sident  of  the  licpuhlic.  in  concurrence 
with  the  Council  of  Ministers  and  with  the  ap- 
juoval  of  Conjiress,  may  suspend  these  jiuarantics 
for  a  limited  |H-riod. 

The  tlovcrnment  of  Mexico  may  be  described  as 
a  Presidential  fcileral  republic,  composed  of  27 
States.  2  Territories,  and  a  I'Vderal  District. 
The  Constitution  provides  for  a  distribution  of 
llie  ]>o\vcrs  of  ^^nvci  iniu'iit  among  h'uislative.  exec- 
utive, and  judicial  branches.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  Congress  consisting  of  a 
House  of  Keprcsentatives  and  a  Senate.  The 
House  of  l\oi)resentatives  is  eom]ioscd  of  mem- 
bers elected  by  indirect  secret  ballot  for  a  term 
of  two  years  on  the  basis  of  one  l\e|>resentativo 
for  every  40.000  of  the  population  and  by  an 
electorate  wliicb  consists  practically  of  all  male 
adults.  The  qualilications  for  mendicrship  in 
the  House  of  Kejircscntatives  are  citizenship  and 
the  full  enjoyment  of  all  the  rights  incident 
thereto,  the  attainment  of  the  twenty-fifth  year, 
and  residence  in  the  State  from  which  the  Uepre- 
sentntive  is  chosen.  Kedesiastics  are  disquali- 
fied. The  Senate  is  coniposcil  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State  and  two  from  the  Kederal  Dis- 
trict, chosen  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Rcpi-e- 
sentatives  and  pos.sessing  the  same  qualifica- 
tions, except  that  the  Senators  must  have  at- 
tained the  thirtielh  year  of  age.  The  terms  of 
one  half  the  Senators  expire  every  .second  year. 
Both  Senators  and  Keprcsentatives  receive  annual 
salaries  of  .*:tOOO  (wliich  cannot  be  renounced) 
anil  are  privileged  from  arrest  for  opinions  ex- 
pressed in  the  discharge  of  their  duties.  Kach 
House  is  the  judge  of  the  election  and  qualifica- 
tions of  its  own  members.  Two  onlinarv  sessions 
of  Congress  are  held  annually,  beginning  respec- 
tively in  .\pril  ami  Scptcndn'r.  The  two  Houses 
enjoy  substantial  cipialily  of  powers  in  legisla- 
tion, except  that  timincial  ami  revenue  mcastircs 
and  bills  for  the  reiruiling  of  troops  must  be 
first  discussed  in  the  House  of  l\e|iresentativcs. 
Legislative  measures  may  be  initiated  by  the 
President  of  the  Hiqniblic.  the  State  legislatures, 
and  by  individual  Senators  and  Representatives. 
Hills  vetocil  by  the  President,  but  subsequently 
jiassed  by  an  absolute  majority  of  each  House, 
Tiecome  law  in  spite  of  the  executive  veto. 

The  powers  of  Congn'ss  are  enumerated  with 
great  s|H'eification  in  the  Constitution.  They  in- 
clude the  ailmission  of  new  Stales  to  the  Union, 
the  erei'tion  of  new  States  within  the  limits  of 
old  States,  the  levying  of  taxes,  the  issuing  ot 
commercial  codes,  the  maintenanco  of  the  army 
and  navy,  the  declaration  of  war.  the  eoinagi-  of 
money,  the  n\g<ilation  of  weights  and  measures, 
Ibe  granting  of  pardons,  and  the  enactment  of 
all  laws  necessary  and  proper  to  the  execution 
of  the  einimerated  powers.  The  exclusive  powers 
of  the  House  of  Heprescniatives  include  the  elec- 
tion in  ci-rtain  rare  conting<-ncies  of  the  Presiilent 
of  the  Republic,  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court, 


and  the  Senators  fnini  tlie  Kederal  District, 
supervision  of  the  chief  auditorship,  tile  approval 
of  the  annual  cstimalcs  of  expenses,  and  tlic  im- 
peachment  of  the  President,  .Senators,  Representa- 
tives, supreme  judgi's,  and  tiovernors  of  States 
for  the  conunission  of  crimes  during  their  terms 
of  ollicc.  The  exclusive  powers  of  the  Senate 
include  the  approval  of  treaties  with  foreign 
powers,  the  ratification  of  nominations  made  by 
the  Prcsiilcnl  to  important  olliccs.  the  di'cision 
as  to  whether  I  lie  status  of  a  State  government 
is  s\ich  as  to  require  the  appointment  of  a  pro- 
visional tiovcrnor.  the  decision  of  political  con- 
llicts  within  a  Slate,  and  the  trial  of  impeach- 
ments preferred  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 
During  the  recess  of  Congress  some  of  its  ini- 
liortant  f\uiclions  are  discharged  by  a  Pcrnninent 
Deputation,  composed  of  15  Representatives  and 
14  Senators. 

The  excc\itive  power  is  vested  in  a  President 
chost'U  indirectly  by  electors  who  are  themselves 
popularly  ilcclcd.  His  term  is  I'mir  years,  and 
by  a  coiistilulional  amendment  of  I8S7  be  is  eli- 
gible for  reelection  for  any  number  of  consecutive 
terms.  His  qualifications  are  citizenship  liy  birth, 
the  full  enjoyment  of  Ihe  civil  right,  ami  the  at- 
tainment of  the  tliirty-fifth  year.  Ecclesiastics 
arc  dis(|ualificd.  No  jirovision  is  nnule  for  a  Vice- 
President  except  tlial,  in  case  of  the  disability 
or  absence  of  the  President.  Congress  has  power 
to  choose  an  acling  President  to  discharge  the 
executive  duties  temporarily.  The  ollicc  of  Presi- 
dent cannot  be  resigned  except  for  grave  cause, 
and  then  only  with  the  approval  of  Congress. 
His  chief  powers  are:  to  prom>ilg;ite  and  execute 
the  laws;  to  appoint  and  remove  mosi  of  the 
military  and  civil  ollicers  of  the  Reiniblic.  the 
approval  of  Congress  being  necessary  in  some 
cases;  to  declare  war  with  the  consent  of  Con- 
gress; to  dispose  of  the  army  and  naval  forces; 
to  grant  letters  of  marque  ami  reprisal:  to  ne- 
gotiate treaties  with  foreign  countries:  to  re- 
ceive ambassadors  and  ministers ;  to  call  S|x>eial 
sessions  of  Congress  with  the  consent  of  the 
Permanent  Deputation;  to  grant  pardons;  and 
to  grant  exclusive  (irivileges  to  discoverers  and 
inventors.  In  carrying  out  the  work  of  adminis- 
tration the  President  acts  through  a  Cabinet 
composed  of  seven  secretaries,  who  serve  as  heads 
of  the  Departments  of  Foreign  .MTairs.  Interior. 
.Tuslice  and  Public  Instruction.  Colonization  and 
Industry.  Comnuniication  and  Pulilic  Works, 
Finance  and  Public  Credit,  and  War  and  Marine. 
Every  order,  decree,  or  regidation  of  the  Presi- 
dent uuist  be  signed  by  one  of  the  Cabinet  secre- 
taries in  order  to  be  valid.  The  memln-rs  of  the 
Cabinet  do  not  occupy  scats  in  l^ongrcss  and  their 
responsibility  to  that  body  extends  only  to  crim- 
inal acts. 

The  juilicial  power  of  the  Republic  is  vested 
in  a  Supreme  Court  and  in  District  and  Circuit 
courts.  .\t  present  the  Supreme  Court  consists 
of  l.T  judges  chosen  by  electors  for  a  term  of 
six  years.  They  must  be  native  born  citizens 
thirty-five  years"  of  age.  and  learned  in  juris- 
prudence. They  are  rcqviircd  to  take  oaths  simi- 
lar to  that  prescril)cd  for  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  and  may  resign  only  with  the  approval 
of  Congress.  Tlie  organization  of  Ibe  district 
ami  circuit  courts  is  delcrmined  by  statute.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  covirls  exti'mls  to 
eases  involving  the  application  of  Federal  law; 
to  maritime  cases;  to  cases  in  which  the  Republic 


MEXICO. 


413 


MEXICO. 


is  a  party;  to  cases  in  wliich  a  State  is  a  party; 
to  cases  arising  under  treaties  with  foreign  Pow- 
ers; and  to  cases  concerning  diplomatic  agents. 
In  those  cases  in  wliich  tlie  Republic  or  a  State  is 
a  party,  and  in  those  cases  in  which  the  question 
of  jurisdiction  arising  between  the  State  and 
Federal  courts  is  involved,  the  Supreme  Court 
has  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  other  cases  it 
has  appellate  jurisdiction. 

The  individual  States  of  the  Mexican  Republic 
have  a  large  degree  of  local  autonomy,  although 
the  Federal  Constitution  requires  that  they  shall 
;iilopt  the  popular,  representative,  republican 
lorm  of  government.  They  have  their  own  con- 
stitutions and  codes  of  laws:  their  own  Gov- 
ernors and  legislatures,  and  local  officials.  They 
are  allowed  to  regulate  with  one  another  their 
own  boundaries  subject  to  the  approval  of  Con- 
gress, but  may  not  form  alliances  or  treaties  with 
one  another,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal, 
coin  money  or  issue  paper  currency,  lay  duties  on 
interstate  commerce,  or  without  the  consent  of 
Congress  levy  tonnage  duties,  keep  troops  or 
ships  of  war,  or  wage  war  except  in  case  of  inva- 
sion or  peril  so  imminent  as  to  admit  of  no 
delay.  Each  State  is  under  an  obligation  to  de- 
liver without  delay  criminal  refugees  from  other 
States  and  to  give  full  faith  and  credit  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of 
every  other  State.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  the 
State  executives  to  publish  the  Federal  laws  and 
cause  them  to  be  obeyed.  On- the  other  hand,  it  is 
made  the  constitutional  duty  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment to  protect  the  States  against  invasion  or 
domestic  insurrection  upon  request  of  the  Legis- 
lature of  the  State  concerned  or  of  the  execu- 
tive if  the  Legislature  be  not  in  session.  As  in 
the  United  States,  all  powers  not  expressly  con- 
ferred upon  the  Federal  authorities  are  reser\-ed 
to  the  individual  States.  Similarly  the  Federal 
Constitution,  the  Jaws  of  Congress,  and  all 
treaties  made  in  y)ursuance  thereof  arc  declared 
to  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  whole  L'nion,  and 
the  judges  are  boimd  thereby,  anything  in  the 
constitutions  or  laws  of  the  States  to  the  con- 
trary  notwithstanding. 

Amendments  to  the  Federal  Constitution  may 
be  proposed  by  Congress,  two-thirds  of  all  mem- 
bers present  concurring.  If  approved  by  a  ma- 
jority of  the  State  legislatures,  they  shall  be  a 
valid  part  of  the  Constitution. 

Money.  Weights.  .\nd  Measures.  The  stand- 
ard of  value  is  silver,  the  only  paper  currency 
being  ordinary  bank  notes.  The  silver  peso  or 
dollar  is  the  unit  of  coinage.  The  metric  sys- 
tem of  weights  and  measures  was  introduced  in 
1856,  but  the  old  Spanish  denominations,  the 
libra  (1.01  pounds  avoirdupois),  the  quintal 
1 101.fi  pounds),  and  the  vara  (33  inches),  are 
very  commonly  used. 

Peoples  of  Me.nico.  The  population  of  ifex- 
ioo  at  the  present  day  is  largely  Indian,  and  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  ancient  customs, 
>up<'rstitions.  and  languages  hold  sway.  It  is  im- 
possible to  estimate  the  exact  proportion  of 
T>ure  Indian  blond,  mestizo,  or  mixed  blood,  and 
■vhite:  probably  there  are  about  five  million  pure- 
l)looded  Indians,  and  a  somewhat  larger  mim- 
l>er  of  mestizos.  Dr.  Leon,  the  most  recent 
-Indent  of  the  linguistic  families  of  Mexico. 
has  divided  them'  into  17  families  and  ISO 
dialects,  and  is  of  the  opinion  that  future 
studies  and  investigations  will  resolve  this  num- 


ber of  families  to  three  mother  tongues,  which 
will  be  the  Otoml^  Maya-Quiche,  and  the  Xahua. 
In  many  parts  of  the  Republic  where  certain  lan- 
guages are  spoken  over  extended  areas,  we  find 
dialectal  diderenc-es  in  every  village.  In  some 
parts  of  Mexico  the  tribes  occur  in  masses,  while 
in  other  parts  people  speaking  difTerent  lan- 
guages are  strangely  intermingled.  In  the  same 
town,  separated  by  a  single  street,  we  may  find 
two  diirerent  languages  spoken,  while  in  one 
town  Starr  reports  Aztecs,  Otonil,  Tepehuas, 
and  Totonacs,  each  group  preserving  its  independ- 
ence in  language,  dress,  cu.stoms.  and  supersti- 
tions, and  occupying  its  own  distinct  quarter  of 
the  town. 

Most  of  the  Mexican  Indians  have  been  con- 
verted to  Cliristianity ;  some  are  still  idolaters, 
but  have  lost  much  of  their  knowledge  of  ancient 
traditions  and  rcliuion.  These  are  superstitious 
to  a  degree,  and  believe  in  omens,  witchcraft,  and 
divination.  Among  the  Huicholes,  whose  habits, 
customs,  religion,  and  symbolism  have  been  ex- 
haustively studied  by  Lumboltz,  and  the  Mixes, 
who  have  been  briefly  investigated  by  .Starr  and 
liclniar,  we  find  greater  adherence  to  primitive 
ideas  than  among  any  other  Mexican  people. 

All  over  Mexico  the  commerce  of  the  people  is 
carried  on  in  very  much  the  same  manner  as  be- 
fore the  Spanish  Conquest,  and  their  periodic 
markets,  the  "tianguis,'  are  held  weekly,  as  in  for- 
mer times;  they  also  carry  merchandise  for  long 
distances,  to  attend  annual  festivals  of  c-ertain 
saints,  whose  modern  shrines  are  built  on  the 
sites  of  ancient  temples.  The  Indians  are  prin- 
cipally agriculturists,  though  certain  aboriginal 
trades  still  prevail,  such  as  weaving,  basket  and 
mat  making,  and  the  manufacture  of  pottery; 
and  the  products  of  these  industries,  for  which 
certain  villages  are  noted,  are  scattered  through- 
out extended  areas.  Their  mode  of  living,  habi- 
tations, and  clothing  have  changed  but  little 
under  white  influence.  Their  food  consists  main- 
ly of  corn,  beans,  and  chili  peppers;  the  corn  is 
made  into  cakes,  or  'tortillas,'  or  a  thin  mush 
called  possole:  their  food  is  prepared  as  before 
the  Conquest,  although  to  a  certain  extent  cook- 
ing vessels  of  tin  and  iron  are  used  as  well  as 
those  of  clay.  Their  great  vice  lies  in  the  use 
of  alcoholic  stimulants;  they  make  many  native 
drinks  as  in  former  times,  and  on  every  possible 
occasion  they  indulge  in  their  use. 

mSTOEV. 

The  Aztec  or  Xahuatl  tribes  whom  the  Spanish 
conquerors  found  in  the  central  valley  of  Mexico 
had  been  preceded  by  at  least  two  other  races  in 
that  region.  From  the  hopelessly  confused 
legendary  accounts  of  events  in  prehistoric  Mex- 
ico, it  is  possible  to  make  out  only  a  rough  out- 
line of  what  probably  happened.  The  Toltecs 
were  said  to  trace  their  history  back  to  the  year 
720  of  the  Christian  Era.  when  they  began  a 
long  course  of  wan<lerings  which  finally  led  them, 
atwut  the  year  !I70.  into  the  Valley  of  Mexico. 
There  they  erecte<l  vast  cities,  whose  ruins,  at  Tul- 
lantzinco  and  at  Tula  or  ToUan.  some  fifty  miles 
north  and  northeast  of  the  present  City  of  Mex- 
ico, justify  the  name  of  'the  Builders'  given 
them  by  their  successors.  In  the  year  1103  the 
Toltec  power  was  overthrown  and  they  were 
eventually  driven  from  the  country,  going  off 
toward  the  south,  where  thev  are  supposed  to 
have  erected  some  at  least  of  the  immense  build- 
ings  now   in   ruins   in   Yucatan,   Honduras,  and 


MEXICO. 


414 


MEXICO. 


Guatemala.  Their  tomiuerors,  the  Chichimccas, 
first  appeared  in  the  vicinity  of  the  two  great 
vokaiioes,  Fopocatc])etl  and  Ixtaccihuatl,  \\here 
the  ruins  of  Aniecameca  show  tlie  centre  of  their 
power.  The  Chichimecaii  legends  carry  their  his- 
tory back  for  17UU  years  Ix'fore  the  C'liristian  Kra. 
After  they  succeeded  the  Toltecs  as  the  dominant 
power,  the  Chichimccas  settled  at  Texcoco,  on 
the  east  side  of  ihe  lake  of  that  name,  wlieie  they 
were  livinf;  in  a  tloiirisliing  condition  wlien,  early 
in  tlie  twelfth  century  A.u.,  seven  allied  Xaliua- 
tlaca  families  or  tribes  entered  the  valley  from 
the  north,  having  started  on  tlieir  wanderings, 
quite  possibly,  in  the  clitl'-dweller  region  of  the 
modern  New  .Mexico  and  Arizona.  One  of  tliese 
tribes,  unable  to  win  a  home  elsewliere  from  the 
powerful  C'hiohimecas,  settled  upon  some  marshy 
islets  in  the  lake  of  Texcoco.  The  year  1325  is 
given,  with  some  signs  of  probability,  as  tliat  in 
«liicli  these  Xaliuatl  Aztecs  fixed  upon  tliis  loca- 
tion, whicli  is  said  to  liave  been  pointed  out  to 
them  by  a  sign  from  their  gods,  an  eagle  perched 
xipon  a  prickly-pear  cactus,  the  nopal,  strangling 
a  serpent.  This  sign  is  now  the  national  seal  of 
Jlexico.  Gradually  the  settlement  in  the 
marshes  at  Tenochtitlan  grew  stronger.  The  isl- 
ands were  enlarged,  eausewiiys  built  to  connect 
them  with  the  mainland  and  the  allied  settle- 
ments at  Tlaltelolco  and  Chapultepee.  and  by 
1375  the  -Aiztec  war  chiefs  had  won  for  their  peo- 
ple a  position  of  influence  in  the  valley.  Huitzili- 
huitl,  who  was  chosen  chieftain — or  "king'  or 
'emiieror'  as  the  Spanish  writers  styled  these 
rulers — in  1404,  and  his  brother  Chiraalpopoca, 
who  succeeded  after  his  death  in  1414  and  di- 
rected the  tribe  until  1427,  greatly  increased 
their  power  by  intermarrying  with  the  rival 
tribes  and  estal)lishing  trade  relations,  as  well 
as  by  their  successful  battles.  Izcohuatl  or 
Izeoatzin  was  the  next  tlaea-tecuhlli  or  war 
chief,  and  during  his  time  the  dominant  position 
of  the  tribe  was  rendered  more  secure  by  the  for- 
mation of  a  sort  of  military  confederation,  with 
the  other  tribes  subordinate  to  the  Aztecs,  by 
which  the  peoples  about  Lake  Texcoco  were 
united  for  the  purptise  of  overpowering  their  out- 
lying neighbors  and  forcing  them  to  jiay  tribute. 
Izcohuatl  was  followed  in  14.'iii  fir  1437  l>y  the 
first  Sloteeuhzoma  or  ^lontezuma  ("Wrathy 
Chief),  who  was  perhaps  the  first  chief  to  com- 
bine the  war  and  priestly  functions,  aiul  who  pre- 
pare<l  for  the  downfall  of  the  tribal  power  by  al- 
lowing the  latter  to  interfere  with  the  former. 
His  successors,  Axayacafl,  Tizoc,  and  .\huizotl, 
considerably  extended  the  inlluence  of  the  tribe 
by  conquering  the  tribes  beyond  the  mountains, 
to  the  two  seas  on  the  east  and  west,  and  far  to- 
ward the  south,  and  forcing  them  to  render 
tribute  of  slaves  for  the  sacrifices  which  were 
becoming  the  established  and  popular  religious 
practice  of  the  Aztecs. 

In  1502  the  second  Montezuma  was  elected  to 
the  chief  position  in  the  tribe.  (For  an  account 
of  .Montezuma's  career  and  the  invasion  of  Mex- 
ico by  Cort<'-s,  see  MoxTKZiM,\:  <'()K['I^:s.)  In 
NovemlMT,  1510,  CortC-s  entered  Tenochtitlan — 
Mexico — and  before  the  end  of  the  month  he  had 
secured  the  person  of  Ihe  Mexican  'Kmperor.' 
whose  subjects  soon  fully  realiz/'d  that  the  while 
men  would  have  to  be  expelled  by  force,  and 
quickly  eonunenced  hostilities  under  the  lender- 
ship  of  Montezuma's  younger  brother.  Ciiitla- 
huntzin  (q.v.),  and  the  Emperor's  nephew.  Ouate- 


niotzin  (q.v,),  or  CualUciiiuc,  On  the  Soche 
Tristc,  or  -dreadful  night,'  .June  3U.  1,520,  Cortes 
withdrew  from  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  for  a  time 
his  position  was  desperate,  but  the  indomitable 
valor  of  the  Spaniards  enabled  them  to  return  to 
the  attack,  Cuitlahuatziu,  Montezuma's  suc- 
cessor, died  in  Xovember,  1520,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Guatemotzin,  whose  heroic  defen.se  of 
the  City  of  Mexico  during  the  following  year 
remains  one  of  the  noblest  episodes  in  .-Vnierican 
history,  Cortes  began  his  siege  of  Jlexico  in 
May,  1521,  and  after  the  capture  of  (iuatemotzin 
in  August,  he  set  promptly  to  work  at  rebuild- 
ing the  city.  The  dead  bodies  were  burneil  and 
the  city  roughly  cleansed,  the  canals  filled  up, 
streets,  market  places,  and  the  sites  for  a  church, 
fort,  official  residence,  and  other  necessary  build- 
ings located.  As  an  administrator  Corlos  was 
less  successful  than  as  a  military  leader,  and  the 
repeated  complaints  and  threats  against  his  rule 
leil  him  to  go  to  Spain  to  present  his  case  at  Court. 
There  were  rapid  changes  in  the  form  and  ))erson- 
nel  of  the  Ciovernment  of  Mexico,  or  of  New 
Spain,  as  it  was  ofiicially  called,  military  Govern- 
ors succeeding  one  another  every  few  months  until 
152S,  when  the  first  Audiencia.  under  Nuno  de 
Guzman,  arrived,  to  be  replaced  by  the  second  a 
year  later.  This  managed  aft'airs  successfully 
until  1535,  when  the  first  Viceroy,  Antonio  de 
Mendoza,  came  from  Spain,  To  him  was  prin- 
cipally due  the  growth  of  the  country  along 
lines  which  assured  its  permanent  strength  ami 
welfare.  In  1550  'the  Good  Viceroy'  Mendoza 
was  transferred  to  Peru,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Luis  de  Velasco,  luider  whom  the  University  of 
Mexico  was  founded  in  1553,  and  the  mineral 
and  other  sources  of  wealth  developed.  Few  acts 
or  episodes  of  general  interest  mark  the  reigns 
of  the  succeeding  vice-regal  rulers  of  Mexico. 
The  capital  grew,  was  [icrioilically  Hooded,  and 
plans  as  regularly  were  made'  ior  its  draining,  by 
the  Viceroy  Velasco  and  others,  whose  vast  de- 
signs were  only  consunmutted  in  the  last  years  of 
the  nineteenth  century  by  President  Diaz.  The 
Inquisition  was  introduced  in  1571.  and  the 
Autos  (hi  Fe  claimed  tlieir  heretical  victims  from 
time  to  time.  In  17S0  the  second  Count  of 
Kevillagigedo  began  the  rebuilding  of  the  capi- 
tal. One  result  of  these  works  was  the 
finding  of  the  ancient  ^Mexican  Calendar  stone 
and  the  sacrificial  block,  which  had  been  buried 
at  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  The  gradual  in- 
crease of  education  among  all  classes,  the  spread 
of  revolutionary  and  independent  ideas  all  over 
the  world,  a  succession  of  X'ieeroys  who  vcsjionded 
to  the  pressure  from  Spain  by  ilraining  the 
American  colonies  of  every  possible  ingot  and 
coin,  and  finally  the  addition  of  Spain  to  the 
appanages  of  Xapolcon,  were  all  factors  in  caus- 
ing the  growth  of  ideas  of  independence  for  Mex- 
ico, 

Various  groups  had  been  formed  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  revoUitionary  plans,  and  some  of  the 
advocates  of  imlependenee  had  been  imprisoned 
and  killed,  before  the  fateful  ICth  of  Sc]iteml>er, 
1810,  when  the  parish  jiriest  at  Dolores,  near 
CJuanajuato,  Hidalgo  y  Costilla  ((pv. ),  upon  sud- 
denly learning  that  some  of  his  fellow  conspir- 
ators had  been  arrcsted.'rang  his  church  bell  and 
called  upon  his  people  to  follow  him  and  free 
Mexico  from  foreiiin  tyranity.  His  (Irito  dc 
Poloic/).  the  cry  of  "Long  live  religion!  Long 
live  our  Holy  Mother  of  ( lu.idalupe!     Long  live 


MEXICO. 


415 


MEXICO. 


America,  and  death  to  bad  goTernment,"  marked 
tlif  bcgiiiniug  of  the  struggle  lor  Mexican  inde- 
peiidencc.  Hidalgo,  after  a  series  of  successful 
tights  with  scattered  Royalist  forces,  was  defeat- 
ed, driven  north,  and  finally  eau*ht  and  shot 
at  Chihuahua,  on  July  30,  ISll.  His  pupil, 
ilorclos  (q.v. ),  took  up  the  leadership,  became 
known  as  the  'hero  of  a  hundred  Ijattles,'  and 
was  iu  turn  defeated  by  the  Royalist  army  under 
Iturbide  (q.v.),  betrayed  by  one  of  liis  follow- 
ers, and  shot  in  December,  181.5.  In  1817 
Javier  Jlina  invaded  ile.xico  from  Tamaulipas 
and  maintained  the  fight  for  independence  with 
the  usual  temporary  success,  until  defeated,  cap- 
tured, and  shotj  November  11th.  Meanwhile, 
Vicente  Guerrero  (q.v.)  had  gradually  been  es- 
tablishing his  claim  to  be  the  natural  and  most 
able  leader  of  the  Independents  iu  tlie  field, 
while  among  all  classes  in  Mexico  the  feeling 
was  growing  more  and  more  strong  that  the 
Spanish  power  must  be  done  awav  with.  Iturbide 
determined  to  unite  the  two  parties,  and  by  the 
Pluit  of  lijudhi.  February  24.  1821,  in  which 
Guerrero  and  the  S])anish  Viceroy,  O'Donaju, 
joined,  proposed  an  independent  monarchy  with 
a  ruler  from  the  Spanish  royal  family.  The  plan 
failed;  no  ruler  could  be  secured  from  Europe, 
but  independence  had  been  practically  and  peace- 
fully assured.  Iturbide  arranged  a  popular  dem- 
onstration, and  the  Congress  ratified  his  choice 
of  himself  as  Emperor,  May  19,  1822.  The  older 
Independents  soon  refused  to  acknowledge  his 
empire,  and  on  March  20,  1823,  the  opposition 
forced  his  resignation.  An  executive  council  of 
four  revolutionary  leaders,  Nicolas  Bravo,  C4uada- 
lupe  Victoria,  Xegrete,  and  Vicente  Guerrero, 
managed  afTairs  during  the  next  year,  calling  for 
the  election  of  a  congress,  which,  on  October 
4.  1824,  proclaimed  the  first  Constitution  of  the 
Kepnblic  of  Jlexico.  Guadalupe  Victoria  became 
the  first  President  and  succeeded  in  retaining 
office  for  the  full  term.  In  1828  the  election  was 
bitterly  contested  by  rival  factions  of  Free- 
masons, and  the  successful  party  was  almost 
immediately  overpowered  by  its  opponents, 
under  Santa  Anna,  who  forced  Congress  to  depose 
the  duly  elected  President.  Gomez  Pedraza,  and 
install  Guerrero.  His  Vice-President,  Bustamente, 
forced  him  to  take  refuge  in  the  South,  before 
the  end  of  1829,  and  had  himself  inaugurated  as 
President. 

The  course  of  local  politics  during  the  next 
twenty  years  is  sufficiently  detailed  luuler 
Sant.\  Anna,  who  had  a  hand  in  whatever  oc- 
curred. In  1836  the  Texans  made  good  their 
separation  from  ilexico,  and  ten  years  later  the 
t'nited  States  forces  invaded  ilexico.  the  task 
of  its  generals  being  rendered  relatively  easy  by 
the  repeated  internal  dissensions  which  absorbed 
most  of  the  attention  of  the  Mexican  commanders. 
Tliere  were  twelve  changes  in  the  chief  executive 
during  the  two  years  of  the  war.  a  fact  which 
sulficicntly  exjdains  the  inability  of  the  Mexi- 
cans, in  spite  of  their  admirable  fighting  quali- 
ties, to  prevent  the  advance  of  the  United  States 
troops.  In  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo 
(q.v.)  Mexico  suffered  heavy  loss  of  territory. 
Santa  Anna  was  the  leading  factor  in  affairs 
until  August.  18.5.5.  General  Comonfort  (q.v.) 
was  installed  as  President  in  December,  and  in 
June.  1850.  issued  tlie  decree  ordering  the  sale  of 
all  unimproved  Church  lands,  which  precipitated 
the    struggle    between    Church    and    State.      On 


February  5,  1857,  a  new  constitution,  which  is 
still  in  force,  was  adopted  by  Congress.  In 
Jauuar}',  18.58,  Comonfort,  who  had  tried  to  set 
aside  the  Constitution,  departed  suddenly  for  the 
United  States,  and  Cieneral  Zuloaga  and  after 
him  Juarez  (q.v.)  took  the  lead  in  affairs.  'La 
Refornia,'  the  war  for  reform  of  the  Church, 
broke  out  with  all  the  fury  of  religious  warfare. 
Juarez,  on  July  12,  1850,  issued  his  decree  na- 
tionalizing all  Church  property.  The  battle  of 
Calpulal|iam,  iu  December,  1800,  with  the  de- 
feat of  Miramon  (q.v.)  by  the  Juarez  forces  un- 
der General  Ortega,  marked  the  end  of  the  old 
order  of  things.  In  addition  to  the  difficulties  of 
internal  administration,  Juarez  brought  foreign 
war  on  the  country  by  decreeing  the  suspension 
for  two  years  of  the  payments  on  the  foreign 
loan.  The  act,  wise  and  perhaps  necessary  in 
itself,  was  not  managed  with  diplomacy,  and  on 
October  31,  1801,  tlie  Convention  of  London  was 
entered  into  by  England.  France,  and  Spain,  in 
\xhich  these  Powers  agreed  upon  connnon  action 
for  the  protection  of  their  interests  in  Mexico. 
Fleets  were  at  once  dispatched  across  the  ocean, 
and  in  December  a  Spanish  force  occupied  Vera 
Cruz.  In  February,  1802,  England  and  Spain 
withdrew  their  forces,  upon  becoming  aware 
that  Xapoleon  III.  was  scheming  to  establish 
an  empire,  supported  by  France,  in  America. 
On  the  departure  of  the  English  and  Spanish 
troops  the  French  came  out  openly  against  the 
Mexican  Ciovernment  and  were  joined  by  the 
Reactionists  and  Monarchists,  who  were  natu- 
rally hostile  to  Juarez.  On  May  5,  1862.  a  French 
army  of  0000  men  under  General  Lorencez  was 
defeated  before  Puebla  (the  famous  Cineo  de 
Mayo),  and  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Orizaba. 
In  September  the  arrival  of  reenforcements  raised 
the  French  strength  to  12.000  men.  In  May, 
1803,  a  combined  force  of  French  and  Jlexicans 
captured  Puebla,  and  marched  upon  the  capital, 
which  fell  into  their  hands  on  .June  10th  after 
Juarez  and  his  Cabinet  had  fled.  A  council  of 
thirty  members  was  appointed  by  the  French 
commander,  Forey,  and  this  council  in  turn 
elected  a  committee  of  three  men  to  whom  was 
intrusted  the  supreme  executive  authority.  The 
most  prominent  of  those  who  made  up  this  Su- 
preme Coimcil  of  the  Regency  was  General  .Juan 
Xepomuceno  Almonte  (q.v.).  On  July  10th  an 
Assembly  of  Notables  at  Mexico  proclaimed  Mex- 
ico an  empire  and  tendered  the  crown  to  Maxi- 
milian, Archdidce  of  Austria,  brother  of  the 
Emperor  Francis  .Joseph.  (See  Maximili.\n, 
Febdinand  Joseph.)  ilaximilian  accepted  the 
crown  on  condition  that  the  action  of  the  Assem- 
bly of  Notables  be  ratified  by  a  vote  of  the  Mexi- 
can people.  As  a  French  army  of  35.000  was 
present  in  the  country,  there  was  little  dilliculty 
in  obtaining  this.  On  May  29,  18(i4,  Maximilian 
and  his  wife  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  and  on  .June 
12th  the  sovereigns  entered  the  capital,  taking  up 
their  residence  at  Chapultepec,  where  they  estab- 
lished a  court  with  all  the  regalia  and  forms  of 
a  European  dynasty.  In  the  field  the  French 
troops  under  Bazaine.  who  had  assumed  com- 
mand in  October,  1863,  gained  a  number  of  suc- 
cesses over  the  patriot  forces,  and  drove  .Juarez 
from  place  to  place  until  he  finally  established 
his  capital  at  El  Paso  del  Norte  on  the  United 
States  border.  In  the  desperate  guerrilla  war- 
fare which  the  Nationalist  forces  waged  against 
the   invaders  a  large  part  of  the  country  was 


MEXICO. 


devastated.     For  a  year  and  a  half  everything 
went  satisfactorily  with  Maximilian  to  outward 
seeming,  but  at  the  end  of  1805  lie  found  liimself, 
despite  his  efiorts  to  win  the  good-will  of  liis  sub- 
jects, with  no  real  support  except   that  of  the 
French   soldiers.     Meanwhile  the    United   States 
had  convinced  Napoleon  III.  that  French  troops 
would  not  be  sull'ered  to  interfere  in  .American  af- 
fairs.     On   May   31,    IStiU,   Ma.ximilian    received 
word  tliat  the  Frencli  army  was  to  be  willidrawn. 
He  at  once  decided  to  abdicate,  then  cliaiiged  his 
mind,  at  tlie  instigation  of  the  Kmprcss  Carlotta, 
who  hastened  back  to  Europe,  where  her  failure 
to  secure  any  help  was  probably  responsible  for 
the  attack  of  brain  fever  which  b>ft  her  ho])elessly 
insane.     Maximilian  again  decided  to  witlidraw, 
but  the  French  commissioners  refused  to  agree  to 
the  terms  in  which  he  insisted  upon  phrasing  his 
abdication,   and   eventually  the   Emperor   deter- 
mined to  stay  by  his  empire  and  the  supporters 
who   remained   true   to   him.      Jleanwhile  Juarez 
returned    southward,    gathered    an    army,    and 
awaited    the   departure    of    the    French.      Maxi- 
milian made  his  way  to  Querftaro,  where  he  was 
joined  by  the  troopsraised  by  Marquez.  Miramon, 
Mejia,  and  otliers,  and   where,   in   turn,  the  re- 
publican   armies    rpiickly    surrounded    him,    by 
March     1,    1807.      Jhirqiiez    broke    through    the 
enemy  to  bring  assistance  from  Mexico,  but  in- 
stead" undertook  to  establish  a  power  for  himself 
at  Puelda.  where  he  was  defeated  by  Diaz,  who 
drove    him    back    to    Mexico    and    then    captured 
that  city.     Maximilian  had  meanwhile  been  be- 
trayed by  one  of  his  most  favored  officers.  Colonel 
Miguel  Lopez,  wlio  arranged  the  admittance  of 
the  enemy  into  the  lmi)erial  camp.    The  Emperor 
was  forced  to  surrender,  received  a  military  trial 
and  was  shot,  with  (ienerals  Mejia  and  Jliramon. 
on    June    19,    1807.      After    four    years    .Tuarez 
entered  the  City  of  Jlexico  on  .Tuly  !.">.  18(57,  and 
began    the    reorganization    of   the    Repidilie.      An 
election   was   held   whidi   confirmed   him   in   the 
Presidency,  and  he   held   the   position  until   his 
death  in  iS7'2.     I^rdo  de  Tcjada  succeeded  to  the 
office  and  held  it  until  1870.  when  he  was  ousted 
by  Portirio  Diaz,  who  became   President  in   1877. 
In  1880  Diaz  was  succeeded  by  his  friend,  fieneral 
JIanuel  Gonzfilez.  whose  four  years  of  inefficiency 
convinced  Diaz  of  the  necessity  of  governing  in 
person.     Since  then  he  has  continued  to  fill  the 
Presidential  office.   Vnder  Diaz  have  occurred  the 
remarkable    extension    of    railroads    that    have 
knit   together  the  most  distant  portions  of  the 
Republic,  the  gi-eat  advance  in  textile  industries, 
tlie  enormous  rlevelopnicnt  of  mines,  the  practical 
reconstruction   of  the   capital,   and   the   rebuild- 
ing of  portions  of  the  other  cities.     This  work  is 
largely   due   to   governmental    initiative,   at   the 
expense  of  the  national  or  State  treasury,  but  ac- 
companieil  bv  an  increase  in  national  credit  com- 
nieiisuiale  witli  the  results  obtained. 

BiBi.iooRAiMiY.  General.  Reelus,  flfofjraphie 
vnirirnrllc,  vol.  xvii.  (Paris.  1891);  Romero, 
(Irnqraphieal  and  Stiitislirtil  Kotes  on  Mexico 
(Xew  York,  1898)  ;  Romero.  Mexico  and  the 
I'niird  Stales  (Xew  York.  1898);  Bureau  of 
American  Republics,  .l/cxi'ro  (Washington.  1900)  : 
Anuario  exladistico  de  In  rrpiihlien  niexicana 
(Mexico)  ;  Moses,  f'on.itiliilion  of  the  United 
Btatrs  of  Mexico   (Philadelphia,  1809). 

Re.soibces:  Indistries.  .Anderson,  Mexico 
from  the  Material  Standpoint  (Washinirton, 
1884)  ;    Ober,    Mexican    Resources    (New    York. 


416  MEXICO. 

1884;  Wells,  A  l^iludy  of  Mexico  (ib., 
1880)  ;  Dunn,  Mexico  and  Her  Resources  (Lon- 
don, 1880)  ;  Howell,  Mexico:  Its  Progress  and 
Commercial  Possibilities  (ib,,  1892)  ;  Felix 
and  Lenk,  6eitr<ige  ziir  Geologic  uiid  J'uliion- 
tologie  von  Mexi-co  (Leipzig,  1892)  ;  Cubas, 
Mexico:  Its  Trade,  Industries,  and  Resources, 
translated  b.v  Thompson  and  Cleveland  (Mexico, 
189.'5)  ;  Duclos  Salinas,  The  Riches  of  Mexico 
and  Its  Institutions  (Saint  Louis,  1803);  Ban- 
croft, Resources  and  Derelopment  of  Mexico  (San 
Francisco,  1894)  ;  Baker,  -1  Xaturalist  in  Mexico 
(Chicago,  1895). 

Travel:  Description.  Hill,  Travels  in  Peru 
and  Mexico  (London,  I860)  ;  Taylor,  Anahuac: 
Mexico  and  the  Mexicans  (ib,,  1801):  Rat- 
zel,  A  us  Mexiko,  Reiseskizzen  aus  den  Jahren 
lS~Jr75  (Breslau,  1878)  ;  Taylor,  Eldorado  (New 
Y'ork,  1881)  :  Auljertin,  .1  Flight  to  Mexico  (Lon- 
don, 1882)  :  Bisliop.  Old  Mexico  and  Her  Lost 
Provinces  (New  York,  1883)  ;  Brocklehurst, 
Mexico  To-Day  (London,  1883):  Conkling, 
Mexico  and  the  Mexicans  (New  Y'ork,  1883)  ; 
Bandelier,  Mexico  (Boston,  1885)  ;  Griffin,  Mexi- 
co of  To-Day  (New  York,  1886)  ;  Charnay,  An- 
cient Cities  of  the  New  World  (London,  1887); 
Biart,  The  Aztecs  (Chicago,  1887)  ;  (looch.  Face 
to  Face  with  the  Mexicans  (New  York,  1888)  ; 
Ober,  Travels  in  Mexico  (London,  1888)  :  Ballou, 
Aztec  Land  (Boston,  1890)  ;  Hesse-Wartegg, 
Mexiko,  Land  und  Leute  (Vienna,  1890)  ; 
Through  the  Land  of  the  Aztecs,  or  Life  and 
Travel  in  Mexico  (London,  189:i)  ;  Crawford, 
Land  of  the  Montezumas  (New  Y'ork,  1897); 
Below,  Mexiko  (Berlin,  1899);  Seler,  Auf  alten 
Wegen  in  Mexiko  und  (Suatemala  (Berlin.  1900)  ; 
Lumlioltz,  Vnknouyn  Mexico  (New  Y'ork,  1902). 

HisTORV.  Icazbalceta,  Documentos  para  la  his- 
toria  de  Mejico  (20  vols.,  Mexico,  1853-57)  ;  Golec- 
cion  nucva  de  documentos  pnra  la  historia  de  Meji- 
co (5  vols.,  Mexico,  1892).  The  standard  work  on 
Mexican  history  is  Mexico  ul  travis  de  tos  siglos, 
a  series  of  five  volumes  published  under  tlie  edi- 
torial supervision  of  Vincente  Riva  Palacio 
(Mexico.  1887-89).  Volume  i.  of  the  series  com- 
prises Cliavero.  Historia  nntigua  y  de  la  con- 
(juista  ;  volume  ii.,  Riva  Palacio.  Historia  de  la 
dominacion  espafiola  en  Mexico  desde  1521  & 
1808;  volume  iii.,  Zarate,  La  guerra  de  inde- 
pendencia;  volume  iv.,  Olavarrea  y  Ferrari. 
Mexico  independiente,  1821-5.'i :  volume  v..  Vigil, 
La  re  forma.  Other  general  works  are :  Bancroft, 
Mexico  (6  vols.,  San  Francisco,  1883-88):  Cavo, 
Los  tres  siglos  de  Mexico  (4  vols.,  Mexico.  1836- 
38)  :  Jlavcr.  Mexico:  Aztec.  Spanish,  and  Repub- 
lican (liartford,  1853)  :  Mora.  Mexico  y  sua 
rei'oluciones  (Paris,  1856)  ;  Chevalier,  Mexico, 
Ancient  and  .Modern,  translated  liy  Alpass  (Lon- 
don, 1804)  :  Payno,  Historia  de  Mfjico  (Mexico, 
1871):  Lester,  77ie  Mexican  Republic:  .4  His- 
toric Study  (New  Y'ork.  1878);  Frost.  History 
of  Mexico  (New  Orleans.  1882)  ;  .Johnson.  Mexi- 
co, Past  and  Present  (New  Yiuk.  1887);  Noll, 
A  Short  Histoni  of  Mexico  (Chicago.  1890); 
Hale.  The  Story  of  Mexico  (New  York.  1891). 
Of  works  dealing  with  special  periods,  a  few  of 
the  liest  known  are:  Bandelier.  "On  the  Social 
Organization  and  ^lode  of  Government  of  the 
Ancient  Mexicans,"  in  Twelfth  Annual  Report  of 
the  Peahndti  Museum  of  .imrrican  .Archwology 
and  Ethnoioqy  (Cambridge,  1880)  ;  Brasseur  de 
Rourbovirg,    flistoire    des    nations    civilisdes    du 


MEXICO. 


417 


MEXICO. 


ilexiqiie  et  de  I'Amcriqiid  ccntrale  (4  vols., 
Paris,  1857-59)  ;  Garcia,  Canicler  de  la  con- 
quista  espauola  en  America  y  en  Mexico  (Mexico, 
lilOl);  Prcscott,  History  of  the  Conquest  of 
Mexico  (Xcw  York,  1855)  ;  Folsom,  The  Dc- 
spulehes  uf  Hernando  Corlcn  (ib.,  1843)  ;  Bcrnal 
Diaz  del  Castillo,  The  True  Hialory  of  the  Con- 
quest of  Mexico,  translati'd  by  Koatiiige  (London, 
( 1800)  ;  ,Salia<;un,  IJistoria  de  laconquisla  de  Mcx- 
iVo(iI['xico,  182'J)  :  .Solis  y  Kibadeneyra,  Uistoria 
de  la  conquista  de  Mexico  (Barcelona,  1789)  ; 
C'urnwallis,  The  Conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru 
(London,  189.3);  Alanian,  Historia  de  Mcjico, 
IfiOS-^il  (Mexico,  1849-50);  Rivera,  I'rincipios 
criticos  sobre  el  vireynato  de  la  ifiiera  ICspai'ia  y 
sobre  el  revolucion  de  imlependencia  (San  Juan 
de  los  Lagos,  1884)  ;  Bustamante,  Cuadro  his- 
torico  de  la  rerolucion  de  la  Am/rica  mexicana 
I  Mexico.  18'23)  :  Torronte.  Hi.slori^i  r/eneral  de 
la  rerolucion  modrrna  Hispano- Americana  (5 
vols., Madrid,  1829-30)  ;  Fvia.s,  Episodios  militares 
mexicanos ;  gueira  de  independencia  (Paris, 
1901):  Ward,  Mexico  in  1S27  (London,  1829); 
Hidalgo,  Apuntes  para  escribir  la  historia  de  los 
proi/ectos  de  monarquia  en  Mexico  (Mexico, 
18G8)  ;  Kf'ratry,  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  translated  by  Venables  (Lon- 
don. 18G8)  ;  Alvensleben,  With  Maximilian  in 
Mexico  (London.  18(37):  Basch,  Erinnerungen 
aus  Mexiko  (Leipzig,  1808)  ;  Elton,  With  the 
French  in  Mexico  (Philadelphia,  1867)  :  Steven- 
son, Maximilian  in  Mexico  (New  York,  1899)  ; 
Oibas.  Mexico  J»i  1876  (Mexico,  1876)  ;  Castro, 
The  Republic  of  Mexico  in  18S2  (New  Y'ork, 
1882)  ;  Butler,  Mexico  in  Transition  (ib..  1892)  ; 
Lumniis,  The  Aical-ening  of  a  Nation  (ib.,  1898). 

MEXICO.  An  inland  State  of  Mexico, 
bounded  liy  the  State  of  Hidalgo  on  the  north, 
Tlaxcala  and  Puebla  on  the  east,  Morelos  and 
(Hicrrero  on  the  south,  and  Michoacan  and  Quere- 
taro  on  the  west  (Map:  Mexico.  ,18).  A  part 
of  this  territory,  adjacent  to  the  State  of  Morelos 
and  bounded  on  tliree  sides  by  the  State  of 
Mexico,  is  occupied  l)y  the  Federal  District,  which 
is  outside  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State.  The  area 
of  the  .State  is  9247  square  miles.  The  surface  is 
very  diversified.  In  the  north  it  is  generally 
flat,  Mith  a  few  low  hills  and  a  niiniber  of  lakes. 
The  eastern  part  is  taken  \ip  by  the  Popocatepetl 
range  with  its  two  great  volcanoes  rising  to  an 
altitude  of  17,000  feet.  In  the  south  rises 
the  Ajusgo  range  with  its  highest  peak  of  over 
13.500  feet,  while  the  centre  is  occupied  by  the 
Sierra  de  las  Cruces,  exceeding  14.000  feet  in  its 
higlicst  peak.  The  rivers  are  few  in  number,  the 
chief  among  them  being  tlie  Serma,  which  rises 
in  this  State.  There  are  a  numlier  of  lakes  in 
the  eastern  portion,  the  largest  of  which  is  Lake 
Texeoco.  The  climate'  is  generally  cold,  owing 
to  the  mountainous  character  of  the  surface.  In 
the  valleys,  however,  it  is  temperate  and  health- 
ful and  even  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  tropi- 
cal fruits.  The  cliief  products  are  cereals,  sugar, 
coffee,  tobacco,  and  spices.  Stock-raising  is  also 
an  inipiu-tant  industry.  The  mineral  wealth  of 
tlie  State  is  very  consideralile.  but  only  slightly 
exploited.  The  manufactured  products  include 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  glassware,  potterv, 
wines,  and  flour.  The  State  is  traversed  by  sev- 
eral railway  lines,  all  centring  in  Mexico  City. 
Population."  in  189,5,  841,618.  The  capital  is 
Tnluca    (q.v.). 


MEXICO.  Tlie  largest  and  finest  city  in 
Latin  North  America.  It  is  situateil  in  llic 
Federal  District  (area,  463  square  miles)  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  on  the  Ana- 
huae  plateau,  7350  feet  above  the  sea,  in  latitude 
19°  26'  N.  and  longitude  90°  8'  \V.  (Map:  Mexico. 
J  8).  Its  area  is  about  20  .square  miles.  Tlie 
city  is  263  miles  by  rail  "from  Vera  Cruz  on  tlie 
Gulf  of  Jlexico,  290  miles  from  Acapulco  on  the 
Pacific,  839  miles  from  Nuevo  Laredo,  the  nearest 
railroad  town  on  the  United  States  frontier,  and 
1224  miles  from  El  Paso,  Tex.  Its  population 
by  the  census  of  1900  was  368,898,  of  which  num- 
ber 12,064  were  of  foreign  birth.  It  is  one  of  tlie 
most  ancient  cities  of  the  continent,  and  has  been 
successively  the  capital  of  the  Aztecs,  of  the 
Spanish  colony  of  New  Spain,  and  of  the  Re- 
public of  Mexico. 

The  valley  in  which  it  stands  is  an  inunense 
basin,  approximately  circular  in  shape,  embrac- 
ing some  2220  squ.are  miles,  and  completely  en- 
circled by  high  mountains,  through  which  only 
two  or  tliree  quite  elevated  passes  afford  an  en- 
trance. The  view  of  the  valley  and  of  its  girdling 
mountains  and  snow-capped  volcanoes  from  eleva- 
tions such  as  the  towers  of  the  Cathedra!  or 
Chapultepec  Hill,  three  miles  west  of  the  city, 
is  superlatively  beautiful.  There  is  no  natural 
exit  for  the  waters  which  pour  down  the  inner 
sides  of  the  mountains  and  they  collect  in  six 
lakes  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  plain — 
Chalco  and  Xochimilco  (fresh  water),  and  Tex- 
eoco, Xaltocan,  San  Cristobal,  and  Zumpango 
(salt  water).  In  an  early  age  nearly  the  entire 
surface  of  the  valley  was  a  lake  bed,  but  for 
many  centuries  desiccation  has  been  very  gradu- 
ally progressing  until  the  waters  are  collected 
entirely  in  the  si.x  shallow  basins  whose  extent 
has  been  still  further  reduced  by  the  drainage 
work  recently  completed.  The  waters  of  Xochi- 
milco, however,  were  practically  absorbed  by  the 
network  of  canals  tliat  irrigate  the  surrounding 
region. 

Owing  to  the  inadequate  drainage  and  sewage 
systems  and  .a  soil  permeated  with  the  refuse  of 
centuries,  the  city  long  had  an  annual  death-rate 
of  40  to  every  1000  inhabitants,  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  mortality  than  in  any  other  civilized  city 
of  the  world.  Tlie  conditions  which  promoted 
this  high  death-rate  have  now  largely  been  reme- 
died, and  the  city  compares  favorably  with  others 
in  salubrity,  and  is  decreasing  its  death-rate, 
though  the  unhygienic  manner  of  life  of  the 
poorer  classes  swells  the  mortality.  The  city  is 
naturally  healthful,  and  in  its  climatic  conditions 
is  a  delightful  place  of  residence.  The  tempera- 
ture is  extremely  equable,  with  an  annual  range 
of  only  12°  to  15°.  The  mean  temperature  of 
the  summer  months  is  60°  to  65°,  and  the  mean 
temperature  in  mid  winter  is  about  53°.  The 
prevailing  winds,  coming  from  the  northwest,  are 
damp,  while  the  south  winds,  which  blow  only 
a  sixth  of  the  time,  are  very  dry.  The  total  rain- 
fall is  about  20  inches,  or  about  half  of  that  at 
New  York. 

From  its  three  centuries  of  Spanish  domination 
Mexico  still  preser\'es  many  characteristics  of 
the  great  cities  of  Spain,  and  from  a  certain 
Oriental  suggestion  in  its  appearance,  far  sur- 
passes them  in  novelty  and  interest.  Along  with 
the  wonderful  commercial  development  that  has 
characterized  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  are 
to   be    found    evidences    of    an    artistic    plan    to 


MEXICO. 


418 


MEXICO. 


preserve  more  beautiful  forms  of  architecture 
than  are  usually  associated  with  a  modern  indus- 
trial city,  with  the  result  that  here  may  be 
found  an  artistic  centre  for  local  color  not 
equaled  elsewhere  on  the  American  continent. 
.Seen  from  a  distance  the  city,  prevailingly  white 
in  color,  is  an  imposing  spectacle.  Spreading 
widely  over  the  plain,  ovortnpped  by  domes  and 
pinnacles,  and  hemmed  around  l)y  m.ijestic  nioim- 
tains,  few  cities  of  the  world  are  more  cliarming 
and  impressive. 

Most  of  the  houses  have  terraced  roofs  and 
inner  courts,  are  solidly  built  of  sandstone  or 
lava,  and  are  only  one  to  two  stories  in  height, 
a  precaution  against  the  frequent  though  usually 
slight  earthquakes:  but  many  of  the  business 
and  public  buildings,  supported  on  solid  foiinda- 
tions  of  piling,  arc  three  and  even  more  stories  in 
elevation,  and  some  of  them  reach  an  altitude  of 
live  stories.  The  walls  of  many  of  the  poorer 
buildings  are  not  quite  perpendicular,  owing 
to  the  shocks  they  have  sustained,  thus  giving  to 
some  of  the  street  fronts  a  ratlier  rickety  appear- 
ance. The  later  buildings  along  the  business 
streets  are  making  greater  use  of  steel  in  their 
construction,  a  luaclice  better  adapted  to  the 
rather  insecure  foundation  soil  of  the  city. 

BuiLmxcs.  On  the  north  side  of  the  I'laza  de 
Armas,  the  Cathedral,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  sumptuous  cluirclies  in  America,  rises  on 
the  site  of  the  great  temple  of  Huitzilopoelitli, 
the  titular  god  of  the  Aztecs.  The  Cathedral. 
l)egun  in  1573,  and  dedicated  in  1607  at  a  cost  of 
.$2.1)00,000  for  tlie  walls  alone,  forms  a  Latin 
cross,  426  feet  long  aiul  203  feet  wide,  with  two 
great  naves,  three  aisles,  twenty  side  chapels, 
and  a  magnificent  higli  altar  supported  by 
marlile  columns  and  surroundeil  bv  a  liaUistrade 
with  si.\ty-two  statues  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper 
alloy.  The  elaborately  carved  choir  inclosed  by 
tombac  (copper  and  zinc  alloy)  railings  is  valued 
at  .$1,500,000.  The  Doric  style  of  architecture^ 
prevails  in  the  interior,  and  the  mixed  Doric 
and  Ionic  of  the  Spanish  Renaissance  in  the 
exterior,  with  its  five  tloines  and  two  open  towers 
21S  feet  high.  Tlic  latter  were  not  completed 
until  1791.  In  addition  to  the  Cathedral,  Mexico 
contains  some  sixty  churches,  among  which  the 
finest  are  La  Profesa,  Loreto,  Santa  Teresa.  Santo 
Domingo,  and  San  Ilipolito.  The  leading 
Protestant  denominations  are  represented  bv 
houses  of  worship,  which  are  attended  almost 
wholly  b.v  the  foreign  element  of  the  population. 

The  east  side  of  the  I'laza  is  occupied  by  the 
Natiimal  Palace,  of  poor  and  monotonous  archi- 
tecture, which  has  075  feet  frontage  and  contains 
most  of  the  Government  ollices,  the  general 
archives,  and  some  remarkable  paintings  by 
Miranda  and  native  artists.  With  its  associated 
buildings  this  structure  occupies  an  area  of 
14.000  square  meters.  The  Pnhir'w  has  long  been 
inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  various  depart- 
ments installed  within  it.  and  at  the  present  time 
there  are  in  process  of  building  a  new  iinst-ofTiee 
building  and  a  new  War  and  Xavy  building,  both 
steel  and  stone  structures.  Xorth  of  the  Na- 
tional Palace  and  forming  parts  of  it  are  the 
post-ofTice  and  the  National  Mtiseum  of  Natural 
History  and  .\nticpiities.  with  a  priceless  collec- 
tion of  Aztec  relies,  and  'the  bones  of  giants"  as 
they  were  formerlv  supposed  to  l)e.  though  now 
recognized  ns  the  remains  of  large  animals  of  the 
Quaternary   epoch.      The    Nntionnl    Observatory 


and  the  Meteorological  Bureau  arc  also  located 
here.  The  ilonte  de  Piedad,  the  famous  national 
pawnshop  of  Mexico,  with  nearly  $10,000,000  of 
accumulated  funds,  stands  close  to  the  Cathedral, 
and  with  its  liberal  management  is  really  a 
beneficent  charity. 

Facing  tiie  Cathedral  is  the  Palacio  Municipal 
or  Citv  Hall,  containing  the  city  and  Federal 
District  otfices.  Among  other  notable  buildings 
is  the  School  of  ilcdicine  on  the  I'laza  Santo 
Domingo,  occupying  the  quarters  in  which 
the  Inquisition  made  its  infamous  history; 
the  Church  of  the  Jesuits;  the  School  of 
Arts,  where  many  branches  of  industry  are 
taught;  the  National  Picture  Gallery  of  San 
Carlos,  in  which  the  Florentine  and  Flemish 
schools  are  especiallv  well  represented;  the  Na- 
tional Librar.v,  formerly  the  Church  of  San 
Augustin.  witli  over  200.000  volumes,  numerous 
manuscripts,  and  rare  old  .Spanish  books;  the 
Mint,  in  which  silver  and  gold  have  been  coined, 
since  KJOO,  to  the  value  of  nearly  .$3,000,000,000; 
the  Iturbide  Hotel,  and  the  School  of  Mines,  de- 
signed by  the  artist  Tolsa.  one  of  the  finest  struc- 
tures in  Mexico,  with  rich  mineralogical  and 
geological  collections,  and  containing  also  the 
School  of  Engineering  with  its  oliservatory.  The 
city  abounds  with  hospitals,  for  no  place  takes 
lietter  care  of  its  sick  and  intirni  than  the  City  of 
Mexico.  One  of  the  curiosities  is  the  little  old 
building  in  which  the  first  printing  in  .\merica 
was  done.  At  the  present  time  33  dail.v  papers 
and  100  magazines  and  reviews,  in  Spanish.  Eng- 
lish, French,  and  German,  administer  to  the  in- 
tellectual and  artistic  life  of  the  capital.  The 
chief  of  the  twenty  scientific  institutions 
is  the  Geographical  and  Statistical  Societ.v, 
which  issues  many  maps  and  charts.  There  are 
ntimcrous  pulilic  schools, and  man.v  of  the  sciences 
and  arts  are  represented  by  special  schools. 

STREET.S  AXi)  Pabk.s.  Jlexico  is  said  to  be  the 
finest  built  citv  on  the  American  continent. 
Some  of  its  thoroughfares,  paved  with  asphalt 
and  lined  with  houses  whose  height  bears  a  strict 
architectviral  relation  to  the  width  of  the  streets, 
certainly  bear  out  this  assertion.  While  many 
of  its  000  streets  and  lanes  are  very  narrow, 
especiall.v  within  the  nine  sqtnire  miles  that  the 
old  walls  inclose,  still  they  arc  laid  out  with 
great  regularity.  The  monoton.v  of  arrangement 
of  this  part  is  fairl,v  well  broken  by  an  occasional 
public  square  or  garden,  while  bevond  the  circle 
of  the  walls,  and  especially  to  the  northwest,  the 
streets  have  spread  with  greater  irregularit.v. 
The  main  streets  running  from  north  to  south 
and  from  east  to  west  intersect  at  the  Plnzn 
Mni/or,  faniiliarlv  known  as  the  'Zocalo.'  These 
streets  are  of  fair  width,  but  the  sidewalks 
here,  as  elsewhere,  are  too  narrow  to  accommo- 
date easily  the  passers-by.  For  the  customary 
mule  tramway  an  up-to-date  electric  service  has 
been  substituted,  with  the  result  that  the  urban 
population  is  largely  increasing.  The  principal 
streets  are  electrically  lighted,  and  are  clean  and 
well  kept. 

The  leading  business  thoroughfare,  San  Fran- 
cisco Street,  with  its  ((inliiniation.  CiiVr  de 
Plnlornx  (for  the  city  still  retains  the  bewilder- 
ing custom  of  changing  the  name  of  the  street 
every  few  blocks  i .  connects  the  I'laza  Mayor  with 
the  .\lameda  and  reminds  the  visitor  strongly 
of  the  fashionable  shopping  districts  of  European 
centres.    Here  shops  with  their  costly  displays  of 


o 

X  i 

UI   I 

S' 

O 
> 


MEXICO. 


419 


MEXICO. 


all  suits  (if  merdiandisc,  the  best  hotels,  eaffe, 
and  restiiuraiits,  the  business  ollices  and  clubs, 
pour  liii'th  during  the  later  afternoon  hours  their 
elegantly  attired  throngs  that  overflow  the  nar- 
row sidewalks  and  fill  the  costly  equipages  and 
luK-kney  coaches  moving  in  a  double  line  along 
the  crowded  street.  San  Francisc-o  Street  is  in- 
teresting any  day.  but  it  is  doubly  so  when  pro- 
cessions of "  llower-bedecked  carriages,  columns 
of  troops  in  showy  uniform,  and  the  gaily 
decorated  fronts  of  the  buildings,  proclaim 
the  celebration  of  the  fiestas  of  September 
or  of  the  Cinco  de  Mayo  (Fifth  of  May).  The 
name  Cinco  de  Mayo  is  also  applied  to  the  prin- 
cipal rival  of  San  Francisco  street,  and  is  borne 
by  a  thoroughfare  extending  from  the  Cathedral 
to  the  New  National  Tlieatre.  As  San  Francisco 
street  represents  tlie  business  life  of  the  city,  so 
the  Fasco  de  la  Hcforma  is  the  highway  of  Mex- 
ican social  life.  This  beautiful  drive,  two  miles 
in  length,  extends  from  the  Alameda  to  the  hill  of 
Chapultepec.  With  its  double  avenue  of  fine 
trees,  sliading  well-constructed  stone  sidewalks; 
its  seven  large  circles,  each  300  feet  in  diameter, 
some  alreaily  surmounted  with  statuary  of  Iiis- 
toric  interest,  and  others  exhibiting  a  wealth  of 
llowers  and  shrubbery;  with  its  terminal  parks 
of  rare  beauty  in  the  midst  of  an  architectural 
setting  that  each  year  becomes  more  imposing, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  daily  from  five  to  seven 
o'clock  the  Paseo  is  the  favorite  parade  ground 
for  every  Mexican  who  owns  or  can  afl'ord  to 
hire  an  equipage.  Along  the  line  of  handsome 
vehicles  one  occasionally  detects  a  touch  of  do- 
mestic color  in  the  person  of  some  caballero  in 
native  costume,  but  such  appear  with  less  fre- 
quency as  the  3-cars  pass  on,  and  the  Mexican 
'Vanity  Fair'  approximates  more  closely  to  the 
ordinary  park  processions  of  the  great  world 
centres. 

A  spilt  hardly  second  to  the  Paseo  in  interest 
is  the  beautiful  park  and  promenade  known  as 
the  Ahniicila.  With  its  40  acres  well  shaded  with 
jioplar  and  beech  trees  and  variegated  with  a 
most  profuse  collection  of  semi-tropical  plants 
and  shrubs,  it  has  long  been  the  favorite  stamping 
ground  of  Mexican  aristocracy,  whose  weekly 
parade  on  Sunday  from  eleven  to  one  exhibits  the 
fashionable  life  of  the  capital  at  its  best.  Here 
a  fountain  now  stands  on  the  site  of  the  Qiirma- 
dcro  or  "burning  place'  of  the  Inquisition,  where 
many  a  heretic  expiated  his  heresy  at  the  behest 
of  the  then  all-powerful  Church,  and  had  his 
ashes  thrown  into  the  ditch  flowing  behind  the 
neighboring  sanctuarj'  of  San  Diego.  The  central 
I'laza  (ic  Arm  OS  or  Plaza  Mayor,  surrounded  by 
the  magnificent  Cathedral,  the  Palacio,  the  mu- 
nicijial  buildings,  and  some  of  the  finest  retail 
stores,  seems  more  truly  than  any  other  spot 
the  real  centre  of  the  city.  It  covers  14  acres 
and  is  beautified  by  trees,  flower  plots,  statuary, 
and  niarbh'  fountains,  while  in  the  centre  is  the 
charming  liaiid-stand  which  gives  to  it  its  popular 
name  of  'Zocalo.'  At  all  times  the  centre  of  the 
commercial  and  political  life  of  the  metropolis, 
it  is  preeminently  so  for  the  patriotic  celebra- 
tions so  dear  to  the  heart  of  its  populace.  It  is 
here,  during  the  fiestas  of  September,  that  one 
can  view  the  floral  parade  of  the  14th;  can  listen 
to  the  charming  military  concerts  of  the  15th, 
and  behold  tlie  gorgeous  electric  and  pyrotechnic 
display  that  follows  the  commemorative  ring  of 
the  grito  of  Hidalgo;  and  on  the  16th  can  per- 


ceive in  column  after  column  of  well-drilled 
troojis  on  parade  the  ma)w  fuerte  (strong  hand) 
of  the  modern  ruler  whose  sway  has  been  charac- 
terized by  peace  and  order, 

MoNUME.XTS,  The  city,  which  contained  the 
first  academy  of  fine  arts  erected  upon  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  still  afl'ords  many  examples  of 
the  artistic  instinct  of  its  people  in  its  well-built 
public  and  private  residences  and  in  important 
groups  of  statuary.  Among  the  most  important 
of  these  is  the  equestrian  .statue  of  Carlos  IV., 
begim  in  1794  and  finished  in  1803,  the  work  of 
a  native  artist,  Manuel  Tolsa.  Originally  placed 
on  the  Plaza  Mayor,  it  is  now  situated  at  the 
city  terminus  of  the  Paseo.  Farther  along  the 
same  thoroughfare  appear  statues  of  Columbus 
and  Cuauhtemoc,  the  last  of  the  Aztec  rulers,  as 
well  as  others  of  less  artistic  pi-ominencc.  The 
monument  over  the  tomb  of  Juarez,  in  the  San 
Fernando    Cemetery,   is    also   worthy   of   notice. 

Clubs  and  Theatres.  As  may  be  imagined, 
the  social  life  of  Meixico  City,  from  a  Latin- 
American  point  of  view,  is  exceedingly  attractive. 
In  addition  to  many  native  organizations,  all  of 
the  principal  foreign  colonies  have  a  social  centre, 
the  British  and  the  Americans  being  especially 
well  housed.  The  Jockey  Club,  a  native  organiza- 
tion, has  as  its  headquarters  one  of  the  finest 
buildings  in  the  city,  formerly  the  palace  of  the 
Count  del  Valle.  Among  the  play-houses  the 
old  Teatro  yaeional,  or  'opera  house,'  had  a  seat- 
ing capacity  of  3000.  It  has  been  replaced  by  a 
more  commodious  .structure  at  the  terminus  of 
the  Cinco  de  Mayo  street.  The  Teatro  Principal 
is  smaller,  and  there  are  several  others  of  less 
note.  Although  the  theatres  of  Mexico  City  are 
not  the  finest  of  the  Republic,  it  is  one  of  the  im- 
portant stations  of  the  Spanish-American  circuit. 
In  no  other  country,  except  Spain,  is  bull-fighting 
so  popular,  and  although  the  administration  of 
Diaz  has  made  quiet  efl'orts  to  bring  the  sport 
into  disrepute,  the  two  bull-rings  are  well 
thronged  on  festal  days  and  at  the  Simday  per- 
formances. 

Suburbs,  etc.  The  tramway  expansion  of  the 
past  few  years  has  resulted  in  the  building  of 
new  suburbs,  formed  of  houses  constructed  in 
American  style  with  511  modern  conveniences. 
Although  possibly  more  desirable  as  places  of 
residence,  they  do  not  yet  equal  in  interest  the 
older  suburbs.  Prominent  among  the  latter,  at 
the  far  end  of  the  Paseo,  is  Chapultepec.  a  mass 
of  rock  rising  some  200  feet  from  the  midst  of 
magnificent  cypress  groves,  and  topped  by  the 
splendid  structure  containing  the  National  Mili- 
tary Academy  and  the  President's  summer  ]ialace, 
from  which  may  be  obtained  the  finest  view  of 
the  valley.  Farther  on.  reached  by  the  same 
tramway."  is  Tacubaya,  the  most  fashionable  re- 
sort of  Mexico,  situated  in  the  most  fertile  por- 
tion of  the  Federal  District.  Here  is  located  one  / 
oi  the  National  Observatories,  occupying  a  former 
palace  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mexico.  To  the 
north  of  the  city  lies  Guadalupe,  whose  beautiful 
and  rich  church  is  the  Lourdes  of  ^Mexico,  and 
whose  traditional  Virgin  has  become  the  tutelar 
divinity  of  the  modern  Republic.  To  the  south  is 
the  Viga  Canal,  lined  with  the  so-called  'floating 
gardens,'  the  region  which  furnishes  the  flowers, 
fruits,  and  vegetables  for  the  city  markets,  and 
whose  inhabitants  present  some  of  the  most  in- 
teresting pictures  of  contemporary  native  life. 
Upon  this  canal  are  the  towns  of  Santa  Anita  and 


MEXICO. 


420 


MEXICO. 


Iztacalco,  interesting  pleasure  resorts  frequented 
by  the  lower  classes.  Also  to  the  south  is  Tlal- 
pam,  a  resort  second  only  to  Tacubaya  in  im- 
portance. To  the  west,  Popolta  contains  the 
"Xoche  Triste'  tree,  under  whidi  tradition  says 
that  Cortes  wept  on  the  ni^'ht  of  his  exjivilsion 
from  Mexico.  By  rail  it  is  possible  to  extend 
one's  e.xeursions  beyond  tlie  mountain  valley  to 
the  most  interesting  points  of  ancient  and  mod- 
ern Mexican  history,  all  of  which  are  within  easy 
distance  of  the  cajjital. 

IXDISTRIES  AND  COMMERCE.  The  industries  of 
the  city  are  constantly  increasing.  Around  tlie 
outskirts,  completely  encircling  the  city,  is  a 
belt  of  factories  and  other  industrial  establish- 
ments, nuuuifacturing  cotton.  pa])cr,  linen,  silk, 
gold  aiul  silver  wares,  pottery,  feather  articles, 
leather,  carriages,  bricks,  corks,  and  soap;  there 
are  also  several  packing  houses;  in  sijjte  of  the 
high  price  of  fuel,  all  these  establisliments  do  a 
thriving  business  and  will  welcome  the  day  when 
coal  can  be  brought  in  cheaply  to  give  them  a  new 
element  of  prosperity.  A  large  part  of  the  trade 
interests  is  in  the  hands  of  French,  Oerman,  and 
Knglish  niereliants.  (For  eomnuuiications  with 
the  United  States  and  other  countries,  sec  Mex- 
ico.) The  city  is  the  wholesale  centre  for  tlu'  na- 
tion. :inil  its  l)anks,  of  which  the  most  im|)ortant 
are  tlie  Hanco  Xacional  de  ilexico.  capitalized  at 
lii20,(M)l).(K)0,  and  Hank  of  Mexico,  London,  and 
South  .\meriea,eaiiitalizcd  at  .^lO.OOO.dOO. control 
its  llnancial  conditions.  Its  lifteen  markets  are 
large  and  w'ell  ordered  and  a  perpetual  source  of 
convenience  to  its  inhabitants  as  well  as  of  in- 
terest to  the  increasing  number  of  visitors. 

Dhainage  and  Water  Sitpi-y.  The  city  de- 
rives its  water  su|)|)ly  from  the  western  moun- 
tains, the  greater  portion  coming  from  the  vicin- 
ity of  Tacubaya.  Fur  the  transportation  of  the 
water  there  have  been  constructed  a  series  of 
n(|ueduets,  the  first  of  which  was  completed  in 
1,57G  and  the  last  in  1000,  When  tlie  city  ob- 
tains full  advantage  of  these  it  will  receive  from 
them  0.1,000  liters  per  minute,  an  average  of 
li)8  liters  per  day  for  each  inhiibitant.  Tliis  is 
a  larger  average  than  London,  Herlin,  or  Xew 
Orleans  enjoys,  and  with  the  supply  from  the 
(>!M)  artesian  wells  added  this  will  \x-  raised  to 
250  liters.  At  present,  however,  the  water  is 
very  unevenly  distributed,  the  jioorer  sections 
especially  sull'ering  in  this  particular;  but  when 
the  new  plans  of  tlie  dejiartment  are  put  in  opera- 
tion, some  12,000  of  the  1.5.000  houses  can  be 
supplied  with  water  at  a  cost  of  $30  to  .$48  a 
year,  which  rate  will  yield  the  city  an  annual 
"revenue  of  .$500,000,  In  this  way  one  of  the 
present  wretched  conditions  of  the  wor.st  slums 
will   be  greatly  ameliorated. 

The  drainage  works,  which  have  vastly  im- 
proved the  sanitary  conditions,  were  completed  in 
ISIKS  after  three  centuries  of  more  or  less  spas- 
nioilie  effort,  and  at  the  cost  of  the  lives  of 
many  thousands  of  men  and  many  millions  of 
doll.nrs.  The  great  evils  from  which  the  City 
of  Mexico  suffered  for  many  generations  were 
inundations  from  Lake  Texcoco,  and  disease  pro- 
moted by  the  fact  that  the  city  stood  in  the  bot- 
tom of  an  unilrained  natural  sink.  The  lake, 
suddenly  filled  by  downpours  from  the  mountains, 
sometimes  burled  the  streets  in  wat<>r  for  weeks. 
Thirty  thousand  persons  were  drowned  by  the 
sudden  submergence  of  the  city  in  1020.  and 
similar  catastrophes  were  caused  by  other  (looils. 


It  was  to  rescue  the  city  from  iium<l;itions  that 
the  drainage  works  were  begun  tliree  centuries 
ago;  but  it  was  not  till  178S)  tliat  the  city  ceased 
to  be  menaced  by  deluges.  Lp  to  18.50  the  total 
exi)enditure  on  the  drainage  works  had  been 
$8,000,000,  but  the  menace  of  malaria  and  epi- 
demics had  not  yet  been  removed.  The  canal 
was  not  dee])  enough,  the  lake  was  still  very  little 
below  tile  mean  level  of  the  city,  and  the  fall  was 
not  sullicient  to  carry  off  the  sewage.  The  gigan- 
tic works  now  completed  were  not  seriously  un- 
dertaken till  1885.  They  rank  among  the  great 
engineering  achievements  of  modern  times,  and 
with  the  completion  of  the  ,sewage  svstem  in  the 
city  the  total  cost  will  be  about  $20,000,000,  The 
works  consist  of  sewers  carrying  the  waste  of  the 
city  to  a  canal  starting  from  the  .Saji  Lftzaro 
gates  and  extending  for  43  miles,  its  course  being 
deflected  so  as  to  cut  Lakes  San  Cristfthal, 
Xaltocan,  and  Zunipango,  Xear  the  town  of  Zuni- 
pango  the  ranal  empties  into  the  tunnel,  com- 
pletely lined  with  brick,  which  has  been  dug 
through  the  mountains  a  distance  of  32,8G0  feet 
to  a  river  which  carries  the  sewage  to  the  (Julf 
of  Mexico.  These  works  thus  carry  all  the  sur- 
plus waters  and  sewage  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
outside  of  the  valley,  and  also  control  the  entire 
waters  of  the  valley,  afl'onling  an  outlet  to  those 
that  might  otherwise  overflow   fields  and  towns. 

Government.  With  the  exception  of  the  tem- 
porary organization  of  a  municipal  government 
at  Vera  Cruz  to  further  the  ambitious  jilans  of 
Cortes,  the  municipal  corporation  of  Mexico  City 
was  the  first  to  be  established  upon  the  American 
continent.  The  probable  date  of  its  establish- 
ment by  the  Great  Conqueror  is  1522,  but  the 
earliest  preserved  record  of  its  meetings  is  that 
of  March  8,  1524.  In  that  year  the  ofiicers  con- 
sisted of  two  alcaldcn  (municipal  judges),  six 
rci/idures  (members  of  council),  a  secretary,  and 
a  major  domo.  Later  the  number  of  these  otlicera 
was  increased  and  other  ollicial  places  created. 
At  first  there  was  a  nominal  form  of  election  for 
these  men,  though  the  infiuence  of  Cortes  practi- 
cally dominated  the  choice  of  the  corporate  mem- 
bers; but  later  the  governing  body  of  the  city 
became  more  of  a  close  corporation,  tilling  a  por- 
tion of  its  own  vacancies.  The  remaining  posi- 
tions were  at  the  disposal  of  the  King  or  Vice- 
roy: both  classes  were  often  bestowed  by  sale  or 
bequest. 

Although  created  at  first  as  the  creature  of 
Cortfe.  the  cabildo  (municipal  corporation)  of 
Mexico  soon  became  a  powerful  body,  strong 
enough  in  some  cases  to  make  or  mar  the  reputa- 
tion of  succeeding  viceroys.  It  greatly  inter- 
fered with  the  salutary  reforms  of  the  Count  of 
Rcvilla-tiigcdo  (1780-93),  and  on  the  abdication 
of  Ferdinand  VII,  in  1808.  it  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  assembling  of  a  general  junta  of  New 
Spain  to  resist  the  pretensions  of  ,To,seph  Uonn- 
parte. 

Following  the  declaration  of  Mexican  inde- 
pendence and  the  division  of  Xew  Spain  into  the 
States  of  the  Republic  of  .Mexico,  there  arose  a 
conflict  between  the  State  authorities  of  Mexico 
and  the  X'^ational  Government  which  resulted  in 
the  creation,  Xovember  18,  1824.  of  a  Federal  Dis- 
trict, comprising  the  territory  within  a  radius 
of  two  leagues  of  the  main  plaza.  The  Federal 
District  was  subsequently  enlarged,  until  it  com- 
prises four  prefectures  besides  the  iiimiicipalit.T 


MEXICO. 


421 


MEXICO. 


of  Mexico,  wliich  of  itself  covers  some  twenty 
square  miles. 

Tlie  piesf^ut  governing  body  of  the  municipality 
is  the  Ayuntamitiilo  Const  it  ucional  (Constitu- 
tional City  Council  I.  under  the  direction  of  a 
president.  Among  those  who  within  recent  years 
have  filled  this  station  with  credit  are  General 
(lonzalez  Cosio,  the  present  Minister  of  War, 
who  has  the  reputation  of  having  completely 
changed  the  appearance  of  the  iMe.xican  metrop- 
olis. I''(]|lciwiiig  him  Scfior  Callardo  began  the 
great  Drainage  Canal.  When  the  latter  was 
transferred  to  the  headship  of  the  whole  Federal 
District,  he  was  succeeded  b}-  Don  Sebastian 
Camaeho,  who  is  laboriously  continuing  the  good 
work  of  his  predecessors — which  work  is  but  a 
jjortion  of  the  lieneficial  policy  of  President  Diaz. 
As  an  indication  of  recent  municipal  progress  it 
may  be  noted  that  the  revenues  of  the  cities  of 
the  Federal  District  (and  those  of  Mexico  City 
are  bv  far  the  largest)  have  increased  from 
$1,332,403  in  1884  to  $3,395,638  in  189.5;  while 
the  expenses  have  shown  a  corresponding  in- 
crease. The  same  figures  for  the  past  seven  years 
would  show  a  still  greater  contrast. 

History.  The  city  dates  from  about  a.d.  132.5, 
%\'lien  the  .\ztecs,  looking  for  a  favorable  site,  saw 
perched  on  a  cactus  an  eagle  devouring  a  snake. 
The  omen  was  interpreted  to  mean  that  this  was 
to  be  the  site  of  their  city;  hence  its  original 
name,  Tenochtitlan,  'cactiis  on  a  stone,'  changed 
later  (o  Mexico  in  honor  of  the  war  god  5Iexitli. 
With  the  progress  of  Aztec  culture  the  city  ex- 
jianded  and  improved,  and  about  1450  tradition 
reports  that  the  mud  and  rush  houses  were  re- 
placed b}'  solid  stone  edifices  built  partly  on  piles 
amid  the  little  islands  of  Lake  Texcoco.  The 
Aztec  city  was  an  imposing  spectacle  at  the  time 
of  the  arrival  of  the  S|ianiards  in  1519,  when  it 
is  reported  to  have  contained  at  least  50.000 
buildings  and  several  hundred  thousand  inhabit- 
ants. It  was  about  twelve  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, everywhere  intersected  by  canals  and  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  six  long  and  solidly 
constructed  causeways.  It  was  thus  essentially 
a  lacustrine  city,  but  the  subsidence  of  Lake 
Texcoco  has  left  the  modern  city  high  and  dry, 
with  the  lake  two  and  a  half  miles  away.  The 
Aztec  city  was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by 
Cortes,  \\ho,  in  1521.  employed  the  friendly  na- 
tives to  rebuild  tlie  city  on  the  same  site.  Under 
Spanish  domination  the  city  in  1600  contained 
about  15.000  inhabitants,  which  number  gradu- 
ally increased  to  120,000  two  centuries  later. 

The  city  w-as  captured  by  the  United  States 
forces  after  the  battle  of  Chapultepec,  on  Sep- 
tember 13,  1847,  and  by  the  French  forces  under 
Marshal  Forey  in  1803.  With  a  history  extend- 
ing from  the  uncertain  past  of  Aztec  tradition 
thrnugh  three  centuries  of  Spanish  dominion  and 
six  decades  of  spasmodic  revolution,  the  centre, 
subsequently,  of  a  politi<-al  system  unique  on  the 
American  continent  and  of  an  intellectual  and 
industrial  development  unparalleled  in  Latin 
America,  Mexico  is  to-day  at  once  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  most  promising  cities  of  the 
Western  continent, 

BinrjOGRAPUY.  Cavo,  Tres  siglos  de  Mexico 
niexico,  1836-38)  ;  Bandelier,  MexKo  (Boston, 
1SS5)  ;  Charnay,  Ancient  Cities  in  the  'Xrie 
World  (London",  1887)  ;  Curtis,  The  Capitals  of 
Spanish  America  (New  York,  1888)  ;  Howells, 
Mexico :  Its  Progress  and  Commercial  Possibili- 


ties (London,  1892)  ;  Cubas,  Mexico,  trans,  by 
Thompson  and  Cleveland  (Mexico,  1893)  ;  Below, 
Mexico  (Berlin,  1899)  ;  Bercival,  Mexico  City 
(Chicago,  1901). 

MTEXICO.  A  towii  of  Luzon,  Pliilippines,  in 
the  Province  of  Pampanga  (Map:  Philippine 
Islands,  E  4 ) .  It  is  situated  on  an  arm  of  the 
Pampanga  Delta,  about  5  miles  northeast  of 
Baeolor.     Population,  17,099. 

MEXICO.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
.\udrain  County,  Mo.,  110  miles  northwest  of 
Saint  Louis,  on  Salt  Kiver,  and  on  the  Chicago 
and  Alton  and  the  Wabash  railroads  (Map:  Mis- 
souri, E  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  Hardin  College  for 
Women  (Baptist),  founded  in  1873,  and  of  the 
Mssouri  Military  Academy.  There  is  a  consider- 
able trade  in  horses  and  cattle,  and  tlie  manu- 
facturing industries  include  flour  mills,  a 
foundry,  and  fire-brick,  marble,  stove  lining, 
cigar,  plough,  and  wagon  works.  Settled  in  1833, 
Mexico  was  incorporated  in  1852.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered  under  a  charter  of  1893, 
which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  biennially, 
and  a  unicameral  council.  Population,  in  1890, 
4789;  in  1900,  5099. 

MEXICO,  Gulf  of.  A  partially  inclosed 
basin  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  having  the  United 
States  on  the  north  and  Slexico  on  the  west  and 
south.  It  has  an  extreme  length  from  east  to 
west  of  about  1000  miles  and  a  breadth  from 
north  to  south  of  SCO  miles;  its  area  is  estimated 
at  600,000  square  miles  (Map:  North  America, 
.J  7 ) .  The  opening  of  the  gulf  eastward  is  nar- 
rowed by  the  peninsulas  of  Florida  and  Yucatan, 
which  approach  within  450  miles  of  each  other. 
Near  the  middle  of  the  outlet  lies  the  island  of 
Cuba,  forming  two  passages — the  Strait  of  Flor- 
ida, 125  miles  wide,  between  Florida  and  Cuba, 
and  the  Yucatan  Channel,  120  miles  wide,  be- 
tween Cuba  and  Yucatan,  The  northern  entrance 
connects  witli  the  Atlantic,  and  the  southern 
with  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  basin  of  the  gulf 
attains  a  maximum  depth  of  12,700  feet,  while  a 
large  proportion  of  its  area  exceeds  10,000  feet 
in  depth.  From  Florida  west  to  the  Mexican 
boundary  the  shores  form  a  part  of  the  coastal 
plain  and  slope  so  gradually  that  the  100-fathom 
line  is  distant  100  miles  or  more  from  land. 
Off  the  Mexican  coast,  however,  the  basin  rapidly 
sinks  to  the  level  of  the  submarine  jilain  known 
as  Sigsbee's  Deep,  which  has  an  average  depth 
of  12,000  feet.  The  passages  leading  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  are  relatively 
shallow.  The  gulf  contains  few  islands  and  these 
are  located  in  proximity  to  the  coasts;  the 
Florida  Keys,  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
the  islands  on  the  coast  of  Yucatan  are  the  most 
important.  Numerous  small  bays  and  innumer- 
able lagoons  inclosed  behind  sandbars  give  re- 
lief to  the  coast  line,  which  is  otherwise  quite  reg- 
ular. The  Bay  of  Campeachy,  between  Yucatan 
and  the  main  mass  of  Jlexieo.  is  the  only  broad 
indentation.  Owing  to  the  low  shores,  good  har- 
bors are  not  numerous,  the  best  being  those  of 
Vera  Cruz,  Galveston.  Mobile,  Tampa.  Pensa- 
cola,  and  Havana.  The  principal  rivers  flowing 
into  the  gulf  descend  from  the  United  States, 
and  include  the  Mississippi,  Rio  Grande,  Colo- 
rado of  Texas.  Brazos.  Sabine.  Mobile,  and  Appa- 
lachicola.  The  gulf  is  visited  by  violent  gales, 
which  are  reflex  storms  from  the  tropics,  and 
which  prevail  mainly  in  the  winter  time.     The 


MEXICO. 


432 


MEYEB. 


most  remarkable  feature  in  connection  with  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  is  the  (iulf  Stream  (ij.v.),  which 
enters  it  by  the  soutlieni  cliannel,  passes  rounil  it, 
and  emerges  through  the  Strait  of  Florida.  Ow- 
ing partly  to  the  presence  of  this  heated  current, 
the  temperature  of  tlie  gulf  is  8°  or  9°  higher 
than  that  of  the  Athintic  in  the  same  latitude. 

MEYEB,  mi'er,  Adolf  Eeb.miard  (1840—). 
A  (Jerman  zoologist  and  ethnologist,  born  in 
Hamburg.  After  a  pr(dongcd  course  of  study 
at  the  universities  of  Gottingen,  Vienna,  Zurich, 
and  Berlin,  he  explored  the  ilalay  and  Pliilippine 
Islands,  and  in  1874  became  director  of  the  Dres- 
den Ivoyal  Museum  of  Natural  History,  .\mong 
his  writings  are  Album  ion  Phillipiiincittypen 
(1S84-00)  and  Abhildiutf/cn  von  Voyelslceletteu 
(  lS7<t-;).3). 

MEYEB,  Eduaki)  (1855—).  A  German 
historian,  born  at  Hamburg;  professor  in  the 
Cniversity  of  Halle.  His  ]nincipal  work  is  his 
Ccschkhl'c  dcs  Altcrtums  ( 1S84-HI02) .  He  also 
published:  Geschichte  des  alien  Acfjijplen  { 1877)  ; 
J'orschunyen  zur  alien  Geschichte  (1892-00); 
Untersuchungen  ::ur  Geschichte  der  Gracchen 
(1894);  Wirfschaflliche  Enticickelung  des  Al- 
tcrtums (1895)  :  ami  Die  Entstehuug  dcs  Juden- 
tums  (ISOfi). 

MEYEB,  Haxs  (1858—).  A  German  ex- 
plorer. He  was  born  at  Hildburghausen  and 
studied  science  and  ])olitical  economy  at  Leipzig 
and  ilerlin.  He  traveled  in  Asia,  North  .\mcrica, 
and  South  Africa,  and  in  1887  explored  Kiliman- 
jaro in  East  Africa.  After  several  venturous 
attempts  to  ascend  the  moiuitain  he  managed  to 
reach  the  top  of  the  higher  of  the  two  peaks,  the 
Kibo  summit,  where  he  found  a  crater  more  than 
a  mile  wide  and  about  10.700  feet  above  the  sea. 
In  his  Zum  f^chnccdom  dcs  KiUma-Xdscharo  he 
gives  a  fiill  account  of  his  experiences  and  dis- 
coveries in  that  region.  His  other  contribu- 
tions to  geography  include  ICine  Wcltrcise  ( 1885) 
and  OntiifHkanische  Glctschcrfahrten    (1800). 

MEYEB,  HEi.\mcir  ( 17r,018.3-2).  A  Swiss 
writer  on  art  and  aMticpiity.  lie  was  born  at 
Zurich,  and  studied  painting  there  under  Fiiessli, 
brother  of  Henry  Fuesli.  In  1784  lie  went  to 
Italy  and  at  Rome  in  1788  he  met  Goethe,  with 
whom  he  contracted  a  friendship  so  intimate  that 
he  was  known  in  Germany  by  the  name  of 
'Goethe-JIeycr.'  In  1702.  through  the  induenee  of 
Goethe,  he  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the  Wei- 
mar Academy  of  Design.  Three  years  later  he 
revisited  Italy,  and  in  1707  returned  to  Weimar, 
where  be  was  mailc  a  director  of  the  .\iadeniy  in 
1807.  Many  of  the  critical  portions  of  Goethe's 
essays  on  art  in  Kunst  und  Altertum  are  to  be 
credited  to  Meyer.  As  a  painter,  his  production 
was  scanty.  It  was  as  a  writer  on  the  history 
and  theory  of  art.  and  particularly  of  Greek  and 
Koman  art.  that  he  acquired  authority.  lie 
edited,  with  extensive  annotations  of  his  o\ni.  the 
works  of  Winekelmami  (1S08-20).  Tlic^e  notes 
he  subsei|iicntly  expanded  into  a  general  history  of 
Greek  art.  which  appeared  under  the  nanii'  of  Ge- 
schichte der  hildcndcn  Kihistc  hri  din  Gricrhrn 
und  Hiimcrn  (with  an  additional  volume 
by  RIemer,  1824-3(5).  He  died  at  Weimar,  leav- 
ing to  that  city  a  bequest  of  .S.'i.Onfl  thnlers  for 
the  establishment  of  a  foundation  for  the  poor, 
whiih  be.irs  liis  name. 

MEYEB,  Hkinkic'ii  .\rGVST  Wiiiikim 
(1800-7.'J).     A  German   Bible  commentator.     He 


was  born  at  Gotha,  studied  theology  at  Jena,  and 
held  various  pastoral  charges.  After  1841  he  re- 
sided in  Hanover  as  a  member  of  the  consistory, 
and  died  there  June  21,  1873.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  Kritisch-ciegelisches  Kommcntar  zum 
ncucn  Tcstaniriil.  of  wliich  the  first  volume,  con- 
taining the  lirst  three  tiospcls.  aiijieareil  in  1832. 
An  English  translation  appeared  at  Edinburgh, 
with  tlie  exception  of  the  Revelation  (20  vols., 
1873-82)  ;  and  an  American  in  New  York  (11 
vols..  1SS4-88). 

MEYEB,  Hermann  vo.n  (1801-GO).  A  Ger- 
man paleontologist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main.  He  wrote:  I'alncologica  zur  Gcscliiclitc  der 
Erde  und  ihrer  Gcschijpfe  (1832)  ;  and  Die  fos- 
silen  Ziihue  iind  Knoehcn  (1834).  \A'ith  Dunckcr 
he  founded  the  periodical  Palwontoi/raphica, 
which  contains  a  collection  of  important  essays 
on  ])aleoiitology. 

MEYEB,  JoHANN  Georg  (Meyer  von  Bremen) 
(1813StJ).  A  German  genre  painter,  born  at 
Bremen,  October  28,  1813.  He  was  a  pupil  at 
Diisseldorf  of  Sohn  and  Schadow,  and  at  first 
painted  biblical  subjects,  but  after  1842  prac- 
ticed genre  painting.  His  favorite  subjects  were 
peasants  of  the  Hessian,  Bavarian,  and  Swiss 
mountain  districts.  At  first  he  treated  .scenes 
from  faiuilv  life,  such  as  "The  Anniversarv  of  the 
Hessian  Parson"  (1842):  "The  Penitent  "Daugh- 
ter" (1S52),  Bremen  Gallery;  "Grandmother," 
Mctro])olitan  ^luscum.  New  York.  His  scenes 
from  diild-life  followed  after  he  settled  in  Berlin 
in  1852.  These  include:  "Girl  Telling  Fairy 
Talcs,"  "B!ind-:Man"s  BulT,"  "The  Youngest 
Brother,"  and  the  "l-ittle  Mother"  (1852).  Na- 
tional Gallery,  Berlin.  He  also  painted  single 
or  group  figuics  of  young  girls,  like  his  ".Vwait- 
ing,"  "The  Courting."  and  "Reading  the  Love- 
Letter."  The  Metropolitan  ilusenm  of  New 
York  possesses  "Tlie  Letter,"  "Evening  Vrayer," 
and  "The  Grandmother."  Meyer's  pictures  have 
a  certain  cli;irm  and  are  often  naive  and  full  of 
humor.  They  show  careful  execution  and  exact 
detail;  the  color  is  harmonious,  but  smooth, 
ileyer  was  a  professor  at  the  Berlin  .■\cademy  and 
received  a  medal  in  l'liiladel])hia  in  1870.  He 
died  in  Berlin.  December  3.  ISSG. 

MEYEB,  JiitoE.v  Bo.na  (1829-97).  A  Ger- 
m:iii  pliilcisophical  writer.  He  was  horn  at  Ham- 
burg, and  studied  science  and  philosophy  in  Ber- 
lin and  Bonn.  In  18()8  he  became  jirofcssor  of 
philosojihy  at  Bonn,  and  from  1880  to  1892  he 
was  editor  of  the  Diiitsclic  Zcit-  und  l^trcitfrngcn. 
His  publications  include:  -Zum  filrcit  iihrr  Leib 
und  Seele  (1850);  Philosophische  Zcitfragen 
(1870-74):  and  Problenic  der  Lcbensucisheit 
i  ISS7). 

MEYEB,  Klais  (1850-).  A  German  genre 
painter,  born  at  Linden,  near  Hanover.  He 
studied  first  at  the  School  of  Arts  in  Nuremberg, 
then  at  the  JIunieh  .\cademy  under  Alexander 
Wagner  and  afterwards  under  LiiU'tz.  whose  influ- 
ence led  him  to  an  intimate  study  of  the  Dutch 
masters  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  a('i]nired 
such  refinement  of  color  and  subtle  cliaracteriza- 
fion  as  almost  to  surpass  his  models.  Even  his 
early  "Dutch  Interior"  (1882)  displayed  the 
most  sterling  qualities,  and  his  next  effort,  "Sew- 
ing Room  in  a  l!.'giiine  Convent"  (1SS3).  was 
awarded  the  great  gold  medal  at  the  International 
Exhibition  in  Munich.  .\n  equal  perfection  of 
workmanship     distinguishes     "Ohl     and     Young 


MEYER. 


423 


MEYERBEER. 


Cats"  (1885,  Dresden  Gallerj')  ;  "Players  at 
Dice"  (18SG,  National  Gallery,  Berlin);  "In- 
fants' School"  (1888),  and  others  which  were 
immediately  acquired  for  private  collections.  He 
was  professor  at  the  .School  of  Art  in  Karlsruhe 
in  1891-95,  and  afterwards  at  the  Academy  in 
Dusseldorf. 

MEYER,  KoxRAD  Ferdinand  (1825-98).  A 
Swiss  |HHt  and  liistorical  novelist.  Tlie  little 
volume  of  historical  Balladen  (Leipzig,  18G7), 
by  uhicli  111'  first  attracted  attention,  is  halting 
in  expression,  as  are  the  verses  of  Eomanzcn  vnd 
liildrr  (Leipzig,  1870).  More  plasticity  appears 
in  Hullens  Ictzte  Tntic  (Leipzig,  1871),  and  in 
Enyelberg  (Leipzig,  1873),  both  narrative  poems. 
Meyer  then  turned  his  attention  from  verse  to 
prose,  still  remaining  faithful  to  historical 
themes,  and  produced  six  striking  epic  narra- 
tives, which,  though  they  require  in  tlie  reader 
loo  wide  a  culture  to  be  popular,  are  an  enduring 
part  of  Gernuin  novelistic  literature.  These  are: 
Jiirg  Jcnulsch  (1876):  Der  IleiUgc  (1880); 
Leiden  eines  Knaben  (1883)  ;  Die  Hochzeit  des 
Monchs  (1884);  Die  VersMchiitig  des  Pescara 
(1887);  and  Angela  Borgia  (1891).  Meantime 
he  had  written  a  remarkable  group  of  historical 
sliort  stories,  first  collected  as  Kleine  NoL-ellen 
(1883)  and  later  as  yorellen  (13th  ed.  1899). 
Characteristic  and  perhaps  best  of  these  is  Gus- 
tav  Adolf s  Page.  His  early  poems  are  incor- 
porated, with  many  changes,  almost  always  for 
the  better,  in  Gedichte  (1882).  Jleyer's  literary 
characteristics,  wliich  combine  to  make  him  the 
most  important  imaginative  writer  in  Switzer- 
land in  his  generation,  are  truthfulness  of 
observation,  a  realistic  plasticity  in  description, 
clearness  of  style,  objectivity  in  statement,  A 
uniform  edition  of  Meyer's  works  appeared  in 
1892.  For  his  bio2ra])hv.  consult  Trog  (Basel, 
1S97)  and  Frey  (Stuttg.irt,  1900).  Also  Moser, 
^y^>ldlungrn  der  Gedichte  K.  F.  Meyers  (Leipzig, 
1900)  :  and  Kraeger,  A'.  F.  Meyer,  Qvellen  und 
'Wandlun gen  seiner  Gedichte  (Berlin,  1901). 

MEYER,  Leo  (1830—).  A  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Bledeln.  near  Hanover,  and  edu- 
cated at  Gcittingen  and  Berlin,  From  1862  to 
1805  he  was  professor  in  Gcittingen,  and  in  1865 
he  became  professor  of  comparative  philology'  at 
Dorpat.  In  1889  he  again  accepted  a  chair  at 
Gcittingen,  His  contributions  to  philological  lit- 
erature are  of  great  merit;  they  include:  Ter- 
gleichcnde  Grammatilc  der  griechischen  nnd  la- 
teinischen  ^prachr  (1861-65):  Die  gothische 
S<lirnche  (1869)  :  and  Handbuch  der  griechischen 
Elgmologie  (1901),  He  also  wrote  Glnuhen  und 
Wissen  (1876),  and  Uebcr  das  Leben  nach  dem 
Tode    (1882). 

MEYER,  LoTiiAR  .JUI.IU.S  (1830-95).  A  Ger- 
man clieniist.  born  in  Varel,  Oldenburg,  He 
studied  medicine  in  Zurich  and  \Yiirzburg  and 
chemistry  at  Heidelberg,  where,  in  1857,  he  made 
the  discover}',  by  a  simple  analysis,  that  the 
taking  up  of  o.xygen  by  the  blood  is  not  accom- 
jilished  by  the  air,  but  results  from  the  chemical 
affinity  between  oxygen  and  the  coloring  matter 
of  the  blood.  This  view,  published  in  Die  Gase 
des  Blutes  (1857),  was  supplemented  by  the 
study  De  fUnnguinr  Ori/do  Carbonico  Infeeto 
(1858),  Tn  1859  he  became  jirofcssor  in  the 
chemical  laboratory  in  Breslau :  in  1866  ho  he- 
came  professor  at  F.berswalde:  and  in  1868  at 
Karlsruhe,  whence  in  1876  he  went  to  Tiihingen. 


Meyer  also  wrote  important  monographs  on 
educational  methods.  Die  modernen  Theorien  der 
Chemie  (1864;  0th  ed.,  partially,  1896),  and  Die 
Atomgeiriehtr  der  Elemente  (with  Seubert,  1883). 

MEYER,  mn'yar',  Paul  (1840—).  A  French 
pliilologist,  borii  in  Paris.  He  studied  at  the 
Keole  des  Chartes;  served  in  the  manuscript  de- 
partment at  the  Biblioth(>que  Xationale(  1863- 
65)  ;  and  was  keeper  of  tlie  national  archives  from 
1865  to  1872.  In  1865  he  founded  the  Iterue 
Critique,  of  which  he  was  joint-editor  until  1872, 
when  he  established  tlie  Romania.  Meyer  became 
secretary  of  the  Ecole  des  Chartes  in  1872;  pro- 
fessor of  Romance  languages  in  the  C'ollfege  de 
France  in  1876,  and  director  of  the  Ecole  des 
Chartes  in  1882.  He  was  elected  to  the  Institute 
in  1883.  His  researches  into  the  literature  of  the 
Jliddle  Ages,  which  began  with  a  study  of  that 
of  Provence  and  was  very  comprehensive,  in- 
volved laborious  investigations  in  many  libraries, 
particularly  those  of  France  and  England,  His 
works  include:  Recherches  sur  Vepopie  francaise 
(1867)  ;  Recherches  sur  les  auteurs  de  la  chan- 
son de  la  croisade  albigcoise  (1868);  Memoire 
sur  I'^tude  des  dialectcs  de  la  langue  d'oc  cut 
moyen  age  (1874)  ;  Recueil  d'anciens  textes  bas- 
latins,  provenQoux  et  francais  (1874-76);  Alex- 
andre le  Grand  dans  la  littcrature  francaise  du 
mot/en  age  ( 1886)  ;  Xicole  de  Boxon  (1889)  ;  and 
Guillaume  le  Marcchal    (1891-94). 

MEYER,  mi'er,  Victor  (1848-97).  A  German 
chemist,  born  in  Berlin.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  Stuttgart  Polytechnikum  in  1871, 
and  in  1872  professor  of  chemistry  and  director 
of  the  chemical  laboratory  in  the  Polv'technie  In- 
stitute of  Zurich.  In  1885  he  became  professor 
at  Gi'ittingen,  and  in  1889  he  was  called,  as  Bun- 
sen's  successor,  to  Heidelberg.  He  made  valuable 
researches  in  organic  cliemistry,  and  invented 
apparatus  for  determining  the  solubilit}'  and 
density  of  gas  and  smoke.  I  See  Molecules.)  In 
addition  to  voluminous  contributions  to  the 
reports  of  the  German  Chemical  Society,  he  wrote 
Gutachtcn  betreffeiid  den  Verkehr  mit  Petroleum 
und  anderen  feuergefiihrlichen  Fliissigkeiten 
(1879). 

MEYERBEER,  mi'Cr-bar.  Giacomo  (1791- 
1864).  A  famous  Cierman  composer.  He  was 
born  at  Berlin,  of  wealthy  Jewish  parents,  and 
gave  early  promise  of  musical  talent,  which  his 
parents  encouraged,  Lauska,  considered  the  best 
teacher  in  Berlin,  superintended  his  studies, 
while  Clementi  took  a  special  interest  in  his 
progress  and  instruction.  He  made  his  first  pub- 
lic appearance  as  a  boy  of  nine.  In  1806  he  be- 
came a  student  under  Vogler,  and  entered  the 
latter's  academy  in  Darmstadt,  where  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  Weber,  which  proved  to  be  life- 
long. Jleyerbeer's  earliest  compositions  gave  lit- 
tle indication  of  the  success  he  afterwards 
achieved,  and  in  style  were  largely  ecclesiastical. 
An  opera,  -/ephthah's  ^'ou\  dating  from  this 
period,  is  singularly  dull  and  hea^'y.  and  when 
first  given  was  little  esteemed  by  the  general 
public,  though  the  critics  thought  highly  of  it. 
Abimelek  (1813)  was  a  comic  opera  which  met 
with  a  more  favorable  reception  than  any  of  his 
previous  efforts,  and  was  especially  fateful  in 
that  it  took  its  conipo-;er  to  Vienna,  where  he 
first  heard  Hummel,  whose  virtuosity  on  the 
piano  so  impressed  liini  that  he  postponed  all  his 
plans  and  went  into  retirement  with  the  object 
of  perfecting  his  own  style.     After  a  brief  stay 


MEYEBBEEB. 


424 


MEYEE-LUBKE. 


in  Paris  lie  went  to  Venice  (1815),  and  at- 
tempted to  duplicate  Kossini's  success,  with  a 
series  of  operas  in  the  Italian  vein:  Iloniilda  e 
Coslanza  (1815);  ticmircniiide  ricuiiunciiila 
(1819)  ;  Emma  di  Ueshuryo  (1819)  ;  Manjlicrila 
d'.litgiii  ( 1820)  ;  L'esulc  di  (iiamila  (  182:; )  ;  and 
II  crocialo  in  Egitto  (1824),  which  latter  made 
a  tremendous  success.  In  none  nf  these  operas  is 
there  the  faintest  trace  of  his  German  training. 
An  attempt  to  win  German  favor  with  tlie  last- 
named  opera  proved  a  failure,  as  did  a  similar 
attempt  in  Paris.  From  1820  to  1831  little  was 
heard  of  him  publicly,  but  apparently  the  time 
was  not  wasted.  According  to  JlencUd  he  was 
devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  the  French 
style,  anil  particularly  French  opera.  His 
father's  death  and  the  subsciiucnt  death  of  two 
of  his  children  wei<;hed  upon  him.  for  he  was  a 
man  of  strong  family  attaehments.  He  resolved 
to  expatriate  himself  from  Germany,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  desert  the  Italian  for  the  French 
style  of  composition.  Uohcrt  le  Diablc  (1831) 
and  Les  Huguenots  (1830)  were  the  first  fruits 
of  his  French  studies;  operas  so  intin\ately  de- 
scriptive of  French  history  and  customs  as  to 
appeal  irresistibly  to  the  French  public.  Their 
success  was  immediate:  so  much  so  that,  despite 
the  determined  op])osition  of  the  German  clas- 
sicists. Robert  le  niahlc,  Lcs  Hufiuriiots,  Le 
Prophi'tc,  and  Dinorah  were  all  successfully 
given  in  Germany.  His  success  in  both  France 
and  Germany  caused  the  Prussian  Government 
to  invite  him  to  Berlin,  where,  in  1812.  he  was 
made  Royal  Jhisic  Director.  Although  not  a 
great  orchestral  leader,  he  nevertheless  accom- 
plished important  results  during  his  stay  in  Ber- 
lin. 

Dan  Feldlarjer  in  Schlesien  belongs  to  this 
period  and  had  moderate  success,  as  did  fftruen- 
see,  a  scarcely  known  work,  hut  one  which  is  con- 
sidered to  contain  his  best  writing.  In  1840 
lie  returned  to  Paris,  where  Lc  Prophete  was  per- 
formed with  remarkable  success.  He  regarded 
L'Africaine,  on  which  he  had  worked  on  an<l  off 
for  over  thirty  .years,  as  his  best  w ink :  but 
Ifohcrl  lc  Diable.  and  above  all  Lea  Iliifiurnots, 
have  by  their  continued  po]mlarity  proved  the 
verdict  to  be  in  their  favor.  He  was  greatly  in- 
strumental in  developing  many  famous  singers, 
notably  l.ucca  (q.v.).  ;iiiil  in  a  measure  .leniiy 
Lind.  To  the  poor  and  needy  he  was  especially 
generous,  the  iletiertiver-Hliftunii  in  Berlin  and 
many  similar  bequests  bearing  ample  testimony 
to  the  fact.  As  a  composer  he  belongs  to  the 
world's  great  masters,  notwithstanding  the  feeble- 
ness and  trivial  character  nf  much  of  his  music. 
Impartial  criticism  is  in  agreement  with  those 
of  his  detractors  who  claimed  that  his  faults  were 
due  to  his  insatiate  craving  for  pojnilarity.  He 
died  in  Paris.  Consult :  Pe  Bury,  Mrjicrhcrr.  .so 
vie,  ses  wuvres  et  son  temps  (Paris,  1805)  ; 
Mendel,  Qiacomo  Mei/erbcer.  eine  liiofjraphie 
(Berlin,  1808)  ;  Pougin,  Mei/erberr  (Paris, 
1804)  ;  De  Lasalle.  Mriierheer.  sn  ric  rl  le  ealii- 
lofiue  (Ir  ses  iruvres    (Paris.   1804). 

MEYEEHEIM,  nii'erhlm.  FRiKimirii  Enu- 
Ani)  (IH08-7'.M.  .\  German  genre  painter.  He 
was  born  at  Danzig.  .Tanuary  7.  ISOS.  He  re- 
received  his  first  instruction  from  his  father,  and 
then  studied  at  the  Berlin  .\eademy.  His  sub- 
jects were  the  peasants  of  the  Harz  Mountains 
ami  Thuringia.    He  lx;eame  a  member  nf  the  Ber- 


lin Academy  in  1838  and  professor  in  1850. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Altenburgers  in  the 
Field"  (1838);  "The  Champion  Shot"  (1830), 
■Tid-Bit"  (1852),  both  in  the  National  Gallery, 
Berlin;  "Domestic  Happiness"  (1847),  "Going 
to  t'liureh."  and  "Good  Jlorning,  Dear  Father!" 
(18.")8).  all  in  the  Raven^  Gallery,  Berlin. 

MEYEBHEIM,.  P.VUL  (1842—).  A  German 
painter,  burn  in  Berlin,  son  and  pupil  of  Fried- 
rich  Kiluard  Meyerheim.  He  also  studied  at  the 
Berlin  Academy,  and  traveled  and  studied  in 
(iermany,  the  Tyrol,  and  the  Xelherlauds,  final- 
ly spending  a  year  in  Paris,  whence  he  returned 
to  Berlin,  impressed  with  the  brilliant  color 
schemes  of  the  French  painters  and  matured  in 
technical  skill.  Although  he  won  distinction  in 
genre,  landscape,  and  portraiture,  and  as  a  deco- 
rative artist,  his  fame  rests  ehiellv  on  bis  master- 
ly rendering  of  the  animal  world,  the  incompara- 
ble humor(Jiis  delineations  of  the  monkey  race, 
portrayed  as  sliarers  in  the  tragicomedy  of  hu- 
man life,  constituting  his  most  popular  success. 
Even  the  following  limited  selection  from  a  long 
series  of  sterling  productions  may  convey  an  idea 
of  his  versatility:  "An  Amsterdam  Antiquary" 
(1809),  "ilenagerie"  (1885),  both  in  the  Nation- 
al Gallery,  Berlin,  the  staircase  of  which  he 
adorncil  with  a  charming  frieze  in  fresco,  allegor- 
izing "The  Four  Seasons"  (1883)  in  the  life  of 
bir<ls.  To  this  fanciful  creation  a  realistic  cycle  of 
seven  paintings  on  huge  copper  placpus.  illus- 
trating "The  Life-Course  of  a  Locomotive" 
( 1878) .  in  the  Villa  Borsig.  Berlin,  forms  a  strik- 
ing contrast.  "Shecp'Shearing"  (1872),  with 
its  wonderful  light  etTccts ;  "\\ild  Man's  Tent" 
(1874)  ;  "The  Young  Lions:"  "The  Card  Sharp- 
ers" (monkeys,  1882)  ;  "Monkeys  in  a  Studio," 
and,  out  of  many  fine  landscapes,  mostly  of 
mountain  .scenery  with  cattle,  a  "Charcoal  Fit  in 
the  Bavarian  A'lps"  (1887.  Hamburg  (Jallery), 
are  only  a  few  among  his  best  efforts.  Of  numernus 
excellent  jiortraits  those  of  his  father  and  of 
Daniel  Chodowiecki  (  1887),  both  in  the  Museum 
at  Danzig,  are  representative  examples.  Consult 
Jleissner,  in  the  Art  Journnl    (London,  1895). 

ME-YEB-HELMUND,  mi'frhel'mi.int.  Krik 
(1801  — ).  .\  Kus^ian-l  lenuan  composer,  born  in 
Saint  Petersburg.  He  received  the  rudiments  nf 
musical  instruction  from  his  father  and  after- 
wards went  to  Berlin,  where  he  studii'd  under 
Kiel  and  Stockhausen.  He  became  famous  in 
Germany  as  a  song  composer,  and  for  many  of  his 
songs  he  liinisclf  wrote  the  words.  All  his  music 
is  marked  by  strong  loc:il  color  and  a  distinct 
iiulividuality.  His  larger  works  include  a  comic 
opera,  Miin'iittii  (1889)  :  Die  beidcn  Kliiifisbert!, 
Der  Liebeslcampf  (1893):  and  the  ballet  music 
Der  liergrjeist  (1893).  followed  one  year  later  by 
the  biirlesi|ue   n|irr:i    Tischhn. 

MEYEB-LiJBKE,  lup'kc.  Wit.uki.m  (1801 
— ).  A  Romance  philologist.  He  was  born  at 
Dilbendorf.  in  the  Canton  of  Zurich,  .laiuiary 
30.  1801.  From  1879  to  1SS3  he  studied  at 
Zurich  and  Berlin,  coming  under  the  inlluenee  of 
Adolf  Tobler  (q.v.).  In  1887  he  became  a  pro- 
fessor extranrilinary  at  .Icna,  and  in  1890  he 
was  made  full  ]irofessor  of  Romance  philology  at 
Vienna.  His  works  include:  Die  Schieksale  des 
laleinisehen  Xeutruins  im  Romanisehen  (1883): 
and  the  (Irammatik  der  romanisehen  flpraehen 
(l.snO-99),  trans,  as  (Iramniaire  des  hinnuex  ro- 
maines  (18901900).    This  is  the  most  important 


MEYER-LUBKE. 


425 


MEZEREON. 


jiramiiiar  of  the  Romaiiee  languages  since  that  of 
Diez.  Other  books  of  great  value  are  the  lialic- 
nisflic  Grummatik  (1890)  and  the  Einfuhruiig  in 
dds  Sliidium  der  roiiianischen  Hprachwissenschaft 
(1901). 

MEYNELIi,  nien'nel.  Alice  Christiana.  An 
English  poetess  anil  essayist,  born  in  London 
about  18.53,  the  second  daughter  of  Thomas  .J. 
Thompson,  an  intimate  friend  of  Charles  Dickens. 
With  lier  elder  sister,  Elizabeth  (Lady  Butler, 
well  known  for  "The  Roll  Call"  and  other  mili- 
tary paintings),  she  was  educated  at  home  by 
her"  father.  The  Thompsons  lived  much  abroad, 
especially  in  Italy.  While  a  mere  girl,  Miss 
Thompson  went  over  to  the  Church  of  Rome  and 
was  followed  by  other  members  of  the  family. 
In  1S77  she  married  Wilfrid  lleynell,  a  London 
journalist  and  magazine  writer.  Her  first  poems, 
I'rehidcs  (187.5;  new  ed.  1893),  were  warmly 
praised  by  Ruskin.  Rossetti,  and  Browning.  The 
volume  contained  some  exquisite  pieces,  as  "Re- 
nouncement" and  "A  Letter  from  a  Girl  to  Her 
Own  Old  Age."  In  1001  she  collected  in  a  volume 
called  .Yen;  Poems  a  group  of  short  lyrics,  several 
of  which  had  previously  appeared  in  the  Living 
Age.  Soon  after  her  marriage,  Mrs.  Me^Tiell  be- 
gan to  contribute  to  the  London  periodicals, 
gaining  wide  recognition  for  her  graceful  and 
delicate  style.  She  published  separately  several 
delightful  volumes  of  essavs.  as  The  lihijthm  of 
Life  (1893);  The  Colour' of  Life  (1896);  The 
fipirit  of  Place  (1898)  ;  and  John  Riiskin  (1900). 
For  an  estimate  of  ilrs.  Meynell  as  a  poet,  con- 
sult .\rcher.  Poets  of  the  Yountirr  (leneration 
(NcAV  York.  1902). 

MEYNERT,  mi'nert,  Theodor  (1833-92).  An 
Austrian  neurologist,  born  at  Dresden.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Vienna ;  in  1865  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  the  anatomy  of  the  brain 
at  the  university,  and  in  1870  professor  of  psy- 
chiatry. He  was  a  member  of  the  Vienna  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  A  memljer  of  the  staff  of  the 
Psych iatrisches  Centralblatt  in  1871-78.  he  also 
published  several  volumes,  including  Zur  Me- 
chanik  des  fichirnhaues  (1874),  containing  the 
results  of  important  researches  in  brain  anatomy, 
and  Psi/chiatrie  Klinik  der  Erkrankunqen  des 
Vordiihirns    (1884). 

MEYR,  nilr,  Melciiior  (1810-71).  A  Ger- 
man poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Ehringen.  near 
Xiirdlingen.  He  was  educated  at  Munich  and 
Heidelberg.  His  most  important  works  are:  Er- 
ziihhingcn  alts  dem  Rica  (3d  ed.  1875),  a  series 
nf  admirable  village  tales  of  his  own  peas- 
ant region;  some  very  didactic  (icdichte  (1857)  ; 
the  tragedies  Karl  tier  Kiiluw  (1802)  and  Ihr- 
zog  Albrecht  (1862);  and  the  anonymous  and 
extremely  clever  (Icspriiehe  mit  einem  Grohian 
(1866).  He  also  wrote  the  philosophical  Religion 
des   Geistes    (1871). 

MEYRICK,  mer'rik.  Freherick  (1827  —  ). 
A  Church  of  England  scholar.  He  was  horn  at 
Ranisbury  Vicarage.  Wiltshire;  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  suc- 
cessively scholar,  fellow,  and  tutor,  and  has  hehl 
the  university  offices  of  select  preacher  and  public 
?\aminer.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
Queen's  Whitehall  iireachers,  in  1859  inspector 
of  schools,  and  in  1S(;8  became  rector  of  Blickling 
with  Erpingham  in  Norfolk,  and  in  1869  non- 
residentiary  Canon  of  Lincoln.  He  was  the 
chief  agent  in  establishing  the  Anglo-Continental 


society  for  making  known  the  principles  of  the 
English  Church  in  foreign  countries,  and  pub- 
lished several  controversial  treatises  in  Latin, 
Spanish,  Italian,  etc.  He  is  the  author  of 
The  Moral  and  Devotional  Theology  of  Die 
Church  of  Rome,  According  to  the  Authoritative 
Teaching  of  »S'.  Alphonso  de'  Liguori  (1S56)  ;  The 
Outcasts  and  Pour  uf  London  (1858)  ;  But  Ls)i't 
Kingsley  Right  After  All?  (1864)  ;  On  Dr.  Ncic- 
man's  Rejection  of  Liguori's  Doctrine  of  Equivo- 
cation (1864)  ;  Is  Dogma  a  Necessity?  (1883)  ; 
The  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  in  the 
Holy  Communion  (1883;  4th  ed.  1899)  ;  The  His- 
tory of  the  Chureh  of  Spain  (1892);  Justin 
ilartyr  (1896)  ;  also  commentaries  on  Leviticus, 
.Joshua,  .Judges,  Joel,  and  Obadiah. 

MEYRICK,  Sir  Samuel  Rush  (178.3-1848). 
An  English  antiquary.  He  was  educated  at  0.\- 
ford,  was  called  to  the  bar.  and  practiced  law 
in  the  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty  courts.  He 
possessed  a  very  fine  collection  of  armor,  and  his 
Critical  Inquiry  Into  Ancient  Ai'mor  (splendidly 
illustrated,  1824)  is  still  considered  authorita- 
tive. He  assisted  Rev.  T.  D.  Fosbrooke  in  1823- 
25  in  the  publication  of  the  EneyclopcEdia  of  An- 
tiquities. In  1826  he  arranged  the  arms  and 
armor  in  the  Tower  of  London,  and  in  1828  per- 
formed the  same  service  at  Windsor  Castle.  Dur- 
ing his  administration  of  the  office  of  High 
Sheriff'  of  Herefordshire  he  revived  some  of  the 
old  ceremonial  display,  including  javelin-men  in 
full  accoutrement. 

MEYTENS,  mi'tens.  Martin  van  der  (1695- 
1770).  A  Swedish  painter  of  Dutch  extraction, 
ijorn  at  Stockholm.  He  studied  under  his  father, 
Peter  Meytens.  then  Court  painter.  He  after- 
wards traveled  in  England  and  France,  and  while 
in  Paris  painted  the  portraits  of  Louis  XV.  and 
Peter  the  Great  (1717).  Afterwards  he  lived 
for  some  time  in  Italy,  and  then  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  ultimately  became  Court  painter  and 
Director  of  the  Academy  ( 1759).  His  works  are 
largely  the  portraits  of  his  celebrated  contempo- 
raries. 

MEZEN,  nia-zen'y',  or  MESEN.  A  river  of 
Northern  Russia.  It  ri.ses  near  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  Goveriunent  of  Vologda  and 
flows  northwest  through  the  Government  of  Arch- 
angel, entering  the  Wliite  Sea  at  Mezen  Bay 
after  a  course  of  about  510  miles  (Map:  Russia, 
G  1).  It  is  navigable  in  its  lower  part,  but  is 
free  from  ice  only  about  six  months  in  the  year. 

MEZERAY,  maz'ra'.  Francois  Eudes  de 
(1610-83).  A  French  historian  and  man  of  let- 
ters. He  was  born  at  Ruy.  near  Argenton,  in  the 
Department  of  Indre,  studied  at  Caen,  and  after 
some  military  service  in  Flanders  came  to  Paris 
and  set  to  writing  history.  Richelieu  patronized 
him  and  put  him  into  the  Academy.  His  Ilis- 
toire  de  France  (1643-51)  brought  him  fame,  and 
is  still  of  considerable  value.  During  the  Fronde 
he  was  an  active  pamphleteer  against  Cardinal 
Mazarin. 

MEZE'REON  (Fr.  mezereon,  Sp.  mezeron, 
from  Ar.  mrizariyim.  camelia).  The  bark  of 
Daphne  Mezereum.  Daphne  Gnidum,  and  Daphne 
Laureola  of  the  natural  order  Thymela^aeeiB, 
three  shrubs  from  two  to  four  feet  high. 
Daphne  Mezereum  has  rose-red,  sessile,  fra- 
grant flowers,  in  small  clusters,  preceding  the 
deciduous  leaves.  It  is  indigenous  to  hilly 
and    mountainous    regions    of    Europe,    extend- 


UEZEBEON. 


426 


MEZZOTINT. 


ing  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  eastward  to  Sibe- 
•riii,  and  cultivated  in  the  United  States.  The 
other  two  species  grow  in  Soutliern  Europe. 
Daphne  Laureola,  s]iurf>e  laurel,  lias  large  ever- 
green leaves  and  yellowishgrcen  llowers  in  a.xil- 
iarv  clusters.  Daphne  tJniduin.  spurge  (lax,  has 
narrow,  deciduous  leaves,  and  small  wliite  flow- 
ers in  terminal  racemes.  Formerlv  the  l)ark  was 
extensively  employed  in  medicine.  The  dried 
bark  is  inodorous,  but  has  a  persistently  acrid 
and  burning  taste.  The  bark  of  Daphne  Gnidum 
is  darker,  and  that  of  Daphne  Laureola  is  more 
gray  and  has  a  greenish  cast.  They  resemble 
niezereou  in  acridity.  The  root  bark  of  the  three 
species  is  the  strongest,  but  the  stem  bark  is  the 
more  common.  It  is  used  as  an  adjunct  to  sar- 
saparilla  in  making  the  compound  decoction  and 
the  compound  extract  of  that  drug.  The  juice  of 
the  fresh  bark  is  irritant  and  is  said  to  blister 
the  skin.     See  Daimixe. 

MEZHIRYETCHIE,  me'zhf-re'chye.  A 
town  in  the  Government  of  Siedlce,  Russian 
Poland,  about  SO  miles  from  Siedlce.  It  manu- 
factures leather,  brass  articles,  etc..  and  had  a 
population  of  13,081  in   18!)7. 

MEZIERES,  niA'zyar'.  A  fortified  town  in 
the  northeast  of  France.  It  is  the  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Ardennes,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
ifeuse  and  \'i'nce.  and  on  a  l>ranch  of  the  Eastern 
Railroad  (Map:  France.  L  2).  The  town  manu- 
factures annnunition,  and  has  iron  and  copper 
foundries,  but  most  of  its  iron  industrv  has 
been  transferred  to  Charleville,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  suspension  bridge.  In  1521  the 
Chevalier  Bayard,  with  2000  men,  successfully 
defended  the  place  against  40.000  Spaniards 
under  Charles  \'.  In  1815  the  town  held  out  for 
six  weeks  against  tlie  .\llies.  who  besieged  it  after 
the  battle  of  Waterloo.  In  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71.  Mezi^res  capitulated  after  a  can- 
nonade of  two  days.    Population,  in  1901,  7884. 

MEZIERES,  Alfred  .Je.\n  FR.\?f90is  (1826 
— ).  A  French  critic,  born  at  Rehon  (Moselle), 
November  lO,  1820.  He  became  professor  of  for- 
eign literature  at  Xaney  (1854)  and  Paris 
(Sorbonne.  ISCl),  Academician  (1874),  and 
Deputy  (1881).  His  publications  are  main- 
ly literary  studies.  Among  them  may  be 
named:  Shakespeare,  sen  mures  et  ses  critiques 
i  1801 )  :  I'ri'decessrurs  ct  conlemporains  de  Shalce- 
sprare  (1803)  :  Conlemporains  et  siiecesseurs  dc 
Shakespeare  (1804):  Dante  et  Vltalie  nonreUe 
(18G5);  Petrarqne  (1807):  Goethe,  lea  ocuvres 
expUquees  par  la  vie  (1872-73).  His  later  books. 
En  France  (1883).  Uors  de  France  (1883). 
Miraljcau  (1891),  have  had  a  more  political  ten- 
dency. The  Ilrrue  drs  Deux  Mondrs  and  the 
Temps  have  published  many  articles  by  Mezi&res. 

MEZIERES,  :^L\RIE  Jeanxe  Laboras  de. 
,\    I'irnili    novelist.      Sec    RicconoNi,   Marie   J. 

L.    OK, 

MEZIRIAC,  nift'zA'r<i'fik'.     See  Bachet. 

MEZbTTJR.  m.-'ze-tnijr.  A  town  of  Hungary, 
situ:ited  on  an  ;illlnent  of  the  Kiiros.  80  miles 
southeast  of  Hudapest  (Map:  Hungary,  (i  3).  It 
is  (he  seat  of  a  gymnasium  and  has  manufactures 
of  ptitterv  and  trade  in  cereals  and  domesdc  ani- 
mals. P'opuladon.  in  ISOO,  23.757:  in  1000.  25,- 
38."!.  niniitly  Magyars. 

MEZZO,  med'zft  (T(..  middle).  A  term  gen- 
erally used   in  nuisio  rn  conjunction  with  some 


other  word,  as  mezzo-forte,  moderately  loud; 
mezzo-piano,  rather  soft;  niezza -voce,  "with  a 
moderate  strength  of  tone;  mezzo-orchestra,  with 
half  the  orchestra,  etc.  When  written  alone  and 
apjilied  to  the  grand  iiiano-fortc  it  indicates  that 
the  soft  pedal  is  to  be  used.  But  mezzo-soprano 
means  a  voice  lying  half  way  between  the  high 
soprano  and  contralto. 

MEZZOFANTI,  med'zA-fjln'te,  Giuseppe 
( 1774-1,S4!I).  An  Italian  linguist  and  a  cardinal 
in  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  was  born  in  Bologna ; 
was  educated  there,  and  became  a  i)riest  in  1797, 
professor  at  the  university  in  18(14,  and  university 
lilirarian  in  1812.  In  'lS31  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Vatican 
and  secretary  of  the  College  of  the  Propaganda, 
and  in  1838  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  cardinal.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  liy  his  linguistic 
attainments,  and  at  the  time  of  "his  death  was 
credited  with  knowing  fifty-eight  languages.  Con- 
sult HusseH's  Life  uf  Canlinal  Me:::ofanli  (Lon- 
don, 1858)  :  and  the  biogra]iliies  bv  JIanavit 
(Paris.  18.i3),  Bellesheim  (Wiirzburg,  1880), 
and  Mitierrutzner  (Bri.xcn,  1885). 

MEZ'ZOTINT  (It.  mczzotinto,  half-black). 
A  styli'  rir  method  of  engraving  on  a  copper 
or  steel  plate,  which  is  at  first  ju-eparcd  by 
making  on  it  a  ground  willi  an  instniment  called 
a  cradle  or  a  mezzotint  grounder.  This  instru- 
ment is  a  flat  plate  of  hardened  steel,  of  which 
one  side  is  brought  to  a  segment  of  a  circle 
with  a  sharp  cutting  edge,  the  bevel  of  which  is 
so  engraved  with  fine  parallel  lines  that  it  re- 
sembles a  file,  and  the  edfre  iiself  is  brought  to 


a  ridge  of  very  fine  points.  This  has  to  he 
rocked  across  the  plate  many  times,  in  four 
or  more  directions,  tmtil.  by  this  operation, 
the  whole  surface  is  reduced  to  a  close-set 
mass  of  small  teeth  or  points.  The  plate  thus 
lirickcd  by  this  grounder  oiTers  a  unifonnly 
roughened  surface,  and  upon  this  surface  the  eii- 
graver  begins  his  proper  work.  Now,  this  pre- 
pared plate,  if  covered  witli  printers'  ink.  would 
yield  an  entirely  black  impression;  so  it  is  the 
business  of  the  engraver  to  work  from  dark  to 
light,  or  from  black  to  white.  This  he  does 
with  various  instruments  adajited  to  the  pur- 
pose, such  as  scrapers  and  burnishers:  the 
scra])er  employed  to  diminish  the  burr  and  such 
asperity  of  surface  as  tends  to  retain  too  much 
ink,  and  the  burnisher  to  remove  all  surface 
roughness  when  the  highest  light  or  jiure  white  is 
required  in  the  design  or  picture  he  is  producing. 

Mezzotint  is  admirably  ada|)ted  to  the  repro- 
duction of  those  works  in  whicli  broad  efTects  of 
li!.'lit  and  shade  are  dominant,  as  opposed  to 
(hose  where  close  line,  contour,  and  small  detail 
are  demanded. 

Among  the  greatest  mezzotint  engravers  may 
he  mentioned:  .James  .\lc.\rdell  (d.  1705) .  .Tames 
Watson.  .1.  Raphael  Smith,  and  Valentine  Green. 
David  Lucas  was  very  successful  in  reproducinjf 
the  landsca]X"S  of  Constable.  Besides  its  coni- 
jiaradve  inadequacy  in  depicting  gi-ea(  detail, 
mezzo(in(  has  ano(her  limi(a(ion — i(s  failure  to 
bear  nnich  prinling.  Tlie  burr  is  soon  destroyed 
in  the  copper  ])la(es.  and  although  steel  i.s  more 
enduring,  mezzotint  on  (his  medium  is  still  far 
behind  line  engi-aving  in  reproduciive  possiblli- 
(ies.  From  twenty-five  to  thirty  impressions  of 
the  first  class  are  all  that  may  be  drawn  from 
copper    plates.      The    original    inventor    or    dis- 


MEZZOTINT. 


427 


MIAMISBTJRG. 


covcrer  of  mezzotint  cngniving  was  Louis  von 
tjiegen,  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  service  of 
the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  his  first 
published  work  was  a  portrait  of  the  Princess 
Aiiiclia-Elizabeth  of  llesse,  proofs  of  which  are 
dated  1042.  fifteen  years  anterior  to  the  earliest 
date  on  the  plates  of  Prince  Ru]iert.  to  whom 
a  charming  legend  ascribes  the  invention  of  the 
art.  In  the  United  States  the  mezzotint  style 
was  a  favorite  with  magazine  publishers  in  the 
early  days  of  magazines,  being  introduced  from 
England  by  .John  Sartain  (q.v. ),an  expert  mezzo- 
tint engraver,  in  1830.  He  published  t<artain's 
Mfiyatine.  illustrated  after  this  fashion.  Con- 
sult: Wedmore's  Studies  in  EngliKh  Art  (Lon- 
don, 187G-80)  ;  Hamerton,  The  Graphic  Arts 
(Lomlnn.   1882).     See  Engraving. 

MHOW,  mou.  A  city  and  important  British 
military  station  in  the  native  Rajputana  State  of 
Indore.  13  miles  southwest  of  the  town  of  ludore, 
near  the  \'indhya  mountains,  on  an  eminence  on 
the  (iumbcr  River  HK)0  feet  above  the  sea  (ilap: 
India,  C  4).  On  the  southeast  are  the  canton- 
ments, arranged  like  a  European  town,  having  a 
church  with  a  steeple  on  an  eminence,  a  spacious 
lecture-room,  a  well-furnished  library,  and  a 
theatre.  They  are  occupied  under  the  ilandsaur 
Treaty  of  1818  by  a  considerable  force  of  British 
and  native  troops.  Population,  in  1891,  31,773; 
iu  liinl.  3(),039. 

MIAGAO,  me'a-ga'6.  A  town  of  Panay,  Philip- 
pines, in  the  Province  of  Iloilo.  It  is  situated  on 
the  southern  coast  of  the  island,  22  miles  west 
of  Iloilo.     Population,  22,100. 

MIAKO,  me-a'ku.  A  city  of  Japan.  See 
Kioro. 

MIALL,  Edwabd  ( 1809-81 ) .  An  advocate  of 
English  Church  disestablishment.  He  was  born 
in  Portsmouth,  England :  studied  at  Wymondlcy 
Theological  Institute,  Hertfordshire;  entered  the 
independent  ministrj',  and  was  installed  pastor  at 
Ware  in  1S31  and  at  Leicester  in  1834.  Becoming 
an  active  advocate  of  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Church  of  England,  he  removed  to  London  and 
established  the  Xonconformist  newspaper  as  the 
organ  of  that  policy  in  1841 ;  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament  from  Rochdale  in  18.^2.  He  favored 
universal  suffrage  and  opposed  class  legislation 
and  compulsory  religious  education.  He  led  in 
the  establishment,  in  1844,  of  the  British  Anti- 
State  Cliurch  Association,  which  afterwards  be- 
came the  Society  for  the  Liberation  of  Religion 
from  State  Patronage  and  Control.  In  1856  he 
introduced  in  the  House  of  Commons  a  resolution 
on  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church.  His 
million  for  a  committee  on  the  disestablishment  of 
the  English  Church  was  introduced  three  times 
in  1871  and  1872  and  lost.  He  was  appointed 
in  18.58  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commission  on 
Education  as  a  representative  of  the  Noncon- 
formists. Among  his  principal  ptiblications 
are:  Vieirs  of  the  Voluntary  Principle  (184.5)  ; 
Ethics  of  yonronfnrmity  (1848)  ;  The  British 
Churches  in  Relation,  to  the  British  People 
(1840)  ;  The  Franchise  as  a  Means  of  a  People's 
Triiininrr  (1851)  ;  Title  Deeds  of  the  Church  of 
F.nfiland  to  Her  Parorhial  Endoirments  (18fi21  : 
Social  Influences  of  the  State  Church  (1807).  Of 
loss  polemical  character  is  An  Editor  Off  the 
Line,  or  Waifside  Musinfjs  and  Peniiniscences 
(1865).  \  Life  of  Miall  was  published  bv  his 
son  Arthur  Miall  (London,  1884) . 
Vol.  XIII. -28. 


MIAMI,  mi-:i'me.  An  important  Algonquian 
tribe  residing,  when  first  known  to  the  Frenclf 
about  llKiO,  in  southeastern  Wisconsin.  They  were 
somewhat  superior  to  the  northern  tribes  gen- 
erally in  their  manner  of  living,  and  occupied  a 
stockaded  triwn  with  mat-covered  houses.  About 
the  year  l(illO,  in  consequence  of  dilliculties  with 
the  Illinois  and  Siou.v,  they  removed  to  the  south- 
east and  established  themselves  on  the  site  of 
what  is  now  Chicago  and  upon  the  Saint 
Joseph  River  of  ilichigan,  whence  they  soon 
spread  to  the  Wabash  and  Maumce  and  later 
to  the  Miami.  Their  principal  band  made 
headquarters  at  Kekionga,  where  Fort  W^ayne 
now  stands,  while  others,  settled  lower  down  on 
the  Wabash,  developed  later  into  two  distinct 
tribes,  known  respectively  as  Wea  and  Pianki- 
shaw  (q.v.).  All  three,  however,  continued  until 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  regard  them- 
selves as  one  people,  and  first  cousins  of  the  Illi- 
nois, their  western  neighbors,  whose  language  dif- 
fered only  dialectically  from  their  own.  In  the 
colonial  wars  the  Jliami  sided  alternately  with 
either  party,  but  joined  Pontiac's  alliance  in  1764 
and  took  sides  against  the  Americans  in  the  Revo- 
lution, continuing  the  struggle  with  the  other 
triljes  of  the  Ohio  Valley  until  their  crushing 
defeat  by  General  Wayne  compelled  them  to  make 
peace  at  the  Greenville  Treaty  in  1795.  The 
great  chief.  Little  Turtle,  who  led  the  allied 
forces  to  victory  against  Saint  Clair  and  Har- 
mar,  was  a  ]Miami.  Under  Tecumseh  they  again 
joined  the  English  side  in  the  War  of  1812.  At 
its  close,  being  now  thoroughly  broken,  they 
began  to  sell  their  lands,  and  by  1827  had  ceded 
almost  the  whole  of  their  original  territory  and 
agreed  to  remove  to  Kansas.  Here  they  rapidly 
died  out  from  disease,  famine,  and  dissipation, 
until  about  1873  the  remnant,  only  150  in  num- 
ber, were  placed  upon  the  Quapaw  reservation 
in  Indian  Territory,  where  they  number  now 
only  95.  A  considerable  band  had  continued  to 
occupy  a  reservation  in  Wabash  County,  Ind., 
until  1872,  when  the  land  was  divided  and  tribal 
relations  dissolved.  These  now  number  about 
240.  [iractically  all  of  mixed  blood. 

MIAMI,    or   GREAT   MIAMI.      A   river  of 

western  Oliio.  flo^ving  soutliward  for  150  mile's 
through  a  fertile  and  |)opulous  valley,  past  the 
cities  of  Troy,  Dayton,  and  Hamilton,  and 
emptying  into  the  Ohio  River  on  the  Indiana 
boundary,  20  miles  west  of  Cincinnati  (Map: 
Ohio,  A  7).  It  is  a  rapid  stream  furnishing  ex- 
tensive water  power.  The  Miami  and  Erie  Canal, 
connecting  the  Ohio  River  with  Lake  Erie,  fol- 
lows the  course  of  the  Miami. 

MIAMISBTJBG,  mi-am'iz-bflrg.  A  city  in 
Montgomery  County,  Ohio,  46  miles  north  by  ea-st 
of  Cincinnati ;  on  the  Great  Miami  River  and  the 
Miami  and  Erie  Canal,  and  on  the  Cincinnati, 
Hamilton  and  Dayton  and  the  Cleveland.  Cin- 
cinnati. Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  railroads 
(Jlap:  Ohio,  B  6).  It  is  of  considerable  import- 
ance as  an  industrial  centre,  the  manufactures 
being  favored  by  good  water  power,  and  is  also 
an  important  market  for  tobacco,  which  is  cvil- 
tivatcd  extensively  in  the  adjacent  region.  The 
electric  light  plant  is  owned  by  the  municipality. 
Just  outside  of  the  corporate  limits  is  one  of  the 
largest  Indian  mounds  in  the  State.  Population, 
in   1890,  2.952;   in   1900,  3,941. 


MIAMI  UNIVERSITY. 


428 


MICA. 


MIAMI  UNIVERSITY.  A  coeducational 
institution  of  Icainiiifj;  at  Oxford.  Ohio,  founded 
in  ISOn.  The  first  school  was  opened  in  1810, 
and  the  university  proper  began  its  work  in  1824. 
It  has  a  preparatory,  a  normal,  and  a  collegiate 
dejiartment,  in  the  last  of  wliich  three  courses  are 
otl'ired,  all  leading  to  the  15. .\.  degree.  A  consid- 
erable freedom  is  allowed  in  the  election  of 
studies.  In  1903  the  faculty  nuniliered  25,  and 
the  attendance  was  247,  divided  about  equally 
among  the  three  departments.  Tlie  library  con- 
tained 19.000  volumes.  The  institution  was  en- 
dowed in  1S03  with  one  township  of  land  in  Ohio, 
and  receives  financial  aid  from  the  State,  the 
endowment  amounting  to  .'jaO.OOO  and  the  income 
to  about  $55,000.  The  college  cam|)us  occupies 
nearly  fiO  acres.  The  grounds  and  buildings  were 
valued  in  1!I0;!  at  .*250.000  and  the  college  prop- 
erty amounted  to  $207,000. 

MIANA  BUG.     See  INIiTE. 

MIANTONOMOH,  nu-an't6-no'm6.  A  Nar- 
ragansett  saclicni.  wlio  succeeded  his  uncle,  Ca- 
nonicus,  in  l(i;j().  lie  was  on  friendly  terms  with 
the  early  settlers  of  Massachusetts,  and  assist<(l 
them  during  the  IVcpiot  war  of  1637.  In  1(!43 
he  conducted  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against 
Uncas,  the  Slohegan  sachem,  his  bitter  rival,  with 
whom,  however,  he  had  agreed  in  1038  not  to 
open  hostilities  without  first  appealing  to  the 
whites.  Being  captured,  he  was  handed  over  by 
l'nca.s  to  the  Commissioners  of  the  United  Colo- 
nics, and  was  tried  by  an  ecclesiastical  court 
(U'ganized  for  the  ])urpose.  which  condemned  him 
to  death  and  commissioned  Uncas  to  carry  out 
the  sentence.  .\  brotlier  of  the  latter  soon  after- 
wards killed  the  unsuspecting  captive  on  the 
spot  now  called  Sachem's  plain  (near  (Greenville), 
where  he  had  originally  been  captured.  .\  moiui- 
nient  erected  there  in  1841  commemorates  the 
event. 

MIAO-TSE,  m.--a'otse,  or  MIAU-TSI.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  mountainous  regions  of  South- 
ern China,  in  parts  of  the  provinces  of  Hupeh, 
Sze-chuan.  Yunnan,  Kwei-chow,  Hu-nan,  Kwang- 
hsi.  and  Kwatigtung.  They  number  several  mil- 
lions, and  re[ircs<>nt  an  aboriginal  population 
of  this  portion  of  the  Celestial  Empire  driven 
back  in  recent  times  by  the  Chinese.  INIany  of 
the  Jliao-tse  tribes  are  under  Chinese  rule,  but 
some  of  them  still  maintain  their  independence. 
The  Miao-tse  are  shorter  in  stature  than  the 
Xorthern  Chinese,  and  apparently  not  Mongoloid 
in  form  and  features;  some  style  them  "sub-Cau- 
casian." Certain  scholars  connect  them  with  the 
Lolos  and  the  non- Mongoloid  Tibetans.  T.issus. 
^fossos.  and  kindred  i)eoples  of  the  border  of 
China  and  Indo-China.  t)llicrs  can  see  nothing 
Mongolian  about  them:  still  others  seek  to  de- 
tect Malayan  or  "Indonesian"  alTinities.  Some 
of  the  aborigines  of  the  island  of  Hainan  arc 
lliought  to  be  related  to  the  Miaotse.  Consult: 
Kdkins,  The  Miati-tsi  Trihrs  (Foochow,  1870); 
Henry,  Lingnam  (London.  ISSO)  ;  Bourne's  Jour- 
nrii  )„  fionlhiresl   China    (London.   ISSS). 

MIAS.      See  Ora.ng-I'TAN. 

MIAS'MA  (N'eo-Lnt..  from  Gk.  lUaaixa.  stain, 
from  lualMiv,  minhwin.  to  pollute).  A  term 
formerly  applied  to  any  disease  which  was 
thought  to  arise  from  polluted  air.  Miasma  has 
hnd  slightly  dilTerent  meanings  at  dilTcrent  times, 
but  has  been  most  generally  used  to  indicate  cer- 


tain imponderable  morbific  emanations  from  the 
soil  of  particular  localities.  Since  the  discovery 
of  the  specific  Plasmodium  of  malaria,  and  its 
conveyance  by  the  mosquito,  the  term  miasma 
has  lapsed  into  disuse  and  is  now  rarely  seen  in 
medic:il  literature.  See  iL\i.AHiA  axd  Malarial 
Fi:vKR:  IxsKCT.s,  Broiwoatiox  of  Dise.isk  by. 

MIASSKIY  ZAVOD,  nu'-as'kA  za-v6d'.  A 
mining  town  in  eastern  liussia  in  the  government 
of  Orenburg,  situated  among  the  Ural  Mountains, 
35  miles  west  of  Cheliabinsk  and  near  the  rail- 
road to  that  town.  Its  mines  produce  over 
17,000  ounces  of  gold  annuallv.  Population, 
1S97,   10,100. 

MIAULIS,  me-ou'lcs,  Axureas  Vokos 
( c.  17ii.S-lS35).  A  (Jreek  patriot,  bom  in  the 
island  of  Xegropont.  Brought  up  as  a  sailor, 
he  gave  his  services  and  his  pro])erty  heartily 
to  the  cause  of  the  (ireck  revolution  in 
1821,  and  was  put  in  command  of  the  Greek 
fieet.  In  March,  1822,  he  defeated  a  Turkish 
scjuadron  at  Patras.  and  in  Septeml)er  amitber 
squadron  near  Spezzia.  In  1825  he  burned  the 
fieet  commanded  by  Ibrahim  I'aslia  near  Modon. 
In  1827.  upon  the  appointment  of  the  Englishman 
Lord  Cochrane  as  his  superior  in  command,  he 
lojally  continued  to  serve  as  a  subordinate.  He 
was  restored  to  his  old  rank  by  President  Capo 
d'lstria.  He  participated  in  the  insurrection 
of  1S3I,  and  burned  the  fleet  under  his  command 
at  Poros,  to  keep  it  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Rus- 
sians. He  opposed  the  President's  Russian  policy 
and  was  actively  engaged  in  the  bitter  controver- 
sies of  the  period.  In  1832  the  naval  stations  in 
the  Archipelago  were  placed  in  his  charge,  and 
he  served  on  the  deputation  sent  to  Munich  to 
ofTer  the  crown  to  Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria.  He 
died  at  .\thens  .June  23,  1835.  In  1889  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  to  him  in  Syra. 

MIAVA,  me-O'vo.  A  town  of  the  County  of 
Xeutra,  Hungary,  on  the  ^liava  River.  60  miles 
northeast  of  Vienna  (Map:  Hungary,  E  2) .  The 
manufacture  of  woolen  and  linen  goods  and  bag- 
ging is  the  chief  industry.  Population  in  1900, 
10,039. 

MICA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  micare,  to  flash;, 
confused  with  and  influenced  by  mica,  crumb). 
.\  group  of  minerals  that  crystallize  in  the  mono- 
clinic  system,  and  consist  essentially  of  alumi- 
num silicate  with  varying  proportions  of  potas- 
sium, sodium,  lithium,  iron,  magnesium,  etc.  The 
dill'crent  species  are  characterized  by  a  basal 
clc:ivage,  yielding  thin,  tough  scales  that  arc 
colorless  to  jet  black.  The  principal  mendters 
of  the  group  include  the  following:  }ttitvorite, 
or  common  mica,  called  alsd  potassium  mica,  as 
it  is  essentially  an  aluminum  and  potassium 
silicate.  The  ccjlorlcss  varieties  of  nuiscovite  are 
used  in  the  doors  of  stoves  and  as  lamp  chimney.''. 
It  is  also  employed  as  an  insulating  nuiterial,  in 
wall-paper  manufacture,  as  a  lubricant,  and  when 
ground  it  is  used  as  an  absorbent  for  glycerin 
in  the  manufacture  of  dynamite.  During  1900 
70.587  pounds  of  sheet  mica  were  mined  in  the 
I'niled  States.  I'lirnfionilr,  or  sodium  mica,  is 
similar  to  the  foregoing,  except  that  the  sodium 
replaces  the  potassium  in  its  composition.  It 
is  of  a  yellowish  to  greenish  color.  Lrpidolite, 
or  lithium  mica,  is  a  potassium,  lithium,  alumi- 
mini  silicate,  also  containing  lluorine,  and  is  of  a 
rose  or  peach-blossom  color.  It  finds  some  use  for 
iunau)ental  purposes,  and  is  a  source  of  lithium 


MICA. 


429 


MICA  SCHIST. 


salts.  Ziimicahliti'  is  nS  a  complex  composition, 
eoiituiniii^'  iron  in  iulilition  to  tlic  potassium, 
litliiuni,  and  aluminum  silicates.  In  color  it  is 
of  a  pale  violet  or  yellow  to  brown  and  dark 
gray.  Uiulilv,  or  magnesium  iron  mica,  is  a 
magnesium,  potassium,  and  iron  silicate.  It  is 
usually  (lark-colored,  as  green,  brown,  or  black. 
PhtwjDpite  is  also  a  magnesium  mica,  generally 
nearly  free  from  ircn.  and  usually  containing 
some  lluiu'inc.  It  is  dark  in  color,  being  yellow- 
ish-brown to  brownish-red.  Lcpidonictune  is  an 
iron  mica  generally  black  in  color.  The  micas 
occur  in  crysUilline  rocks,  muscovite  being  a 
normal  constituent  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  similar 
rocks.  The  deposits  from  which  sheet  mica  is 
obtained  are  found  in  a  coarse  granite  called 
pegmatite.  The  preparation  of  mica  for  the  mar- 
ket is  comparatively  simple.  TYk  blocks,  after 
being  hoisted  from  the  mine,  are  freed  from  ad- 
hering rock,  and  then  split  by  means  of  wedges 
or  heavy  knives.  After  this  the  mica  is  cut  np 
into  sizes  suitable  for  the  market,  usually  in 
pound  ])ackages.  The  mica  waste  is  utilized  as 
described  previously  under  Muscovite.  Consult 
the  volumes  of  the  Mineral  Resources,  United 
Slates  Geological  Survey   (Washington,  annual). 

MI'CAH  (Heb.  abbreviation  of  mikayah,  in- 
terpreted a.s.  'Who  is  like  Yahweh  ?' ) .  One  of  the 
minor  prophets,  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah.  His 
book  is  sixth  in  the  ordinary  arrangement  of  the 
minor  prophecies,  but  third  according  to  the 
Jewish  canon,  and  this  order  is  followed  in  the 
Septuagint.  All  that  we  know  of  his  life  is 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Moresheth,  a  small  towTi 
dependent  upon  Gath  ( Jlicah  i.  1 ;  .Jer.  xxvi.  18)  ; 
and  that  his  activity  falls  in  the  reigns  of  Ahaz 
and  Hezekiah,  Init  hardly  in  the  days  of  Jotham, 
roughly  speaking,  therefore,  between  B.C.  734  and 
700.  The  Book  of  Micah,  in  its  present  form, 
may  be  divided  into  three  .sections,  each  beginning 
with  "Hear  ye."  (1)  Chapters  i.  and  ii.,  ad- 
dressed to  all  the  people,  describe  the  coming  of 
Yahweh  in  judgment  on  the  transgressions  of 
Israel  and  .Tudah,  and  the  doom  of  Samaria;  de- 
nounce luxury  and  covetousness  as  the  sources  of 
traiisgiession,  and  condenm  the  false  prophets  for 
leading  the  people  astray;  foretell  the  banish- 
ment of  the  ]ieople  into  captivity,  and  promise 
their  return  under  the  guidance  of  Yahweh.  (2) 
Chapters  iii.-v.,  addressed  to  the  heads  and 
princes  of  the  people,  condemn  their  oppressive 
rapacity,  and  declare  that  as  they  had  been  deaf 
to  the  cry  of  the  poor  in  their  wrongs,  they,  too, 
shall  call  on  Yahweh.  but  will  not  be  heard. 
Tlie  false  prophets  also  who  had  deceived  others 
shall  themselves  be  made  ashamed.  This  second 
threatening  of  judgment  is  followed  by  a  second 
and  fuller  promise  of  Messianic  times.  (.S)  In 
chapters  vi.  and  vii.,  Yahweh.  calling  on  the 
people  to  hear,  and  on  the  mountains  to  be  wit- 
nesses of  the  controver.sy,  appeals  to  all  His  past 
government  over  Israel  as  approving  His  right- 
eoTisness,  The  people,  answering,  complain  that 
the  burden  of  the  sacrifices  required  is  too  great 
to  l)e  borne,  and  Yahweh.  in  reply,  says  that  He 
asks  of  them  only  to  do  jnstlv.  love  mcrcv,  and 
walk  humbly  with  God.  that'  they  had  failed  to 
comply  with  these  demands  is  shown  by  the 
treasures  of  wickedness  found  in  their  houses,  by 
the  scant  measures  used,  the  false  balances,  the 
deceitful  weights.  For  these  crimes  punishments 
will  be  inflicted;   the  wheat,  the  oil,  and  wine 


shall  be  cut  off.  The  prophet  mourns  the  justice 
of  the  sentence,  and  acknowledges  the  guilt  of 
all  classes  of  the  people.  Yet  he  waits  for  the 
salvation  of  Yahweh,  triumphing  in  His  pardon- 
ing mercy,  which  will  certainly  be  manifested, 
and  in  His  faithfulness,  which  will  perform  all 
tliat  He  had  solemnly  sworn  to  Abraham  in  the 
days  of  old. 

These  three  divisions,  however,  do  not  corre- 
spond either  to  the  original  order  or  character 
of  the  discourses  embodied  in  the  book.  The 
first  three  chapters  (with  the  exception  of  ii. 
12-13)  depict  conditions  prevalent  prior  to  the 
destruction  of  Samaria,  and  may  be  attributed 
to  the  prophet  Micah,  though  with  editorial  addi- 
tions and  adjustment  to  the  rest  of  the  book. 
Chapters  iv.  and  v.,  however,  with  their  glimpse 
into  Messianic  times,  embody  the  views  and  as- 
pirations of  the  struggling  post-exilic  religious 
community,  weighted  by  the  sense  of  guilt,  regard- 
ing its  own  sufferings  as  a  punishment  for  trans- 
gressions in  the  past,  and  looking  forward  to  a 
redemption  and  restoration  of  national  glory, 
which  can  only  come  from  Y'ahweh  Himself. 
There  are  reasons  for  supposing  that  chapters  i.-v. 
once  formed  the  entire  Book  of  Micah,  the  first 
three  being  by  the  prophet  himself,  and  forming 
the  text  as  it  were  to  the  last  two  chapters,  jus- 
tifying the  sufferings  in  post-exilic  days.  Bj'  w-ay 
of  consolation,  the  prophecy  of  the  Slessiah  and 
Messianic  times  was  compo.sed  and  added.  In 
the  same  spirit,  as  a  comment  upon  the  real 
Micah,  chapters  vi.  and  vii.  were  written,  which 
again  present  the  same  two  sides — Yahweh's  jus- 
tification in  bringing  such  sufferings  upon  His 
people  and  the  consolatory  promises  for  the  fu- 
ture. Chapters  iv.-vii.,  according  to  this  view, 
belong  to  the  Persian  period  and  probably  to  the 
later  half.  The  text  of  the  Book  of  ^licab.  it 
should  be  added,  is  not  well  preserved,  and  this 
enhances  the  difficulties  of  a  satisfactory  inter- 
pretation. Consult,  besides  the  general  commen- 
taries on  the  Minor  Prophets  and  the  Old  Testa- 
ment introductions,  Caspari,  Veber  Micha  den 
Morastliitcn  tind  seine  prophet  ische  Schrift 
(Christiania,  18.51-.52)  ;  RoorAa.Commentarius  in 
Vaticiniam  .l/;>/ifC  (Leyden.  ISfiO)  ;  Cheyne,  "The 
Book  of  JIicah,"in  theCambridge  Bible  for  Schools 
and  Colleges  (Cambridge,  1882)  ;  Ryssel.  Unter- 
suchunf/eii  iibcr  die  Textqestalt  iind  die  Echtheit 
des  Biiches  Micha  (Leipzig.  1887)  :  Taylor,  The 
Mdssorrtic  Tr.rt  and  the  Ancient  Vermons  of  the 
Book  of  MIcdh    (London,   1891). 

MICA  SCHIST.  A  metamorphic  rock  (q.v.) 
possessing  a  schistose  or  foliated  structure  and 
composed  essentially  of  the  minerals  mica  and 
quartz.  The  mica  is  generally  the  colorless  va- 
riety known  as  muscovite  (q.v.),  though  the  dark 
variety,  biotite,  may  be  present  also.  When 
garnet  or  staurolite  is  present  in  addition  to 
the  quartz  and  mica,  tlie  rock  is  designated  a 
garnetiferous  or  a  staurolitic  mica  schist.  Prob- 
ably the  greater  number  of  mica  schists  have  been 
formed  by  the  metamorphism  of  sedimentary 
rocks  through  the  agency  of  orographic  (moun- 
tain-building) forces.  Other  mica  schists,  and  es- 
pecially the  variety  known  as  sericite  schists, 
have  been  developed  from  acid  igneous  rocks 
(q.v.)  by  the  action  of  the  same  forces.  Of 
many  mica  schists,  and  especially  those  of  pre- 
Cambrian  age,  it  has  been  found  impossible  an 
yet  to  determine  whether  their  origin  is  sedi- 
mentarj'  or  igneous. 


MICAWBEB. 


430 


MICHAEL. 


MICAWBER,  .Mr.  Wilkixs.  In  Dickens's 
Da  I  id  t'oppiifUld,  an  iminoviiieut,  unpractical, 
and  visionary  character,  noted  for  his  mercurial 
t'.'niperamenl.  his  constant  financial  embarrass- 
ments, and  his  firm  confidence  that  "something 
will  turn  up."  Jlicawber  is  believed  to  be  in- 
tended as  a  portrait  of  Dickens's  father,  and 
Mrs.  ilicawbor  is  said  to  represent  his  mother. 

MICEL'LAR  THEORY  {from  Neo-Lat.  mi- 
cella, diminutive  of  J-at.  mica,  crumb).  A  theoiy 
pro|josed  by  the  botanist  Xiigeli  in  1802  to  ac- 
count for  the  physical  properties  of  organized 
bodies  like  starch  grains,  cell  walls,  etc.  He  as- 
sumed that  the  molecules  of  the  chemist  are  unit- 
ed into  larger  imions,  constituting  molecules  of  a 
higlier  order,  which  he  called  micella'.  These 
hypothetical  micella'  are  extremely  minute,  never 
being  visible  even  with  the  highest  powers  of  the 
yiicroscope.  lie  further  claims  that  the  growth 
i/i  thickness  of  a  cell  wall  is  due  to  the  intercala- 
tion (intussusception)  of  new  micella;  of  cellu- 
lose between  the  micellie  which  have  become 
v'.idely  separated  from  each  other  by  the  stretch- 
ing of  the  wall.  Strasl)urger,  the  most  important 
opponent  of  the  uiicellar  theory,  holds  that  the 
growth  in  thickness  of  a  cell  wall  is  ilue  to 
the  dej)Osition  of  material  u])on  its  inner  surface. 
The  micellar  theory  is  still  cjrrcnt,  but  is  not 
so  strongly  supported  as  formerly. 

MICHABO,  me-cha'bu.     See  JIaxaboziio. 

MICHAEL,  mi'ka-el  or  mi'kel  (Heb.,  'Who  is 
like  (;od?').  An  angel  called  in  Dan.  x.  13  one  of 
the  chief  princes,  who  had  sjiecial  care  of  the 
Jews  (Dan.  x.  21,  'Michael  your  prince'), 
and  who  will  fight  for  them  and  finally  re- 
deem them  (Dan.  xii.  1).  In  Jude  !)  ili- 
chael  is  represented  as  fighting  with  the  Devil 
for  the  body  of  Moses.  In  llev.  xii.  7-9  he 
lights  against  the  Dragon.  In  the  Book  of 
linoch  Michael  appears  as  one  of  the  four 
angels  who  stand  at  the  throne  of  God.  Ra- 
phael. Gabriel,  and  Lemuel  being  the  others, 
and  in  the  oldest  list  of  the  seven  archangels 
(Uriel.  Raphael,  Ragucl,  Michael,  Suriel.  Gabriel, 
and  Ucmiel)  the  fourth  ))lace  is  occupied  by 
Michael  (Kthiopic  text  of  Knoch,  chap.  xx). 
His  special  function,  as  described  in  Enoch,  is  to 
net  as  scribe  in  entering  in  the  heavenly  books 
the  deeds  of  the  angelic  patrons  of  nations,  while 
in  the  Ascension  of  Ifiniiih  he  records  the  deeds 
of  all  men  in  the  heavenly  books.  According 
to  the  Talmudic  account,  llichacl  is  the  prince, 
the  chief  of  the  angels,  standing  in  relation  to  the 
rest  a.s  the  High  Priest  does  to  Israel  on  earth. 
He  is  therefore  looked  upon  as  the  medium 
through  whom  the  Law  was  given  to  Mos<'s  on 
Mount  Sinai.  In  the  Western  Christian  Church 
September  20th  (Michaelmas)  has  been  set  aside 
a.H  his  day;  the  Greek  Church  keeps  NoveniI)cr 
0th.  Zimmern  (Hciliniirliriftcn  iinil  d«.s  nlle 
T/'.slnnicnt,  p.  37(i  seq.)  has  shown  that  some  of 
the  conceptions  connected  with  Jliehael  represent 
attributes  of  Babylonian  gods,  like  Marduk  and 
Xebo  transformed  to  'angels.'  Consult :  Weber. 
Lehre  des  Talmud  (Leipzig.  1807):  Kohut.  .fii- 
di»che  Anqcloloqic  (Leipzig.  1806);  Lucken, 
VicharJ    (Gottingen.   1808). 

MICHAEL.  mi'k«-l  or  mI'kA-6l.  The  name  of 
nine  enqwrors  of  Constantinople.  AIlCllAKL  1. 
(died  84."))  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  Stauracius.  in  811,  conducted  a  war  against 
the  Bulgarians,  but  was  a  feeble  monarch,  who 


abdicated  without  fighting  against  Leo,  the 
Armenian,  a  general  in  his  service,  in  813.  and 
retiring  to  a  monastery,  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  devotional  exercises. — Michael 
II.  (died  829),  surnamed  the  'Stammerer,'  was 
born  in  Lppcr  Phrygia,  of  an  obsoire  family,  but 
was  ennobled  by  Leo  the  Armenian,  who,  how- 
ever, afterward  condemned  him  to  death  on  a 
charge  of  conspiring  against  him.  His  life  was 
saved  by  the  assassination  of  Leo,  and  Michael 
was  crowned  Emperor  in  82(1.  He  was  cruel  and 
arbitrary- ;  and  his  attempts  to  force  his  sub- 
jects to  celebrate  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  Pass- 
over brought  about  a  revolt  on  the  part  of  his 
general  Kuphemius,  who  proclaimed  himself 
Emperor.  The  rebellious  general  was  slain  near 
Syracuse,  in  Sicily.  During  Michael's  reign  the 
Saracens  wrest?d  Crete  and  Sicily  from  the  Em- 
pire.— Michael  III.,  (c.S38-8(i7  ) ,  surnamed  the 
"Drunkard,'  was  grandson  of  Jliehael  II.,  and 
succeeded  his  father.  Theophilus.  in  842,  his 
mother,  Theodora,  being  regent  until  8.50.  In 
his  reign  the  Varangians  appear  as  foes  to  the 
Empire,  and  the  f<nmdation  for  the  separation 
of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  was  laid 
by  a  quarrel  between  the  Patriarch,  Photius,  and 
the  Pope,  Xicholas  1.  Michael  was  assassinated 
by  Basil  the  JIaccdonian  in  807. — Michael  IV. 
(died  1041),  surnamed  the  'Paphlagonian,'  from 
the  place  of  his  birth,  was  raised  to  the  throne 
by  the  Empress  Zoe,  who  on  aceoimt  of  her  infat- 
uation for  him  is  suspected  of  having  murdered 
her  husband.  H(>  was  successful  in  war  against 
the  Bulgarians  in  1040,  but  died  in  1041.— Mi- 
chael \'.  succeeded  the  last  named,  who  was  his 
uncle.  Having  exiled  the  Empress  Zoe,  he  was 
overthrown  by  the  people  in  1042,  and.  after  hav- 
ing his  eyes  put  out.  was  sent  to  a  m<mastery. — 
JIk'ii.vel  VI.  succeeded  the  Empress  Theodora 
in  10.")0,  but  retained  tlie  throne  only  a  year,  when 
he  was  compelled  to  resign  in  favor  of  Isaac  Com- 
ncnus.  He  ictired  to  a  monastery.  He  was 
surnamed  Ktraliolicns.  and  with  him  the  Mace- 
donian dynasty  became  extinct,  his  successor  be- 
ing of  the  family  of  the  Conmeni, — Micii.^el  VIL, 
DlCA.s  Parapixaces,  was  a  son  of  Constantino 
XI,,  and  after  the  regency  of  his  mother  Eudoxia 
he  ascended  the  throne  in  1071,  Having  given  too 
nmch  power  to  unworthy  favorites,  he  was  forced 
by  an  insurrection  to  abjure  the  throne  in  1078, 
and  retire  to  a  monastery.— Michael  \'1I1.  Pa- 
L.i;oi.OGrs  (1234-82)  was'  the  first  of  his  family 
to  ascend  the  Byzantine  throne.  He  was  pro- 
claimed joint  Emperor  of  Xica^a  with  .lohn  Las- 
caris  abcmt  1259.  and  soon  after  became  sole 
ruler.  In  1201  Constantinople,  which  had  been 
held  by  the  Latins  since  1204,  was  captured,  and 
Jliehael  caused  his  young  colleague  to  be  blinded 
and  dethroned.  In  order  to  retain  possession  of 
the  capital,  he  made  some  pretence  at  an  attempt 
to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  Western  and  East- 
ern Churches,  which,  however,  proved  to  be  of 
short  duration. — Michael  IX,.  son  of  Andronicus 
II„  was  associated  with  his  father,  but  died  be- 
fore him  in  1320. 

MICHAEL.  .\RTiiiR  (18.53—).  An  American 
chemist,  born  in  liulTalo,  X.  V,  He  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Berlin  ami  Heidelberg,  and  at 
the  Keole  de  -Medccine  of  Paris,  and  in  18S1  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  Tufts  Col- 
lege (.\Iedford.  Mass.).  His  researches  in  organic 
chemistry  include  studies  in  a  new  process  for  the 


MICHAEL. 


431 


MICHAXTD. 


fmniatiou  of  aroiiiatic  oulpliones,  in  forming 
aklul  frum  elliyl  alileliyile,  iu  the  aetiun  of  alde- 
livilc's  and  aromatic  o.\\aeids  on  phenols,  and  in 
new  reactions  with  sodimu  malouic  ether.  His 
«rilin{;s  inclnde  contributions  to  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  National  Academy  of  .Science,  to  the 
AiKerifun  Chemical  Journul  ("Synthesis  of  Heli- 
cin  and  Piienolfjlucosidc,"  187'J;  "on  a-  and  6- 
JIonol)ronicrotonie  Acids,"  1880)  ;  and  to  the 
Ucrivhte  of  tlio  Deiitsclie  Ghemisehe  Gcsellscliaft 
("Kinwirkung  von  wasserentziehenden  ilitteln 
ant  Saureanhydride,"  1878;  "Paraconiin,"  1881). 

MICHAEL,  Czar  of  Russia.     See  Eomaxoff. 

MICHAEL    ANGELO.      See    ilicnELV.XGELO 

Bl  UNAKIiOTI. 

MICHAEL  ATTALIA'TA.  A  Byzantine 
jurist  of  the  eleventh  century.  By  command  of 
Micliael  Ducas,  Emperor  of  the  East,  he  publish- 
ed in  1073  a  work  entitled  Woi-qixa  pofxi.Kdi'  iJToc 
TpayfiaTiKri,  comprising  a  sj'stem  of  law.  Though 
from  its  title  it  might  be  supposed  a  poem,  ver- 
silied  structure  has  not  been  detected  in  it.  A 
Latin  rendering  by  Leiuiclavius  is  to  be  found  in 
vol.  ii.  of  the  compilation  Jus  Grwco-I'onianuni . 

MICHAELIS,  me'Kaa'lis,  Adolf  (1835—). 
A  German  archaeologist.  He  was  born  at  Kiel  and 
studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  town,  in 
Berlin,  and  Leipzig.  After  1862  he  was  professor 
of  classical  philology  and  archaeology  at  Greifs- 
wald,  Thbingen,  and  Strassburg.  In  1874  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  German  Central  Arehicolo- 
gical  Institute  in  Eome,  the  history  of  which  he 
published  in  1879,  Geschichle  dcs  deutsctien  arch- 
aologischen  Instituts  zu  Rom.  Besides  his  critical 
edition  of  Tacitus's  Dialogus  do  Oratorihus 
(1868),  he  published  many  archa-ological  trea- 
tises, such  as  Dcr  Parihcnon  (1871);  Ancient 
Marlilcs  in  (Ireut  Britain  (English  translation  by 
I'^enncU.  ISS'i)  ;  Strassbiirgcr  Antiken  (1901)'; 
and  prepared  the  sixth  edition  of  Springer's 
Handhuch  der  Eunstgeschichte  (vol.  i.,  1901). 

MICHAELIS,  C.VROLINA.  A  German  philolo- 
gist and  literary  critic,  who  married  the  Portu- 
guese author  .Joaquim  Antonio  da  Fonseca  e  Vas- 
concellos    (q.v. ). 

MICHAELIS,  Joii.\xN  Bayjd  (1717-91). 
A  German  Iiildical  scliolar.  He  was  born  on 
February  27,  1717,  at  Halle,  where  his  father, 
Christian  Benedict  Jlichaolis,  was  professor. 
After  completing  his  studies  at  the  university 
of  his  native  tow-n  he  traveled  in  Eng- 
land and  Holland.  In  1746  ho  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1750  professor 
of  Oriental  languages.  From  1753  to  1770  he 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Gfittinger  gcichrte 
AiKcigen,  and  for  some  years  be  filled  the  office 
of  librarian  to  the  university.  He  died  at  Giit- 
tingcn.  AugTist  22,  1791.  Jlichaelis  may  be  re- 
garded as  among  the  earliest  of  the  critical 
school  of  German  theologians.  Plis  chief  works  are 
his  nchriiixchc  dramniatik  (1778)  ;  Einlcitung  in 
die  giittUchcn  ffchriften  des  neuen  Bundes  (4th 
ed.,  GJlttingen.  17SS:  Eng.  trans..  Introduction  to 
the  New  Tcxiamcnt.  London.  1S23)  ;  Mosaisches 
Iferht  (2d  ed.,  1776-80;  Eng.  trans..  Com- 
mrnfnrics  on  the  T.nirs  of  ^rosef:.  1810-1814)  ; 
Mornl  (1702-1823)  ;  Oricnfalisrhr  und  c.rcgrtischn 
Hihlinlhck  (1786-93).  Consult  his  Lehenahc- 
sehreihiing  ron  ihm  selh.tt  abgefiifi.it.  ed.  by  Has- 
sencamp  (Rinteln,  1793),  and  his  letters  (Leip- 
zig, 1794-96). 


MICHAELIUS,  me-Ku'li-us,  Jo.N'AS  (1577-?). 
The  first  clergyman  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  in  Xew  .Vmsterdam.  He  was  born  in 
North  Holland.  In  160U  he  entered  the  L^niver- 
sity  of  Leyden,  and  after  his  graduation  became 
a  country  pastor.  In  1024  he  was  appointed  to 
Sao  Salvador  in  Brazil,  the  ne.\t  year  to  a  settle- 
ment in  Guinea,  ami  in  1628,  after  a  short  visit 
to  Holland,  he  .sailed  for  New  Amsterdam.  His 
ministrations  there  probably  lasted  until  1633, 
when  he  w^as  succeeded  by  Everardus  Bogardus 
(q.v.).  A  letter  written  by  him  in  1628,  and 
now  in  the  manuscrijrt  collection  of  the  New  York 
Public  Library,  gives  the  only  extant  first-hand 
account  of  New  Amsterdam  as  it  then  was.  A 
translation  of  this  letter  appears  in  the  Collec- 
tions of  the  New  York  Historical  Society  for 
1880. 

MICHAELMAS,  mikVl-mos  (from  ilichael 
+  mass).  The  old  English  name  of  the  day  set 
apart  in  commemoration  of  Saint  Michael'  and 
the  other  angels,  September  29.  The  observance 
of  this  day  is  commonly  traced  to  an  apparition 
of  the  archangel  which  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  on  Monte  Gargano  in  Apulia  in  493,  or 
more  probably  in  520;  but  it  is  likely,  for  various 
reasons,  that  the  festival  is  even  older.  This 
particular  apparition  is  commemorated  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  on  Jlay  8;  the  feast-day 
in  September  has  a  wider  application,  in  the 
Eastern  and  Anglican  Churches  as  well,  and  is 
intended  to  recall  the  benefits  received  through 
the  ministry  of  angels.  In  England  it  has  been 
for  centuries  an  important  date  as  a  quarter-day 
and  the  beginning  of  legal  and  university  terms. 

MICHAEL  NIKOLAYEVITCH,  mi'kel  ne'- 
k6-la'ye-vich  (1832—).  Grand  Duke  of  Russia, 
the  fourth  son  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I.  In  the 
artillery  branch  of  the  army  he  Avas  elevated  to 
the  rank  of  general.  He  was  for  some  time  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Caucasus,  and  in  1877  commanded 
the  army  which  invaded  Turkish  Armenia.  In 
1881  he  was  made  president  of  the  Privy  Council 
of  State  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  cavalry. 

MICHAEL  OBKENOVITCH,  6-bren'6-vich 
(1823-68).  Prince  of  Scrvia,  born  at  Kragu- 
yevats,  the  younger  son  of  Prince  Milosh. 
After  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Milan  in 
1839,  he  was  declared  Prince  of  Servia  by  the 
Turkish  Government.  He  soon  made  himself 
very  unpopular  by  favoring  the  Russian  policy, 
and  the  discontent  of  the  Servian  people  was  in- 
creased by  his  policy  of  arbitrary  and  heavy  taxa- 
tion. A  revolution  broke  out  in  1842.  and  an 
act  of  the  National  Assembly  expelled  him  and 
his  family  from  the  country.  In  1858  he  re- 
turned to  Scrvia,  together  with  his  father,  whom 
he  again  succeeded  in  the  government  in  1860. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  seemed  hon- 
estly desirous  to  do  his  best  for  the  country.  Ho 
was  successful  in  effecting  cardinal  changes  in  the 
military  organization,  and  freed  the  .Servian 
fortresses  from  Turkish  garrisons.  On  June  10, 
1868,  he  was  shot  by  a  follower  of  Prince  Alex- 
ander Isarnaeorgevitcb. 

MICHAXTD,  me-sh«',  .TosEPn  Fraxc^ois  (1767- 
1839).  A  French  historian.  He  was  born  at 
.Mbens,  Savoy,  .Tune  19,  1767,  He  studied  in 
the  ecclesiastical  college  of  Bourg,  and  in  1787 
pulilished  a  work.  Voyage  au  Mont  Blanc,  fol- 
lowed by  other  essays.  In  1791  he  went  to 
Paris,    where    he    embraced  '  the    teachings    of 


MICHAtTD. 


432         MICHELANGELO   BUONARROTI. 


Voltaire  and  Rousseau,  uud  half  espoused  Repub- 
licanism. He  was,  however,  at  heart  a  conserva- 
tive and  a  Royalist.  His  true  opinions  soon 
showed  forth  in  his  contributions  to  the  three 
Royalist  pajK-rs,  the  (Jozille  U niversellt\  the 
Poslillon  de  la  Guerre,  and  the  Courrier  Uepub- 
licain.  In  1794  he  founded  the  Quotidienne,  and 
after  the  fall  of  Kolicspierre  he  contributed  ar- 
ticles so  openly  favoring  the  Restoration  that  on 
October  27,  17!t5,  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  only  escaped  by  liavinp  this  sentence  eom- 
niuted  to  one  of  banishment.  He  passed  four 
years  in  Switzerland  and  in  Southern  France, 
occupied  in  light  literary  work.  In  1791)  he  re- 
turned to  Paris.  In  1800,  in  partnership  with  a 
younger  brother,  he  undertook  the  publication 
of  the  Bioijrniihic  vtodcrne,  in  which  the  public 
men  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  great 
revolution  were  painted  in  the  darkest  colors. 
His  work  Tableaux  hi«lori(jue«  des  troi.s  pre- 
mieres croinndex  began  to  ajjpear  in  1S12,  though 
not  completed  until  1822.  Michaud  was  made 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1812:  the  pre- 
vious year  lie  bad  founded,  with  his  brother,  the 
Biographie  unnersclle.  He  also  collaborated 
with  Ponjoulat  in  editing  the  Collection  de 
memoires  pour  scrvir  a  I'histoire  de  France, 
which  began  to  appear  in  IS.SO.  In  the  Dernier 
rer/ne  de  liuciiaparle  (ISl')).  Michaud  made  a 
valuable  contribution  to  Napoleonic  history.  He 
died  at  Passy,  September  30,  1839.  In  1792 
Jlichaud  wrote  a  work.  Vapotheoxe  de  Franklin, 
of  interest  to  .-Americans.  Consult  Sainte-Beuve, 
Cau.ieries  du  lundi,  vol.  vii. 

MICHAUX,  me'shfi',  Andb6  (1746-1802).  A 
French  botanist  and  traveler.  He  was  l)orn  at 
Satory,  and  studied  science  under  the  botanist 
Jussieu.  In  1770  he  traveled  in  England,  and 
the  next  year  through  .\uvergne  and  the  Py- 
renees, anil,  on  his  return  to  Paris,  introduced 
several  new  varieties  of  Spanish  grain  and  other 
plants.  In  1782  he  was  sent  to  Persia  on  a 
scientific  mission.  From  17S5  on  he  traveled 
extensively  in  North  .\mirica  cm  a  similar  mis- 
sion at  Government  expense. but  the  French  Revo- 
lution compelled  him  to  return  for  want  of  funds. 
He  was  shipH-recked  on  the  voyage  to  France, 
and  lost  nearly  all  his  specimens.  In  1800  he 
sailed  for  Madagascar,  where  he  died.  His  most 
important  publications  are  Flistoire  des  chenes 
de  VAmeriijue  seplentrionule  (1801)  and  Flora 
B'irenli-.\  mrrirnna    ( 1803) . 

MICHAUX.  Francois  Andr^  (1770-1855). 
A  Frencli  Imlanist.  .son  of  .Vndrf  Michaux.  He 
acconipanuil  hi-*  father  to  the  United  States,  and 
his  Histoire  des  arhrcs  forcstiers  de  VAmfrique 
seplenlrionale  (1810-13)  contains  the  result 
of  his  explorations  and  gives  an  account  of 
the  distribution  and  the  scientific  classification 
of  the  principal  .\merican  timber  trees,  lender 
the  title  The  S'nrth  American  Kiilra  it  was  trans- 
lated by  Hillhouse.  with  three  supplementary 
volumes  on  the  trees  of  the  Rockies  by  T.  Nuttall 
(1841-49). 

MICH'EL.  n.vN  (i.e.  Dominus  or  Master 
Miih.wli  OK  NnTiTiio.\TE  (fl.  1340).  An  English 
translatiir.  Nothing  is  known  concerninc  bis 
personal  history  except  that  he  was  a  lirother 
in  the  cloister  of  Saint  .\ustin  of  fanter- 
bury.  In  1340  be  eonipleteil  his  translation  of 
La  soniwe  des  rices  ct  des  rcrltis.  a  moral 
treatise,    foundeil    on    Le    miroir   du    mondc    (c. 


1250),  and  written  in  1279  by  Frerc  Lorens,  a 
Dominican  monk,  for  the  use  of  Philip  the  Second 
of  France.  The  translation  is  entitled  the  .i^eii- 
bite  of  Inicit  (the  again-biting  of  the  inner  wit), 
or  the  Remorse  of  Vunseienee.  The  work  gives  a 
detiiiled  exposition  of  the  Ten  Commandments, 
the  twelve  articles  of  faith,  the  seven  petitions  of 
tlie  Lord's  Prayer,  tlie  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  the  seven  heads  and  ten  horns  of  the 
beast  in  the  AjMcalypse.  Interesting  in  itself,  it 
is  of  great  linguistic  value,  as  it  is  written  in  the 
dialect  of  Kent.  Consult  the  edition  by  Morris, 
E.irly  English  Text  Society   (London,  1866). 

MICHEL,  me'shel',  Frakciscjue  Xavieb 
(1809-87).  A  French  historian  and  anticpiary. 
He  was  born  in  Lyons,  and  educated  there.  He 
went  to  Paris,  and  in  1830  he  was  sent  by  Guizot 
to  England  to  examine  documents  pertaining  to 
the  ancient  history  of  France.  In  1837  he  was  in 
Scotland  on  the  same  mission.  He  edited  many 
monuments  of  old  French  literature,  among  them 
the  Chanson  de  Roland  and  the  Rdnnm  de  In 
rose,  llis  historical  works  include  Uistoire  des 
races  maudites  de  la  France  et  de  I'Fspagne 
(1847)  ;  Les  Ecossais  en  France  et  les  Franfais 
en  Ecosse  (1862)  :  Reeherehes  sur  le  commerce 
pendant  le  moyen-aqe  (1852-54)  ;  Le  pays  basque 
( 1857 ) . 

MICHEL,  Francois  Emile  (1828—).  A 
French  painter  and  writer  on  art,  born  in 
Metz.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Migette  and  Marf- 
chal.  the  glass  painter,  and  began  to  exhibit  in 
1853.  His  works  include  "I'ne  gardeuse  d'oies" 
(18.53),  in  the  Nantes  Museum:  "Xuit  d'ftf- 
(1872).  in  the  Nancy  Museum;  and  "Semailles 
d'automne"  (1873)  an<l  "La  dune  pr&s  de  Haar- 
lem" (1885).  both  in  the  Luxembourg.  He  con- 
tributed articles  on  art  to  the  Gazette  des  Beaux- 
Arts  and  other  periodicals,  and  his  separate  pub- 
lications  include:  Le  musfe  de  Cologne  (1883); 
/>fs  musees  d'Allemagne  (1885):  Rembrandt 
( 1880)  :  Hnbbema  et  les  pat/saflistes  de  son  temps 
en  IJollande  (1890)  ;  -laeob  ran  Ruiisdael  et  les 
paifsaiiistes  de  Veenle  de  Haarlem  (1890).  He 
was  ciocted  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1892. 

MICHEL,  Loui.SE  ( lS.39-1905) .  An  anarchist 
agitator,  called  the  Red  Virgin.  She  was  the 
iliegitimate  daughter  of  the  master  of  the  Cha- 
teau of  \'roncourt.  in  the  Department  of  Marne. 
France;  received  a  good  education  from  her  father 
and  went  to  Paris,  where  she  taught  school  till 
the  rising  of  the  Communists  in  1871.  She  joined 
them,  fought  among  the  insurgents,  and  was 
taken  ]irisoner  by  the  Versailles  tronps.  Tried  by 
<-owrt-martial,  she  was  i-dndeiiined  t"  death,  but 
her  .sentence  was  comnuited  to  transportation  to 
\ew  Caledonia.  Freed  in  1880,  she  devoted  her- 
self to  agitation  among  (he  poor  in  Paris,  and 
was  sentenced  in  1883  to  six  years'  imprison- 
ment. On  her  release  in  1886  she  went  to  l^ondon. 
whence  she  continued  to  carry  on  her  propaganda. 
In  1895  she  returned  to  Paris.  She  published 
two  novels,  two  plnys.  and  Iut    Memoires   (1886). 

MICHELANGELO      BUONARROTI,     m*'- 

kfd-iin'jclA  bwtVna  r'.'t.\  (  Micir.vh:!.  Axoelo) 
(1475-1564).  A  Flnrentine  sculptor,  painter, 
architect,  and  poet,  the  most  prominent  artist  of 
the  lliu'li  Rennissance.  and  the  most  influential 
ficnire  In  modern  art.  He  was  born  at  Caprese, 
March  6,  1475.  the  son  of  T.odovico  Buonarroti, 
His  family,  the  BuonarrotiSimoni.  held  small 
landed  possessions,  and  had  long  been  honorably 


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MICHELANGELO  BUONARROTL 


433 


MICHELANGELO  BUONARROTI. 


identified  uitli  jmblic  oflice  in  Florence.  At  the 
time  of  Jiii-helangelo's  birth  his  father  was 
Podestil  (governor)  of  Chiusi  and  Caprese,  Tus- 
can mountain  towns  tributary  to  Florence..  The 
infant  was  christened  Michclagiiuolo,  and  upon 
his  father's  return  to  Florence  was  put  to  nurse 
with  the  wife  of  a  stonemason  of  Settignano,  im- 
biliing,  as  he  himself  said,  the  love  of  sculpture 
with  his  nurse's  milk.  Destined  for  a  scholar, 
he  was  then  placed  in  the  school  of  Francesco 
d'L'rbino  at  Florence.  Instead  of  devoting  him- 
self to  books,  he  spent  his  time  drawing,  and 
with  painters'  apprentices.  By  one  of  these, 
J''rancesco  Granacci,  with  whom  he  had  formed 
a  friendship,  he  was  introduced  to  the  studio  of 
the  brothers  Ghirlandajo.  and  after  much  ojiposi- 
tion  on  the  part  of  his  family,  he  was.  in  1488, 
apprenticed  to  these  masters.  He  does  not  appear 
to  have  learned  much  from  his  master  Domenico 
Ghirlandajo.  His  drawings  while  there  excited 
admiration  and  surprise,  as  did  also  his  first 
painting,  a  transcript  on  panel  of  Martin  Sehon- 
gauer's  print,  the  "Temptation  of  Saint  An- 
thony." 

In  eom])any  A\ith  Granacci,  Michelangelo  left 
Ghirlandajo's"  studio  in  1480,  to  study  sculpture 
in  the  garden  of  the  Jledici  at  San  Marco.  With 
the  design  of  reviving  sculpture,  which  had 
fallen  behind  painting  at  Florence,  Lorenzo  de' 
iMcdici  had  established  an  academy  there,  at  the 
head  of  which  he  placed  Bertoldo,  a  pupil  of  Do- 
natello.  A  marble  masque  of  a  faun  (Utiizi), 
which  ilichelangelo  skillfully  changed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  advice  of  Lorenzo,  so  pleased  the 
latter  that  he  invited  him  to  live  in  his  house, 
and  procured  his  father  a  place  in  the  Florentine 
customs.  In  the  society  of  such  men  as  Poliziano, 
the  poet,  Pico  della  Jlirandola,  Marsilio  Ficino, 
the  Platonist,  and  Lorenzo  himself,  he  became 
familiar  with  Itali*n  literature  and  humanist 
culture.  He  was  also  influenced  by  the  great 
political  and  religious  movements  of  the  day.  To 
the  spell  of  Savonarola's  eloquence  may  be  at- 
tributed, at  least  in  part,  his  intense  love  for 
Florentine  liberty  and  his  deep  religious  feeling. 
His  artistic  training  was  an  admirable  combina- 
tion of  Florentine  realistic  and  classic  influences. 
Through  Bertoldo  he  became  grounded  in  the 
works  of  Donatello;  he  studied  the  antique  in  the 
Medici  collection,  and  sketched  JIasaccio's  fres- 
coes in  the  Brancacci  Chapel.  He  was  also,  per- 
haps at  this  early  period,  and  certainly  later  in 
his  career,  influenced  by  the  painting  of  Luca 
Signorelli,  of  whose  manner  his  own  is  a  develop- 
ment in  its  most  essential  features.  Of  the  two 
surviving  woiks  of  his  student  days — both  bas- 
reliefs  now  in  the  Casa  Buonarroti,  Florence — 
the  seated  "Madonna  with  the  Infant  .Tesus"  is 
in  tile  manner  of  Donatello.  The  other,  the  so- 
called  "Battle  of  the  Centaurs,"  is  in  the  over- 
rich  style  of  late  Roman  reliefs,  which  were 
doubtless  his  models :  but  it  shows  the  great, 
though  still  incipient,  dramatic  talent  which 
marked  his  later  works. 

On  the  death  of  Lorenzo  in  1492  Michelangelo 
returned  to  his  father's  hoiise.  Besides  carving 
a  statue  of  a  Hercules,  now  lost,  he  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  anatomy.  In  1404  he 
returned  to  the  palace  of  the  Mediei,  but,  fright- 
ened at  a  vision  foretelling  their  destruction,  in 
October  of  the  same  year  he  fled  to  Bologna,  and 
thence  to  "V^enice.  At  Bologna  he  foimd  employ- 
ment  for  almost  a  year  upon  the  shrine  of  San 


Domenico.  He  completed  a  statue  of  San  Petro- 
nio  by  Nicola  da  Bari,  and  carved  a  kneeling 
angel  of  rare  beautj',  bearing  a  candelabrum, 
which,  as  Grimm  has  shown,  was  long  confounded 
with  another  bj' Nicola  Pisano  in  the  .same  church. 
In  1405,  after  his  return  to  Florence,  he  carved 
for  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  of  a  younger  branch  of 
the  family,  a  statue  of  the  youthful  Saint  John, 
now  in  the  Berlin  iluseum,  realistic  in  style  and 
much  in  the  manner  of  Donatello.  The  sale  of 
his  next  work,  of  which  the  original  is  lost, 
caused  his  first  journey  to  Rome,  and  during  his 
stay  there,  which  lasted  till  the  spring  of  1501, 
he  executed  a  number  of  important  works.  For 
Jacopo  Galli  he  carved  the  "Bacchus"  in  the 
Museo  Nazionale,  Florence,  a  statue  realistic  to 
the  verge  of  ugliness,  and  lacking  entirely  the  ele- 
ment of  divinity.  To  the  same  period  belongs 
the  well-known  statue  in  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum, which  may  be  the  "Cupid"  that  C'ondivi 
says  he  executed  for  Jacopo  Galli,  although 
Spi'inger  has  shown  that  it  is  more  probably  an 
"Apollo."  The  subject  represented  is  a  beautiful 
youth  kneeling  in  the  act  of  discharging  his  bow. 
But  the  chief  work  of  this  early  Roman  period, 
which  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  the  greatest  sculp- 
tor of  the  day.  was  the  "Pieta"  in  Saint  Peter's 
Cliurch  (1408-00),  the  first  group,  in  the  highest 
sense  of  the  word,  in  modern  sculpture.  Seated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Cross,  the  Virgin  is  represented 
with  the  dead  Christ  in  her  lap,  gazing  sadly  at 
His  wounded  side  and  gently  raising  her  hand. 
She  is  of  youthful  appearance,  and  of  more  heroic 
proportions  than  her  son,  whose  dead  body,  the 
flesh  of  which  is  treated  with  marvelous  delicacy, 
is  reduced  in  size,  to  preserve  the  harmony  of  the 
group. 

.\fter  his  return  to  Florence  in  1501  ]\Iichel- 
angelo,  on  June  5,  signed  a  contract  for  fifteen 
statues  of  saints  for  the  Piceolomini  Chapel  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Siena.  The  inferior  quality  of 
these  works,  as  they  now  stand,  is  such  that  it 
is  impossible  to  attribute  them  to  him.  In  August 
of  the  same  year  he  received  from  the  city  of 
Florence  a  commission  for  a  statue  of  David,  nine 
cubits  in  heiglit,  to  be  carved  from  a  single  block 
of  marble.  Tlie  statue  was  of  national  impor- 
tance, intended  to  mark  the  deliverance  of  the 
city  from  tlie  Medici  and  Cesare  Borgia.  On 
June  8.  1504,  it  was  erected  to  the  right  of  the 
entrance  to  the  Palazzo  Vecchio.  where  it  re- 
mained as  a  .sort  of  Palladium  until,  in  1873,  it 
was  removed  to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  for 
protection  against  the  weather.  The  figure  is 
frankly  naturalistic,  head  and  hands  being  un- 
duly large,  as  in  the  case  of  the  undeveloped 
youthful  frame.  The  expression  denotes  ex- 
pectation and  confidence  of  victory:  the  action 
represented  is  at  the  moment  at  which  the  youth 
is  about  to  unloose  the  string. 

The  "David"  is  the  last  work  of  Michelangelo's 
early  or  realistic  period.  A  number  of  other 
works  of  the  years  1501-04  cannot  be  exactly 
dated.  While  engaged  on  the  "David''  he  com- 
pleted, at  the  request  of  the  Signory.  another 
statue  of  the  same  subject  in  bronze,  which  was 
sent  as  a  present  to  a  high  official  of  the  French 
Court.  Resembling  the  "PietH."  thoiigh  probably 
somewhat  earlier,  is  the  life-size  "Madonna  of 
Bruges,"  purchased  by  the  Moiiscron  family,  and 
still  in  their  chapel  in  the  Cathedral  of  Bruges. 
He  also  carved  two  circular  bas-reliefs  of  the 
Madonna,  one  in  the  Museo  Nazionale.  Florence, 


MICHELANGELO  BUONARROTI.         434        MICHELANGELO  BUONARROTI. 


another  in  the  Royal  Academy,  London.  While 
exrcuting  the  "David"  he  was  also  engaf;ed  in 
painting  a  "iladonna"  for  Angelo  Doni  (llBzi). 
Thoufih  deficient  in  color,  this  picture  is  wonder- 
ful in  drawing  and  in  the  sturdy  realism  of  the 
figures,  and  is  original  in  conception.  Somewhat 
earlier  than  this  is  the  unfinished  Madonna  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Michelangelo's  .second  manner  is  characterized 
by  an  increasing  departure  from  the  realism  of 
his  early  days  and  a  reliance  upon  an  unbridled 
imagination,  nis  first  work  in  which  this  new 
style  prevails  was  his  cartoon  for  tlie  fresco  of 
one  of  the  long  walls  of  the  hall  of  the  Great 
Council  in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio.  executed  in  ri- 
valry with  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (q.v.),  to  wliom  the 
other  wall  had  been  assigned.  l?egun  in  August, 
l.')()4.  tlie  cartoon  was  not  completed  till  150G, 
the  fresco  never  having  been  carried  out.  The 
subject  was  the  so-called  "Battle  of  Pisa,"  an  in- 
cident from  the  war  between  Florence  and  Pisa, 
in  I.SC4,  when  four  hundred  Florentines  were  sur- 
prised by  the  enemy  while  bathing  in  the  Arm 
at  Anghiari.  This  was  considered  by  contem- 
poraries as  his  greatest  painting,  and  practically 
revolutionized  Florentine  art.  The  cartoon  was 
destroyed  in  1.510.  and  only  sur\ives  in  drawings 
at  Holkham  and  \'ienna  (Albertina),  and  in  the 
well-known  line  engraving  of  a  single  group  by 
Marcantonio.  entitleil  "Les  Grimpeurs." 

Its  execution  was  interrupted  early  in  1.50.5  by 
a  summons  to  the  artist  from  Rome  by  Pope 
Julius  IL,  who  of  all  Michelangelo's  patrons  best 
understood  the  man  and  his  art.  His  first  com- 
mission was  for  his  own  sepulchral  monument,  to 
be  placed  in  the  tribune  of  tlie  new  Church  of 
Saint  Peter's,  and  to  contain  forty  colossal  stat- 
ues, besides  bronze  reliefs  and  other  decorations. 
Michelangelo  spent  over  eight  months  in  Carrara 
procuring  the  marble  for  this,  the  darling  scheme 
of  liis  life.  But  wlien,  after  his  return  to  Rome, 
the  Pope,  inoved  by  tlie  intrigues  of  Bramante, 
wished  to  defer  the  execution  of  the  monument, 
anil  the  artist  was  sliglitinglv  treated,  he  left 
Rome  in  a  rage,  sending  the  Pope  word  to  seek 
him  (dsewhere.  Xotwitlistanding  the  latter's  ef- 
forts and  the  mediation  of  the  Florentine  govern- 
ment, a  reconciliation  was  not  effected  till  the 
end  of  1.50(i,  at  Bologna,  which  the  Pope  had  just 
added  to  the  Papal  domains.  X'ntil  February  21, 
1.50S.  the  artist  was  occupied  with  the  bronze 
statlie  of  .Julius  TL,  three  times  life  size,  which 
was  destroyed  when  the  P.entivogli  recovered  the 
citv  three  years  later.  I'pon  rejoining  tlie  Pope 
at  Rome,  he  was  iniluced,  much  against  his  will, 
to  undertake  the  decoration  of  the  vault  of  the 
Sistine  Chapel. 

It  was  a  task  of  colossal  proportions  (the 
ceiling  alone  measuring  l.'?2  feet  by  44  feet), 
and  he  did  it  practically  alone.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1.521,  the  scaffolding  was  removed.  Im- 
mediately upon  its  completion  it  was  hailed  as 
the  greatest  piece  of  work  ever  done  by  painter's 
hand.  Fven  Raphael's  style  was  transformed 
after  he  had  .seen  it.  Michelangelo  arranged 
the  vast  space  as  though  it  had  been  roof- 
less, framing  it  with  architecture  in  per- 
spective delusion,  and  filling  the  open  spaces 
with  paintings.  .Tust  above  the  windows  are  the 
figures  of  the  ancestry  of  Christ  in  attitudes  of 
onger  waiting:  above  them,  twelve  gigantic  fig- 
ures of  the  Prophets  and  .'Sibyls;  in  the  comers, 
four  reprcsontations  from  the  history  of  Israel; 


while  in  the  centre  of  the  vault  the  stories  of  the 
"Creation  of  tlie  World,"  the  "Fall  of  Man,"  and 
of  the  "Deluge,"  are  told  in  nine  pictures.  The 
spaces  of  the  architecture  are  tilled  witli  figures 
of  nude  boys  and  genii  in  various  altitudes. 
Among  the  central  pictures  the  "Creation  of 
Adam"  is  preeminent.  Adam  is  depicted  just 
on  tlie  point  of  rising,  just  as  God's  touch  sends 
the  first  thrill  of  life  through  his  veins.  His 
body  is  the  perfection  of  anatomical  form  and 
action,  and  the  representation  of  the  Almighty  as 
tlie  incarnation  of  omnipotence  and  mild  com- 
passion has  never  bieii  e(]ualed.  The  "Delphic 
Sibyl"  is  young  and  licautiful,  with  an  upturned 
look  of  rapture,  the  "Cunuean"  is  old  and  with- 
ered, the  wisdom  of  the  ages  in  her  counte- 
nance. Of  the  prophets.  .Jeremiah  is  the  image 
of  deep  thought  and  Zacliarias  a  type  of  mental 
ab-sorption;  .Jonah,  tlie  type  of  restored  life,  is  a 
nude  figure  of  remarkable  foreshortening. 

On  the  deatli  of  .Julius  II.  in  lol.?.  Michel- 
angelo resumed  work  on  his  mausoleum,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  second  plan  on  a  slightly  reduced 
scale,  a  pen  and  ink  drawing  of  which  is  in  the 
L'llizi.  Jle  was  tlius  occupied  till  loll):  during 
tliis  time  he  executed,  at  least  in  jiart.  the  most 
important  of  the  statues  intended  for  it.  Fore- 
most of  these  is  the  ".Moses" — certainly  the  great- 
est colossal  statue  in  modern  art.  Moses  is  por- 
trayed at  the  moment  when,  enraged  at  the 
idoiatry  of  the  Israelites,  he  starts,  with  threat- 
ening brow,  to  quell  and  crush  them.  The  tech- 
nical execution  is  perfect,  even  to  such  details 
as  the  mighty  bearcl,  which  his  hand  grasps  con- 
vulsively, the  nuiscular  foreariii,  and  the  wonder- 
ful fold  of  dra|icry  upon  his  knee.  The  two 
"Captive  Youths"  in  the  Louvre,  also  termed 
'■Prisoners"  and  "Slaves."  are  ideal  representa- 
tions of  the  arts,  dying  and  c;iptive  because  of  the 
death  of  their  great  patron.* 

In  December.  1510.  Micliclangelo  was  com- 
pelled by  the  wishes  of  Pope  Leo  X..  a  iledici.  to 
remove  to  Florence  and  busy  himself  with  a 
facade  for  San  Lorenzo,  the  family  church  of  the 
Medici.  He  wasted  three  years  of  liis  life  in  the 
quarries  of  Carrara  and  Pietra  Santa  procuring 
llie  marble  for  this  colossal  design,  when  in  1520 
the  Pope  gave  up  tlie  jilaii.  Then  Cardinal 
Giulio  de'  Medici  conimandeil  his  services  for  the 
iledicifan  Chapel  in  the  same  church,  upon  which 
work  was  begun  in  1521.  During  this  period  he 
found  time  for  the  "Christ  Risen,"  now  in  the 
Church  of  the  Jlinerva,  Rome,  upon  wliicli  the 
finisliing  touches  were  put  by  the  sculjitor  Frizzi 
— a  figure  which  may  justly  be  termed  mannered, 
since  it  is  rather  an  athlete  than  a  Christ. 
Upon  Cardinal  Meilici's  elevation  to  the  Papacy 
as  Clement  VII.  in  1.52."?.  tlie  artist's  entire  time 
was  taken  up  by  the  designs  and  statues  for  the 
Medica-an  Cliajiel  and  plans  for  the  Laurentian 
Library.  Tliis  work,  however,  was  interrupted 
by  the  last  great  struggle  of  Florence  for  liberty. 

Upon  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  army  of  Cliarles 
v.,  in  1527,  the  citizens  arose  and  drove  the 
Medici  from  Florence.  Though  he  had  never 
taken  active  part  in  public  life.  Michelangelo  was 
an  ardent  patriot,  willing  to  serve  his  country. 
On  .laniiary  25.  152!).  he  was  chosen  one  of  the 
nine  .-ifizens  in  charge  of  the  defense  of  the 
citv,  and  on  .\pril  Oth  he  became  governor  of 
the  fortifications.  His  work  took  him  to  Pisa 
and  l.ivorno.  and  he  visited  the  Duke  of  Ferrara, 
the  greatest  Italian  authority  on  fortifications. 


MICHELANGELO 
"  MOSES,"   FROM  THE  STATUE   IN   THE  CHURCH   OF  SAN   PIETRO   IN  VINCOLI,   ROME 


MICHELANGELO  BUONAKROTL 


435 


MICHELANGELO  BUONARROTI. 


But  convinc'cd  that  Malatesta  Baglioni,  the  <jcn- 
eral  of  the  mercenaries,  meant  to  betiay  Flor- 
ence— as  was  actually  the  case — in  September, 
ir)2i),  he  fled  to  V^enice.  He  was  received  with 
great  honor  by  the  Doge  and  nobility,  but,  de- 
clining their  hospitality  and  tlie  invitation  of 
the  King  of  France  to  enter  liis  service,  he  re- 
turned to  Florence  and  resumed  his  duties  on  the 
forlilications.  After  the  capitulation  of  the  city, 
August  12,  1.530,  he  remained  for  a  time  in  liid- 
ing.  but,  on  the  Pope's  invitation  and  pardon, 
resumed  work  on  the  statues  for  the  Medica;an 
Chapel.  He  had  also  received  a  commission  from 
the  city  for  a  colossal  "Hercules  and  Caeus,"  to 
stand  opposite  the  "David."  in  commemoration 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Mcilici.  but  he  only  made 
the  wax  model  now  in  South  Kensington  ilu- 
~ciMn.  A  copy  of  -Michelangelo's  "Lcda  and  the 
Swan."  a  tempera  painting  executed  some  time 
later  for  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  is  at  Dresden. 

The  Chapel  of  the  Medici — the  new  sacristy  of 
San  Lorenzo — is  the  most  important  work  of  its 
kind  in  modern  art.  In  sculpture  it  marks  the 
culmination  of  Michehmgelo's  style.  The  archi- 
tectural problem  was  not  constructive,  but  dec- 
orative ;  and.  conceived  as  a  framing  for  the  sculp- 
tures, the  architecture  is  above  criticism.  The 
sculptures  were  only  in  part  executed.  On  the 
entrance  wall  is  an  incomplete  statue  of  the  Ma- 
donna (1.522)  by  Michelangelo,  flanked  by  the 
patron  saints  of  the  Medici,  Cosmas  by  Montor- 
soli.  and  Damian  by  Montelupo.  Far  more  im- 
portant are  the  tombs  of  the  two  Medicaean  dukes, 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  chapel.  The  dukes  are 
represented  over  life  size,  seated  above  their  sar- 
cophagi, and  are  rather  allegorical  than  portrait 
statues — the  representatives  of  contemplative  and 
active  life.  Lorenzo's  head  rests  lieavily  on  his 
wrist,  and  the  beaver  of  his  lielmet  is  drawn  over 
his  eyes,  which  gaze  on  vacancy.  Giuliano  is 
represented  as  the  victorious  general  looking 
down  upon  the  battle-field.  Nothing  could  e.x- 
ceed  the  technical  perfection  of  his  Roman  cui- 
rass, and  of  his  hands  resting  upon  the  general's 
staff.  At  Lorenzo's  feet,  reclining  upon  the  sar- 
cophagus, are  "Dawn"  and  "Twilight;"  at  Giu- 
liano's  "Day"  and  "Night."  "Dawn"  is  the  most 
finished  and  beautiful  of  the  statues ;  she  starts 
as  if  from  a  dream,  her  face  full  of  despondency. 
In  "Night,"  a  sleeping  woman  of  magnificent 
physique,  the  sculptor  has  solved  the  difficult 
problem  of  a  reclining  figure  in  profile.  "Twi- 
light" and  "Day"  are  male  figures  of  Herculean 
proportions,  the  heads  of  which  are  unfinished. 
"Day."  the  grander  of  the  two,  is  represented  as 
gazing  over  his  shoulder,  sliowing  treatment  of 
the  nuiscles  of  the  back  in  this  dillicult  position. 
In  locality,  these  allegories,  intended  for  quite  an- 
other purpose,  were  used  by  the  artist  to  express 
his  sorrow  for  the  loss  of  Florentine  liberty. 

Though  chiefly  engaged  upon  the  Medica?an 
statues,  Michelangelo  had  also  worked  at  Rome 
upon  the  tomb  of  .lulius  11.  Luckily  he  was 
there  when  Clement  Vll.  died  in  15.34.  As  Didce 
Alessandro  of  Florence  was  bitterly  hostile  to 
him.  he  remained  at  Rome,  residing  there  until 
his  death.  At  last  he  hoped  to  complete  the 
Mausoleiun,  which  had  been  the  darling  scheme, 
as  well  as  the  bane,  of  his  life.  By  threats  and 
lawsuits  the  heirs  of  .Julius  II.  had  imbittered 
his  existence  during  the  reigns  of  Leo  and 
Clement,  but  the  popes  used  their  power  in 
his  behalf,  forcing  the  heirs  to  repeated  changes 


of  contract,  each  of  which  reduced  the  scale  of 
the  monument.  Paul  111.  was  as  unwilling  as 
his  predecessors  to  forego  the  glory  of  being 
served  by  Michelangelo.  He  annulled  the  con- 
tract with  the  Duke  of  TJrbino,  Julius's  heir, 
compelling  the  latter  to  make  a  new  one  in  1542, 
according  to  which  the  tomb  was  finally  erected 
fefore  1550.  As  it  now  stands  in  the  Church  of 
San  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  the  nionuiuent  is  but  a 
shadow  of  the  artist's  great  design.  The  statues 
adorning  the  lower  part  are  by  Michelangelo 
liiniself :  the  colos.sal  "Moses,"  and  on  either  side 
"Active  Life"  ("Leah")  and  "Contemplative  Life" 
("Rachel").  In  their  present  position,  which  was 
not  the  one  originally  intended,  the  two  female 
statues  are  dwarfed  by  the  architectural  sur- 
roundings. The  statues  of  the  upper  story  were 
imperfectly  executed,  after  Michelangelo's  de- 
signs, by  Montorsoli:  tlie  best  of  them  being  a 
Madonna,  begun  by  the  designer  himself.  Four 
rougli-hewn  figures  in  the  Boboli  Gardens  (Flor- 
ence), and  an  incomplete  group  of  "Victory"  in 
the  Museo  Nazionale,  are  supposed  to  have  been 
parts  of  the  original  design  of  the  monument. 

Having  tluis  freed  the  sculptor  from  all  cares 
regarding  the  monument,  Paul  111.  required  his 
services  for  the  completing  of  the  decoration  of 
the  Sistine  Chapel.  The  entire  altar  wall  ( 18 
meters  by  16)  was  to  be  covered  by  a  painting  of 
the  "Last  .Judgment,"  the  cartoon  for  which  had 
been  executed  under  Clement  VII.;  it  was  carried 
out  in  1534-41.  It  Is  the  largest  fresco  in  the 
world,  containing  above  a  hundred  figures,  over 
life  size.  The  centre  of  the  composition  is  Christ, 
a  beardless  figure  of  Herculean  pro])ortion.  in  the 
act  of  condemnation,  and  the  Virgin  sits  shrink- 
ing beside  Him.  From  all  sides  the  terrified 
masses  stream  to  the  judgment  seat.  Below  the 
graves  are  opening  and  the  dead  become  flesli. 
The  colors  have  suffered  much  from  dust  and  can- 
dle smoke,  and  the  grand  figures  are  much  de- 
faced. Their  nudity  having  aroused  adverse 
criticism,  Paul  IV.  employed  Daniele  da  Volterra 
to  clothe  the  most  cons])icuous  examples — a  task 
for  which  he  received  the  name  of  '11  Braceetone.' 
Michelangelo's  last  paintings  (finished  in  1350) 
were  for  the  same  patron — two  large  frescoes  in 
the  Pauline  Chapel :  the  "Conversion  of  Saint 
Paul"  and  the  "Crucifixion  of  Peter,"  both  of 
which  were  spoiled  by  restoration. 

The  last  years  of  the  artist's  life  were  devoted 
chiefly  to  architecture.  In  1546  he  designed  the 
beautiful  cornice  of  the  Farnese  Palace,  and  in 
1547  he  was  appointed  chief  architect  of  Saint 
Peter's.  He  accepted  the  post  as  a  religious 
duty,  refusing  all  pay,  and  until  his  death, 
through  the  reigns  of  five  popes,  he  filled  w'ith 
credit  this  responsible  position.  Only  the  cupola 
of  the  present  edifice,  for  which  he  left  a  model, 
was  carried  out,  at  least  in  part,  according  to 
his  plans.  Unfortunately  he  left  no  model  for 
the  whole  church.  We  know,  however,  that  he 
returned  to  Bramante's  plan  of  a  Greek  cross, 
and  that  his  design  was  much  superior  to  the 
present  building.  (See  Saint  Peter's  Ciu'RCii.) 
His  architectural  works  included  plans  for  the 
Porta  Pia.  and  the  transformation  of  the  Baths  of 
Diocletian  into  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  which 
was  unfortunately  rebuilt  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  although  his  court  of  a  hundred  columns 
survives.  The  general  plan  of  the  Capitoline  Hill 
is  due  to  him,  the  grand  staircase  and  the  Palace 
of  the  Senators  being  after  his  designs.   He  made 


MICHELANGELO  BUONAKROTI. 


430 


MICHELANGELO  BUONAEBOTI. 


a  nninl)pr  of  graiiil  designs  for  tlie  Church  of  the 
Florentiucs  at  Koine,  and  one  for  the  well-known 
staircase  of  the  Laurcntian  Library,  Florence, 
which  was  carried  out  by  Vasari.  Finally,  his 
plans  were  followed  in  the  new  fortifications  of 
Rome. 

The  latter  part  of  Jlichelangelo's  life  was 
dominated  by  deep  religious  feeling,  which  found 
expression  in  his  drawings  and  poetry,  besides 
the  grand  religious  paintings  and  works  of  archi- 
tecture upon  which  he  was  engaged.  Of  wonder- 
ful pathos  and  deep  religious  feeling  is  the  un- 
finished sculptured  group,  the  "Deposition  from 
the  Cross,"  which  now  stands  behind  the  high 
altar  in  the  Cathedral  of  Florence.  But  the 
Florentine  patriot  was  revealed  in  his  bust  of 
Brutus  ( Museo  Xazionale),  carved  when  Duke 
Alessandro  was  assassinated  by  Lorenzino  in 
1530.  Though  living  almost  like  a  hermit, 
Jlichelangelo  received  cvei-y  honor  that  could 
conic  to  an  artist.  Under  successive  popes  he 
■was  chief  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor  of  the 
Vatican;  he  was  nia»le  bead  of  the  new  Academy 
of  Florence.  Popes,  kings,  and  princes  sought 
the  honor  of  a  work  by  his  hand.  He  died  Feb- 
ruary 18,  1504.  His  body  was  conveyed  secretly 
from  Rome  and  biirieil  at  Santa  Croce.  the 
Pantheon  of  Florence.  His  house  in  Florence 
was  left  by  the  last  surviving  member  of  the 
family  to  the  city,  and  is  now  used  as  a  museum 
of  his  works,  containing  the  family  archives. 

In  appearance  he  was  of  medium  height  and 
broad-sliouldered ;  he  ha<l  a  large  head,  with 
broad  forehead  and  prutruding  temples,  small 
eyes,  and  a  nose  disligund  by  a  fist  blow  of 
Torrigiano,  a  fellow  pupil  in  the  iledici  Gardens. 
He  was  of  a  nol)le  and  generous  character.  If 
lovingly  treated,  any  favors  could  be  obtained 
from  him:  but  if  treated  otherwise,  not  even  the 
popes  could  influence  him.  Some  of  his  most 
eharming  traits  were  his  devotion  to  his  family; 
his  oI)edience  and  humility  toward  his  father,  a 
querulous  and  whimsical  man;  and  his  kindness 
to  his  greedy  brothers.  He  was  kind  and  gentle 
to  his  dependents,  and  fair  in  liis  juilgment  of 
other  artists;  but  if  he  thought  himself  ridiculed 
his  tongue  could  be  sharp  enough.  The  sad 
experiences  of  a  highly  sensitive  nature  tended 
to  make  him  increasingly  suspicious  and  irrita- 
ble. Nevertheless,  he  remained  charitable  and 
generous,  and  he  was  scrupulously  honest  at  a 
time  when  this  was  a  virtue  exceedingly  rare. 

Xo  biograpliy  of  Michelangelo  could  omit  men- 
tion of  the  beautiful  frien<lships  which  fcu'iiied 
the  chief  joy  of  his  declining  years.  Chief  among 
these  was  his  friendship  for  Vittori.a  Colonna. 
The  popular  idea,  which  sees  in  this  noble  old 
lady  the  artist's  Juliet,  is  quite  erroneous,  for 
their  relation  was  based  on  a  common  love  of 
literature  and  art  and  common  religious  views. 
Tn  Cavalieri,  a  handsome  and  accomplished 
young  Roman  nobleman,  as  in  other  young 
friends,  he  saw  an  idealization  of  youthful 
heauty. 

Michelangelo  has  been  admirably  characterized 
by  Burkhardt  as  the  "Man  of  Destiny'  in  the 
arts.  Never  in  history  were  they  so  dominated 
by  a  single  personality.  For  centuries  the  forms 
which  he  originated  dominated  architecture  and 
sculpture,  as  the  Mnro(|ue  style,  and.  to  a  large 
extent,  painting  as  well.  That  which  most  im- 
pressed them  and  his  contemporaries  was  the 
quality   which    the    Italians   call    l<rribilitd — his 


stormy  energj-  of  conception,  and  intense  dra- 
matic, even  violent  action.  With  hiui  this  was 
natural,  the  result  of  his  own  stormy  emotions; 
with  his  imitators  it  was  mannerism.  His  art  is 
sublime  rather  than  beautiful ;  its  chief  attribute 
is  power.  It  does  not  condescend  to  win,  but 
overuhclms  by  intellectual  grandeur  of  concep- 
tion and  technical  perfecticm  of  execution.  It  is 
absolutely  original  and  unique.  Evident  in  his 
earliest  works,  this  (lualily  predominates  in- 
creasingly in  his  art,  becoming  arbitrarj'  in  later 
life.  He  is  a  destroyer  of  traditions,  a  creator 
of  new  types.  Such  an  artist  cannot  be  said 
to  belong  to  any  school ;  he  stands  apart  in  a 
class  for  himself. 

lie  had.  perhaps,  the  most  perfect  command  of 
line  of  any  artist  of  whom  we  know.  For  his 
own  works,  as  well  as  independent  of  them,  he 
drew  great  numbers  of  designs,  sometimes  as 
many  as  a  dozen  heads  to  evolve  an  ideal  type. 
Nearly  all  the  chief  galleries  of  Europe  possess 
specimens  of  these  drawings.  In  early  life  the  pen 
was  his  favorite  instrument;  but  later,  when  he 
relied  more  upon  memory,  he  (ireferred  chalk  as  a 
softer  medium.  To  this  last  period  belong  the  most 
celel)rated  examples,  like  the  "Phaeton,"  "Tithy- 
tis,"  and  "Ganymede,"  drawn  for  Tommaso  Cava- 
lieri, the  series  of  designs  for  Christ's  "Cruci- 
fixion" and  "Deposition,"  meditative  and  deeply 
religious  in  mood;  and  the  "Arcieri"  ("Archers," 
Windsor  Collection),  nude  figures  of  wonderful 
beauty  and  grace. 

His  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  prob.ably  more 
nearly  perfect  than  that  of  any  artist  since  the 
(ireeks.  He  ac'quired  it  in  long  years  of  dili- 
gent study,  not  only  of  the  nude  model  and 
of  classic  sculpture,  but  through  use  of  the  dis- 
secting knife  in  a  laboratory  furnished  by  his 
enlightened  friend,  the  Prior  of  Santo  Spirito.  in 
Florence.  He  preferred  to  represent  the  human 
body  as  highly  developed,  and  he  inclined  to  the 
male  type.  His  women,  likewise  of  high  develop- 
ment, are  mostly  types  of  middle  life,  although  he 
created  a  few  youthful  examples  of  rare  beauty, 
like  the  "Delphic  Sibyl"  and  the  "Madonna  of 
Bruges."  Like  tlie  (Jreeks.  he  used  the  human 
figure  as  expressive  of  emotion,  only  that  with 
him  the  emotion  is  particular  instead  of  general. 
I'nlike  other  Italians,  he  generalizes  the  faces, 
refusing  all  portraiture. 

Michelangelo  was  essentially  a  sculptor,  and 
only  painted  under  protest.  In  every  block  of 
marble  he  saw  an  imprisoned  idea  awaiting  the 
sculptor's  art  to  be  freed,  lie  prob.ibly  made 
jirevious  sketches,  and  in  bis  early  perioil  used 
the  human  model,  but  his  usuiil  method  was  to 
use  only  a  small  wax  model.  I'nlike  present-day 
sculptors,  he  did  all  the  work,  even  the  rough- 
hewing,  himself.  He  finished  the  bixlies  first, 
reserving  the  heads  for  the  hist.  In  his  paintings 
the  essentially  pictorial  qualities  of  perspective, 
atmosphere,  and  light  are  absent;  nor  was  he 
a  colorist  in  the  Venetian  sense.  His  color 
scheme  was  broadly  massive  and  subdueil,  being 
subordinated  to  the  human  figures  in  his  pic- 
tures. His  paintings  are  decorative  in  the  high- 
est sense,  and  in  his  artistic  development  they 
are  of  especial  importance,  because  he  found  ft 
more  facile  meiliiini  in  painting  than  in  sculpture 
for  the  expression  of  his  titanic  thought.s. 
His  architecture  was  decorative  rather  than 
constructive.  He  regarded  only  the  general 
effect,     which     he     obtained     by     heavy     masses 


MICHELANGELO  BUONARROTI. 


437 


MICHELET. 


of  liylil  aiul  sliade.  requiring  of  detail  only  a 
sharp  and  effective  formation.  In  the  cupola  of 
Saint  Peter's,  however,  he  created  a  complete 
const  nictive  masterpiece,  as  perfect  as  any  of 
tlic  early  Kenaissance. 

Miclielan^'olo's  poetry  was  valued  as  highly  by 
his  contemporaries  as  were  his  other  artistic  ac- 
tivities. They  admired  especially  its  deep  phil- 
osopliic  thought,  in  which  respect  he  indeed 
stands  above  the  other  poets  of  his  day.  Indeed, 
the  value  of  his  poetry  is  rather  ps3'cho!ogical 
than  literary;  it  is  often  obscure  and  labored  in 
expression.  But  when  his  nature  was  stirred  by 
powerful  emotions,  it  found  expression  in  some 
of  the  most  beautiful  sonnets  and  madrigals  in 
the  Italian  or  any  other  language.  Some  of  the 
very  finest  are  dedicated  to  Vittoria  Colonna  and 
Toniniaso  Cavalieri :  these  are  mostly  love  poems, 
othi'i's,  like  madrigals  on  the  loss  of  Florentine 
liberty,  are  patriotic  in  character  and  many  are 
deeply  religious,  expressing  the  dignified  attitude 
of  a  great  soul,  calmly  awaiting  the  end. 

Bini.ioGRAPiiY.  The  most  important  sources 
for  the  life  o,f  Michelangelo  are  the  documents 
preserved  in  the  Casa  Buonarroti,  Florence,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  letters  to  and  from  the  artist, 
his  poems,  memoranda,  contracts,  and  like  ma- 
terial, and  a  large  collectinn  of  his  letters  pur- 
chased by  the  British  Museum  in  1S59  from 
one  of  the  Buonarroti  family.  The  latter  were 
first  made  known  to  the  public  by  Hermann 
Grimm  in  his  Lehen  ilichelancielos:  a  selection 
of  the  former  was  indifferently  edited  by  Mila- 
nesi.  Le  lettere  di  Michelanrielo  (Florence,  1875), 
and  Les  correspondaiits  de  Michel  Ange,  tome  i. 
(Sebastiano  del  Piombo.  Paris,  1891).  By  far 
the  best  edition  of  the  letters,  comprising  all  of 
historical  importance,  nianv  for  the  first  time 
published,  is  that  of  Carl  Frey  (Berlin  1899). 
Of  high  importance  are  the  contemporary  biog- 
raphies of  ilichelangelo.  The  earliest  of  these 
appeared  in  the  first  edition  of  Vasari's  Lives 
(Florence.  15.50).  The  inaccuracies  of  this  ac- 
count impelled  Ascanio  Condivi,  then  an  inmate 
of  Michelangelo's  household,  to  write  his  brief 
biography  (Rome,  155.3;  later  edition.  Pisa, 
1823).  Based  on  the  recollection  of  the  great 
artist  himself,  this  is  the  most  important  and 
reliable  source,  after  his  correspondence.  It  was 
pirated  without  acknowledgment  by  Vasari  in  his 
second  edition  of  the  Lives  { 15G8  ;  edited  by  Mila- 
nesi,  Florence,  1878),  who  supplied  valuable 
additional  information  on  Michelangelo's  later 
years.  Both  of  these  biographies,  together  with 
other  contemporary  biographical  materials,  are 
host  edited  by  Frey.  S<uiuiiliinp  nusrieicuhUer  Bio- 
(irnpliien  ^'nsaris  (Berlin,  18S7). 

The  most  important  modern  biographies  of 
Miclielangelo  are  those  of  Duppa  (London. 
ISnC)  ;  Quatrem&re  de  Quiney  (Paris.  1835)  ; 
Harford  (London.  1857);  Grimm  (Hanover, 
1860);  Clement  (Paris,  I860:  translated  in 
"Great  Artist  Series")  ;  Gotti  (Florence.  1875)  ; 
Black  (London.  1875)  ;  Heath  Wilson  (London, 
1876)  ;  Perkins  (Boston,  1878)  :  Springer  (Leip- 
zig, 1892);  Scheffler  (Altenburg.'  1892); 
Symonds  (London  and  Xew  York.  1892)  ;  Knack- 
fuss  (Bielefeld,  1895)  :  .lusti  (Leipzig.  1900)  ; 
Bicci  (Florence.  1901);  Thode  (Berlin,  1902). 
The  first  critical  work,  in  the  modern  sense, 
was  that  of  Grimm  (10th  ed.  Berlin.  1901; 
English  translation.  New  York,  1896),  in 
which    the    artist    is    sympathetically    treated, 


and  with  high  literary  skill.  Although  as 
much  space  is  devoted  to  his  time  and  environ- 
ment as  to  the  artist  himself,  it  remains  the  best 
work  for  the  general  reader.  Wilson's  work  ia 
valuable  from  a  technical  standpoint,  as  is  also 
the  admirable  volume  of  the  ISazctie  dcs  Beaux- 
Arts,  entitled  L'acinre  et  la  vie  de  Michel  Atige, 
written  by  seven  French  artists.  Of  value  for 
the  artist's  youthful  period  is  Wiilflin,  Die  Ju- 
gendwerke  Michelangelos  (Berlin,  1887). 
Springer's  Raffael  und  Michelangelo  (Leipzig, 
1892)  is  a  work  of  sound  learning  and  criticism. 
The  most  complete  English  life,  of  high  literary 
and  historical  value,  is  that  of  Symonds. 
Thode 's  Michelangelo  und  das  Ende  dcr  Renais- 
sance (Berlin,  1902.  of  which  the  first  of  three 
volumes  has  appeared)  gives  an  exhaustive  treat- 
ment from  the  psychological  standpoint. 

Michelangelo's  poems  suffered  much  by  being 
known  through  the  garbled  and  mutilated  edition 
of  his  grandson,  Jlichelangelo  the  younger.  A 
more  complete  edition  was  that  of  Guasti  (Flor- 
ence. 1863)  ;  but  the  best  is  by  Frey  (Berlin, 
1897).  Sj'monds  has  made  an  excellent  Eng- 
lish translation  of  selected  examples  of  the 
sonnets.  Consult,  also,  Lang,  Michclanqelo  als 
Dichier  (Stuttgart,  1861)  ;  Thomas,  Michel  Ange, 
pocte  (Paris,  1891)  ;  and  the  admirable  essay  of 
Walter  Pater,  in  his  i^tiidics  in  the  History  of  the 
Renaissance  (London,  1873). 

MICHELET,  mc'shlu',  Jules  (1798-1874). 
The  greatest  French  historian  of  the  Romantic 
School,  born  in  Paris,  August  21,  1798,  the  son 
of  a  printer.  He  studied  literature  under  Ville- 
main  (q.v. ),  and  at  twenty-three  became  profes- 
sor of  history  in  the  Coll&ge  Rollin.  He  delivered 
lectures  at  the  ancient  Coll&ge  Sainte-Barbe  and 
the  Eoole  Normale,  and,  after  the  Liberal  tri- 
umph in  1830,  received  an  appointment  at  the 
Record  Office,  was  made  assistant  of  Guizot  at 
the  Sorbonne,  and  tutor  of  the  Princess  Clemen- 
tine. In  1838  he  was  made  Academician  and 
professor  in  the  College  de  France,  where  he 
presently  became  involved  in  a  bitter  controversy 
with  the  Jesuits,  the  popular  echoes  of  which 
may  be  felt  in  Sue's  (q.v.)  famous  novel  Le  juif 
errant.  In  1851  he  refused  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  Napoleon,  lost  his  offices,  and  lived  mainly  in 
Brittany  and  on  the  Riviera,  giving  himself 
wholly  to  literature,  chiefly  poetically  romantic 
impressions  of  nature;  L'oiseau  (1856);  L'in- 
secte  (1857);  La  mer  (1861);  La  montagne 
(1868)  ;  of  society,  L'ainour  (1858)  ;  La  femme 
(1860)  ;  La  soreilre  (1862)  ;  La  hible  de  I'huma- 
niti  (1864);  and  'Nos  fils  (1869).  From  this 
imaginative  and  sociologic  work  he  returned  in 
his  last  Tears  to  history,  adding  three  volumes 
(1872-75)  to  the  eighteen  (1833-67)  of  his  His- 
toire  de  France,  and  bringing  the  narrative  to 
Waterloo.  Besides  this  monumental  work,  he 
had  contributed  to  history  a  Precis  d'histoire 
moderne  (1828);  Introduction  i  I'histoire  uni- 
verscUe  (1831);  Origines  du  droit  francais 
(1837)  :  Le  proeis  des  tetnpUers  (1841-51)  ;  Me- 
moires  de  Luther  (1845)  ;  and  to  religious  and 
political  controversy,  Lcs  Jcsuites  (in  collabora- 
tion with  Edgar  Quinet.  1843)  ;  Du  pretre  et  de 
la  famille  (1845);  Du  peuple  (1846).  Charac- 
teristics of  all  !Michelet's  work  are  democratic 
enthusiasm,  hatred  of  priests,  sympathy  for  the 
oppressed,  and  a  picturesque  imagination  that 
transformed  vast  learning  into  poetry  and  history 
into     intuition.     He     is     seldom     an     objective 


MICHELET. 


438 


MICHELSON. 


observer  and  niroly  a  dispassionate  judge. 
Wichelct's  style,  like  his  history,  lacks  con- 
tinuity, it  is  striking  ratiier  than  flowing, 
proceeds  by  leaps  and  bounds,  appeals  by  rhythm 
as  well  as  thought  to  emotion  rather  than  reason. 
Micholct  died  at  Hj-feres.  February  5.  1874.  An 
edition  of  Michelet's  Works  in  40  volumes  ( 1895 
et  seq. )  is  nearly  completed.  Besides  tlie  auto- 
biograpliioal  Ma  jeuiiesse  (Paris,  1884)  and  Mon 
journal  ( ib.,  1888),  consult  for  his  life:  Simon 
(ib.,  1880).  Correard  (ib.,  1886),  ilonod  (ib., 
1897),  Brunhes  (ib.,  1898),  and  JIadame  Quinet 
{Cinquanie  ans  d'amitie,  ib.,  1900)  ;  for  criti- 
cism, Faguet,  .XIXe  Steele  (ib.,  1891);  Taine, 
Essais  (ib..  18o5-5(i)  :  and  Quarterly  Review 
(London.   1901). 

MICHELET,  mish'Iu',  ICvrl  Ludwig  (1801- 
9.'!).  -V  Gorman  philosopher.  He  was  born  at 
Berlin  and  graduated  at  the  University  of  Berlin. 
In  1829  lie  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
at  the  university.  He  pulilished  a  large  numlier 
of  works  on  metaphysical  subjects,  including  Die 
Ethik  dcs  Arisloleles  (1827);  l)as  Syxtciii  der 
philosophischen  Moral  (1828);  Cleschichte  der 
let:trn  Systeme  der  Philosophie  in  Deutsrhland 
ton  Kant  his  Ilcficl  (18.'!7-38);  and  Anthropo- 
logic und  Psychotoyic  (1840).  From  1800  to 
1875  he  edited  Der  Oednnke  (Berlin.  18fiO  et 
seq.),  representing  the  Philosophical  Society  of 
that  city. 

MICHELIN1A.  A  fossil  coral  allied  to 
Favosites,  found  in  the  Devonian  and  Carbonif- 
erous rocks,  and  commonly  known  as  'petrified 
honcycnnib.'     See  F.wo.siTES. 

MICHELL,  mlch'cl,  John  (1724-93).  An 
English  ]ihysicist  and  astronomer.  He  graduated 
at  (Jucen's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1748,  became 
a  fellow  there  the  next  year,  and  in  1702  was 
appointed  professor  of  geolog\'.  He  made  several 
imjiortant  discoveries  in  physical  science;  in- 
yonted  the  torsion  balance,  with  the  aid  of  which 
Cavendish  later  determined  the  mean  density  of 
the  earth;  and  devised  an  'easy  and  expeditious 
method'  of  making  magnets,  described  in  a 
Treatise  of  Artificial  Maynets  (17.30).  He  ad- 
vanced an  ingcni(nis  theory  concerning  the  ulti- 
mate constitution  of  matter,  and  rendered  im- 
portant sen-ices  to  astronomy  through  numerous 
original  contributions,  including  his  Enquiry 
into  the  Probable  Parallax  and  Magnitude  of  the 
Fixed  fHars  from  the  Quantity  of  Light  Which 
Thru  Afford  fs    (1707). 

MICHELOZZI,  mft'ke-lot'sd.  JIicnEtozzo 
(  i:(9l-1472) .  A  Florentine  architect  and  sculp- 
tor. Information  nlxnit  ilichelozzi  is  meagre, 
bvit  is  sulTicicnt  to  indicate  that  he  was  one  of 
the  principal  figures  of  the  formative  period  of 
the  Italian  Itenaissance.  He  was  the  preferred 
artistic  adviser  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  ilichelozzi 
was  born  at  Florence,  the  son  of  Bartolommeo,  a 
Burgimdiun  tailor,  who  was  made  a  citizen  of 
Florence  in  1370.  His  name  is  a  variation  of 
Michcle.  He  was  brought  \ip  as  a  die-cutter  and 
jfoldsmith,  and  assisted  (ihilberti  on  the  doors  of 
the  Baptistery.  At  an  early  i>eri"d  he  apjioars 
to  have  come  under  the  inlhience  of  Brunelleschi. 
and  in  1402  he  entered  into  an  association  with 
Donatello  which  lusted  until  about  1435.  (For 
their  joint  work,  see  Pox.vTKl.LO.)  As  he  worked 
in  association  with  the  principal  Florentine 
sculptors  of  his  time,  it  is  rarely  possible  to  sepa- 
rate hi.s  productions  from  theirs. 


The  little  independent  sculpture  which  can  be- 
definitely  ascribed  to  iliehelozzi  is  inferior,  and 
is  a  resultant  of  the  inlluences  of  Donatello  and 
Luca  della  Eobbia.  The  bas-reliefs  of  the  Ara- 
gazzi  ilonument,  in  the  Cathedral  of  ilontepul- 
ciano,  are  the  best  of  tliis  work;  another  well- 
known  example  is  the  silver  figure  of  .John  the 
Baptist  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  Florence. 

After  1435  his  work  became  increasingly  archi- 
tectural. In  1440  he  succeeded  Brunelleselii  as 
architect  of  the  Florentine  Cathedral,  but  ap- 
pears to  have  done  very  little  on  that  building. 
He  built  or  rebuilt  the  churches  of  Jlugello, 
of  the  Frati  Zoccolanti  near  Caffagiuolo,  of  San 
Girolamo  near  Voltcrra,  of  San  Cirolamo  near 
Fiesole,  and  the  Chapel  of  the  Medici  in  Santa 
Croce,  Florence.  Between  1437  and  1452  Mi- 
chelozzi  superintended  the  construction  of  the 
Monastery  of  San  ilarco  in  Florence.  The  library 
and  the  two  courts,  where  the  Ionic  order  appears 
for  the  first  time  in  the  Renaissance,  are  espe- 
cially interesting.  From  1444  to  1455  he  was 
chief  architect  of  the  Monastery  of  the  Annun- 
ziata  in  Florence.  In  1457  he  \yent  to  Milan 
to  rebuild  the  fine  palace  presented  by  Francesco 
Sforza  to  Cosmo  dc'  Medici.  Of  his  work  in  this 
city  only  the  chapel  of  the  Portinari,  on  the 
exterior  of  San  Eustorgio.  sunives.  He  was 
associated  with  Luca  dclla  Kobbia  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Capella  del  Crocifisso  in  San 
Miniato,  Florence. 

His  most  famous  work,  however,  is  the  Rie- 
cardi  Palace  in  Florence,  built  for  the  Medici, 
and  finished  about  1440.  Models  were  mailc  by 
both  Jliehelozzi  and  Brunelleschi.  the  former 
receiving  the,  preference  on  account  of  its  sim- 
plicity. The  Riccardi  Palace,  which  is  perhaps 
the  finest  city  house  in  existence,  is  really  only 
a  development  of  the  typical  Florentine  palace 
of  the  Jliddle  Ages  under  the  refining  influence 
of  classical  ideals.  The  last  of  Miclielozzi"s 
larger  undertakings,  his  work  upon  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio  in  Florence,  was  begun  in  1454.  The 
charming  forecourt  is  after  his  designs.  e.\cept 
the  defacing  stucco  ornament.  His  last  recorded 
work  is  the  Palazzo  Rettorale  at  Ragusa  in 
Dalmatia  (1404).  Consult:  Schmar-^ow,  in 
Archivio  storieo  drlV  arte.  vol.  vi. ;  Geymiiller, 
Jahrbvch  der  koniglich  preussischen  t^Samnilun- 
gcn,  vol.  XV. 

MICHELSON",  ml'kclson,  Ai.nERT  AnR.Mi.\M 
(1852 — ).  .Vn  .Vmcrican  physicist,  born  in 
Strelno,  Germany,  and  brought  up  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. He  gradiuited  fmni  the  Xaval  .\cndemy 
in  1873.  and  after  several  years'  service  in  the 
navv  went  abroad  and  studied  at  Berlin,  Heidel- 
berg, and  Paris  (1880-82).  On  his  return  to 
America.  Michclson  became  professor  of  phys- 
ics at  the  Case  School  of  .\pplied  Science, 
Cleveland,  Ohio;  then  held  a  like  chair 
in  Clark  I'niver.sity  (1889-92):  and  in  1892 
became  head  of  the  department  of  physics  in 
the  University  of  Chicago.  Professor  iliehel- 
son's  achievements  in  optics  secured  fnr  him  an 
international  reptitation.  His  determinations  of 
the  velocity  of  light  are  of  the  greatest  inipor- 
tance,  and  his  results  are  marked  by  a  high  de- 
gree of  accuracy.  These  experiments  were  begun 
in  1878.  when  Professor  Michelson  was  at  the 
Naval  Academy,  and  were  concluded  in  1882. 
His  invention,  in  1887,  of  an  interferential  refrac- 
tometer  enabled  him  to  determine  linear  distances 
in    terms   of  the   wave   length   of   light,   and   he 


MICHELSON. 


439 


MICHIGAN. 


•was  invited  by  the  Iiitoniational  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Measures  at  Paris  to  ascertain  the 
length  of  the  standard  meter  in  terms  of  the 
wave  length  of  cadmium  liglit.  Tliis  investiga- 
tion was  of  great  importance  in  that  it  enables 
the  Jleter  of  the  Archives  to  be  reproduced  at 
any  time  by  reference  to  certain  known  quantities 
which  are  not  only  constant,  but  also  are  readily 
re])rcHUu'iblc.  In  connection  with  Professor  Mor- 
ley.  Professor  ^Michelsoii  carried  on  a  series  of 
elabiu'ate  experiments  designed  to  show  the  rela- 
tive motion  of  matter  and  ether.  He  also  devised 
the  echelon  spectroscope,  by  which  he  was  able 
to  secure  greater  dispersion  than  with  a  prism, 
and  thus  was  alile  to  study  the  Zeeman  eii'ect 
and  otlier  phcnomcuh.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  the 
Internal iimal  Committee  on  Weights  and  Meas- 
ures, a  fellow  of  the  Ro^'al  Astronomical  Society, 
and  of  other  learned  bodies. 

MICHETTI,  mc-ket'te,  Fraxcesco  Paolo 
(18.51 — ).  An  Italian  painter,  born  at  Tocco  da 
Casauria.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Morelli  at 
the  Naples  Academy,  and  belongs  to  the  new 
school  of  Italian  painters.  His  works  are  genre 
subjects  of  peasant  life  in  Southern  Italy,  painted 
with  a  ricli  color  and  much  dramatic  insight. 
His  "Corpus  Domini"  (1877).  "Domenica  delle 
Palme"  (1879),  "Ottava."  "I  Morticelli."  and, 
above  all,  "II  Voto"  (1884),  at  the  Capitoline 
Museimi,  Rome,  are  good  examples  of  this  school 
of  Italian  art. 

MICHIE,  miK'J,  Peter  Smith  (1839-1901). 
An  American  educator  and  soldier.  He  was  bom 
in  P>reehin,  Scotland,  came  to  the  United  States 
in  184.3,  and  was  brought  up  in  Cincirmati.  He 
graduated  second  in  the  class  of  1863  at  West 
Point  and  entered  the  engineer  corps:  ser\'ed  in 
the  campaign  of  1864  against  Richmond;  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  Army  of  the  James  ( 186.5)  ; 
and  was  at  the  head  of  all  engineering  operations 
of  the  left  column  at  Hatcher's  Run  and  in  the 
pursuit  of  Lee's  army.  After  the  war,  having 
attained  brevet  rank  of  brigadier  in  1865,  he  was 
for  a  year  engaged  in  the  Government  survey  of 
the  theatre  of  the  war;  from  1867  to  1869  he 
taught  various  branches  at  West  Point ;  was  mem- 
ber of  a  coastal  fortification  conmiission  which 
visited  Eurojie  in  1870;  and  for  the  last  thirty 
years  of  his  life  was  professor  of  natural  and 
experimental  pliilosophy  at  West  Point.  He 
wrote:  Elements  of  Wave  Motion  I'elaling  to 
Hoiiiid  and  Light  (1882)  ;  Life  of  General  Upton 
(1SS.5)  ;  The  Personnel  of  the  f^eacoast  Defense 
(18S7)  ;  Anali/fical  ileehanies  (1887)  ;  Htjdrody- 
nainics  (1888);  and  General  UcClellan  (New 
York.  1901 ) ,  in  the  "Great  Commanders  Series." 

MICHIELS,  me'shs'Pl'.  Aijtred  (1813-92).  A 
French  liistorian  and  writer  on  art  and  litera- 
ture, born  in  Rome  of  Dutch-Burgundian  parents. 
He  began  his  law  studies  at  Strassburg  (1S34), 
b>it  made  his  home  in  Paris.  His  puldications 
include:  Etudes  svr  FAUemagne  (1830);  His- 
ioire  des  id<^es  Uttfraires  en  Franee  aii  XlXe 
sirrle  et  de  leur  origines  dans  les  sieeles  antf- 
ricurs  (1842);  Ang'leterre  (1844),  of  which  a 
fourth  edition  (1872)  was  called  Voyage  d'un 
amateur:  Ifistoire  de  hi  peintnre  flaniande  et 
hnllandaise  (184.5,  new  ed.,  enl.,  186.5-76),  and 
its  sequel,  J/nrt  flamnnd  duns  Vest  et  Je  midi  de 
la  France  (1877)  ;  L'architectiire  et  la  peintnre 
en  Europe  depuis  le  ITe  au  XVIe  siecle  (3d  ed. 


1873)  ;  Ruhcns  et  I'ecole  d'Anrers  (4th  ed. 
1877);  Uistoire  secrete  du  gouvernement  au- 
triehicn    (4th  ed.   1879)  ;   Le  eointe  de  Uismarck 

(1871)  ;  Uistoire  de  la  guerre  franco-prussienne 

(1872 )  ;  Van  Ut/ck  et  ses  Heves  ( 1880)  ;  Le  monde 
du  comiqne  et  du  rire  (1887). 

MICHIGAN,  mishl-gan  (Algonquin  miehi, 
great  -f-  guma,  water).  One  of  the  States  of  the 
American  Union,  situated  in  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes.  It  lies  between  41°  42'  and  47° 
32'  north  latitude  and  82°  24'  and  90°  31'  west 
longitude,  and  consists  of  two  natural  divisions, 
the  Upper  Peninsula  and  the  Lower  Peninsula. 
The  Upper  Peninsula,  with  an  extreme  length  of 
318  miles,  and  an  extreme  width  at  Kew-eenaw 
Point  of  164  miles,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Lake  Superior  and  on  the  south  by  Wisconsin  and 
Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron.  On  the  east  the 
Saint  ^Mary's  River  separates  it  from  the  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario,  Canada,  and  the  Menominee 
River  forms  about  one-half  of  its  Wisconsin 
boundai'V.  The  Lower  Peninsula  is  in  the  form 
of  a  mitten,  the  thumb  being  separated  from  the 
hand  by  Saginaw  Bay,  the  whole  division  being 
surrounded,  except  in  the  south,  by  Lakes  Michi- 
gan and  Huron,  the  Saint  Clair  River,  Lake  Saint 
Clair,  the  Detroit  River,  and  Lake  Erie,  and 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  States  of  Indiana 
and  Ohio.  It  has  a  length  of  300  miles  from 
north  to  .south,  and  an  average  width  of  200 
miles.  The  State  has  an  are.a  of  58,915  square 
miles,  including  1485  square  miles  of  water,  rank- 
ing eighteenth  in  size  among  the  States  of  the 
Union. 

TOPOGEAPHT.  Michigan  occupies  an  exceptional 
position.  Lying  within  the  embrace  of  the  three 
largest  of  the  Great  Lakes,  it  possesses  a  coast 
line  longer  in  proportion  to  its  area  than  that  of 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  Further,  the  coast 
waters  possess  many  good  harliors  and  are  navi- 
gable for  large  craft.  Ships  of  2000  tons  can 
sail  within  sight  of  land  all  round  the  State. 
The  surface  of  the  State  is  in  general  level  and 
monotonous,  the  nortliern  peninsula  being  some- 
what rugged  and  rocky.  The  highest  elevation 
is  in  the  west  end  of  the  northern  peninsula  in 
the  Porcupine  Mountains,  a  gentle  ridge  running 
northeast  and  soiithwest  into  Wisconsin.  It  in- 
cludes the  famous  Copper  Range.  The  highest 
point  in  the  State  is  about  1800  feet  above  the 
sea.  or  about  1200  above  lake  level;  in  the 
southern  peninsula  the  elevation  nowhere  ex- 
ceeds 600  feet  above  the  lakes.  The  mean  eleva- 
tion of  the  State  is  less  than  200  feet  above 
lalie  level.  There  are  two  high  areas  to  the 
southeast  and  northwest  of  Saginaw  Bay,  re- 
spectively. The  glacial  sheet  descending  from 
tlie  northeast  encountered  this  resisting  wall  and 
split,  turning  in  the  direction  of  the  softer  rocks 
on  each  side  into  the  Huron-Erie  and  the  Lake 
ilichigan  regions,  and  cutting  out  basins  for  the 
present  lakes.  Southern  ilichigan  is  marked  by 
two  parallel  ridges  or  topograpliic  axes  running 
northeast  and  southwest.  The  southern  axis  runs 
along  a  line  roughly  from  Ann  Arbor  to  Pontiac; 
the  northern  axis  runs  from  the  region  north  of 
Saginaw  Bay  southwest  toward  the  Muskegon 
River. 

The  rivers  of  Michigan  follow  the  morainal 
valleys  around  in  <a  circular  course — usually 
southward.  The  largest  streams  in  the  T^pixr 
Peninsula  are  the  Taquamenon  and  Ontonagon, 
draining  into  Lake  Superior,  and  the  Ford,  Es- 


MICHIGAN. 


440 


MICHIGAN. 


canal),!,  and  JIaiiisti(|ue,  draining  into  Lake 
^[iflii'_'an.  The  Lower  Peninsula  is  watered  by 
the  ^^anistee.  Muskepon.  Grand,  Kahiniazoo,  and 
Saint  .Josepli,  which  tlow  into  Lake  Michigan; 
by  the  Clieiioygan.  Thunder  Bay.  Au  Sable,  and 
Saginaw,  llowing  into  Lake  Huron;  and  by  the 
Huron  and  Raisin,  llowing  into  Lake  Erie.  Most 
of  the  rivers  are  small,  and  the  largest  are 
navigable  by  river  boats  only  for  short  distances. 
The  niorainal  districts  are  also  crowded  with 
lakes  and  ])onds.  some  tributary  to  the  rivers, 
draining  the  valleys,  others  deep  tarns  caught 
between  the  moraines  and  possessing  no  outlet. 
These  lakes  and  i)oiuls  of  iliehigan  are  estimated 
at  from  .5000  to  1.5.000  in  nuiiilier.  The  Kalama- 
zoo River  alone  has  within  its  basin  175  tribu- 
tary and  1.50  non-tributary  lakes,  and  other 
rivers  are  similarly  supplied.  They  are  valuable 
sources  of  water  supply,  and  when  they  disappear 
their  beds  furnish  a  black  nmck  soil  with  a  shell 
marl  subsoil  which  is  excellent  for  garden  cul- 
ture. Other  lakes  owe  their  origin  to  the  erosion 
of  limestone  forming  caves  and  sink  holes,  or  to 
the  sand  bars  built  across  the  mouths  of  bays  or 
rivers  by  the  Great  Lakes  at  the  present  or  at 
a  higher  stjige  of  elevation.  Still  another  source 
of  these  numerous  lakes  is  the  tilting  of  the 
earth's  crust  which  flooded  old  river  valleys  and 
landlocked  the  Waters  <vithin.  If  Professor  Gil- 
bert's theory  is  true,  this  process  is  even  now 
going  on.  If  the  land  is  rising  five  inches  a 
centurj'  per  hundred  miles  along  an  axis  through 
Niagara  Falls  and  northeastern  Michigan,  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  Saginaw  Bay  will  soon  bo  a  lake. 
In  fact,  even  now  it  is  practically  stagnant. 

I'pward  of  200  islands  belong  to  Michigan. 
The  largest  are  Isle  Royale  and  Grande  Isle 
in  Lake  Suiierior;  Sugar  Island.  Encampment 
Island.  Drununond  Island.  Bois  Blanc,  Mackinac, 
and  Marrpiettc  at  the  head  of  Lake  Huron;  and 
the  Beaver,  Fox,  and  Manitou  groups  at  the 
head  of  Lake  ilichigan.  The  chief  indentations 
of  the  coast  of  the  Lower  Peninsula  are  Grand 
and  Little  Traverse  bays  on  the  northwest, 
and  Thuniler  and  Saginaw  bays  on  the  east 
side.  In  the  northern  peninsula  are  Keweenaw 
Bay  east  of  Keweenaw  Peninsvila,  and  White 
Fish  Bay  on  the  northern  shore  at  the  west 
end  "f  Saint  Mary's  River.  On  the  south  are 
the  Big  Bay  and  the  Little  Bay  of  Xoquet  at 
the  head  of  Green  Bay.  One  of  the  interesting 
features  of  the  Michigan  coast  is  the  'Pictured 
Rocks'  on  the  nortliern  coast  of  the  northern 
peninsula,  where  the  Cambrian  sandstones  are 
carved  by  the  action  of  the  water  into  fantastic 
shapes — arches,  towers,  castles,  etc.  In  some 
places  steamers  can  pass  directly  under  the  rocks 
and   behind    falling  cascades. 

Ci.iM.\TE.  Tluju^h  Michigan  lies  in  the  heart 
of  the  north  temperate  zone,  the  northern  jwnin- 
sula  has  a  rigorous  climate.  Only  in  the  south- 
ern tier  of  counties  are  the  jdant  and  animal 
species  wholly  austral.  The  average  track  of 
the  extra-tropical  cyclonic  storms  for  all  the 
continent  crosses  the  State.  Over  4i)0  such  dis- 
turbances passed  that  way  in  ten  years.  The  aver- 
age temperatures  for  .Inly  are  0.5°  F.  for  Bes- 
semer and  ^lackinac.  and  70"  F.  for  Detroit.  The 
southwestern  side  of  the  I'pper  Peninsula  and 
the  southeastern  corner  of  the  Lower  Peninsula 
have  a  maximum  l<-mfK'rature  of  100°.  The  win- 
ter mininnim  is  20°  below  zero  for  lletroit,  and  30° 
below   at   Keweenaw   Point.     This  gives  a   range 


of  130°  for  the  Upper  IVninsuIa  and  of  120° 
for  the  Lower.  .Sault  Sainte  ^larie  holds  the 
L'nited  States  record  for  the  frecpiency  of  cold 
waves,  with  a  fall  of  20°  F.  or  over  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  average  rainfall  for  the  State 
is  30  inches.  The  northern  peninsula  from 
Keweenaw  Point  to  Sault  Sainte  Marie  holds 
the  record  in  the  L'nited  States  for  the  heaviest 
annual  snowfall,  130  inches.  This  is  reduced 
to  only  40  inches  at  Ann  Arbor.  Presque  Isle 
County  has  precipitation,  on  the  average.  170 
days  in  the  year,  sharing  with  BuOalo  the  high- 
est record  in  the  United  ."states  ea.st  of  Cape 
Flattery.  The  prevailing  winds  for  .January  and 
.July  alike  are  southwest  for  the  Lower  Peninsula 
and  northwest  for  the  Upper.  There  are  on  the 
average  twenty  th\inderstornis  per  year,  with  a 
maximum  frequency   in  .July. 

For  Flora  and  Fauna,  see  these  sections  under 
T'MTEn  States. 

(Jeology.  The  State  of  Michigan  in  its  Upper 
and  Lower  peninsula.s  has  all  the  recogniz>ed 
series  of  rocks  from  Archaean  to  Carboniferous 
inclusive.  The  earlier  part  of  this  record  is 
represented  in  great  detail  in  the  rocks  of  the 
northern  peninsula.  In  fact,  the  region  around 
Lake  Superior,  including  northern  |)ortions  of 
Minnesota.  Wisconsin,  and  ^Michigan,  has  had  an 
extremely  involved  geological  history,  the  care- 
ful and  detailed  study  of  which,  by  a  host  of 
geologists,  has  added  more  largely  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  pre-Cambrian  geology  than  any  equiva- 
lent area  in  the  world.  This  study  lias  disclosed 
a  whole  system  ( Algonkian )  of  rocks  below  the 
Paleozoic,  representing  perhaps  a  longer  lapse  of 
ages  th.an  all  the  time  since  the  beginning  of  the 
Cambrian.  The  earliest  beds  of  the  .Mffonkian 
are  much  metamorphosed  and  cut  in  every  direc- 
tion by  dikes  and  sills  of  igneous  intrusives  and 
extrusives.  The  Penokee-(;ogel)ie  and  the  Mar- 
quette-Menominee members  of  this  system  are 
the  great  iron-bearing  beds  of  the  northern  penin- 
sula. They  dip  down  under  the  bed  of  Lake 
Superior  and  outcrop  again  in  the  Vermilion 
and  Mesabi  ranges  in  Minnesota.  At  the  lop  of 
the  Algonkian  are  the  copper-bearing  beds.  The 
copper  is  found  usually  in  elastic  beds,  largely 
in  conglomerates,  though  sometimes  in  sandstone 
and  adjacent  lava  .sheets. 

The  Lower  Peninsula  of  ilichigan  is  essentially 
a  bowl-shaped  depression  in  tlie  pre-Candirian 
crust,  between  the  old  Arcluean  island  of  Xorth 
Wisconsin  and  the  similar  island  of  the  .\diron- 
daeks.  This  grand  synclinal  trounh  was  being 
filled  with  sediments  through  Cand)rian.  Ordo- 
vician.  Silurian.  Devonian,  and  Carbuniferous 
ages,  the  successive  deposits  lying  like  a  pile  of 
saucers,  with  outcropping  edu'cs  all  dipjiing  to- 
ward the  centre.  In  Sub-Carlioniferous  time  the 
basin  was  a  narrow-mouthed  bay.  acting  as  a 
saltpan,  concentrating  sea-water  and  depositing 
beds  of  rock  salt.  In  upper  Carboniferoiis  some 
beds  of  coal  were  laid  down.  The  State  has 
evidently  been  continuously  above  the  sea  since 
Carboniferous  time.  The  present  surface  of  the 
State  is  largely  deterniined  by  glacial  action, 
being  verv  nnicli  smoothed  over,  and  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  till,  in  some  places  some  huiulrcds 
of  feet  in  thickness.  The  present  rivers  are 
consequent  upon  the  drift  surface,  ami  many 
smaller  lakes  have  a  glacial  origin. 

The  soil  on  the  whole  is  extremely  fertile, 
beim;  made  up  of  the  glacial  detritus  of   lime- 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  MICHIGAN  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 


Alcona... 

Alger 

Allegan . . 
Alpena. . . 
Antrim... 

Arenac... 
Baraga... 

Barry 

Bay 

Benzie. . . 

Berrien... 
Branch.. 
Calhoun. 


Charlevoix. 

Cheboygan . 
Chippewa  . 

Clare 

Clinton 

Crawford.. . 

Delta 

Dickinson.. 

Eaton 

Emmet 


Gladwin 

Gogebic ;.. 

Grand  Traverse. . 

Gratiot 

Hillsdale 

Houghton 

Huron 

Ingham 

Ionia 

Iosco 


Iron 

Isabella 

Jackson 

Kalamazoo. 
Kalkaska. .. 

Kent 

Keweenaw . , 
Lake 


Lapeer 

Leelanaw. . 
Lenawee. . . 
Livingston., 

Luce    

Mackinac. . . 

Macomb . . . 
Manistee. . . 
Marquette.. 
Mason 


Mecosta 

Menominee — 

Midland 

Missaukee 

Monroe 

Montcalm 

Montmorency. 

Muekegim 

Newaygo 

Oakland 

Oceana 

Ogemaw 

Ontonagon 

Osceola 

Oscoda 

Otsego 

Ottawa 

Presque  Isle... 
Hoscommon... 
Saginaw 

St.  Clair 

St.  Joseph 

Sanilac 

Schoolcraft... 
Shiawassee — 

Tuscola 

Van  Buren  — 
Washtenaw... 

Wayne 

Wexford 


Map 
Index. 


K4 
G  2 
K4 
K4 
H4 

J  4 
E  2 
U6 
J  5 
G  4 

G  7 
HT 
H6 
G  7 
H  3 


F  .3 
F3 
J  6 
J  3 
K5 

J  5 
C  2 
H4 

J  5 

J  7 

E  3 
K5 
J  6 
H  5 
K4 

E  2 
J  5 
J  6 
H6 
H4 
H5 
E  1 
H5 

K5 
H4 
J  7 
J  C 
H2 
H2 

L  6 
G  4 
F  2 
G4 

H5 
F3 
J  5 
H4 
K7 

H5 
J  4 
G  5 
H5 
K6 

GB 
J  4 
D  3 
H5 
J  4 

J  4 
G  6 
J  3 
J  4 
J   5 

L  6 
H7 
L  5 
G2 
J  6 

K5 
ti  6 
K  6 
K6 
H  4 


County  Seat. 


Harrisville. . . . 

Autrain 

Allegan 

Alpena 

Bellaire 

Standish 

L'Anse  —  . . . 

Hastings 

Bay  City  . .  . . 
Fraukfort 

Saint  Joseph . 

Coldwater 

Marshall 

Cassopolis 

Charlevoix... 


Cheboygan 

Sault  Sainte  Marie.. 

Harrison 

Saint  Johns 

Grayling 

Escanaba 

Iron  Mountain 

Charlotte 

Harbor  Springs 

Flint 


Gladwin 

Bessemer 

Summit  City. 

Ithaca 

Hillsdale 


Houghton 

Badaxe 

Mason 

Ionia 

Tawas  City 

Crystal  Falls 

Mount  Pleasant. 

Jackson 

Kalamazoo 

Kalkaska 

Grand  Rapids.. . 

Eagle  River 

Baldwin 

Lapeer 

Leland 

Adrian 

Howell 

Newberry 

Saint  Ignace 

Mount  Clemens . 

Manistee 

Marquette 

Ludington 

Big  Rapids 

Menominee 

Midland 

Lake  City 

Monroe 

Stanton 

Atlanta 

Muskegon 

Newaygo 

Pontiac 

Hart 

Westbranch 

Ontonagon 

Hersey  

Mio 


Area  in 
equare 
miles. 


Gaylord 

Grand  Haven 

Rogers 

Roscommon 

Saginaw  West  Side.. 

Port  Huron 

Centerville 

Sanilac  Center 

Manistique 

Corunua 

Caro 

Paw  Paw 

Ann  Arbor 

Detroit 

Cadillac 


690 
924 
839 
584 
491 

.365 
890 
572 
4.37 
309 

506 
504 
697 
500 
423 

785 
1,580 
575 
570 
575 

1,127 
756 
566 
462 
648 

510 
1,152 
496 
672 
605 


Population. 


1,077 
841 
547 
5^5 
560 

1,143 
S68 
695 
575 
570 
862 
570 
575 

667 
355 
743 
575 
915 
1,146 

460 

547 

1,8.39 

501 

567 
1,044 
518 
566 
572 

720 
561 
522 
851 
897 
505 
568 
1,3.')5 
575 
5T2 

.539 
501 
600 
535 
832 
690 
.WO 
9t)0 
1,151 
542 

814 
625 
690 
626 
575 


1890. 


5,409 
1.238 

38,961 
15.681 
10,413 

ii,683 

3,036 
23,783 
56,413 

5,337 

41,285 
26,791 
43,501 
20,953 
9,686 

11,986 
12,019 

7,558 
26,509 

2,962 

I5,.330 

32!694 
8,756 
39,430 

4,208 
13,166 
13,355 
28.668 
30,660 

36,389 
28,545 
-37,666 
32,801 
15,224 

4,432 
18.784 
45,031 
39,273 

6,160 
109,922 

2,894 

6,605 

29,213 
7,944 
48,448 
20,858 
2,4.56 
7,830 

31.813 
24.230 
39,621 
16,386 

19,097 
3:^.639 
10,667 
5,048 
32,337 

32.637 
1,487 
40,013 
20,470 
41,245 

15.698 
5,583 
3,7.56 

14,6.30 
1,901 

4,272 
35,.358 

4,087 
2,0.33 
82,273 

.52.105 
25,.356 
32,689 
5,818 
30,953 

32,508 
30,641 
42,210 
257.114 
11,278 


1900. 


5,691 

6,868 
38,812 
18,254 
10,568 

9,821 

4,320 
28,514 
02.378 

9,685 

49,165 
27,811 
49.315 
20,876 
13,956 

I5,.516 
21,138 

8.360 
25,136 

2,943 

23,881 
17,890 
31,668 
16,9.31 
41,804 

6,664 
16,738 
20,479 
29,889 
29,865 

60,063 
.34,162 
39,818 
.34,.329 
10,246 

8,990 
22,784 
48,222 
44, 3K 

7,133 
139,714 

3,217 

4,957 

27,641 
10,556 
48,406 
19,664 
2,983 
7,703 

33,244 

27,856 
41,2.39 

18,885 

20,693 
27,046 
14,439 
9,308 
.33,754 

32,754 
3,2.34 
.37.036 
17.673 
44,793 

10,644 
7,766 
6,197 

17,859 
1,468 

6,176 

39,6S7 

8,821 

1,787 

81,222 

55,228 
23.889 
35.0.55 
7.889 
33,806 

.35,.'i90 
33,274 
47,761 
348,793 
16,845 


VJF 


V         MICHIGAN 

AND 

WISCONSIN 


COPYRIQMT,  1881  AND  1MJ,  6f  OODO,  MEAO  «  COMPAMV. 


1 


r\ 


FOLDOUT  BLANK 


AREA    AND    POPULATION   OP  WISCONSIN    BY   OOUNTIES. 


County. 


Adams 

Ashltind 

Barron     

Haylifld 

Brown 

Buflalo 

Burnett  

Calumet 

Chippewa.. 
Clark 

Columbia . . . 
Crawford  . . . 

Pane   

Uods;e 

Door 

Douglas 

Dunn 

Kau  t'laire  . . 

Horence 

Fond  du  Lac 

Forest 

Gates 

Grant 

Green 

Green  Lake 
Iowa 

Iron 

Jackson    . .  . 

Jefferson 

Juneau 

Kenosha 

Kewaunee. . . 
La  Crosse... 
Lafayette — 

Langlade 

Lincoln 

Manitowoc . . 
Marathon . . . 
Marinette . . . 
Marquette  . . . 
Milwaukee. . 

Monroe 

Oconto 

Oneida  

Outagamie.. 

O/aukec 

Pepin 

Pierce 

Polk 

Portage 

Price 

Racine 

Richland 

Rock 

St.  Croix.... 

8nnk 

Sawyer 

Sbawano.... 

Sheboygan . . 
Taylor.....   . 

Trenipealejnl 

Vernon 

Vilas 

Walworth... 
Wanhhurn  . . 
Waslitnctou  . 
Waukesha    . 

Waupaca 

Waushara. . . 
Winnebago, . 
Wood 


Map 

Index. 


County  Seat 


D5 

C  2 

A  3 

B  3 

E  4 

B  4 

A  .3 

F  4 

n  3 

V  4 

D  5 

li  5 

J)  5 

E  5 

V  4 

A  2 

A  4 

B  4 

E  3 

E  5 

E  3 

B  3 

C  6 

D  8 

D  5 

C  6 

C  2 

C  4 

E  6 

C  4 

£  6 

F  4 

B  5 

C  6 

D  3 
D3 

F  4 
D4 

E  3 

D  8 

F  6 

C  5 

E  4 

D  3 

E  4 

F  5 

A  4 

A  4 

A  3 

D  4 

c:  3 

E  6 

V  5 

D  C. 

A  3 

K  .'i 

»  3 

D  4 

E  .••, 

(•  3 

II  4 

II  5 

I)  3 

R  G 

n  3 

II  5 

E  5 

T)  4 

1)  4 

E  4 

C  4 


Friendship . 

Ashland 

Barron 

Washburn . . 
Greeubay . . . 


Alma    

Grantsburg 

Chilton 

Chippewa  Falls. 
Neillsville 


Portage 

Prairie  du  Chien. 

Madison 

Juneau  

Sturgeon  Bay 


Superior 

Menomonie  . . 

Eau  Claire 

Florence 

Fond  du  Lac . 


Crandon  . 


Hurley 

Black  River  Falls. 

Jefferson  

Mauston 

Kenosha 


Lancaster . . 

Monroe 

Dartf ord  . . . 
Dodgeville.. 


Kewaunee . 
La  Crosse.. 
Darlington  . 

Antigo 

Merrill 


Manitowoc . 

Wausau 

Marinette  . . 
Montello. . .. 
Milwaukee  . 


Sparta 

Oconto 

Rhinelander . 
.■Vppletou 


Port  Washington . 

Durand 

Kllswortli 

Balsam  Lake 


Stevens  Point 

Phillips   

Hiicine 

Richland  Center. 


-Tanesville. 
Hudson  . . . 
BaralTOs. .. 
nay  ward . . 
Shawano. . 


Sheboygan  . . 
Medford  .... 
Whiteluill... 

Virrxpia 

Eagle  River 


Elkhom.  .. 
Shell  Ijike. 
Westbend . . 
Waukeska. , 


square 
miles. 


Waupaca 

Wautonul 

<  >slikosli 

iirand  Rapids. 


682 
930 

878 

1,497 

518 

W,i 

881 

317 

1.H38 

1,200 

T7C 
557 
1,188 
884 
454 

1,319 
844 
620 
498 
720 

1,421 

1457 
576 
364 


548 
790 
274 

.327 
475 
634 
855 
885 

,190 

1,5.32 

1,396 

451 

228 

915 

1,0K) 

EOO 

6.34 

226 
2:« 
.543 
933 

800 

1,241 

323 

570 

706 

711 

820 

1,.342 

1,135 

510 
965 
934 
792 
907 

,W2 
K3'l 
42.3 
502 

749 
639 
4n! 
785 


Population. 


6,889 
20,063 
15,416 

7,390 
39,164 

15.997 
4.393 
16.ra9 
25.143 
17,708 

28,350 
15.987 
69..')78 
41,984 
15,682 

13,4'.8 
a2,6M 
30,673 
2,604 
44,088 

1,012 


36.651 
22,7.32 
15,163 
22,117 


15,797 
.33.5.30 
17,121 

l.'i,5Sl 

16,155 
.38,801 
20.265 
9.465 
12,008 

37.831 
30,3i;9 
aO,.3(H 
9,676 
2:i6.101 

2:1,211 

15,009 

5.U10 

38,690 

14,913 

6.9:i2 

20,385 

12,968 

.24,798 

5,2.')8 

.36,268 

1P,121 

4.3,220 
2:1.189 
30,,575 
1,977 
19,236 

42,489 

6,731 

18,920 

25,111 


27,800 

2,920 

22,751 

.3:1.270 

26,7fl4 

.v),(i9r 

18.127 


1900. 


9.141 
20,176 
23,677 
14,392 
46,359 

16,765 
7,478 
17,078 
a3.0:i7 
25,848 

31,121 
17.286 
69,4-)5 
46.6:11 
17,583 

36.335 
25,043 
31,692 
3,197 
47,589 

1,396 


38,881 
22.719 
15,797 
23,114 

6.616 
17,466 
»1,789 
20.629 
21,707 

17,212 
42.997 
20.959 
12.653 
16,269 

42,261 
43,256 
30.822 
10,609 
3:30,017 

28,103 

20.874 

8.875 

46,247 

10,.363 

7,!K« 

33,913 

17,801 

29,483 

9,106 

45.644 

19,483 

,51,203 
26,830 
33,006 
3,593 
27,475 

,50,.345 
11,262 
2.3,114 
28,351 
4,929 

29,259 
,'>,.521 
2.3.589 
35,229 

.31,615 
1.6,9?2 
.58,325 
25,865 


MICHIGAN. 


441 


MICHIGAN. 


stones,  with  largi'  tuMtiil)iitions  from  tlie  older 
nn'ks  of  Canada.  In  tlii'  nurtlicrn  poitidns.  where 
the  outcropping  rock  was  a  Paleozoic  sandstone, 
the  soil  is  light  and  worthless  and  lit  only  for 
pine  and  other  trees. 

.MiNEK.iL  KESounrES.  The  minerals  for  which 
Michigan  is  best  known  are  copper  and  iron. 
Copper  mining  in  the  State  dates  from  1845. 
The  output  developed  at  a  much  faster  rate  than 
that  of  the  whole  country,  so  that  in  1870 
Michigan  produced  aliout  11,000  tons  out  of  a 
total  of  I '2,000  tons.  IJy  the  time  Montana  and 
Arizona  l)egan  to  produce  copper,  the  output 
of  .Michigan  had  doubled,  amounting  to  over 
22,000  tons  in  1880.  With  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  Montana  deposits  Michigan  fell  to 
the  second  place  (188")  as  a  copper  producer, 
and,  although  its  output  has  been  steadily  grow- 
ing, its  contribution  to  the  total  copper  output 
of  till'  country  has  relatively  decreased.  The 
copper  deposits  of  Michigan  are  confined  to  the 
peninsula,  protruding  into  Lake  Superior,  and 
tlie  best-known  mines  are  the  Calumet  and  Hecla. 
They  yield  over  one-half  of  the  output  of  the 
State.  In  1901  Jlichigan  produced  69.772  long 
tons  of  fine  copper,  or  25.9  per  cent,  of  the  total 
for  tlie  United  States,  as  compared  with  38.2 
per  cent,  produced  by  Montana  and  21,7  by 
Arizona. 

Next  to  copper  tlie  chief  mineral  of  Michigan 
is  iron,  in  regard  to  which  the  State  occupies 
the  foremost  position  in  the  country,  although 
its  output  in  1901  was  exceeded  in  quantity  by 
tliat  of  Jlinnesota.  The  iron  deposits  are  found 
cliiefiy  in  the  Marquette,  Menominee,  and  Gogebic 
ranges,  and  consist  almost  entirely  of  red 
licinatite.  Iron  was  first  discovered  in  the  State 
near  Ihirquette  in  18-14.  and  mining  operations 
were  begun  in  1846.  Tlie  development  of  the 
industry  was  greatly  retarded  by  tlie  lack  of 
transportation  facilities,  so  that  in  1872  the 
output  of  iron  from  the  ISIarquette  range 
amounted  only  to  948,553  tons  of  ore.  In  1885 
the  Marquette,  Menominee,  and  Gogebic  ranges 
yielded  2,240,887  tons.  The  improvement  of  the 
facilities  for  tlie  transportation  of  the  ore  and 
the  extension  in  the  use  of  iron  and  steel  gave 
a  new  impulse  to  iron  mining  and  brought  Michi- 
gan to  the  position  of  tlie  foremost  iron-produc- 
ing State  of  the  Union.  In  1901  the  total  yield 
of  its  iron  ore  amounted  to  9.654,067  long  tons, 
valued  at  the  mines  at  $21,735,592.  Only  a  small 
jiart  of  the  iron  output  is  smelted  in  the  State, 
most  of  the  ore  being  transported  by  way  of 
tile  lakes  to  the  Lake  Erie  ports.  The  chief 
shipping  ports  are  Escanaba  on  Lake  Michigan 
and  ^farquette  on  Lake  Superior. 

Previous  to  1893  Michigan  was  the  leading 
salt-producing  State.  In  that  year  it  was  dis- 
placed by  Xew  York,  which  held  the  first  rank 
until  1901,  when  Michig.nn  again  became  first. 
The  total  production  of  salt  in  Michigan  in  1901 
was  7.729.641  barrels,  or  37,6  per  cent,  of  the 
output  of  the  United  States.  The  value  of  the 
salt  output  of  Michigan  for  the  same  year  was 
■$2,437,677.  The  chief  salt  mines  are  around 
Saginaw  Bay,  Jlichigan  is  also  the  leading  gyp- 
sum producing  State,  the  output  amounting  in 
1901  to  $267,243,  or  over  17  per  cent,  of'  the 
total  for  the  country.  Jlost  of  the  ,g;\'psum  is 
fciiind  in  Kent  County,  .-\niong  the  other  minerals 
may  be  mentioned  Portland  cement,  which  was 
produced  to  the  value  of  $1,128,290;  coal,  $1,753,- 


064;  gold,  SI.OOU  oz, ;  niineial  waters  (in  the 
production  of  which  Michigan  leads  all  other 
States),  $1,195,614;  and  various  clays  (furnish- 
ing material  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  tiles, 
;ind  pottery),  $1,542,034.  These  figures  were  for 
1901,  See  the  section  on  Mininy  in  the  article 
United  States, 

AoKicuLTURE.  The  southern  half  of  the  Lower 
Peninsula  of  Michigan  has  been  generally  cleared 
of  its  forests,  and  being  of  great  fertility,  is  one 
of  the  most  productive  agricultural  regions  in 
the  Union.  Originally  a  large  part  of  it  was 
considered  irreclaimable  because  of  its  extensive 
swamp  areas,  but  these  have  been  very  greatly 
reduced  by  drainage.  The  northern  part  of  the 
Lower  Peninsula,  and  the  Tapper  Peninsula,  are 
more  extensively  wooded,  and  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  latter  is  too  rugged  to  be  adaptable 
for  agriculture.  The  farming  area  is  continually 
spreading  to  the  northward,  and  every  decade  has 
witnessed  large  additions  to  the  farm  acreage. 
In  1900,  17,501,098  acres,  or  47.8  per  cent,  of 
the  total  area,  was  included  in  farms,  of  which 
67.2  per  cent,  were  improved.  In  Jlichigan  the 
average  size  of  farms  is  smaller  than  in  other 
North  Central  States,  the  average  in  Michigan  in 
1900  being  80.4  acres.  In  the  northern  peninsula 
the  farms  are  generally  larger  than  in  the  south- 
ern. In  1900,  32.4  per  cent,  of  the  farm  are.a  of 
the  State  was  included  in  farms,  which  ranged 
in  size  from  100  to  174  acres;  and  30.2  per 
cent,  of  the  farm  area  was  included  in  farms  of 
from  50  to  99  acres.  The  percentage  of  rented 
farms  is  not  large,  4.8  per  cent,  being  rented  for 
cash  rent  and  11.1  per  cent,  on  shares.  The 
agricultural  products  are  not  characterized  by 
the  predominance  of  any  one  crop.  The  northern 
location  of  Michigan  adapts  it  as  a  whole  to  the 
production  of  wheat,  oats,  and  the  hardier  cereals 
rather  than  corn,  yet  corn  is  largely  raised  south 
of  the  43d  parallel.  In  the  table  appended  the 
acreage  shown  for  corn,  oats,  and  barley  in  the 
last  census  year  is  scarcely  normal,  since  a  late 
spring  had  reduced  the  acreage  of  the  two  last, 
resulting  in  turn  in  an  increase  in  the  acreage 
of  the  former.  Wheat  in  the  decade  1890-1900 
more  than  regained  the  amount  lost  in  the 
preceding  decade,  Michigan  ranks  third  in  the 
production  of  buckwheat,  and  is  also  one  of  the 
leading  States  in  the  production  of  rye.  Hay 
and  forage  are  extensively  raised,  the  total 
acreage  devoted  to  them  being  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  crop. 

The  State  has  become  noteworthy  for  vegeta- 
bles and  fruits.  The  great  fertility  of  the  soil, 
the  influence  of  the  lakes  in  moderating  the 
climate,  and  the  easy  access  to  large  markets — 
particularly  Chicago — have  favored  this  branch 
of  agriculture.  New  York  alone  exceeds  Jlichi- 
gan in  the  area  devoted  to  potatoes.  In  1900 
this  acreage  was  57.2  per  cent,  greater  than  in 
1890,  the  absolute  gain  being  greater  than  that 
made  by  any  other  State.  The  State  is  far  in 
the  lead  of  all  others  in  the  production  of  beans, 
peas,  and  celery,  and  produces  the  bulk  of  the 
peppermint  and  chicory  of  the  country.  The  num- 
ber of  fruit  trees  about  doubled  in  the  decade 
1890-1900.  Jlore  than  half  of  the  gain  was  in 
the  number  of  peach  trees,  of  which  there  were 
8,104,415  in  1900.  The  number  of  plum  trees 
in  that  year  was  more  than  eight  times  the  num- 
ber reported  for  1890;  and  other  varieties  of 
trees   also   increased  remarkably.     The  number 


MICHIGAN. 


442 


MICHIGAN. 


of  apple  trees  i.s  still  in  excess  of  any  other 
variety,  there  being,  in  1900,  10,9:27,8'.»y.  The 
most  marked  recent  gains  have  been  in  the 
counties  bordering  on  Lake  ilichigau.  The  soil 
is  well  adapted  to  beet  culture.  Michigan  sur- 
passes every  other  State  in  the  acreage  of  sugar 
beets.  While  the  industry  began  as  early  as 
1880,  its  chief  development  has  been  since  18!)0. 
Large  additions  have  been  made  to  tlie  beet- 
growing  area  since  the  census  year  shown  in  the 
table. 

The  following  figures  show  the  acreage  of  the 
leading  crops  for  the  census  years  indicated : 


CHOPS 

Wheat 

Corn 

Oats 

Kye 

Buckwheat 

Barle.y 

Hay  and  forage 

I*oiatoe8 

Sufjrar  beots 

Dry  beans 

Dry  peas 


1900 


1.925, 

1,501, 

1,019, 

174, 

53, 

U, 

2.328, 

311, 

40, 

16T, 

71 


,189 
,438 
096 
,669 
,963 
,498 
,963 
,247 
.023 
376 


1890 


,501.225 
994,597 
,0.S5.759 
140,754 
70,046 
99,305 
024,786 
198,476 


Stock-Raising.  The  increased  interest  in  min- 
ing and  fruit  and  vegetable  raising  has  tended  to 
lessen  the  attention  ])aid  to  stock-raising.  There 
were,  however,  noteworthy  increases  in  the  num- 
ber of  dairy  cows  and  other  neat  cattle  from 
1890  to  1000.  The  number  of  horses  and  of  swine 
has  increased  every  decade  since  1850.  The  num- 
ber of  sheep  reached  a  maxinuim  in  1890,  the 
following  decade  showing  a  di-erease  of  32.3  per 
cent.,  but  the  number  in  1900  was  exc€"eded  in 
only  one  State  east  of  the  Mississippi  River — 
Ohio.  The  following  table  gives  the  number  of 
domestic  animals  on  farms  in  1890-1900: 


OOUESTIC    ANIMALS 

1900 

1890 

563.905 

812,503 

586,559 

3.011 

1,625,930 

1,163,200 

497,611 

Other  neat  cattle 

849,160 
616,117 

Mutes  and  asses 

3,822 

2,400,318 

Swine 

1,126.141 

Maxufacti'RES.  Michigan's  prominence  as  a 
manufacturing  State  is  largely  due  to  its  enor- 
mous timber  resources,  a  description  of  which 
with  their  products  will  be  found  below.  The 
percentage  of  the  population  engaged  in  the 
manufacturing  industry  was  2.3  in  1850,  and  7.1 
in  1890.  but  declined  *to  0.7  per  cent,  in  1900. 
The  number  engaged  increased  9I.fl  per  cent,  be- 
tween ]8S0  and  1.S90.  btit  only  9.2  iM'r  cent,  in  the 
following  decaile.  the  actual  number  of  persons 
eiiii)loyc.i  in  1900  Ucing  162.300.  The  smaller 
growth  of  the  latter  decade  is  <lue  to  the  diminish- 
ing forest  resources.  Tile  enipbiyiiient  ligures  are 
noteworthy  because  of  the  small  number  of  chil- 
dren included,  the  result  of  the  Stjite  law  which 
forbids  children  from  working  in  any  establish- 
ment. After  the  timber  products  the  most  impor- 
tant are  those  which  depend  on  the  agricultural 
Tcsourees  of  the  Slate.  The  (Inuring  and  grist- 
mill inilustry  is  quite  extensive.  In  recent  years 
it  has  shown  a  tendency  to  centralize  at  i)oints 
convenient  to  water-power  or  superior  shipping 
facilities.  Otlnr  industries  which  belong  to  this 
group  are  slaughtering  and  meat-]iaeking.  the 
manufacture  of  malt  liquors,  beet  sugar,  and  the 
tanning,  currying,  and  finishing  of  leather,  all  of 


which  are  in  a  flourishing  condition.  The  State 
facilities  for  the  leather  industry  are  full  of 
promise,  inasnmch  as  it  is  found  more  economical 
to  transport  the  hides  to  the  taiuiingbark  rcj;ion 
in  .Michigan  than  to  transport  the  bark  to  outside 
centres.  The  State  ranks  second  in  the  produc- 
tion of  beet  sugar,  the  industry  having  developed 
wholly  from  1890  to  1900. 

The  abundant  high-grade  iron  ores  obtained  in 
the  northern  peninsula  arc  within  easy  reach  of 
the  manufacturing  centres  in  the  south,  but  the 
inferiority  of  the  State's  coal  resources  greatly 
hinders  the  development  of  those  industries  which 
the  lireal  wealth  of  iron  ore  would  otherwise  guar- 
antee. The  iron  and  steel  industry  gained  very 
little  from  1S90  to  1900,  but  the  products  of  the 
foundry  and  machine  shop  increased  54.3  per  cent, 
during  that  period.  The  industry  is  well  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  State,  and  is  the  third 
largest  of  the  State's  manufactures.  The  manu- 
facture of  cars  is  another  of  the  Suite's  leading 
inditstries,  and  a  thriving  chemical  nianufacttir- 
ing  business  is  located  in  Detroit.  The  advan- 
tages of  Detroit  for  transportation,  being  located 
conveniently  for  lake  navigation,  and  at  the  point 
of  union  between  the  railroad  systems  of  Canada 
and  tile  States,  make  that  city  the  largest  manu- 
facturing centre  in  the  State.  The  other  manufac- 
turing jioints  are  also  in  the  older  developed 
southern  portion  of  the  Slate,  where  the  access 
to  the  country's  markets  is  easiest.  A  decided 
tendency  toward  centralization  is  evident  in  a 
number  of  industries. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  shows  the  rel- 
ative importance  of  the  leading  industries  for  the 
years  indicated. 

FoBESTs  AN»  Forest  Products.  From  the 
table  on  the  following  page,  it  may  be  seen  that 
the  lumber  industry  and  tl^ose  which  use  its  prod- 
ucts constitute  together  the  most  important  group 
of  niauufactures  in  I  he  State.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  forests  wcri>  formerly  conifers,  though  hard 
woods  were  intermingled  with  these  in  the  south. 
The  white  pine  was  originally  the  most  usual  vari- 
ety, but  has  l)een  so  extensively  drawn  upon  that  the 
estimated  stand  of  timln-r  iii  1S90— O.OOO.OttO.OOO 
feet- — was  less  than  one-sixth  the  amount  of  the 
estimate  in  18S0.  Hemlock  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  other  conifers.  Maple,  elm.  basswood. 
ash,  and  white  oak  are  (he  most  important  hard 
wotids.  The  lumber  and  timber  product  had  not 
acquired  large  proportions  until  about  IS70.  but 
from  that  date  until  ISllO  the  State  ranked  first 
in  the  value  of  its  product.  It  sulfered  a  heavy 
decline  in  the  following  years,  and  was  exceeded 
in  1900  by  Wisconsin.  The  total  forest  area,  in- 
eluding  stump  land,  was  estimated  in  1900  at 
38.000  square  miles.  The  method  of  exploiting 
the  forests  has  been  extremely  wasteful,  but  a 
sentiment  has  developeil  in  the  State  in  favor  of 
the  application  of  ajiproved  methods  of  forestry, 
and  a  commission  has  been  created  to  secure  bet- 
ter jirotection  for  the  forests. 

In  the  earlier  lumbering  period  the  logs  were 
usually  floated  to  the  mills  located  on  the  rivers 
and  lakes.  With  the  extension  of  railroads  into 
the  lunilu'ring  region  the  mills  were  established 
closer  to  (he  supply  of  timber.  It  will  be  seen 
from  the  following'  table  (hat.  although  the  value 
of  lumber  and  timber  products  decreased  from 
1S90  (n  1900.  nil  the  industries  using  these  prod- 
ucts made  noteworthy  gains,  particularly  the 
manufacture  of  carriages  and  wagons  and  furni- 


MICHIGAN. 


443 


MICHIGAN. 


INDUSTRIES 


Total  lor  selected  industries  for  State.. 


Increase,  1890  to  1900.. 
Ter  ceut.  of  increase... 


Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  industries  in  State | 


Flouring  and  grist  mill  products 

Slaughtering 

Liquors,  malt 

Leather,  tanned,  curried  and  finished  . 
Iron  and  steel..... 


Foundry  aud  machine  shop  products j 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by  steam  rail- 1 
road  companies ( 

Cars,  steam  railroad,  not  including  operations  of  railroad  com- 1 
panies \ 

Chemicals { 

Lumber  and  timber  products J 

Lumber,  planing  mill  products,  including  sash,  doors,  and  blinds  | 

Paper  and  wood  pulp '. | 

Furniture,  factory  product | 

Agricultural  implements j 

Carriages  and  wagons | 


Tear 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 

1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 


Number  of 
establish- 
ments 


3.818 
3,950 


•13'> 
•3.3 


32.  (i 

765 

6U 

29 

30 

77 

78 

27 

20 

10 

19 

3t>4 

260 

42 

17 

i 

S 

61 

1 

1,705 

2,124 

235 

230 

27 

31 

124 

116 

59 

65 

299 

407 


Average 
number 
wage- 
earners 


81,980 
93,141 


•11.161 
»12.0 

50.5 
62.6 

1.423 

1,852 

456 

329 

980 

687 

1.427 

337 

1,972 

1,427 

13,502 

7.892 

3,938 

2,098 

3,187 

3,723 

2.897 

1,315 

26,199 

54,308 

5.281 

4,788 

2.014 

1,219 

11,870 

8,688 

1,944 

1,586 

4,890 

2,893 


Value  of  prod- 
ucts, including 
custom  work 
and  repairing 


$189,517,713 
184,268,704 


$6,249,009 
2.3 

53.1 
66.3 

$23,593,901 

22,778,829 
5,337,417 
3,998,978 
5,296.825 
2,979,258 
6,016.590 
1,743,760 
5,902,058 
5,829,843 
20,615.804 
13,36:i.030 
4,332,927 
2,645,314 
9,920,780 
11,078,281 
6,364,724 
3,380,388 
64,290.520 
83,121,969 
12,469,532 
10,007,603 
4,217,869 
2,919.166 
14,614,606 
10.767.038 
6,339.508 
3,955,306 
11,205.602 
6,699,941 


•  Decrease. 


ture.  The  furniture  industry  is  centred  largely 
in  Grand  Rapids,  where  it  has  been  promoted 
especially  by  means  of  semi-annual  fairs. 

Transportation'.  Michijian's  extremely  favor- 
able location  with  respect  to  water  transportation 
lias  been  of  great  value  in  the  e.\ploitation  of  the 
local  mineral  and  forest  resources.  ( For  a  dis- 
cussion of  lake  transportation, see  Great  Lakes.) 
Besides  the  canals  connecting  the  main  lakes,  a 
short  canal  has  been  constructed  connecting  the 
northern  end  of  Lake  Portage  with  Lake  Su- 
perior. The  small  rivers  were  formerly  much 
u.sed  for  the  transportation  of  logs.  Owing  to 
its  peninsular  form,  the  State  is  not  traversed 
by  many  of  the  great  trunk  lines  of  the  coun- 
try. A  large  mileage,  however,  was  early 
recorded  for  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  and 
railway  construction  has  steadily  spread  to  the 
northward,  until  recently  almost  every  region  is 
well  supplied  with  railway  advantages.  Detroit 
ranks  first  among  the  lake  ports  in  the  amount 
of  its  exports,  and  second  in  the  amount  of  its 
imports.  The  customs  districts  Huron  and 
Superior  also  have  a  large  foreign  trade,  and  a 
small  trade  is  done  from  the  Michigan  district. 
The  first  railway  began  operation  in  18.36.  In  the 
following  year  the  State  undertook  the  building 
of  railways,  but  owing  to  financial  embarrassment 
the  lines  were  sold  after  a  decade  to  private  cor- 
porations. The  chief  lines  are  the  Lake  Shore 
and  llichigan  Southern,  the  iMichigan  Central, 
the  Chicago  and  Grand  Trunk,  and  the  P^re  Jlar- 
quette.  In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  very 
extensive  construction  of  interurban  electric  car 
lines.  There  is  one  railroad  commissioner.  His 
Vol.  XIII.— 29. 


duties  chiefly  pertain  to  the  physical  condition  of 
the  roads  and  to  accommodations. 

Banks.  The  Bank  of  Michigan,  organized  in 
Detroit  in  1817,  was  the  first  in  the  Territory'.  It 
incurred  large  losses  in  the  panic  of  1837-38,  and 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  trustees  for  liquida- 
tion in  1842.  In  1835,  shortly  before  Jlichigan  was 
admitted  as  a  State,  nine  new  banks  were  organ- 
ized. The  free  banking  law  of  1837  was  the  first  in 
the  United  States  to  put  into  practice  the  system 
of  securing  the  circulation  of  banks  by  deposit  of 
collaterals.  It  also  provided  for  examination  of 
lianks  by  bank  commissioners.  The  law  was  im- 
perfectly administered,  however,  and  in  1839  42 
banks  were  in  the  hands  of  receivers,  and  more 
than  a  million  dollars  of  bills  became  worthless. 
In  1844  the  banking  law  was  declared  uncon- 
stitutional. The  banking  system  of  the  State  did 
not  recover  from  this  depression  for  many  years, 
and  the  banking  business  was  carried  on  mainly 
by  brokers  and  private  bankers.  In  1857  a  new- 
banking  law  was  adopted,  similar  to  the  law  of 
New  York.  In  1002  there  were  84  national 
banks,  with  a  capital  of  ,$11,380,000;  surplus. 
.$3,410,000;  cash,  etc.,  $0,019,000;  loans.  $.59,464,- 
000.  and  deposits.  $04,057,000;  223  State  banks 
with  a  capital  of  $13,941,200;  surplus,  .$3,916.- 
280;  cash,  $8,471,249;  loans,  $04,074,091,  and 
deposits,  $1.32.517.710. 

Government.  The  original  Constitution  of 
1835  was  revived  in  1850,  wlien  many  features, 
radical  for  the  time,  were  introduced.  It  has 
been  amended  in  1866.  1870.  and  1876.  and  also 
in  1900.  when  it  was  provided  that  railway  cor- 
porations might  be  taxed  on  the  gross  value  of 


MICHIGAN. 


444 


MICHIGAN. 


their  property  and  franchises.  Amendments  to 
the  Constitution  may  hv  proposed  in  tither 
House,  the  apinuval  of  two-thirds  of  the  nienihcrs 
elected  to  cacli  Vieing  necessary  to  adoption,  fol- 
lowed by  tlie  approval  of  a  majority  of  the  (juali- 
fied  electors  of  the  State,  f^very  sixteenth  year, 
and  oftener  if  provided  by  law,  the  question  of 
the  general  revision  of  the  Constitution  is  sub- 
mitted to  the  electors,  and  if  approved  by  a  ma- 
jority vote  a  convention  must  be  called  by  the 
Legislature  for  that  purpose.  Suflfrage  is  granted 
to  male  citizens  above  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
wiio  have  resided  in  the  State  six  months,  and  in 
the  township  or  ward  twenty  days. 

Executive.  The  Lieutenant-tiovernor  and  the 
jiresident  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate  are  in  the 
line  of  succession  to  the  (Jovernorship  in  ca.se  of 
vacancy.  The  Governor  may  convene  special  ses- 
sions of  the  Legislature  and  exercise  the  usual 
pardoning  power,  subject  to  certain  regulations. 
Other  State  officers  are  the  Secretary  of  State, 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  treasurer, 
commissioner  of  the  land  odice,  auditor,  and  at- 
torney-general. All  these  officers  are  elected  at 
the  general  biennial  election,  and  serve  for  two 
years. 

Legislvtive.  There  are  32  Senators  elected  for 
two  years  from  single  districts,  in  the  composi- 
tion of  Avhich  counties  cannot  be  divided  iraless 
they  are  entitled  to  two  or  more  Senators.  The 
mininiuin  and  maxiiuum  constitutional  limits  to 
tlie  number  of  members  in  the  House  are  04  and 
100  respectively.  They  arc  also  elected  for  two 
years,  from  districts  comjiosed  of  contiguous  ter- 
ritory, in  the  formation  of  which  no  township  or 
city  can  be  divided.  Jlembers  are  paid  for  mile- 
age and  stationery,  and  .$.3  per  day  of  actual  at- 
tendance and  when  absent  on  accoimt  of  sickness; 
but  extra  compensation  may  be  granted  to  mem- 
bers from  the  rjijier  Peninsula.  Bills  may 
originate  in  either  House,  and  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  the  members  elected  to  each  overcomes  the 
(;overnnr"s  veto.  No  new  bill  can  be  introduced 
after  the  first  fifty  days  of  a  session.  Election 
of  members  is  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Mon- 
day of  November  of  even  years.  The  Assembly 
opens  on  the  first  Wednesday  of  January  of  odd 
years. 

Jiwci.\L.  The  Supreme  Court  consists  of  one 
Chief  .Justice  and  three  associates,  chosen  by  the 
people  for  eight  years.  The  State  is  divided  into 
judicial  circuits,  in  each  of  which  one  circuit 
judge  is  elected  for  six  years.  In  each  county 
organized  for  judicial  [nirposes  there  is  a  court 
of  iirobate.  the  judge  l)eing  elected  by  the  county' 
for  four  years.  .Justices  of  the  peace,  not  exceed- 
ing four  to  each  township,  are  elected  for  four 
years. 

Local  Government.  The  Legislature  may  con- 
fer upon  townships,  cities,  and  villages,  and  upon 
the  board  of  supervisors  of  the  several  counties, 
such  powers  of  a  local,  legislative,  and  admin- 
istrative character  as  it  may  deem  proper: 
and  may  organize  any  city  of  20.000  inhabitants 
into  a  county  when  the  majority  of  the  electors  of 
the  county  in  which  the  city  is  located  consent. 
Each  county  biennially  elects  a  sherifT,  clerk, 
treasurer,  register  of  deeds,  and  a  prosecuting  at- 
tome.v.  the  sheriff  not  being  eligible  to  office 
more  than  four  years  in  any  period  of  six  years. 
The  hoard  of  supervisors,  composed  of  one  rep- 
resentative from  each  organiz/"d  township,  has 
charge   (jf   briilges.   etc.,    and    may    raise   bv    tax 


$1000  per  year,  or  a  greater  amount,  if  the 
electors  consent.  Tliere  are  annually  elected  in 
each  township  a  supervisor,  clerk  (ex-officio 
school  inspector),  commissioner  of  highways, 
treasurer,  school  inspector,  not  exceeding  four 
constables,  and  an  overseer  of  highways  for  each 
highway  district. 

Statutory  Pbo\isions.  The  legal  rate  of  in- 
terest is  6  per  cent. ;  10  per  cent,  is  allowed  by 
contract.  The  penalty  for  usury  is  forfeiture  of 
debt  if  over  12  per  cent.  A  local-option  li<iuor 
law  was  passed  in  1887,  under  which  both  manu- 
facture and  sale  may  be  prohibited  within  the 
comity.  A  married  woman  may  carry  on  busi- 
ness in  her  own  name,  and  her  jjroperty  is  not 
liable  for  the  debts  of  lier  husband. 

Michigan  has  twelve  members  in  the  National 
House  of  Representatives.  The  capital  of  the 
State  is  Lansing. 

Finance.  The  first  Legislature  of  the  State 
authorized  in  1837  a  loan  of  .$5,000,000,  to  be  de- 
voted to  public  improvements.  Onl.v  a  small  part 
of  the  bonds  were  sold  direct  and  paid  in  full. 
About  two-thirds  of  them  were  deposited  with  the 
L'nited  States  Bank  of  Pennsylvania,  which  failed 
in  1841  after  selling  some  of  the  bonds.  The 
State  became  liable  for  interests  on  these  bonds, 
for  which  it  never  received  an.v  payment.  It 
could  not  meet  the  interest  payment  in  1842. 
An  adjustment  was  soon  reached,  which 
amounted  to  a  partial  repudiation  of  the  State 
debt.  The  State  debt  amounted  in  1861  to  $2,- 
310.328.  increased  during  the  war  to  $3,880,399, 
but  fell  to  $904,000  in  1880,  and  was  almost  alto- 
gether extinguished  in  1890.  The  present  Con- 
stitution contains  very  strict  provisions  against 
formation  of  a  State  debt,  any  debts  over  $.50,000 
being  absolutely  prohibited  except  in  case  of  war 
or  insurrection.  The  indebtedness  dates  from  the 
Civil  War.  and  amounted  in  1902  only  to 
$410,300.  The  State  must  not  subscribe  to  the 
stock  of  anv  company,  shall  not  lend  its  credit  to 
any  one.  and  imist  not  undertake  any  internal  im- 
provement unless  it  po.ssesses  a  specific  grant  of 
land  or  other  property  for  that  purpose.  The 
income  of  the  State  grows  steadilv,  and  was 
$1,510,000  in  1870.  $2,007,000  in  1880,  and  $3,- 
181.000  in  1890.  In  1902  the  total  receipts  were 
$7,079,429.  and  expenditures  $6,253,141,  leaving 
a  surplus  of  $826,288.  and  a  total  balance  in 
.Tune,  1902.  of  $3,453,811.  The  revenue  of  the 
State  is  derived  partly  from  direct  taxation 
(about  65  per  cent.),  and  partly  from  specific 
taxes  on  railroads  (about  2.3  per  cent.),  and  on 
mining  companies,  banks,  insurance  and  express 
companies.  Altogether,  about  one-third  of  the 
income  comes  from  these  specific  taxes. 

^Militia.  The  militia  is  composed  of  all  able- 
bodied  male  citizens  between  the  ages  of  eighteen 
and  fortv-five.  except  such  as  are  exempted  by 
law.  In  1901  the  organizx-d  militia  numbered 
3106  enlisted  men  and  commissioned  officers. 

Population.  The  pc.pulation  of  :Michigan  in- 
creased from  4762  in  ISIO  to  31.639  in  1830;  212,- 
267  in  1840;  397.654  in  18.50;  1,184,059  in  1870; 
2.093.889  in  1890;  and  2.420.982  in  1900.  The 
rate  of  gain  for  the  last  decade  was  15.0 
per  cent.,  as  against  20.7  per  cent,  for  the 
l'nited  States.  From  twent.v-seventh  in  rank 
in  1830.  the  State  rose  to  ninth  in  1880. 
where  it  has  remained.  The  density  of  the 
population  is  42  persons  to  the  square  mile. 
The  prairie  region  in  the  south  was  naturally  the 


MICHIGAN. 


443 


MICHIGAN. 


first  portion  of  tlie  State  settled,  and  the  mass  of 
the  popuhition  is  still  found  in  the  southern  half 
of  the  Lower  Peninsula.  The  population  is  stead- 
ily increasing,  however,  in  the  more  northern 
regions.  The  early  settlers  were  largely  from 
New  England  and  New  York,  but  a  very  consider- 
alde  Herman  element  settled  in  the  State  about 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  posi- 
■  I  tion  of  Michigan  relative  to  Canada  has  resulted 
i  in  giving  it  a  large  Canadian  element — greater 
than  that  of  any  other  State  e.xcept  Massachu- 

-  setts.  The  Canadians  form  the  most  numerous  for- 
eign-born element  in  the  State.  They  predominate 
in  many  northern  localities.  The  German-born  pop- 
ulation is  second  in  importance  among  the  for- 
eign-born.    The  total  foreign-born  population  in 

-  1000  was  521,053.  In  that  year  there  were  2G 
cities  having  each  over  SOOO  inhabitants,  and 
aggregating  30.9   per   cent,   of   the   total   popula- 

•  tion.  The  largest  cities,  with  their  population  in 
1000,  are  as  follows:  Detroit,  285,704;  Grand 
Eapids,  87,565;  Saginaw,  42,345:  Bay  City, 
27,028;  Jack.son,  25.180:  Kalamazoo,  '24,404; 
Muskegon,  20,818;  Port  Huron,  19,154:  Battle 
Creek,  18,563;  Lansing,  16,485;  Ann  Arbor,  14,- 
509;   ilanistee,   14,260. 

Religion.  The  ilethodist  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  churches  are  in  the  lead,  followed  in  the 
order  named  by  the  Lutherans,  Baptists,  Presby- 
terians, Congregationalists,  and  Protestant  Epis- 
copalians. 

Education.  In  1900  the  total  illiterate  popu- 
lation ten  years  of  age  and  over  was  4.2  per  cent. 
In  1900  there  were  498,665  pupils  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools,  of  whom  350,000  were  in  average 
attendance.  In  1899  there  were  092  graded  and 
6469  ungraded  school  districts  in  the  State,  but 
the  attendance  in  the  former  was  much  greater 
than  in  the  latter.  The  average  duration  of  the 
graded  -schools  was  9.26  months ;  of  the  un- 
graded, 8.05  months.  There  are  county  boards 
of  three  school  examiners,  who  determine  the 
qualifications  of  persons  proposing  to  teach  in 
public  schools;  township  boards  of  three  school 
inspectors,  whose  title  indicates  their  work;  and 
district  boards  of  six  trustees  for  graded  school 
districts  and  boards  of  three  trustees  for  un- 
graded ones,  their  duties  being  to  look  after  the 
educational  interests  of  the  respective  districts, 
specify  the  studies  to  be  pursued,  prescribe  text- 
books, and  elect  teachers.  No  separate  school  for 
any  race  is  allowed.  Schools  must  be  unsec- 
tarian  and  must  be  taught  at  least  nine  months 
in  districts  having  eight  hundred  or  more  youths 
of  .school  age,  and  at  least  five  months  in  dis- 
tricts having  from  thirtv  to  eight  hundred,  and 
three  months  in  smaller'districts.  In  1899-1900 
there  were  15,564  teachers,  of  whom  12,093  were 
females.  The  average  monthly  wages  of  men  in 
1900  were  $44.48,  and  of  women  .$35.35.  The 
State  contains  normal  schools  at  Mount  Pleasant, 
Ypsilanti,  and  Marquette.  The  primary  school 
fund  amounted  in  1897  to  $4,646,204.  The  greater 
part  of  this  fund  was  acquired  from  the  sale  of 
the  sixteenth  section  of  land  in  every  township. 
The  remainder  Avas  acquired  from  the  sale  of 
swamp  lands.  The  total  expenditure  of  the  State 
for  public  schools  in  1899  1900  was  $0,539.11(1, 
of  winch  $4,312,245  was  paid  as  salaries  to  teach- 
ers and  superintendents.  The  State  University, 
located  at  Ann  Arbor,  is  one  of  the  foremost 
higher  educational  institutions  in  the  country. 
The  university  fund  amounted  in   1897  to  $549.- 


621.  The  State  also  maintains  an  agricultural 
college  and  a  school  of  mines.  In  1897  there  was 
a  State  educational  fund  of  $509,951.  Besides 
the  State  institutions,  there  are  the  following  de- 
nominational schools:  Adrian  College,  at  Adrian 
(Methodist)  ;  Albion  College,  at  .\lbion  (Metho- 
dist) ;  Alma  College,  Alma  (Presbyterian)  ;  De- 
troit College.  Detroit  (Roman  Catholic)  ;  Hillsdale 
College,  Hillsdale  (Free  Baptist)  ;  Hope  College, 
Holland  (Reformed)  ;  Kalamazoo  College,  Kala- 
mazoo (Baptist)  ;  Olivet  College,  Olivet  (Con- 
gregational ) . 

Chabitable  and  Penal  Institutions.  There 
is  a  State  board  of  correction  and  charities  ap- 
pointed by  the  (governor  for  a  term  of  8  years. 
This  board  is  authorized  to  examine  into  the 
conditions  of  every  city  and  county  poor-house 
and  county  jail,  visit  the  State  charitable,  penal, 
and  reformatory  institutions,  and  make  reports 
and  recommendations  concerning  the  same.  The 
law  authorizes  the  Governor  to  appoint  an  agent 
of  the  board  in  every  county  to  look  after  the 
care  of  juvenile  offenders  and  dependent  children. 
The  system  is  intended  to  secure  reformation 
without  commitment  to  State  institutions,  and 
only  one-third  of  the  children  arrested  are  sent 
to  the  Industrial  School  for  boys  at  Lansing,  and 
to  the  Industrial  Home  for  girls  at  Adrian.  The 
State  Public  School  for  the  care  of  dependent 
and  neglected  children  is  located  at  Coldwater, 
The  Michigan  School  for  the  Deaf  is  located  at 
Flint,  and  the  School  for  the  Blind  at  Lansing. 
The  State  insane  asylums,  with  the  number  of 
patients  June  30,  1900,  were  as  follows;  Michi- 
gan Asylum  for  the  Insane,  at  Kalamazoo,  1392 
patients :  Eastern  Michigan  Asylum,  at  Pontiac, 
1050  patients:  Northern  Michigan  Asylum,  at 
Traverse  City,  1050  patients;  and  the  Upper 
Peninsula  Hospital  for  Insane,  at  Newberry,  345 
patients.  The  charge  of  maintenance  of  the 
State's  insane  has  been  gradually  decreased  from 
$4.00  per  week  in  1883-84  to  $3!^08  in  1899-1900. 
The  Wayne  County  Asylum  at  Eloise  (414  pa- 
tients) is  recognized  by  the  State  and  is  under 
the  supervision  of  the  State  board.  The  State 
has  a  home  for  the  feeble-minded  and  epileptics 
at  Lapeer.  The  State  jienal  institutions  are  the 
Michigan  State  Prison  at  .Jackson ;  the  State 
House  of  Correction  at  Ionia;  and  the  Upper 
Peninsula  Prison  at  Marquette.  On  June  30, 
1900,  1372  convicts  were  confined  in  these  institu- 
tions. Besides  these  the  Detroit  House  of  Cor- 
rection receives  prisoners  from  diflferent  counties. 
Most  of  the  convicts  in  this  institution  are  on 
short-time  sentences.  The  State  has  a  parole  law 
under  which  certain  prisoners  are  allowed  to  he 
at  large,  while  still  under  the  control  of  the 
prison  authorities.  The  State  House  of  Correc- 
tion was  intended  as  an  adult  reformatory,  but 
new  legislation  has  converted  it  into  an  ordinary 
prison,  to  which  all  classes  of  prisoners  are 
sentenced.  Part  of  the  prisoners  are  employed 
under  the  State  account  .system,  others  by  con- 
tractors who  hire  the  convicts.  Various  occupa- 
tions are  followed,  shirt-making  and  laundering 
probably  being  the  most  important.  The  prison- 
ers in  county  jails  are  generally  kept  in  idleness. 

History.  Remains  of  ancient  mines  and  mining 
implements  have  been  found  witliin  the  present 
limits  of  the  State.  The  white  discoverers  and 
first  settlers  were  French  missionaries  and  fur 
traders,  some  of  whom  visited  the  site  of  Detroit 
as  earlv  as  1610.     In  1641   French  .Jesuits  found 


MICHIGAN. 


446 


MICHIGAN. 


their  way  to  the  falls  of  tlie  Saint  Mary.  The 
first  actual  settleineut  by  Europeans  within  the 
limits  of  the  .State  was  the  mission  at  Sault 
Sainte  Marie,  founded  by  Father  Marquette  and 
others  in  1008.  Three  years  later  MiL-hiliuiacki- 
nae  (now  Mackinac)  was  established.  In  1079 
and  ItiSU  forts  were  built  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Saint  Joseph,  and  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Huron, 
and  in  1701  Antoine  de  la  Motlie-C'adillac  found- 
ed Detroit.  Tlir(iuf;h  the  entire  period  of  French 
occupation  the  town  dragged  out  a  painful  exist- 
ence, though  the  centre  of  a  considerable  fur 
trade  and  a  place  of  meeting  for  friendly  Indian 
tribes.  The  territory,  with  other  French  pos- 
sessions, fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Knglish  at 
the  end  of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Detroit 
was  occupied  in  17ti;j.  but  early  in  Jlay  of  that 
year  the  Indians,  loyal  to  the  French,  rose  under 
Pontiae  (q.v. ),  massacred  the  garrison  at  Jlacki- 
nac,  and  besieged  Detroit  for  about  five  months. 
The  English  showed  no  capacity  for  government 
and  the  country  made  no  progress  under  their 
rule.  By  the  Quebec  Act  of  1774  the  territorj' 
became  a  part  of  Canada,  and  during  the  Revolu- 
tion Detroit  was  the  starting  point  for  many 
Indian  expeditions  which  laid  waste  the  Amer- 
ican frontier.  Hy  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1783  the 
region  passed  to  the  I'nited  States,  although  Eng- 
land did  not  at  once  relinquish  possessi(m.  After 
1784  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest,  deeming  them- 
selves unjustly  treated  by  the  Americans,  waged 
a  bloody  warfare  against  tlie  Western  settlements 
till  they  were  brought  to  terras  by  General  Wayne 
in  1795.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  in  that 
year,  they  ceded  large  tracts  of  land  on  the  east- 
ern shore  of  the  southern  peninsula  of  Michigan 
and  in  the  north  to  the  United  States.  It  was  not 
until  .June  11,  1796,  that  the  United  States  took 
actual  possession  of  Detroit,  though  the  region 
was  included  within  the  Imundaries  of  the  North- 
west Territory,  so  called,  and  amenable  to  the  ordi- 
nance of  1787.  In  1800  Ohio  was  set  off  from 
the  Northwest  Territorj',  including  the  eastern 
portion  of  Jlichigan,  but  in  1802  the  whole  of  the 
Lower  Peninsula  was  annexed  to  the  Territory 
of  Indiana.  Its  southern  boundary  was  a  line 
drawn  east  from  the  southerly  extreme  of  Lake 
Michigan  to  Lake  Erie.  At  that  time  the  white 
population  of  Michigan  was  about  4000.  consist- 
ing for  the  most  part  of  Canadian  traders  and 
coureurs  de  hoi.i.  On  .Tvine  30,  180.5.  Michigan 
was  set  ofT  as  a  separate  Territory,  witli  sub- 
stantially its  |)resent  limits,  and  (!en.  William 
Hull  was  appointed  (lovernnr.  During  the  War 
of  1812  the  inhabitants  were  harassed  by  the 
British  and  Indians;  .Mackinac  was  captured 
by  the  British;  Detroit  was  surrendered  by  Gov- 
ernor Hull  (q.v.)  :  and  at  Frenrhtown.  in  1813, 
a  number  of  American  prisoners  of  war  were  mas- 
sacred by  the  Indians.  (For  military  operations 
during  the  War  of  1812.  see  Uniteu  States.) 
At  dilTerent  times  after  1814  the  Indians  ceded 
large  tracts  of  land,  and  by  lS3l'i  all  the  Lower 
Peninsula  and  part  of  the  Upper  Peninsula  had 
licen  freed  from  Indian  title.  Surveys  were  made 
as  early  as  ISlli.  an<l  in  181X  a  large  tract  of 
land  was  put  on  the  market.  In  181il  the  Terri- 
tory was  authorized  to  send  a  deh'irate  to  Con- 
gress, and  in  1823  the  system  of  rule  by  a  Gov- 
ernor and  three  judges  was  replaced  by  that  of 
a  Governor  and  a  council  of  nine,  selected  from 
eighteen  chosen  by  the  people;  in  \H2!i  the  coun- 
cil was  increased  to  thirteen,  and  after  1827  the 


members  were  elected  by  popular  vote.  In  1835 
a  State  Constitution  was  adopted  by  a  conven- 
tion called  for  that  purpose,  but  the  admission  of 
Michigan  into  the  Union  was  delayed  by  a  dis- 
pute with  Ohio  concerning  a  strip  of  land  on 
the  southern  Imundary.  There  was  danger  that 
the  dispute  wuuld  lead  to  bhwdshed.  but  in  I83G 
Congress  agreed  to  admit  Michigan  upon  condi- 
tion that  she  should  surrender  her  claim  to  the 
disputed  territory  and  acce])t  in  lieu  thereof  a 
larger  area  in  the  Up|)er  Peninsula.  The  first 
convention  called  to  consiiler  this  proposal,  .Jan- 
uary 20,  18311.  rejected  it,  but  it  was  acce])ted 
by  a  second  in  December,  lS3ri,  and  on  .January 
20,  1837,  Michigan  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  following  have  been  (lovernors  of  the  State 
since  its  organization  as  a  Territory: 

TEBRITOBIAL 

William  Hull 1805-13 

Lcwisf'ass 1813-31 

(Jeorge  B.  Porter 1»31-:J4 

Stevens  T.  Mason 1S34-35 

John  .S.  Homer 1835-36 

STATE 

.Stevens  T.  Mason Democrat 1830-40 

William  Woodbridge Whig - 1840-41 

James  W.  Uurdou (acting).    "     1841^2 

John  S.  Barry Democrat 1842-46 

Alpheus  Fetch "         1846-47 

William  L.  lireenly  (acting)  Democrat 1847-48 

Kpaphrodittm  Ransom.... Democrat 1848-50 

John  S.  Barry "  1850-52 

Kobflt  .M.Cli'lland "  18,i2-53 

Andrt'W  I'arsnns  (acting).  "  1853-55 

Kinlev  S   Bingham Republican ISSS-Iia 

Mo.ses  Winner "  1859-61 

.Austin  Blair "         1S61-65 

Henrv   H.  Crapo "  1866-69 

Henry  P.  Baldwin ■•         1869-73 

John  J.  Bagley "  1873-77 

Charles  M.  Croswell ••         1877-81 

David  H.  .Teronie "  1881-83 

Josiah  W.  Begolc Democrat  and  Greenback 1883-85 

Uussel  .\.  .\lger Republican 1886-87 

Cyrus  (J.  Luce "         1S87-91 

Edwin  B.  Winans Democrat 1891-93 

John  T.  KIch Republican 1893-97 

Hazen  S.  I'ingree "         1897-1901 

AaroaT.  Bliss "         1901-05 

The  first  printing  jiress  in  Michigan  was  set 
up  in  1809.  and  in  1.S17  the  first  newsiiaper  was 
published  at  Detroit.  The  opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal  (1825)  poured  a  vast  stream  of  immigra- 
tion into  Michigan,  ami  at  the  time  of  the  ad- 
mission of  the  State  the  population  was  nearly 
70,000,  many  of  them  from  New  England  and  New 
York.  The" first  bank  was  established  at  Detroit, 
in  1818.  and  by  1837  there  were  lifteen  such  in- 
stitutions. After  1835  the  coimtry  went  specula- 
tion mad,  a  general  banking  law  was  passed  in 
1837.  and  the  State  was  llnodcd  with  paper  mon- 
ey. The  ]>anic  of  1837  <lid  not  interfere  with  the 
completion  of  the  elaliorate  system  of  internal  im- 
provements that  had  been  planned.  The  State 
undertook  the  buihling  of  tliree  railways  across 
the  Lower  Peninsula,  but  after  running  greatly 
into  debt  was  forced  in  1846  to  sell  them  to  pri- 
vate persons  at  a  loss.  .\n  act  establishing  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  was  passed  in  1817.  acade- 
mies and  high  schools  were  projected  in  1821. 
and  a  board  of  education  was  createil  in 
1829.  but  the  common  schools  did  not  really 
come  into  exi-fence  till  after  1835.  an<l  teaching 
in  the  iiniver-ity  was  begun  on  an  appreciable 
scale  about  1845.  In  1847  the  capital  was  re- 
moved from  Detroit  to  Lansing.  From  1853  to 
1876  lirohibilion  of  the  sale  of  liquor  was  a  part 
of  the  Constitution.  In  IS76  prohibition  was 
abolished   and   a    hea\-y   liquor   tax   substituted. 


MICHIGAN. 


44T 


MICHIGAN. 


Legislation  after  the  Civil  War  was  concerned 
lar^'ely  with  the  taxation  of  corporations.  In 
llS8;)  ihe  Australian  ballot  was  adojited;  a  law 
jiroviding  for  the  election  of  Presidential  electors 
i>y  districts,  instead  of  on  a  ijeneral  ticket,  was 
jiassed  in  18^1,  but  was  repealed  in  1SII3.  A 
factory  ins]iection  act  was  enacted  in  ISiU,  and 
a  stringent  anti-trust  law  in  18U!I.  Jliehigan  has 
consistently  supported  the  Kepublican  Party 
since  its  formation,  except  for  three  lapses — in 
1S82  and  1S83,  when  the  Democrats  and  Oreen- 
liack  parly  in  fusion  elected  their  candidate  for 
(iovernor,  and  in  1890,  when  the  Democrats  alone 
carried  tiie  State. 

BiuLiOGRAPHY,  Micliigaii  (Icoloyicnl  fiurvcy 
Rr/iiirt  (Lansing,  1839  et  seq.)  :  Laniman,  His- 
tory of  Michigan  Civil  and  Topograijhical  (New 
York,  1839);  Sheldon,  The  h'arlg  History  of 
Michigan  (New  York,  1856)  ;  Campbell,  Outline 
iif  the  Political  History  of  Michigan  (Detroit, 
1870)  ;  Cooley,  Michigan:  A  History  of  Oorcrn- 
meiits  (Boston,  1885)  ;  Farmer,  The  History  of 
Detroit  and  Michigan  (Detroit,  1889)  ;  Mc- 
Laughlin.  History  of  Higher  Education  in  Michi- 
gan (Washington,  1891):  Beal  and  Wheeler, 
Michigan  Flora  (Lansing,  1892);  Champlin, 
"Industrial  Prosperity,"  in  Michigan  Political 
ficienee  Association  Publications  (Lansing,  1897). 

MICHIGAN,  Lake.  The  second  in  size  of 
the  great  fre^h-water  lakes  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent,  and  the  only  one  lying  wholly  in 
the  L'nited  States,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
east  by  Michigan,  on  the  south  by  Indiana,  and 
on  the  west  by  Illinois  and  Wisconsin  (Map: 
United  States,  H  2).  It  contains  an  area  of 
22,450  square  miles.  It  is  over  300  miles  long, 
and  its  mean  breadth  is  about  75  miles;  the 
mean  depth  is  about  870  feet.  It  is  581 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  has  been 
found  by  accurate  observations  to  have  a  slight 
lunar  tidal  wave.  Its  banks  are  low  and  sandy, 
containing  rocky  sections  of  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone, but  few  high  blutfs.  Inland  the  sand-hills 
rise  to  the  height  of  150  feet.  On  the  Wisconsin 
side  the  land  is  being  gradually  worn  away, 
while  a  gain  is  noticeable  on  the  ilichigan  side. 
The  lake  communicates  with  Lake  Huron  through 
the  Straits  of  Mackinac,  and  is  connected  with 
the  ^Mississippi,  svipposed  to  have  been  its  ancient 
outlet,  by  the  old  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal 
and  the  new  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  (q,v.) 
at  Chicago.  Like  all  the  Great  Lakes,  it  is 
subject  to  violent  storms,  and  its  shores 
are  guarded  by  twenty-three  light-houses.  The 
best  harbors  are  at  the  mouths  of  tributary 
rivers;  the  chief  ones  are  Chicago.  Jlihvaukee, 
Escanaba.  and  Grand  Haven.  Its  islands  are  in 
the  northern  portion,  forming  the  Manitou 
group ;  the  largest,  Beaver  Island,  is  50  miles 
long.  It  has  two  large  bays — Green  Bay,  100 
miles  long,  and  Grand  Traverse  Bay.  30  miles 
long — and  three  of  lesser  dimensicms.  Little 
Traverse  Bay,  Little  Bay  of  Noquet,  and  Big  Bay 
of  Noquet.  Ice  remains  longer  in  the  Straits  of 
Slackinac  than  elsewliere.  and  navigation  is 
nstially  closed  for  four  consecytive  months.  Lake 
Michigan  has  important  fisheries;  white-fish 
:ind  lake  trout  are  taken  and  exported  in  large 
quantities,  fresh  and  canned.  The  largest  rivers 
wliich  empty  into  it  are  the  Saint  .Toseph,  Mus- 
kegon, (irand,  Kalamazoo,  and  JIanistee,  all  in 
Jliehigan  :  the  Fox  in  Wisconsin,  emptying  into 
Green  Bav:   and  the  Menominee  on  the  borders 


of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  also  discharging  into 
Green  Bay.  The  lake  forms,  with  the  Saint 
Lawrence  and  the  Lower  Lakes,  a  natural  outlet 
for  one  of  the  richest  grain-growing  regions  in 
the  world. 

MICHIGAN,  L'xiVEKSlTY  of.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  at  Ann  .-\rbor,  ilich..  chartered 
in  1837.  According  to  the  terms  of  the  charter, 
branches  were  established  at  various  places  to 
serve  as  prepai'atory  schools  of  the  university. 
These  existed  only  a  short  time  and  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  State  high  schools,  which  are 
now  in  intimate  relation  with  the  university. 
The  institution  was  opened  in  1841,  graduating 
its  first  class  in  1845,  It  is  intended  primarily 
for  the  higher  education  of  residents  of  the  State, 
but  receives  students  from  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try on  papnent  of  a  small  tuition  fee.  The 
governing  body  is  a  board  of  regents,  elected 
for  terms  of  eight  years.  The  university  is 
organized  in  seven  departments:  literature, 
sciences,  and  the  arts  ( including  the  graduate 
school)  ;  engineering  (opened  in  1853)  ;  medicine 
and  surgery  (1850)  ;  law  (1859)  ;  pharmacy;  the 
Homceopathie  Medical  College  (1875);  and  the 
College  of  Dental  Surgery  (1875).  Each  depart- 
ment has  its  special  faculty,  with  representation 
on  the  University  Senate,  which  considers  ques- 
tions of  common  interest.  The  degrees  conferred 
are  bachelor  and  master  of  arts,  science,  and 
law;  civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical  engineer; 
and  doctor  of  philosophy,  science,  medicine, 
dental  surgery,  and  dental  science.  The  total 
attendance  in  1902,  including  the  summer  ses- 
sion, was  3782,  of  whom  1400,  including  668 
women,  were  students  in  the  department  of  lit- 
erature, science,  and  the  arts,  854  in  law,  and 
513  in  medicine.  The  total  attendance  of  women 
was  725,  The  university,  to  1901,  had  conferred 
18,883  degrees,  of  which  1968  were  given  to 
women.  The  university  was  a  pioneer  in  co- 
education, women  having  first  been  admitted  in 
1870.  They  now  constitute  about  one-fifth  of 
the  student  body.  Coeducation  at  the  university 
has  been  uniformly  successful.  The  libraries  of 
the  university,  including  a  number  of  important 
collections,  aggregated  165.000  volumes,  with  a 
i-ecorded  circulation  of  167,049.  The  university 
museums  contain  collections  illustrative  of  nat- 
ural history,  the  industrial  arts,  chemistry,  ma- 
teria medica,  anatomy,  archa'ology,  ethnology, 
the  fine  arts,  and  history,  including  a  verv'  full 
Chinese  exhibit  sent  by  the  Chinese  Government 
to  the  New  Orleans  Exposition  and  presented  to 
the  university  in  1885,  The  Detroit  Astronomical 
Observatory  contains  a  meridian  circle  by  Pistor 
and  Martins,  of  Berlin,  mounted  clocks  by  Tiede 
and  Howard,  and  a  refracting  telescope  with  a 
thirteen-inch  object  glass,  constructed  by  the  late 
Henry  Fitz,  of  New  York.  A  smaller  observa- 
tory, used  in  the  work  of  instruction,  contains 
an  equatorial  telescope  of  six  inches  aperture 
and  a  transit  instrument  of  three  inches  aper- 
ture. There  are  two  hospitals  connected  with  the 
university.  The  Waterman  Gynuiasium,  for 
men,  and  the  Barbour  G>nnnasi>im.  for  women, 
are  free  to  all  students.  The  general  supervision 
of  athletic  sports  is  vested  in  a  board  of  control 
of  nine  members,  five  chosen  from  the  University 
Senate  and  four  from  the  Students'  Athletic 
Association.  The  university  is  a  member  of  the 
Northern  Oratorical  League,  which  includes  the 
universities  of  Chicago,  Minnesota,  and  Wiscon- 


MICHIGAN. 


448 


MICKIEWICZ. 


sin,  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  Northwestern, 
ami  Oberlin.  It  belonns  to  the  Central  Debating 
League,  witli  the  universities  of  Chicago  and 
Jlinnesota,  and  Northwestern  University,  and  has 
maintained  lor  several  years  a  scries  of  debates 
with  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Entrance 
is  based  upon  examination  or  upon  certificates 
from  accredited  schools.  The  university  has  no 
dormitories  and  no  commons.  Recent  extension 
of  the  elective  system  has  resulted  in  a  consider- 
able loss  in  the  choice  of  Latin,  Greek,  and 
mathematics,  and  a  marked  gain  in  the  modern 
languages.  Among  other  developments,  the  es- 
tablishment of  courses  in  marine  engineering  and 
in  the  training  of  students  for  foreign  consular 
service  are  noteworthy.  The  faculty  in  1902 
numbered  247.  The  endowment  of  the  univer- 
sity was  $545,904;  its  gross  income,  .$741,000. 
The  total  value  of  the  college  property  was 
$2,501,138,  and  that  of  the  grounds  and  buildings 
$1,583,925.  James  B.  Angell  became  president 
in  1871. 

MICHIGAN  CITY.  A  city  in  Laporte 
County,  Ind.,  5(5  miles  east  of  Chicago,  111.;  on 
Lake  Jlichigan,  and  on  the  Lake  Erie  and  West- 
ern, the  Chicago,  Indianapolis  and  Louisville, 
and  the  Michigan  Central  railroads  (Map: 
Indiana,  CI).  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Xorthem 
Indiana  State  Prison,  and  has  a  public  library, 
.a  United  States  life-saving  station,  a  public  park 
on  the  lake  front,  and  a  soldiers'  monument. 
There  are  good  transportation  facilities,  to  which 
are  due  the  city's  large  commercial  interests, 
the  trade  being  principally  in  lumber,  salt,  and 
iron  ore.  The  manufactures  of  railroad  cars, 
chairs,  hosiery  and  knit  goods,  lumber  and  prod- 
ucts of  lumber  are  important.  The  government, 
as  provided  by  the  charter  of  18(17  and  numerous 
amendments  thereto,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  who 
holds  oftice  for  two  years,  and  a  common  council, 
which  elects  all  administrative  oflicials,  except- 
ing the  statutory  municipal  oHicers,  who  are 
chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  city  owns  and 
operates  the  water-works.  Michigan  City  was 
laid  out  in  1832  and  settled  in  the  following  year. 
It  was  incorporated  in  lS.'i7.  Population,  in 
1890,  10.770;  in   1000.  14,8.50. 

MICHIGAN  HERKING.     The  cisco    fq.v.). 

MICHIGAN  STATE  AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE.  A  coeducational  State  institution 
at  l..insiiig,  Mich.,  tlio  oldest  institution  of  its 
kind  in  tlie  country.  It  was  established  in 
pursuance  of  a  constitutional  provision  in  1855, 
and  was  opened  in  1857.  Its  endowment  con- 
sists of  a  fund  of  $800,000  derived  from  the  sale 
of  part  of  the  lands  (235.073  acres)  given  by  the 
General  (iovernnient  through  the  act  of  18fi2. 
There  are  three  courses,  agricult\iral.  mechanical, 
and  women's  or  domestic  science,  which  were 
attended  in  1902  by  850  students  \mder  a  faculty 
of  GO.  The  library  contained  23.000  volumes. 
Farmers'  institutes  are  carried  on  annually  in 
each  county  of  the  State,  the  total  attendance 
at  these  instriiction  schools  in  1902  being  about 
100.000.  The  income  from  the  endowment  fund, 
with  other  Government  grants  and  State  apjiro- 
priations,  amounted  in  1902  to  $225,000.  In 
that  vear  the  buildings  and  grounds  were  valued 
at  $700,000. 

MICHMASH,  mlk'niash.  The  site  of  the 
camp  of  tlic  I'bilistines  in  the  war  at  the  begin- 
ning of  Saul's  reign,  connected  with  the  notal)le 


exploit  of  Jonathan  ( q.v. )  related  in  I.  Sam.  xiv. 
It  was  a  town  of  Benjamin,  about  seven  miles 
north  of  .Jerusalem.  Its  importance  arose  from  its 
position  on  one  of  the  two  main  roads  from  Jeru- 
salem northward,  at  a  point  wliere  the  road 
descends  into  a  steep  and  rugged  valley.  .Josephus 
(.Int.,  vi.  0,  2)  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
Jonathan's  e.xploit,  which  tallies  well  with  the 
features  of  the  locality  to-day.  Men  of  Michmash 
returned  with  Zerubhabel  (Ezra  ii.  27;  Xeli. 
vii.  31).  It  is  mentioned  in  the  fictitious  inva- 
sion of  the  Assyrians  in  Isaiah  x.  28  sqq.  In  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees  it  became  the  headquarters 
of  Jonathan  ( I.  Mace.  ix.  73 ) ,  and  was  a  large 
village  in  the  time  of  Eusebius.  It  is  the  modern 
Muhmas. 

MICHOACAN,  me-cho'a-kiin'.  A  Pacific  Coast 
State  of  ilcxico.  bounded  by  the  .States  of  Jalisco 
and  Guanajuato  on  the  north,  Mexico  on  the 
cast,  Guerrero  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the 
south,  and  Colima  and  .Jalisco  on  the  west  ( Jlap: 
Mexico,  H  8).  Area,  22.874  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  generallj-  mountainous,  although  its 
highest  elevations  are  below  13,000  feet.  The 
northern  part  is  the  more  elevated,  being  in 
general  over  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  with  a  few- 
peaks  exceeding  10.000  feet.  The  southern  part 
slopes  toward  the  coast,  which  is  mostly  low. 
The  extreme  northern  part  is  rather  flat  and 
interspersed  with  a  number  of  lakes.  With  the 
exception  of  the  large  rivers  Lerma  and  Las 
Balsas,  forming  part  of  the  boundaries,  and  the 
Tepalcatepec,  a  tributary  of  Las  Balsas,  crossing 
the  State  from  east  to  west,  the  rivers  are  small, 
but  lakes  are  abundant,  and  some  of  them,  such 
as  Cuitzeo,  are  of  considerable  size.  The  climate 
is  on  the  whole  healthful,  except  in  the  southern 
part,  where  fever  prevails  to  some  extent.  The 
soil  is  of  remarkable  fertility;  the  principal 
products  are  cereals  in  the  more  elevated  parts, 
and  sugar,  coffee,  vanilla,  tobacco,  and  other 
tropical  plants  in  the  valleys.  Stock-raising 
and  mining  are  also  iniporlant  industries,  and 
trade  is  considerable.  The  State  is  crossed  by 
the  Mexican  National  and  the  Mexican  Central 
riiilway  lines.  Population,  in  1895,  890,405. 
Capital.  Morelia  (q.v.  l.  Michoacan  was  inhabited 
by  the  Tarascos,  who  had  successfully  resisted 
tiie  dnmination  of  the  Aztecs  up  to  the  time  of 
the   Conquest. 

MICKIEWICZ,  mits'kt-ft'vlch,  Adam  (1798- 
1855  1.  The  greatest  of  Polish  ])oets.  He  was  born 
near  Novogrodek,  Lithuania;  his  father  was  a 
lawyer  of  the  lesser  nobility.  Inclined  to  the 
study  of  nature,  he  took  up  mathematics  and 
physics  at  the  University  of  \ilna,  but  later 
pa.ssed  to  biology  and  literature  (  1815-19).  After 
that  he  taught  Latin  and  Polish  at  the  gyuuia- 
sium  in  Kovno  until  1823,  publishing  there  the 
first  collection  of  his  poems  in  two  volumes  in 
1S22.  To  the  legends,  superstitious,  and  tales  of 
the  Polish  nation  contained  in  it,  Miekiewicz  gave 
a  wonderfully  poetic  form,  and  at  one  bound 
became  the  national  poet  of  the  Poles.  The  vol- 
lunes  contained  two  longer  works:  Dz'uidy  (An- 
cestors, Festival  in  honor  of  the  Deail),  a  ro- 
mantic drama;  and  (Irniiina.  an  historical  epic. 
The  former  contains  much  autol)iographical  ma- 
terial. The  poem  is  deficient  in  orderliness,  the 
episodes  being  Hung  togetlier  with  almost  reck- 
less freedom,  but  the  chief  theme — love — has, 
perhaps,  never  been  better  sung.     Oraiyna  relates 


MICKIEWICZ. 


440 


MICKOCONODON. 


the  noble  death  of  a  princess  of  that  name,  who 
<Ions  the  armor  of  her  husband,  and  thus  dis- 
guised leads  his  army  against  the  Teutonic 
Knights. 

In  1824  Jlickiewicz  was  arrested  in  Vilna  on 
suspicion  of  revolutionary  plotting,  and  was  sent 
to  Saint  Petersburg.  In  the  capital  he  formed 
a  warm  friendship  with  Pushkin,  but  soon  went 
to  Odessa  (182.5)  as  instructor  in  the  Richelieu 
Lyceum.  After  nine  months  he  visited  the  Cri- 
mea, and  this  was  a  turning  point  in  his  career. 
The  Crimean  Sonnets  recording  his  impressions 
are  glowing  with  Oriental  color  and  graceful  in 
form.  In  December,  182.5.  he  obtained  a  position 
in  the  office  of  the  Governor-General.  Prince  Go- 
litzin,  at  Moscow.  In  1828  he  rcturncil  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  there  publislicd  his  second  epic, 
Wanenrod,  descriptive  of  the  struggle  of  the 
Lithuanians  against  the  Teutonic  Knights.  In 
1829  the  poet  received  permission  to  travel  in 
Italy.  Germany,  and  France.  In  Weimar  he  met 
Goethe,  who  became  greatly  interested  in  him. 
After  staying  for  a  time  in  Rome,  where  he  met 
James  Fenimore  Cooper,  he  started  for  Poland 
on  hearing  of  the  uprising  of  IS.^O,  but,  unable 
to  cross  the  strictly  guarded  frontier,  he  went  to 
Dresden,  after  lingering  in  Posen  for  a  while, 
and  soon  settled  in  Paris.  In  1832  he  published 
the  third  part  of  his  Dziadii.  In  poverty  and  dis- 
tress, he  published  his  masterpiece.  Sir  Thndrleiis 
(Pan  Tadeusz),  in  18.34,  In  1839  he  was  called 
to  the  chair  of  Latin  literature  at  Lausanne, 
and  in  the  year  following  he  was  appointed  the 
first  incumbent  of  tlie  newly  founded  chair  of 
Slavic  literatures  at  the  CoU&ge  de  France.  But 
after  a  year  or  tv.o  he  began  to  intermingle  his 
lectures  with  irrelevant  discussions  on  politics, 
religion,  and  mysticism,  and  the  French  Gov- 
ernment was  forced  to  stop  his  lectures  in  1844. 
In  1848  he  went  to  Italy,  and  there  undertook  to 
form  Polish  regiments  against  Austria.  Then,  in 
1849.  he  edited  at  Paris  the  Tribune  des  Peuples. 
which  was  soon  stopped  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment. In  1852  he  was  appointed  a  librarian  in 
the  Arsenal,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean 
War  Louis  Xapoleon  sent  him  to  Constantinople 
to  organize  Polish  regiments  against  Russia. 
Here  he  died  shortly  afterwards.  He  was  buried 
in  Paris;  in  1890  his  body  was  transferred  to 
Cracow. 

The  best  edition  of  Jlickiewicz's  works  is  that 
of  1838.  in  eight  volumes,  published  in  Paris, 
under  the  poet's  personal  supervision;  and  the 
latest  by  Dr.  Biegeleisen,  in  four  volumes  (Lem- 
berg.  1893).  They  have  been  translated  into 
most  European  languages.  His  ballads  and  son- 
nets are  to  be  found,  in  German,  in  Reclam's 
Tniversal  BibJiothek ;  Dziadi/  (Ahnefcier),  in 
German  by  Lipiner  (Leipzig.  1887)  :  ClraStjna. 
in  German  bv  Nitschmann  in  Iris  (Leipzig. 
1889):  Wallenrod,  bv  Weiss  (Bremen,  1871): 
llerr  Thodd-iius.  by  Weiss  (Leipzig,  1882)  and 
Lipiner  (Leipzig,  1883).  Conrad  Wallenrod  vas 
translated  into  English  by  Leo  .Talilonski.  and  a 
poetical  version  of  it  by  Cattlcy  appeared  in 
London  in  1840.  The  best  biograj^liy  in  French 
is  by  his  son,  Wladislaw  Mickiewiez  ( Paris. 
1888);  revised  and  enlarged  in  Polish  (Posen. 
1890-94).  His  CF.urres  eomplets  appeared  in 
eleven  volumes  in  Paris,  1800. 

MICKLE,  WiLLi.\M  Julius  (173.5-88).  A 
Scottish  poet,  born  at  Langholm,  Dumfries- 
shire.     Mickle    failed    as    a    l)rc\ver.    settled    in 


London  as  a  writer,  and  became  corrector  to 
the  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford  (17(35).  In  1767 
he  published  a  narrative  poem  called  The  Con- 
cubine, reissued  in  1778,  as  Sir  Martyn.  Ex- 
cepting Thomson's  Castle  of  Indolence,  it  is  the 
best  of  the  eighteenth  century  imitations  of 
Spenser's  Faerie  Qiieene.  Retiring  to  a  farm  near 
Oxford,  Mickle  made  a  free  version  of  the  Liisiads 
of  Camoens  (1775).  To  Evans's  Old  Ballads 
(1777-84)  he  contributed  the  fine  ballad  Cumnor 
Hall,  which  suggested  Scott's  Kcnilworth.  He 
may  also  have  written  the  exquisite  Scotch  song 
There's  nae  Luck  About  the  House  (ascribed  also 
to  Jean  Adams).  In  1779  Mickle  went  to  Lis- 
bon as  secretary  in  the  Romneij  man-of-war.  He 
was  most  hospitably  received  aiul  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Portugal.  He  died 
at  Forest  Hill,  near  Oxford.  Consult  \\\s  Poetical 
"Works,  with  biography,  ed.  bv  Sim  (London, 
1807). 

MIC'MAC.  An  important  Algonquian  tribe 
of  Canada,  occupying  all  of  Nova  Scotia,  Cape 
Breton  Island,  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  with 
large  portions  of  Xew  Bnmswick,  Quebec,  and 
Newfoundland.  The  name  is  of  uncertain  et\Tnol- 
ogy.  In  all  the  colonial  wars  the  ilicmac  sided 
with  the  French,  those  of  Southern  Nova  Scotia 
especially  making  a  reputation  by  their  inroads 
upon  the  New  England  settlements.  They  are 
now  all  civilized,  fairly  industrious  as  hunters. 
fishers,  guides,  and  basket  and  curio  makers,  but 
without  any  appreciable  desire  to  advance  their 
condition;  moral,  sober,  and  law-abiding,  and  al- 
most solidly  Catholic  through  the  effort  of  early 
French  missionaries  and  their  successors.  They 
number  in  all  about  4000,  and  are  divided  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  Nova  Scotia  (including  Cape 
Breton  Island),  20.50;  New  Brunswick,  950; 
Quebec,  630;  Prince  Edward  Island.  320;  New- 
foundland (not  reported) — perhaps  50.  Their 
language  and  traditions  have  been  investigated 
by  the  missionary  Rand. 

MI'CON"  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  SUkuv.  Mikon) .  An 
Athenian  painter  and  sculptor,  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  He 
painted  three  of  the  walls  of  the  temple  of 
Theseus  at  Athens,  and  is  said  to  have  had  a 
hand  in  the  great  picture  of  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon in  the  Poikile.  He  was  especially  skillful 
in  the  painting  of  horses. 

MICBOBE.  A  microscopic  organism;  espe- 
cially applied  to  bacteria.  Various  infectious  dis- 
eases are  caused  by  their  presence.   See  B.\cteeia, 

MrCROCLINE  (from  Gk.  lUKpbs,  mikros, 
small  -f  Mveiv,  klinein,  to  incline).  A  potas- 
sium-aluminum silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the 
triclinic  system,  and  is  near  orthoclase  in  its 
properties,  being  a  member  of  the  triclinic  group 
of  feldspars.  It  has  a  vitreous  lustre  and  is 
white  to  cream-yellow  in  color,  and  sometimes 
red  or  green.  The  green  varieties  are  known  as 
Amazon  stone.  The  ordinary  microcline,  which 
is  found  both  as  crystals  and  in  masses  in  gra- 
nitic rocks,  is  of  common  occurience ;  excellent 
specimens  are  found  at  ilagnet  Cove,  Ark. 

MICROCOCCI.     See  B.\cteri.\. 

MI  CBOCON'ODON"  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
luKpbi,  mikros.  suuill  -f  xCivot.  konos,  cone  + 
6So\is,  odous.  tooth).  A  small  fossil  jaw  of  un- 
certain affinities  found  in  the  Triassic  rocks. 
It  has  been  considered  by  some  American  authors 


MICROCONODON. 


450 


MICKOMETER. 


to  liplonjr  to  a  group  of  vertebrates,  intermediate 
in  position  lietwoen  the  higlicst  anoniodont  rep- 
tiles, the  Tlieroniorpha,  and  the  lowest  poly- 
protodont  mannnals.  Consult  Osborn,  "On  the 
SIrueturc  and  Classification  of  the  Jlesozoic 
!Mannnalia,"  in  Journal  of  the  PhihuJrljihid  Arnd- 
cmii  of  Xitturul  Sciences  for  18S8  (Philadelphia, 
]SSS). 

MI'CROCOSM  (Lat.  microcosmus,  Gk.  ^iiKp6- 
Ko<Tfjios.  iiiil.iiikusiiws.  little  world,  from  juixpiis, 
iiiil.riis^  small  +  KOa/ioc,  kosmos,  world)  and 
MACROCOSM  (from  Gk.  fiaKpdr,  makros, 
jrreat  +  Kdc/toc,  Icosiiios,  world).  The  belief, 
current  in  ancient  times,  that  the  world  or  cos- 
mos was  animated,  or  had  a  soul,  led  to  the 
notion  that  the  parts  and  members  of  organic 
beings  must  have  their  counterparts  in  the  mem- 
bers of  the  cosmos.  The  natural  philosophers  of 
the  sixteenth  centurv  took  up  this  notion  anew 
in  a  sipinewhat  modilicd  shape,  and  considered  the 
world  as  a  human  organism  on  the  large  scale, 
and  man  as  a  world,  or  cosmos,  in  miniature; 
hence  they  called  man  a  microcosm,  and  the  uni- 
verse itself  the  macrocosm.  With  this  was  as- 
sociated the  Viclief  that  the  vital  movements  of 
the  microcosm  exactly  corresponded  to  those  of 
the  macrocosm,  and  this  led  to  the  further  as- 
.suniption  tliat  the  movements  of  the  stars  ex- 
ercised an  influence  on  the  temperament  and 
fortunes  (if  men. 

Ml  CROCOS'MIC  SALT,  or  Salt  of  Pnos- 
iMioHi  s.  All  aniiiionium-sodium-hvdrogen  phos- 
phate that  crystallizes  in  the  nionoelinie  system, 
and  is  found  native  as  the  7nineral  stcrcoritc.  It 
was  known  to  the  older  chemists,  who  extracted 
it  from  human  urine.  It  may  be  made  by  dis- 
solving ervstallized  sodium  phosphate  and  am- 
monium chloride  in  water,  heating  the  solution 
to  boiling,  then  filtering  and  cooling  to  crystalli- 
zation. On  heating,  the  crystals  melt  readily, 
giving  up  water  of  crj'stallization,  and  later  am- 
monia, and  leaving  sodium  phos|ihate,  which 
melts  and  solidifies  on  cooling  to  a  clear  color- 
less glass.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  flux  in  blow- 
j)ipe  analysis. 

MICRODIS'CUS  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /iiKp6c, 
iiiil.roa.  small  -r  ('(iTKor.  diskos,  disk).  A  small 
Cambrian  trilobitc  with  body  of  oval  outline, 
bead  and  tail  shields  alike,  and  onl.v  three  or 
four  thoracic  segments.  See  Agnostus;  Cam- 
hkiax  System. 

MICRO-FAR'AD.      See    Farad. 

MICROLES'TES  (Xeo-Lat..  from  Gk.  fimpdc, 
mikros,  small  +  Ayari/;,  Irslfs,  robber).  A 
small  fossil  jaw  with  multitubereulate  teeth 
found  in  the  Triassic  rocks  of  Wiirttcmberg  and 
Kngland.  This  fossil  has  figured  prominently  in 
discussions  on  the  origin  of  the  mammalia,  and 
it  is  usuall.v  placed  among  the  prolotheriau  mam- 
mals: but.  as  the  skull  to  which  it  belongs  is 
entirely  unknown,  its  exact  systematic  position 
is  undeterminable,  and  it  ma.y  prove  to  be  the 
jaw  of  an  anoniodont  reptile  (Theromorpha)  in- 
stead of  that  of  a  mammal. 

MI'CROM'ETER  (from  Gk.  ^KfiAf.  mikros, 
small  -f  u(riii,v,  luilroii,  measure).  .An.v  device 
by  means  of  which  it  is  possilde  to  make  a  linear 
measurement  more  nceuratelv  by  using  levers, 
screws,  or  magnif.ying  glasses  than  by  using  a 
simple  rule  or  scale.  Fig.  1  shows  a  simple  form 
of  lever  micrometer  adapted  to  the  meastirement 


Fia.  1.    LEVEK   MICROM 
ETER. 


of  thicknesses,  diameters,  and  the  like.  Tlie 
movable  lever  AB  turns  on  a  pivot  at  C,  and 
since  the  arm  CB  is  five  times  as  long  as  the 
arm  CA.  the  pointer  at  the  end  of  B  will  move 
,  over  the  scale  D  five  times 

as  far  as  the  points  are 
opened  at  A ;  and  conse- 
quentl.y  the  measurement  is 
aboiit  five  times  as  accurate 
as  if  a  scale  were  applied 
directly.  Fig.  2  illustrates 
a  form  of  simple  screw  mi- 
crometer. The  screw  has 
ten  threads  to  the  inch,  and 
consequentl.y  one  complete 
revolution  will  remove  the 
point  of  the  screw.  A.  from 
the  plate,  C,  one-tenth  of  an 
incli.  The  head,  B,  of  the 
screw  has  its  rim  divided 
into  one  hundred  equal  parts;  hence  a  rotation 
of  the  screw  through  one  of  these  i)arts  means 
one  one-hundredth  of  a  complete  revolution,  and 
such  a  motion  would  remove 
the  point  from  the  plate  by 
a  distance  of  1/100  of  1/10, 
or  l/IOOO  inch.  A  very 
common  form  of  screw  mi- 
crometer, described  and  il- 
lustrated under  Caupers, 
has  fort.v  threads  to  the 
inch,  and  the  head  is  di- 
vided into  twenty-five  parts, 
making  the  accuracy  1/25 
of  1/40,  or  again  1/1000  of 
an  inch. 

In  working  witli  the  tele- 
scope and  the  microscope  it 
becomes  necessary  to  make 
measurements  u])on  the  image  formed  b.v  the  ob- 
.jective.  and  for  this  purpose  a  micrometer  ocular 
is  emjiloyed.  The  simplest  form  of  this  device  is  a 
fine  scale  ruled  >ipoa  glass  in  hundredths  of  an 
inch,  or  tenths  of  a  millimeter,  and  so  mounted  in 
the  draw  tube  that  it  will  be  seen  distinctly  by 
means  of  the  eyepiece,  and  hence  will  be  in  the 
plane  of  the  image  formed  by  the  objective.  The 
scale  appears  to  lie  upon  the  object,  and  it  is 
only  nccessar.y  to  read  olV  the  dimensions.  A 
revolution  of  the  draw  tube  makes  measurements 
in  ililferent  directions  possible  without  moving 
the  object. 

A  more  accurate  and  satisfactory  micrometer 
ocular  is  that  devised  by  Kamsden.  and  illustrat- 
ed in  Fig.  3.  li  is  the  divided  head  of  a  mi- 
crometer screw,  S,  reading  to  a  hiui<lrcdth  of  a 
screw  revolution,  1/200  millimeter  for  example. 
The  screw  is  so  arranged  that  it  will  cause  a  rec- 
tangular frame,  A.\.  to  move  backward  and  for- 
ward as  the  screw  revolves,  .\cross  the  middle 
of  the  frame.  .\.\.  are  stretched  (wo  fine  spider- 
lines,  at  riglit  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  screw, 
and  qiiite  close  together.  The  whole  device  is  so 
attaelied  to  the  draw  tube  of  the  microscope  or 
telesco|)e  that  the  spider-lines  lie  in  the  focal 
plane  of  the  objective,  and  hence  are  distinctly 
seen  nmgnified  liy  the  ocular.  In  making  meas- 
urements with  this  instrument  the  screw  S  is 
turned  \intil  the  spider-lines  straddle  one  point, 
and  then  a  reading  is  made  of  the  jiosition  of 
the  head.  11.  Next  the  screw  is  again  turned  un- 
til   the    lines    stradille    the    other   iioint,    another 


Fia.    2.     SIMPLE    BENCH 
MICROMETER. 


MICROMETER. 


451 


MICROSCOPE. 


reading  is  inacU',  and  the  difference  of  tlic  two 
reailin^s  gives  tlie  distanec  between  tlie  points 
upon  the  image.  By  phicing  a  known  scale,  for 
example  a  tenth  of  a  millimeter,  upon  the  stage 
iif  tlie  mierosoopc,  and  measuring  the  image  as 
ahove.  the  magnifying  power  of  the  microscope 
objective   is  obtained,  and  it  is  possible  to  cal- 


culate what  distance  upon  the  stage,  or  in  the 
object,  corresponds  to  one  revolution  of  the  mi- 
crometer screw.  The  whole  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  the  screw  is  sometimes  read  by  means  of 
a  second  wheel,  so  geared  to  H  that  it  makes 
one  revolution  for  twenty  or  thirty  revolutions 
of  the  screw  S.  In  other  cases  a' strip  of  metal 
with  small  teeth  like  saw  teeth,  and  as  far  apart 
as  the  threads  of  the  screw  S,  is  placed  across 
the  side  of  the  opening  so  that  the  double  spider- 
line  appears  to  move  over  it  from  tooth  to  tooth, 
each  tooth  corresponding  to  one  complete  revo- 
lution of  the  screw.  Such  micrometers  are  used 
in  measuring  objects  under  the  microscope,  in 
most  accurate  linear  and  angular  determinations, 
and  in  telescopes  for  obtaining  star  distances,  and 
for  a  great  variety  of  measurements.  A  very 
elaborate  and  delicate  micrometer  attached  to 
the  eye  end  of  the  telescope  and  used  in  star 
work  is  called  a  position  micrometer.  A  special 
form  of  micrometer  is  used  for  measuring  the 
star  distances  on  the  photographic  plates  that 
are  taken  of  star  groups  and  clusters.  See  !Ml- 
CRoscoPE ;  Telescope. 
MICROMETER  CALIPERS.     See  Calipers 

ami     MLlUdMETKIi. 

MI'CRONE'SIA  (Xeo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^lkpU. 
viil.riis,  small  +  fijaos,  iirsos,  island).  A  name 
of  Greek  origin,  meaning  'small  islands.'  It  is 
used  to  designate  that  part  of  Oceanica  which 
consists  of  the  Ladrone  and  Caroline  islands, 
Marshall  Islands,  the  Gilbert  group,  and  many 
others  of  small  size.  All  of  these  lie  northwest 
of  Polynesia,  north  of  Melanesia,  and  east  of 
the  Philippines,  being  all  north  of  the  equator, 
and  between  longitudes  130°  and  180°  E.  The 
group  also  forms  an  ethnological  division  of 
Oceanica.  (See  ^Iichoxe-stans.)  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  groups  are  described  under  the 
I'nipcr  tides. 

MICRONE'SIANS.  The  inhabitants  of 
Micrimesia  (q.v.).  They  belong  undoubtedly  to 
the  Malayo-Polyncsian  race,  although  the  autlior- 
itics  ilirt'cr   concerning  their  ethnic  purity.     The 


languages  of  Jlicronesia  are  luobahly  Melanc- 
sian,  but  the  natives  are  extremely  nii.\ed,  show- 
ing all  shades  of  color  and  transitional  forms  be- 
tween the  Papuan,  Malay,  and  Polynesian  types. 
The  mass  diller  in  type  slightly  from  the  Poly- 
nesians; they  are  more  hairy,  are  shorter,  their 
head  is  more  elongated,  and  they  possess  some 
ethnic  characters  apart.  They  use  rope  armor, 
and  have  weapons  of  sharks'  teeth,  special 
money,  and  other  distinguishing  marks.  The 
i.adrone,  Pelew,  Marshall,  Caroline,  and  Gilbert 
groujjs,  collectively  called  Micronesia,  would  ap- 
pear to  have  been  originally  peopled  by  Papuans 
from  ilelanesia,  and  to  have  afterwards  received 
numerous  colonists  from  both  Polynesia  and 
ilalaysia  (the  Philippines),  besides  occasional 
settlers  from  Japan  and  China.  But  the  extent 
of  the  Papuan  element  in  Micronesia  has  yet 
to  be  determined  and  has  probably  been  over- 
estimated. The  Gilbert  group  form  the  natural 
transition  to  Polynesia  proper.  For  information 
in  detail  concerning  the  ilicronesians,  the  follow- 
ing works  may  be  consulted:  Kubary,  Ethiio- 
firophische  lieitriige  ^hc  Kenntnis  dcs  KaroUnen- 
Archipcls  ( Leyden.  lSS'J-95)  :  Meinicke,  Die  In- 
srln.  dcs  Stilleii  Oceans  (Leipzig,  1875)  ;  Cabeza 
Pereira,  Estudios  sobre  las  Carolinas  (Manila,. 
1895):  Heinsheim,  Siidsee  Erinnerungen  (Ber- 
lin, 1883)  :  id.,  Beitrag  zur  Sprache  der  Mar- 
■•duill-Inseln  (Leipzig,  1880)  :  Bastian,  Die  mik- 
ronesischen  Colonicn  aus  ethnologischen  tftand- 
punktcn  (Berlin,  1899)  ;  Christian,  "On  Miero- 
nesian  Weapons,"  in  the  Journal  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Institute  (London)  for  1899,  and  The 
Caroline  Islands  (London,  1899);  Bartolis,  Las 
Carolinas  (Barcelona,  1885).    See  Polynesians. 

MI'CROPHONE.     See  Telephone. 

MI'CROPYIiE  (from  Gk.  iui!p6s,  mikros,. 
small  -f-  Tr6\ri.  pglC.  gate)  (in  plants).  In  an 
ovule,  the  passageway  left  by  the  integument  or 
integuments,  through  which  the  pollen-tube 
passes  to  the  nuccllus.  It  also  marks  the  point 
in  the  seed  at  wdiich  the  escaping  plantlct  first 
emerges.     See  Ovi'LE. 

MI'CROSCOPE  (from  Gk.  iuKp6s,  mikros, 
small  +  a-KoweTv,  skopein,  to  view).  An  instru- 
ment by  which  objects  are  made  to  appear  of 
greater  magnitude.  LTndoubtedly  the  oldest  mi- 
croscope on  record  is  a  plano-convex  lens  of 
quartz  found  by  A.  H.  Layard  amid  the  ruins  of 
Nineveh,  surrounded  b.y  articles  of  bronze  and 
other  materials.  It  is  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, and  is  0.5  cm.  (less  than  0.2  inch)  in 
thickness,  3.5  cm.  (1.4  inches)  in  diameter,  and  its 
focal  len.gth  is  10.7  cm.  (about  4  inches).  Many 
authorities  believe  with  good  reason  that  this 
lens  was  used  as  a  burning  glass,  as  similar 
ones  were  used  for  that  purpose  at  the  time  of 
Socrates.  On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  such  lenses  were  used  as  simple  micro- 
scopes, or  magnifying  glasses,  inasmuch  as  the  ap- 
parent increase  of  size  of  an  object  seen  through 
them  must  inevitably  have  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  such  goo<l  observers,  and  moreover  the 
elaborate  and  delicate  engraving  on  many  of  the- 
seals  and  gems  of  that  period  furnish  sufficient 
evidence  that  some  means  must  have  been  era- 
idoyed  to  aid  the  eye  in  executing  this  work. 
Spherical  glass  vessels  filled  with  water  would 
also  have  called  attention  to  their  employment 
as  magnifiers;  spherical  drops  of  glass  would  act 
similarlv. 


MICROSCOPE. 


453 


MICROSCOPE. 


During  the  later  Middle  Ages  such  simple 
lenses  came  more  ami  more  into  use,  especially 
as  aids  to  the  eye  in  urdimuy  vision,  as  spec- 
tacles. A  spectacleniakcr  of  .\li<ldelburg,  Hol- 
land, Zacharias  Janssen,  undoubtedly  was  the 
first  to  build  a  compound  miscroscope,  and 
about  15S0  constructed  such  an  instrument  and 
presented  it  to  Charles  Albert,  Archduke  of 
Austria.  It  was  nearly  six  feet  long,  su[)portod 
upon  brass  dolphins  on  an  ebony  board.  It  con- 
tained only  two  lenses.  Kobcrt  llooke  ( l(i3i)- 
1703),  secretary  of  tlic  Royal  Society,  made 
many  improvements  in  tlie  construction  and  use 
of  the  microscope,  and  Divini  in  1(568  improved 
the  instrument  by  using  two  plano-convex  lenses 
as  an  eyepiece  (see  below).  In  l(i.S(i  t'ampani 
improved  the  form  of  the  instrument  and  intro- 
duced the  use  of  a  screw  for  proper  focusing. 
Nevertheless  tlie  development  of  tlie  microscope 
took  a  difTerent  direction,  on  account  of  the  seri- 
ous ditlicullies  witli  ahcrratiiin  (q.v.)  in  sliort 
focus  lenses,  and  under  tlie  inlluence  of  Lccuwen- 
hoek  attention  was  returned  to  the  development 
of  the  simple  microscope.  Antony  von  Lceuwen- 
hoek  (1032-1723)  constructed  very  efficient  and 
convenient  simple  miscroscopes,  developing  the 
method  already  tried  by  llooke  and  Hartsoeker 
of  making  high-power  lenses  by  allowing  a  drop 
of  molten  glass  to  occupy  a  small  hole  in  a  plate 
of  brass.  Even  a  drop  of  water  or  oil  was  also 
used  in  this  way.  Lecuwenhoek  is  said  to  have 
made  247  miscroscopes,  observing  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  in  tlie  feet  of  frogs,  spermatozoa, 
and  many  other  interesting  things.  To  this  pe- 
riod belong  also  the  names  of  Wilson  (1708-88), 
Hartsoeker  ( l(i5()-1724) ,  Stephen  Gray  (?-1730), 
Jan  van  Musschenbroek  (1087-1748),  Leutmann 
(1067-1730),  and  others. 

About  this  time  Samuel  Reyher  (1635-1714) 
employed  such  a  lens  to  project  an  image  upon 
the  wall,  or  a  screen,  usin;.'  the  sunlight  for 
illumination,  and  is  thus  probably  the  inventor 
of  the  'solar  microscope.'  Baker  (  l()!i8-1774)  with 
the  aid  of  the  mechanic  Scarlett  constructed  in 
1736  a  catoptric  miscroscope,  using  mirrors  in- 
stead of  lenses  in  a  manner  suggested  by  the 
Gregorian  telescope.  But  such  instruments  never 
came  to  be  of  mucli  importance,  since  Dolland 
(1700-01)  in  1757  confirmed  the  theoretical  con- 
elusions  of  Eulcr  (1707-83)  and  Klingenstierna 
(l(!08-1705)  that  for  the  same  refraction  the 
dispersion  might  be  dill'erent.  and  thereupon  pro- 
ceeded to  construct  an  achromatic  objective,  that 
is,  a  lens  in  which  the  color  effects  are  elimi- 
nated by  the  use  of  two  kinds  of  glass.  Never- 
theless, the  great  difPicnlty  of  grinding  such  small 
lenses  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  the  correction 
of  the  errors  due  to  aberration  prevented  their 
use  in  a  manner  at  all  commensurate  with  their 
successful  employment  in  astronomical  telescopes. 

In  1823  Sclligucs  and  Chevalier  departed  from 
the  plan  of  using  only  two  lenses  to  correct  aber- 
ration and  employed  two  or  three  pairs  of 
lenses  (see  Fig.  6),  each  pair  consisting  of  a 
plano-concave  of  flint  j;Iass  which  dispersed  the 
colors  far  apart,  combined  with  a  double  convex 
of  crown  glass,  which  has  a  low  dispersion.  In 
this  way  excellent  achromatic  objectives  were 
produced.  In  the  next  year  TuUcy  of  London, 
\ipon  the  suggestion  of  Or.  Goring,  constructed  an 
nchromntie  combination  of  three  lenses,  without 
knowing  of  (lie  work  of  Selligiies  and  Chevalier. 
Amici  of  Modena  had  been  endeavoring  to  pro- 


duce achromatic  miscroscope  objectives  as  early 
as  1812,  and,  encouraged  by  the  success  of  Scl- 
ligues  and  Chevalier,  he  took  up  the  work  witli 
new  energi|-,  and  produced  in  1827  a  combination 
much  superior  to  any  known  at  that  time.  His 
work  was  soon  rivaled  by  that  of  Andrew  Ross 
and  Powell  in  Lonilon.  J.  J.  Lister,  as  a  result 
of  his  theoretical  investigations,  directed  James 
Smith  in  the  construction  of  an  objective  that 
surpassed  all  others  in  the  perfection  of  its  cor- 
rection, singular  aperture,  and  flatness  of  field. 

With  these  lenses  A.  Ross  soon  discovered  that 
the  presence  or  absence  of  a  cover  glass  over  the 
object  affects  the  success  of  the  correction.  In 
other  words,  he  discovered  that  the  cover  glass 
must'  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  objective 
system.  He  pointed  out  that  its  effect  may  be 
counteracted  by  undercorrecting  the  first  pair  of 
lenses  in  the  objective  and  overcorrccting  the 
other  two  ])airs ;  moreover,  if  the  distance  between 
the  first  and  second  pair  of  lenses  of  the  objective 
can  be  varied,  this  makes  it  possible  to  adapt  the 
correction  of  the  objective  to  various  thicknesses 
in  the  cover  glass,  and  to  various  kinds  of  cover 
glasses. 

For  a  long  time  the  best  microscope  objectives 
of  high  power  were  composed  of  three  pairs  of 
achromatic  lenses,  but  Amici  himself  tried  a 
single  plano-convex  lens  next  to  the  object  and 
recently  this  has  become  quite  popular.  (See 
Fig.  7.)  Amici  also  pointed  out  that  where  very 
short  focus  lenses  are  used  a  drop  of  water  may 
be  introduced  between  the  cover  glass  and  the 
first  face  of  the  objective,  thereby  reducing  the 
loss  of  light.  It  is,  however,  evident  that  this 
would  affect  the  refraction  and  dispersion  of  the 
system  and  hence  throw  out  the  correction.  Ap- 
parently Amici  was  never  able  to  adapt  his  sys- 
tems to  this  method  of  use,  and  it  remained  for 
Hartiiack  and  Nachet  to  succeed  in  constructing 
objectives  for  such  use,  and  to  point  out  their 
great  superiority  in  many  ways  over  the  older 
form,  which  caiiie  to  be  called  'dry'  objectives,  in 
distincti(m  from  this  new  form,  which  were 
called  'immersion'  objectives.  The  immersion 
system  has  very  great  advantages  over  the  dry 
on  account  of  the  gain  in  light  by  avoiding  the 
strong  reflection  from  the  front  lens  in  air, 
also  because  the  correction  of  the  cover  glass  is 
greatly  simplified,  and  besides  the  range  or  work- 
ing distance  is  considerably  increased.  Naturally 
a  lense  constructed  for  immersion  cannot  be  used 
satisfactorily  for  dry  work,  hut  ^lessrs.  Powell 
and  Lealand  so  arranged  their  objectives  that  hv 
exchanging  the  front  lens  it  could  be  changed 
from  dry  to  immersion,  or  vice  versa.  Wenham 
still  further  improved  upon  this  by  so  construct- 
ing the  system  that  the  objective  could  be 
changed  from  one  form  to  the  other  by  simply 
changing  the  distance  between  the  first  and  sec- 
ond elements  of  the  svsteni,  this  being  accom- 
plished by  turning  a  screw  as  in  correcting  for 
cover  glasses  in  dry  systems.    See  Fig.  0. 

Wenham  also  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
to  suggest  the  advantage  of  substituting  for 
water  a  liquid  which  should  have  the  same  dis- 
persion and  refraction  as  the  cover  glass  and 
first  lens  of  the  objective,  and  it  is  to  the  zeal 
and  energv  of  Zeis  of  .Tena.  under  the  able  guid- 
ance of  llr.  .\bbe.  that  is  due  the  almost  perfect 
objectives  which  are  available  al  the  present  da.T. 
The  complex  form  shown  in  Fig.  7  is  due  to 
.Mibi'.  and  is  known  as  an  'apochromat :'  its  cor- 


MICROSCOPE 


1.  SIMPLE   MICROSCOPE   on  stand  for  biological  work  5.   HUVGENIAN   EYEPIECE 

2.  HIGH-POWER  COMPOUND   MICROSCOPE  6.   RAMSDEN    EYEPIECE 

3.  PETROGRAPHIC   MICROSCOPE  7.  STEINHEIL   POSITIVE   EYEPIECE 
*■  ABB6  SUB-STAGE  CONDENSER:  4a  and  4b,  lenses  In  sec-  8.   MICROTOME 

tlon 


MICROSCOPE. 


453 


MICROSCOPE. 


rections  are  so  perfect  that  it  appears  that  the 
theoretically  ideal  conditions  have  been  reached. 
Uausch  anil  Lunib  in  America  and  Carl  Zeis  in 
Germany  are  now  constructing  lenses  under  the 
specilica'tions  of  Dr.  Ahljo.  It  should  be  stated 
iu  this  connection  that  the  present  great  success 
in  the  construction  of  lenses  of  all  sorts  is  in 
huge  measure  due  to  the  manufacture  by  Schott 
of  .Jena  of  glass  upon  scientific  principles,  so 
that  it  is  not  only  possible  to  get  glass  with  the 
same  optical  properties  in  large  quantities,  and 
at  any  time,  but  it  has  been  possible  to  make 
glass  with  just  those  optical  properties  which 
are  wanted  for  any  particular  purpose.  Objec- 
tives designed  to  be  used  as  immersion  lenses 
with  a  liquid  of  refraction  and  dispersion  identi- 
cal with  that  of  the  glass  in  contact  with  the 
liquid  are  called  'homogeneous'  immersion  lenses. 
Oil  of  cedar  and  oil  of  fennel  are  well  adapted 
to  use  with  such  objectives. 

Simple  Microscope.  A  simple  lens,  or  a 
combination  of  two  or  more  lenses  nearer  to- 
gether than  the  sum  of  their  focal  lengths,  and 
acting  as  a  single  lens,  so  used  as  to  supplement 
the  optical  system  of  the  eye  and  increase  the 
apparent  size  of  an  object,  is  properly  called  a 
simple  niiscroscope,  or  magnifying  glass.  The 
observer  judges  of  the  size  of  an  object  by  the 
visual  angle  which  it  subtends.  For  example,  AB. 
Fig.  1,  appears  larger  than  CD  because  the  visual 


( 

F 

I 

...-- 

....... f 

:■■' 

D 


B 

Fio.  1. 


angle  AEB  is  greater  than  the  visual  angle  CED. 
Any  device  which  increases  the  visual  angle 
which  an  object  subtends  makes  it  appear  larger. 
It  is  impracticable  to  bring  the  object  indefinitely 
near  to  the  eye  and  thus  enlarge  the  visual  angle, 
because  the  accommodation  of  the  normal  eye 
does  not  enable  it  so  to  adjust  its  optical  system 
as  to  see  distinctly  an  object  much  less  than 
20-2.5  cm.  (eight  or  ten  inches)  distant.  In 
other  words,  the  normal  eye  can  bring  to  a  sharp 
focus  on  the  retina  only  such  rays  of  light  as 
are  parallel  or  slightly  divergent.  If  a  convex 
lens  is  placed  close  in  front  of  the  eye  and  an 


uV 


B' 

^''^^Ac^--,, 

I                              0 

L 

'^"^^^4^ 

^^^^ 

■^^^^\^ 

^      \y 

L 

■ 

object  in  front  of  it,  and  distant  a  little  less 
than  its  focal  length,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the 
lens  will  form  a  virtual  image.  I.  of  the  object, 
O.  at  A'l?'.  and  tlic  liglit  issuing  from  LL  is  of 
such   divergence   as  to  be   readilv  brought  to  a 


focus  upon  the  retina  by  the  lenses  of 
the  eye,  and  hence  vision  is  distinct,  and 
the  visual  angle  and  apparent  size  of  the 
object  are  increased.  From  a  considera- 
tion of  Fig.  1  it  is  evident  that  practi- 
cally the  apparent  increase  in  size  is  approxi- 
mately proportional  to  the  decrease  in  distance 
between  the  object  and  the  eye.  Under  the 
normal  conditions  that  the  distance  IE,  Fig.  1, 
is  at  least  20-25  cm.  (8  to  10  inches),  and  we 
can  see  distinctly  only  a  comparatively  small 
area  at  once,  the  angle  AEB  is  small  and  approxi- 
mately proportional  to  the  ratio  of  AB  to  IE. 
hence'  AEB  ^  CED  =  FE  -4-  IE,  and  the  visual 
angle  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  distance 
from  the  eye  to  the  object.  Applying  this  to  Fig. 
2  gives  A'B'  -r-  AB  =  IC  -f-  OC,  inasmuch  as  C 
is  very  close  to  the  eye.  IC  is  the  distance  of 
distinct  vision,  and  00  is  practically  the  focal 
length  of  the  lens  C.  It  is  hence  evident  that  the 
magnifying  power  of  a  simple  lens  is  equal  to  the 
ratio  of  its  focal  length  to  the  distance  of  distinct 
vision.  For  example,  a  lens  of  a  focal  length  of 
1  cm.  (tw'O-fifths  of  an  inch)  would  magnify  25 
cm.  -V-  1  em.  or  25  diameters.  Magnifying  powers 
are  always  given  in  'diameters.'  that  is,  in  the 
magnifying  of  any  linear  dimension  and  not  of 
the  area  of  the  object. 

Simple  lenses  of  very  short  focus  are  not  well 
adapted  to  obtaining  very  high  magnifying  power, 
on  account  of  their  chromatic  and  spherical  aber- 
rations, which  render  the  image  so  colored  and 
indistinct  that  accurate  work  is  impracticable. 
A  form  of  stand  for  simple  microscope  especially 
convenient  for  biological  work  is  shown  on  the 


Fig.  3.    lenses  for  simple  micboscope. 

accompanying  plate  (Fig.  I).  A  is  the  lens,  or 
lens  combination;  B  is  the  table  for  holding  the 
object,  and  D  is  the  mirror  for  concentrating 
light  upon  the  latter;  C  is  the  rack  and  ])inion 
enabling  a  convenient  adjustment  of  the  focus. 
Such  instruments  are  useful  for  dissecting  small 
organisms,  and  can  be  furnished  with  magnifying 
power  up  to  100  diameters.  Fig.  3  shows  several 
methods  of  obtaining  strong  combinations  with 
less  aberration,  and  without  the  cost  of  elaborate 
correction.  Fraunhofor  designed  the  doublet,  a: 
b  is  a  form  used  by  Wilson;  c  is  a  so-called 
aplanatic  triplet  by  Steinheil ;  e  is  the  original 
Coddington,  modified  to  the  form  d  by  Brew'ster, 
and  f  is  the  conunon  cylindrical  lens  that  obtains 


MICROSCOPE. 


454: 


MICBOSCOPE. 


good  results  on  account  of  the  slight  curvature 
of  the  face  nearest  the  ohject ;  y  is  the  original 
liollaiid  triplet  in  wliicli  the  diaphragm  cuts  olf 
the  stray  light  and  improves  the  correction  great- 
ly, a  result  attained  in  e  and  d  hy  the  side  cuts 
in  toward  the  axis.  Wollaslon  pointed  out  that 
the  improvement  in  using  the  two  lenses  is  in  the 
fact  that  the  aberration  of  one  is  in  large  measure 
corrected  by  the  other,  the  diaphragm  serving  to 
cut  od'  that  portion  of  stray  light  which  would 
interfere  with  the  distinctness  of  the  image.  The 
field  of  vision  is  also  larger  and  more  nearly 
flat  than  when  a  single  lens  is  used. 

CoMi'orNi)  JIicuo.scoi'K.  In  its  simplest  form 
as  invented  by  .lanssen  the  compound  microscope 
consists  of  two  lenses  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.     The 


jb 


b'\ 


FlO.   4.     8IMIM.F.    COM- 

ror.ND. 


FlO.  5.  COMPOlTNn 
MICROSCOI'K  WITH 
IIDVtiBNH   EYEPIECE. 


so-called  ohjcetive  lens  cd  forms  a  greatly  en- 
larged image  of  tlie  object,  aft,  at  a'h'.  The  eye- 
piece Im  is  a  simple  microscope,  or  magnifying 
glass,  and  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  at  e.  The 
magnifying  power  of  such  a  eond)ination  is  ob- 
tained as  follows:  the  image  a'h'  is  larger  than 
the  object  in  the  pnipnrtion  of  h'c  to  ca,  and 
the  eyepiece  Im  niagnilics  the  image  oV/  in  the 
proportion  of  its  focal  length  to  the  distance  of 
distinct  vision,  25  cm.  In  a  particular  case: 
.suppose  VII  is  0.2  cm.,  ch'  is  2<t  cm.,  and  the 
focal  length  of  Im  is  2  cm.  Then  the  imago 
</'/<'  will  lie  larger  than  the  object  in  the  propor- 
tion of  20  to  0.2.  i.e.  100;  and  the  eyepiece  Im 
will  magnify  the  image  in  the  ratio  of  2.'>  cm.  to 
2  cm.,  i.e.  12.."),  and  the  total  apparent  increase  in 
size  will  be  100  X   12.5,  or  1250  diameters.    The 


Huygens  ej'epiece,  so  called  from  its  inventor.  Is 
also  called  a  negative  eyepiece,  because  the  two 
lenses  are  too  far  apart  to  make  its  use  possible 
in  the  same  manner  as  other  forms.  The  action 
of  this  eyepiece  is  shown  in  Fig.  5,  and  also  on 
the  accom])anying  plate.  The  objective  would 
form  an  image  at  na  if  it  were  not  that  the  lens 
ff  of  the  eyepiece  is  introduced,  and  consequently 
the  combined  effect  is  to  form  the  image  really  at 
hh :  this  is  then  viewed  by  the  eye-lens  ee.  \ 
diapliragni  is  inter]iosed  at  6i  to  cut  olT  stray 
light  and  improve  the  distinctness,  ff  is  called 
tile  field  lens  of  the  eyepiece,  and  ee  is  the  eye- 
lens.  The  great  advantage  of  this  form  of  eye- 
piece lies  in  the  fact  that  the  chromatic  and 
spherical  aberration  of  the  field  lens,  ff,  is  op- 
posite and  about  equal  to  that  of  the  eye-lens,  ee. 
Although  this  lens  is  very  satisfactory  for  gen- 
eral microscopic  work,  it  is  practically  little  used 
where  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  micrometer  (q.v. ) 
in  the  eyepiece,  or  a  cross-hair. 

Naturally  the  most  important  optical  part  of 
the  microscope  is  the  objective,  as  upon  its  per- 
fection depend  the  satisfactory  results  of  the 
whole  conddnation.  In  its  simplest  form  it  is 
only  a  plano-convex  lens  with  its  flat  side  toward 
the  object.     As  usually  seen  it  is  as  shown  in 


FlO.   6.      SECTION'   OV    ZEIS 
OBJECTIVE. 


.  7.    *AeocHIlO,\lAT' 
OF  AIIHE. 


Fig.  C,  with  two  or  more  achromatic  pairs;  the 
Zeis  objective  there  shown  also  illustrates  how 
the  cover-glass  correction  is  accom]dished  by 
varying  the  distance  between  the  first  two  and 
the  last  two  pairs  of  the  objective,  by  means  of 
a  screw,  K.  Fig.  7  illustrates  the  lenses  of  one 
of  Dr.  Abbe's  most  perfect  objectives,  the  'apo- 
chronuit.'  In  general  the  eyepiece  must  not  he 
astigmatic,  i.e.  it  must  be  able  to  form  a 
sharp  image  of  a  point.  It  must  be  orthoscopic, 
i.e.  it  must  magnify  all  parts  of  the  image 
equally.  It  must  be  achromatic,  i.e.  it  must  not 
show  any  colors  not  really  present  in  the  object. 
The  above  characteristics  must  also  be  pos- 
sessed by  the  objective,  even  more  essentially  and 
jierfectly  than  the  cyepieci'.  In  addition  it  is 
necessary  to  undersland  what  is  meant  by  other 
lieculiaritics  of  the  objective.  Indcr  "aperture' 
is  meant  the  angle  between  the  limiting  rays  of 
tile  elTeetive  lieam  in  the  formation  of  the  image 
by  the  objective,  for  example,  the  angle  end  or 
ibd.  Fig.  4.  This  is  naturally  affected  by  the 
index  of  refraction  of  the  metlitim  between  the 
object  and  the  objective,  and  would  hence  be  dif- 
ferent with  the  same  objective  if  it  were  used 
dry.  as  water  immersion,  or  homogeneous  im- 
mersion, and  consequently  it  has  been  proposed 


MICROSCOPE. 


455 


MICKOSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 


to  use  tlie  product  of  the  sine  of  half  this  angle 
by  the  index  of  refraction,  as  indicating  the  ef- 
fective aperture  irrespective  of  the  method  of 
using  the  objective,  and  this  constant  is  called 
the  numerical  aperture.  The  resolving  power  of 
an  objective  must  not  be  confused  with  the  mag- 
nifying power,  for  theoretically  any  desired  de- 
gree of  magnification  can  be  obtained,  but  tliere 
is  a  detlnite  limit  to  the  resolving  power  set  by 
dillraction  phenomena,  as  pointed  out  by  Dr. 
Ablx''.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  lens  on  account 
of  diU'raetion  is  not  able  to  form  an  actual  point, 
as  the  image  of  a  point,  it  is  evident  that  if  the 
little  rings  which  are  formed  overlap,  then  no 
degree  of  further  magnification  can  separate  them, 
and  they  will  confuse  tlie  vision.  It  has  been 
shown  that  the  success  of  an  objective  in  gather- 
ing in  all  the  components  due  to  diffraction  is 
directly  dependent  upon  the  numerical  aperture. 
Abbe  has  calculated  that  the  theoretical  limit 
of  resolving  power  for  an  aperture  of  180°  would 
be  lines  about  120,000  to  the  inch,  falling  to 
about  95,000  for  107°.  This  has  been  nearly 
reached  in  some  of  the  best  instruments.  The- 
oretically two  lines  must  be  distant  from  each 
other  at  least  X  /2a,  in  order  to  be  seen  dis- 
tinctly, where  a  is  the  numerical  aperture  and  \ 
is  the  wave  length  of  the  light. 

In  order  to  make  use  of  the  highest  efficiency 
of  the  objective  it  is  necessary  to  devote  niucli 
attention  to  the  concentration  of  the  light  upon 
the  object  in  order  that  the  image  may  be  well 
lighted  and  also  that  the  full  aperture  of  the 
objective  may  be  utilized.  A  form  of  condenser 
which  is  placed  under  the  object  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  plate  (Fig.  4)  ;  Sp  is  the  mirror 
for  reflecting  the  light  into  the  condenser  >S,  and 
the  rest  is  mechanism  for  suitable  adjustments. 
The  adjoining  figures  show  the  section  of  such  a 
condensing  lens. 

On  the  accompanying  plate  (Fig.  2)  is  shown 
a  modern  microscope  of  a  high  order  as  fitted  for 
general  and  biological  work.  The  main  stand  S 
is  so  hinged  that  the  top  may  be  tilted  at  any 
angle  and  clamped  by  the  lever  M.  The  'tube' 
A  carries  at  its  lower  end  a  'triple  nose-piece,' 
D,  enabling  the  observer  rajiidly  and  easily  to 
exchange  objectives,  C,  F,  etc.  In  the  upper  end 
of  A  is  the  'draw  tube,'  B,  enabling  the  observer 
to  change  the  distance  between  his  objective,  C, 
and  eyepiece,  E.  LCKJ  is  the  stage  or  table  on 
whicli  the  objects  are  placed.  K  is  a  vernier 
reading  the  angular  rotation  of  the  stage.  L  and 
J  are  milled  heads  operating  the  mechanical 
stage,  making  it  possilde  to  move  the  object 
regularly  up  and  down  or  right  and  left  in 
searching  for  an  object  in  the  slide,  in  counting, 
and  the  like.  I  is  the  substage  condenser  and 
its  mounting,  including  a  diaphragm.  NO  is  the 
rack  and  pinion  for  rough  adjustment  of  the 
focus,  and  G  is  the  fine  adjustment  making  it 
easy  to  adjust  accurately  tJie  focus  of  a  lijgh- 
power  objective  and  in  some  cases  to  make 
measurements. 

A  similar  instrument  as  fitted  for  petrographic 
work  where  polarized  light  is  used  is  also  illus- 
trated on  the  plate.  This  particular  microscope 
is  not  fitted  with  a  mechanical  stage.  At  P  is  in- 
troduced a  'polarizer.'  Nicol  prism  for  furnishing 
a  beam  of  polarized  light,  and  another  Nicol 
prism  used  as  the  analyzer  is  slid  into  the  side 
of  the  tube  at  R  or  for' other  combinations  at  S. 
U  is  a  rack  and  pinion  for  the  adjustment  of  the 


draw  tube,  B.  For  some  purposes  the  analyzer 
is  put  on  top  of  the  eyepiece  at  T.  Either  the 
polarizer  or  the  condenser  may  be  turned  out 
from  under  the  stage  when  not  wanted.  Between 
tlie  objective  and  tlie  analyzer  is  a  side  slot,  into 
which  may  be  introduced  the  quartz  wedge,  mica 
plate,  etc.,  which  are  used  in  the  determination 
of  the  optical  constants  of  the  minerals  under 
study.  For  use  in  such  instruments  the  rock 
to  be  investigated  is  ground  to  a  very  thin  .sec- 
tion mounted  ujwn  a  glass  strip,  like  any  micro- 
scope preparation.  Under  these  circumstances 
most  minerals  are  quite  transparent  and  the  stu- 
dent is  enabled  not  only  to  learn  the  size  and 
form  of  the  grains,  but  also  to  subject  them  to  an 
investigation  under  jwlarized  light  and  identify 
their  optical  properties  and  determine  completely 
their  nature.  The  petrographic  miscroscope  has 
revolutionized  the  study   of   rocks. 

There  is  also  the  binocular  microscope,  in 
which  two  eyepieces  are  used  in  order  to  secure 
a  stereoscopic  effect.  (See  Stereo-scope. )  In  a 
binocular  microscope  there  is  the  usual  arran^e- 
ment  of  the  objective,  but  one  or  more  prisms"^of 
special  design  are  interposed  so  as  to  deflect  some 
of  the  rays  to  a  second  eyepiece.  It  is  unavoid- 
able that  a  certain  amount  of  light  is  cut  off'  in 
passing  through  the  prism,  or  that  the  path  of 
the  rays  is  increased  so  that  where  the  high- 
est powers  are  employed  the  binocular  is  not 
used. 

There  are  u.sed  in  connection  with  the  micro- 
scope many  forms  of  the  'camera  lucida'  (q.v.), 
a  device  to  enable  the  operator  to  make  a 
drawing  of  the  object  under  study  by  tracing 
over  the  virtual  image  which  he  seems  to  see 
on  the  paper  as  the  eye  of  the  observer  sees  both 
the  light  which  comes  up  from  the  object  and 
that  which  comes  from  the  paper  and  pencil  be- 
low the  miscroscope.  In  preparing  slides  for 
work  in  microbiology  it  is  necessary  that  the  ma- 
terial should  be  in  very  thin  sections,  and  this 
is  accomplished  by  imbedding  the  whole  object 
in  paraffin  and  then  shaving  off  thin  sections 
with  a  'microtome,'  one  form  of  which  is  shown 
on  the  accompanying  plate  ( Fig.  8 ) .  After- 
wards the  paraffin  is  removed,  and  the  shaving 
mounted  upon  a  glass  slide.  These  preparations 
are  usually  hardened  by  chemicals,  and  are  fre- 
quently dyed  with  special  solutions,  which  may, 
for  example,  color  the  nerves  and  not  the  other 
parts,  thus  bringing  out  the  contrast,  and  as- 
sisting the  work.  Under  some  circumstances  the 
object  is  frozen  by  means  of  liquid  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  then  shaved  in  sections. 

It  should  be  evident  that  by  a  simple  device  a 
camera  may  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  the 
eye  in  any  of  the  above  cases,  and  by  that 
means  photographs  may  be  taken  of  the  objects 
under  investigation.  For  the  early  history  of 
the  microscope,  the  reader  should  consult  Ger- 
land  and  Traumiiller,  Geschichte  der  Experi- 
mentierkunsf  (Leipzig,  1899).  Drude.  Lchrbuch 
tier  Opiik  (Leipzig.  1900).  translated  into  Eng- 
lish as  The  Theory  of  Optics  bv  Mann  and  Jlili- 
kan  (New  York,  1902),  should  be  read  for  the 
theoretical  side.  A  practical  and  complete  trea- 
tise is  Carpenter.  The  Microscope  (8th  ed.,  edited 
by  Dallmeyer,  Philadelphia,  1901).  See  Micro- 
scopy, Cltnical. 

MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY,  The  Ameri- 
c.A,N.  An  assoeiatiim  organized  in  1878  and  in- 
corporated in  1891,  at  Washington,  D.  C.    It  has 


MICKOSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 


456 


MICROSCOPY. 


a  membership  of  three  hundred,  and  an  extensive 
collection  of  specimens  and  exliihits  at  Pittsburg, 
Pa.  Its  ol)jects  are  the  encouragement  of  micro- 
scopical research,  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge 
on  the  subject  of  microscopy. 

MICROSCOPY.  CuNicAL.  With  the  rapid  in- 
crease made  in  comparatively  recent  times  in  the 
perf<'(ti(in  of  instr\iments  at  our  disposal  and 
in  our  knowledge  of  the  differences  in  normal 
and  pathological  appearances  of  body  tissues  and 
organs  and  their  products,  the  micrnsco]ie  has 
come  to  be  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  medical 
diagnosis.  (See  the  article  Mrro.scope  for  de- 
scription and  illustration  of  microscopes.)  For 
most  diagnostic  work  two  objectives  are  sulUcient, 
a  low  power  having  a  focal  length  of  about  two- 
thirds  of  an  inch,  and  a  high  power  having  a 
focal  length  of  abovit  one-tiftb  of  an  inch.  For 
a  microscopic  examination  of  l)acteria  and  the 
blood  a  higher  magnification  is  in  many  cases 
desirable. 

Before  examining  with  the  microscope  most 
specimens  require  some  special  preparation.  As 
these  preparations  differ  for  different  siiecimens, 
they  will  be  described  vinder  separate  headings. 

Urine.  Microscopic  examination  of  the  urine 
is  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  disease 


or  as  rough  spherical  crystals.  (c)  Hippuric 
acid  crystals  are  rather  infrequently  found  in 
acid  urine.  (d)  Phosphates,  ammonium-mag- 
nesium or  'triple  phosphate'  crystals  occur  in 
slightly   acid  and   in  alkaline  urine.     They  are 


CRYSTALS  OF  C.VLCIUM    PH08PHATK  X  150. 

of  the  kidney,  ureter,  bladder,  urethra,  etc.  For 
microscopic  examination  the  specimen  of  nrine 
should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  from  eight  to 
twelve  hours  and  the  part  examined  taken  l)y 
means  of  a  pipette  from  the  bottom  of  the  fluid, 
or  the  urinary  solids  nuiy  be  tlirown  down  liy 
means  of  a  centrifugal  machine  <-alled  the  centri- 
fuge. A  snuill  dr<q)  of  the  urine  is  ]ilaced  upon 
a  glass  slide  and  covered  by  a  thin  piece  of  glass 
known  as  a  cover  glass.  The  specimen  may  then 
be  examined. 

Crystalline  Si'bstances.  (a)  Uric  acid  oc- 
curs as  'whet-stone'  shaped  crystals.  These  lying 
across  one  another  in  groups  form  radiating 
masses  or  rosettes.  Crystals  somewhat  dumb- 
bell in  shape  are  less  eonuiion.  and  after  the 
addition  of  acid  to  urine  large  jilate-like  crystals 
of  uric  acid  may  be  found,  (b)  The  salts  of 
uric  acid  or  urates  may  also  be  seen  under  the 
niicroscojie.  usually  as  a  granular  deposit,  'amor- 
phous urates.'  In  urine  which  is  undergoing 
ammoniacal  fermentation,  anmionium  urate  crys- 
tals occur  either  as  clumps  of  short  thick  needles 


CBVSTALB  OF  CALCICM   OXALATE  X  350. 

large  and  are  usually  described  as  'coffin-lid'  in 
shape.  In  alkaline  urine  the  phosphates  some- 
times come  down  as  fine  feathery  'snow-flake" 
crystals.  Calcium  phosphate  occurs  as  clear, 
slender,  needle-shaped  crj'stals.  Large  colorless 
plate-like  crystals  of  basic  magnesium  phosphate 
and  granular  deposits  of  the  basic  phosphates  of 
lime  and  magnesium  may  also  be  found  in  alka- 
line urine,  (e)  Calcium  oxalate  crystals  occur 
in  acid  urine.  They  are  clear  and  diamond  or 
'envelope'  shaped.  Less  coiiunon  are  crystals  of  a 
somewhat  dumb-bell  sliape.  (f)  Calcium  car- 
bonate is  found  in  alkaline  urine  which  is  under- 
going fermentation.  It  occurs  as  coarse  granules 
which  dissolve  with  gas  formation  on  the  addi- 
tion of  acetic  acid,  (g)  Less  common  crystals 
found  in  urinary  sediments  arc  those  of  biliru- 
bin, hiematoidin,  leucin,  tyrosin,  and  cystin. 


0  ®  ® 

©  ^  ® 

„©    (Si 

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a. 

EPITHKLIAL  CELLS. 

(.1)  Uound;  (*)  columnar;  (r)  sqimmous. 

Organic  Substances.  (a)  Epithelial  cells 
ULiinly  from  the  bladder  and  vagina  occur  in 
normal  urine.  In  inllammatory  conditions  of  tlie 
bladder  and  vagina  their  numlier  is  greatly  in- 
creased. Epithelium  from  the  kidney  may  also 
occur  in  the  urine.  II  is  cuboidal  or  ecilumnar  in 
shape  and  most  abundant  in  degenerative  condi- 
tions of  the  kidney,  and  in  diseasi>  of  tlie  kidney 
pelvis.  Pigmented  columnar  epithelium  from  tlie 
seminal  vesicles  may  sometimes  be  foimd.  (I)) 
Casts  are  among  the  most  important  of  the  or- 
ganic substances  found  in  iirine.  indicating  as 
thev  often  do  serious  conditions  in  the  kidneys. 
They  are  formed  by  the  coagulation  of  albu- 
minoid matter  in  the  tubules  of  the  kidney,  thus 


CLINICAL    MICROSCOPY 


1 .  UREA  FROM  WATER  SOLUTION,  magnified  25  times.  4.   UREA  SODIUM   CHLORIDE,  magnified  75  times. 

2.  UREA   NITRATE,  magnified  75  times.  5.   URIC  ACID  FROM   ACID  URINE,  magnified  25  times. 

3.  UREA   OXALATE,  magnified  75  times.  6.   URIC  ACID  FROM   SNAKE'S   EXCREMENT,   magnified 

200  times. 
(These  figures,  togetlier  with  many  of  the  text  illustrations,  are  from  drawings  by  Prof.  C.  E.  Peilew,  and  are  used 
by  his  permission,  and  that  of  his  publishers,  D.  Appieton  and  Co.) 


MICROSCOPY. 


457 


MICKOSCOPY. 


liroJucing  casts  of  the  tubules.  From  here  they 
are  washed  along  the  urinary  tubules  into  the 
\irine.  Casts  almost  clear  composed  of  albumin 
and  a  few  tine  granules  are  known  as  hj-aline 
easts.  Occurring  in  small  numbers  hyaline  casts 
may  be  of  little  significance,  being  present  in 
functional  albuminuria  in  the  urine  of  old  per- 


CAST8. 

(at  Hyaline;  (i)  was.v  ;  (f)  li.T aline  and  frranular;  (d) 
h.valine  and  epithelial  ;  (e)  hyaline  and  blood;  (_/")  h.valine 
and  pus. 

sons  and  often  in  urine  otherwise  normal.  In 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  kidney  these  casts 
occur  in  large  numbers.  So-called  'waxy'  casts 
are  less  transparent  than  the  hyaline  and  turn 
brown  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  iodine. 
They  are  characteristic  of  the  waxy  degeneration 


CRYSTALS   OF  CYSTIN. 

of  the  kidney  which  sometimes  accompanies 
chronic  nephritis.  Casts  containing  epithelial 
cells  are  known  as  epithelial  casts.  They  are 
associated  with  acute  disease  of  the  kidney. 
Blood  casts,  or  casts  containing  red  blood  cells, 
are  found  in  urine  in  cases  of  acute  exudative  ne- 


CABTS. 

(a)  Fine  granular ;    (b)  coarse  granular ;   (c)  epithelial ; 
(rf)  blood:  (e)pus;  (f)  fatty. 

phritis  and  in  connection  with  the  hemorrhages 
which  sometimes  occxir.  Pus  casts,  or  casts  con- 
taining pus  cells,  are  found  in  suppurative  ne- 
phritis and  in  some  of  the  more  severe  cases  of 


acute  nephritis.  Casts  containing  fine  or  coarse 
granules  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Pus  cells  are  found  in  the  urine  in  the  more  se- 
vere forms  of  acute  nephritis  and  in  suppurative 
inflammation  of  any  part  of  the  genito-urinary 
tract.  Pus  is  most  abundant  in  cystitis;  less 
abundant  and  more  thorougbl}-  mixed  with  the 
urine  in  pyelitis ;  least  abundant,  and  confined 
mainly  to  the  first  part  of  the  specimen  passed,  in 
urethritis. 

Kcd  blood  cells  appear  as  round  biconcave  disks, 
about  seven  mieromillimeters  in  diameter.    They 


HUMAN    SPERMATOZOA    GREATLY  MAGNIFIED. 

(a)  View  of  broad  surface ;  (6)  view  in  profile. 

may  be  found  in  severe  acute  inflammations  of 
the  genito-urinary  tract  and  in  conditions  deter- 
mining hemorrhage  along  the  tract. 

Spermatozoa  are  frequently  found  in  the  urine 
of  healthy  individuals.  Constant  presence  of 
spermatozoa  in  the  urine  may  occur  in  certain 
diseases  of  the  prostate  and  seminal  vesicles. 
The  condition  is  also  frequently  present  in  sexual 
neuro.ses. 

Yeast  and  mold  plants  are  frequentl.v  found 
in  the  urine  of  diabetics,  more  rarely  in  other 
conditions. 

Bacteria.  Normal  urine  in  the  normal  blad- 
der contains  no  bacteria.  Non-pathogenic  bac- 
teria are,  however,  frequentl.v  added  to  the  urine 
from  the  urethra  or  from  the  external  genitals. 
Of  these  the  Micrococcus  urea>  is  one  of  the  most 
common.  The  smegma  bacillus  is  also  sometimes 
present  in  large  numbers  and  is  important  from 
the  similarity  which  it  bears  to  the  tubercle 
bacillus  as  regards  its  staining  qualities.  Of 
pathogenic  bacteria  found  in  urinary  sediments 
ma.v  be  mentioned  the  Staphylococcus  pyogenes, 
Streptococcus  p,vogenes,  the  colon  bacillus,  tu- 
bercle bacillus,  and  gonococcus.  In  such  infec- 
tious diseases  as  septiciemia,  pya'mia,  erysipelas, 
diphtheria,  and  tuberculosis  the  specific  germ  of 
the  disease  is  sometimes  found  in  the  urine.  For 
descriptions  of  the  appearance  which  these  dif- 
ferent germs  present  under  the  microscope  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  special  articles  on  the 
diseases  which  the.v  cause.  For  a  description  of 
the  staphylococcus  and  streptococcus  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  article  on  Bactehia.  In  ex- 
amining urinary  sediment  for  bacteria,  a  small 
amount  of  the  sediment  is  taken  up  with  a  plati- 
num loop  and  smeared  on  a  cover  glass  in  a 
thin  layer.     This  is  allowed  to  dry.     To  fix  the 


MICROSCOPY. 


458 


MICROSCOPY. 


speoiiucu  oil  the  cuvir  glass,  the  cover  glass  is 
passfd  through  a  blue  flame  of  sudicient  lieat  to 
liriug  the  specimen  just  to  the  boiliiij;  point  of 
water.  The  specimen  may  now  be  stained  by 
placing  upon  it  a  few  drops  of  a  -natery  solution 
of  fuehsin,  gentian  violet,  or  methylene  blue. 
After  staining  it  is  washed  in  water  and  may 
then  be  examined. 

For  other  organisms  more  rarely  present  in 
urine  the  reader  is  referred  to  special  works  upon 
microscopical  urinalysis. 

Blood.  The  main  piirposes  for  which  blood  is 
examined  microscopically  are  as  follows; 

( 1 )  To  determine  the  number  of  red  blood 
cells. 

(2)  To  determine  the  richness  of  the  red  cells 
in  htemoglobin. 

(31  To  determine  the  size,  shape,  etc.,  of  the 
red  cells  and  the  presence  of  forms  of  cells  not 
fo\ind  in  normal  blood,  e.g.  nucleated  red  blood 
cells. 

(4)  To  determine  the  number  of  white  blood 
cells. 

(5)  To  determine  the  relative  proportion  of 
the  different  kinds  of  white  blood  cells — 'differen- 
tial count  of  leucocytes.' 

(ij|   For  the  Plasmodium  malariie. 

( 7  )   In  suspected  typhoid  for  Widal's  reaction. 

(8)    For  bacteria  and  other  foreign  substances. 

For  description  of  the  normal  histologj-  of 
blood  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on 
Blood. 

Counting  the  Red  Blood  Cells.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  means  of  Thoraa's  hoematocyto- 
nieter  or  blood-counting  apparatus.  This  consists 
of  a  pipette  with  bulb  and  graduated  capillary 
tube.  The  graduation  of  the  tube  is  0.5  and  1, 
that  of  the  bulb  and  tube  together  100.  By  filling 
the  tube  to  mark  1  with  blood  and  then  the  bulb 
and  tube  to  mark  100  with  an  inert  diluting 
fluid  such  as  normal  saline,  a  dilution  of  1  to 
100  is  obtained.  The  counting  slide  has  in  its 
centre  a  round  chamber,  in  the  centre  of  which 
is  a  raised  flat  glass  surface  which  is  marked 
off  into  400  equal  squares,  each  of  which  is 
one  four-hundredth  of  a  square  millimeter.  The 
surface  of  the  marked-off  area  is  just  one-tenth 
of  a  millimeter  lower  than  the  surface  of  the 
rest  of  tlic  slide.  A  drop  of  the  diluted  blood 
is  placeil  upon  the  centre  of  the  graduated  area 
and  a  flat  cover  glass  placed  over  it.  As  will 
be  seen,  the  auiount  of  fluid  over  one  of  the 
small  squares  is  one-tenth  times  one  four-hun- 
dredth or  one  four-thousandth  of  a  cubic  milli- 
meter. The  number  of  cells  in  one  square  is  then 
counted.  This  nuiltiplied  by  4000  and  then  by 
the  dilution,  100,  gives  the  result  desired,  i.e. 
the  number  of  red  cells  in  one  cubic  millimeter 
of  blood  examined.  In  actual  practice  a  large 
number  of  squares  is  co\inlcd  and  the  average 
taken.  The  white  blood  cells  may  l)e  counted  in 
the  same  specimen  if  desired.  Owing,  however,  to 
their  smaller  number,  a  larger  number  of  squares 
should  be  counted  to  avoid  error.  For  determin- 
ing the  richness  of  the  individual  corpuscles  in 
ha-nioglobin,  the  shape  and  size  of  the  cells,  the 
relative  number  of  the  different  kinds  of  white 
cells,  the  presence  of  the  malaria  plasmodium, 
etc.,  the  preparation  of  fixed  and  stained  speci- 
mens is  reipiired  as  follows.  Blood  from  a  needle 
prick  is  taken  up  on  the  end  of  a  glass  slide  and 
thi.**  is  drawn  across  the  surface  of  a  seconcl  slide. 
thus   making   a    thin    'smear'   of   blood.      This    is 


dried  quickly  in  the  air,  after  which  it  is  'fixed' 
by  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  ether,  the  vapor  of 
osmic  acid  or  of  formalin,  or  by  subjecting  to 
the  action  of  dry  heat.  The  specimen  is  now 
ready  for  staining.  A  combination  of  eosiu  and 
methylene  blue,  and  Ehrlieh's  triacid  stain,  are 
the  most  satisfactory.  After  staining  the  speci- 
men is  washed  in  water.  The  eosin-methylene 
blue  method  is  the  most  satisfactory  for  general 
purposes  and  stains  the  malaria  plasmodium. 
Ehrlieh's  stain  is  most  satisfactory  for  making 
a  differential  count  of  the  leucocytes. 

Persistent  marked  reduction  in  the  number  of 
red  cells  occurs  in  primary  jjernicious  am^mia 
and  in  the  severe  secondary  ana'uiias  due  to  some 
of  the  infectious  diseases.  It  may  also  be  due 
to  the  action  of  certain  mineral  poisons  (phos- 
phorus, arsenic,  etc.),  to  long-continued  suppura- 
tive processes,  cancer,  malaria,  conditions  of 
malnutrition,  etc. 

Loss  in  the  hiemoglobin  content  of  the  indi- 
vidual cells  occurs  especially  in  that  form  of 
ancemia  known  as  chlorosis,  iloderate  diminu- 
tion in  numljer  of  cells  may  also  occur.  In  leu- 
cocythicmia  there  may  also  be  both  a  reduction  in 
the  number  of  cells  and  a  reduction  in  hiemo- 
globin content.  This  loss  on  the  part  of  the  indi- 
vidual cell  in  hiemoglobin  is  shown  in  the  eosin- 
stained  specimen  bv  an  increase  in  the  clear  cen- 
tral area  of  the  cell. 

Irregular  red  cells  (poikilocytes) ,  small  red 
cells  (microeytes) ,  and  large  red  cells  (megalo- 
cytes)  are  found  in  severe  antemias  whether  pri- 
mary or  secondary. 

Xucleated  red  blood  cells  are  found  in  all  forms 


HUMAN  BED   BLOOD  CORPUSCLES   AND  TWO   LEUCOCYTES. 

of  ana-mia.  As  they  represent  developmental 
types,  their  presence  may  be  construed  as  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  nature  to  replace  lost 
cells.  Very  large  nucleated  red  cells  (megalo- 
lilasts  and  gigantoblasts)  are  sometimes  present 
in  severe  anaemias. 

Moderate  increase  in  the  number  of  white  blood 
cells  occurs  physiologically  during  the  first  few 
days  after  birth,  in  the  later  months  of  preg- 
nancy, and  after  eating.  Pathological  increase  in 
the  numl)er  of  white  cells  occurs  in  many  of  the 
infectious  diseases,  especi.illy  those  accompanieil 
by  exudation  or  suppuration.  It  is  notably  ab- 
sent in  typhoid,  t.vphus,  tuberculosis,  measles,  and 
malaria.     Lymphocytosis,  or  increase  in  the  num- 


MICROSCOPY. 


459 


MICROSCOPY. 


ber  of  lyniphocytes,  is  frequent  in  the  later  weeks 
of  typhoid,  in  ameniia,  in  intestinal  diseases  of 
children,  and  in  lymphatic  leucoeytha-niia.  Per- 
sistent increase  in  the  number  of  white  l)lood  cells 
independent  of  other  lesions  is  characteristic  of 
leucocythaemia.  This  increase  may  be  very  great, 
and  is  usually  irregular,  i.e.  the  proportionate 
numerical  relation  of  the  different  kinds  of  white 
blond  cells  is  changed.  In  lymphatic  leucocy- 
tlia>inia  the  greatest  increase  is  in  the  lymph- 
ocytes. In  myelogenous  leucocythsemia  the  in- 
crease in  leucocytes  is  often  enormous,  sometimes 
more  than  a  million  per  cubic  millimeter.  Ab- 
normal forms  of  leucocytes  also  appear. 

In  patients  suffering  from  malaria  the  Plas- 
modium malarife  may  be  found.  The  forais  which 
the  organism  assumes  are  known  as  tertian, 
quartan,  and  sestivo-autumnal.  They  occur  with- 
in the  red  blood  cells,  rarely  in  the  plasma.  The 
recognition  of  the  malarial  parasite  requires  ex- 
tremely careful  technique  and  experience.  For 
more  detailed  description  of  the  parasite  and  of 
the  methods  used  in  the  detection  of  the  same  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Delaficld  and  Pi-udden's 
Bandbook  of  Pathological  Analomy  and  Histol- 
ogy, ed.  6,  with  references  on  page  259. 

Free  pigment  Is  sometimes  found  in  the  blood. 
This  condition  is  known  as  melanipmia. 

V'arious  foreign  bodies  such  as  fat,  air,  bac- 
teria, animal  parasites  (distoma  haematobium, 
filaria  sanguinis  hominis,  and  the  eggs  of  the 
trichina  and  echinococcus),  endothelial  cells,  pus 
cells,  tumor  cells,  etc.,  are  sometimes  found  in 
tlie  blood. 

Examination  of  the  blood  in  typhoid  for  the  so- 
called  Widal  reaction  should  be  mentioned.  The 
blood  or  serum  to  be  examined  is  mixed  with  ten 
times  its  amount  of  a  twenty-four-hour-old  broth 
culture  of  the  typhoid  bacillus  and  examined 
under  the  oil  immersion  lens.  A  positive  reaction 
consists  in  the  rendering  motionless  of  the  bacilli 
and  their  collection  into  groups.  If  a  reaction 
with  the  one  to  ten  dihition  occurs,  a  one  to 
twenty  should  be  tried.  Positive  reaction  with 
the  one  to  twenty  dilution  makes  the  diagnosis  of 
typhoid  extremely  probable.  A  negative  result 
is  of  less  value. 

Stains  may  be  examined  to  determine  the 
presence  or  absence  of  blood,  as  follows.  A  drop 
of  normal  saline  solution  to  which  a  few  scrap- 
ings from  the  stain  have  been  added  is  evaporated 
on  a  glass  slide.  This  is  then  covered  and  a  drop 
of  glacial  acetic  acid  allowed  to  run  inidcr  tlie 
cover.  The  preparation  is  next  heated  until  it 
lnilil)lps.  More  acid  is  added  and  the  slide  heated 
until  a  brownish  color  appears.  The  specimen  is 
then  slowly  dried  and  mounted  in  glycerin.  If 
any  blood  was  present  it  is  shown  by  the  presence 
of  small  rhombic  crystals  which  result  from  the 
conversion  of  lurmoglobin  into  ha>min. 

Ficces  may  be  examined  by  mixing  a  small 
amount  with  a  drop  of  normal  saline  solution  on 
a  glass  slide  and  covering  with  a  cover  glass. 
Detritus  from  incomplete  digestion  of  food  forms 
a  large  part  of  normal  fa>ces.  Thus  it  is  com- 
mon to  find  in  a  specimen  of  fa-ces  vegetable 
cells  of  various  kinds,  starch  granules,  muscle 
fibres  from  meat,  fat  globules,  coagulated  al- 
bumins, etc.  In  addition  to  these  there  are 
usually  found  mucus  and  epithelial  cells,  and  not 
infrequently  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  calcium 
phosphate,  calcium  sulphate,  the  fatty  acids, 
triple  phosphates,  cholesterin,  etc. 
Vol.  mil— 30. 


Epithelial  cells  in  large  numbers  are  frequently 
associated  with  intestinal  catarrh,  especially  in 
children. 

Kcd  blood  cells  may  be  found  in  conditions  as- 
sociated with  hemorrhage. 

Pus  cells  are  frequent  in  catarrhal  inflamma- 
tions of  the  bowels.  They  are  more  abundant 
when  the  inflammation  is  suppurative  in  char- 


BACTERIA  X  500. 

acter.  In  typhoid  fever  and  other  ulcerative  con- 
ditions, bits  of  an  ulcer  which  has  sloughed,  or 
groups  of  epithelium  with  pus  cells  attached  may 
be  found  in  the  faeces. 

A  large  variety  of  bacteria  are  present  in 
normal  faeces.  Some  of  these  gain  entrance 
with  the  food;  others  are  normal  habitats  of 
the  gastro-intestinal  canal.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  Bacillus  coli  communis,  Proteus 
vulgaris,  Leptothrix,  and  the  Bacillus  lactis 
acrogenes.  Under  certain  as  yet  little  imder- 
stood  conditions,  it  appears  that  some  of  these 
micro-organisms  may  assume  pathological  sig- 
nificance. 

The  typhoid  bacillus  occurs  in  the  stools  of 
persons  suffering  from  typhoid  fever.  As  its 
appearance  under  the  microscope  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  Bacillus  coli  communis,  the  two 
must  be  dift'erentiated  by  biological  methods. 

Tubercle  bacilli  may  be  found  in  the  fteces. 
(For  method  of  staining,  see  Tuberculosis.) 
Occurring  with  pulmonary  lesions  and  without 
intestinal  symptoms,  their  source  is  visually  in 
swallowed  sputum.  If,  however,  symptoms  of 
enteritis  are  associated  Avith  tubercle  bacilli  in 
the  stools,  there  is  certainly  a  strong  probability 
that  the  enteritis  is  tubercular. 

The  'Comma'  bacillus  is  present  in  the  stools 
of  persons  suffering  from  Asiatic  cholera. 

The  AniQjba  coli  is  found  in  the  faeces  in 
amoebic  colitis.  It  is  best  to  examine  stools  for 
amceba  as  soon  as  possible  after  their  passage 
and  in  the  warm  stage,  as  their  motility  is  a 
valuable  aid  in  its  detection. 

Sputum  is  examined  microscopically  to  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  secretion  of  the  respira- 
tory tract.  It  may  be  examined  by  smearing  on 
a  cover  glass  or  slide,  fixing  and  staining  with 
dilute  aqueous  solution  of  methylene  blue.  If 
there  are  little  lumps  of  cheesy  matter  scattered 
through  the  R]nitum,  it  is  well  to  select  one  of 
these  from  which  to  make  the  smear,  especially 


MICKOSCOPY. 


460 


MICROSCOPY. 


if  the  tubercle  baiilhis  is  to  be  lookeil  for. 
Photographs  of  typical  bacteria  as  seen  through 
the  microscope  are  shown  in  the  article  Dl.sEAfSE, 
Germ  Tiieoky  of. 

Epithelial  cells  from  various  parts  of  the 
respiratory  tract  are  often  present.  Their  origin 
can  frequently  be  determined  by  their  appear- 
ance. 

Red  blood  cells  occur  in  the  sputum  in  acute 
bronchitis,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  and  in  any 
condition  wliich  is  associated  by  hemorrhage  into 
the  respiratory  tract. 

White  blood" cells  are  also  readily  recognized  in 
methylene  blue  stained  specimens  by  their  irregu- 
lar or  multiple  nuclei  and  their  unstained  cell 
bodies.  They  are  found  in  acute  and  chronic 
bronchitis,  in  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  abscess, 
and  gangrene  of  the  lung,  in  fact  in  any  intlani- 
matol-y  condition  of  the  respiratory  tract  which 
is  marked  by  a  catarrhal  <ir  supiiurative  exuda- 
tion. 

JIucus,  fat  droplets,  fibrin,  elastic  fibres,  crys- 
tals of  calcium  carbonate,  of  triple  phosphates, 
of  cholesterin.  of  the  fatty  acids,  and  the  so- 
called  Charcot-I.eyden  crystals  may  be  found  in 
sputum  on  microscopical  examination. 


method.  For  the  appearance  of  certain  gerraa 
see  Disease,  Geem  Theory  of.  ■ 

Tlie  'ray'  lungus.  or  linigus  of  actinomycosis  of 
the  lung,  is  sometimes  demonstrable  in  the  spu- 
tum, as  are  also  yeasts,  molds,  and  leptothrix. 

Microscopical  examination  of  specimens  from 
the  stomach  is  often  of  value  in  determining  the 
condition  of  that  (irgan.     ilatcrial  is  obtained  as. 


MOLD    PLANTS  X  100. 

vomitus  or  by  introducing  the  stomach  tube.  In- 
completely digested  food  may  be  recognized  as 
muscle  fi"bres,  fibrous  and  elastic  fibres,  fat, 
starch,  and  various  kinds  of  vegetable  cells. 
Epithelial  cells  from  the  mouth  or  uesophagus  or 
from  the  stomach  itself  nuiy  l)e  found.  Red  blood 
cells  may  come  from  the  stomach  or  may  have 
been  swallowed.  White  blood  cells  are  quite 
conmionly  fovmd.  When  in  large  numbers  they 
indicate  "suppurative  inflammation.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  stomach  may  sometimes  be  deterniincci 


VEAST  X  250. 

A  large  number  of  harmless  species  of  bacteria 
are  found  in  si)utum,  most  of  these  being  derived 
from  the  mouth,  nose,  and  upper  respiratory 
tract.  Of  disease-producing  species  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  tuliercle  l)acillus,  the  bacillus  of 
inlluenza,  the  pneumo-bacillus  of  Friedliinder,  the 
pneumococcus,  the  streptococcus,  and  the  staphy- 
lococcus. (For  the  staining  ipialitics  and  appear- 
ance of  the  tubercle  bacillus,  see  article  on 
TinERCiLO.sis.)  The  bacillus  of  inlluenza  is  an 
cxtremclj-  minute  bacillus  measuring  only  about 
half  the"  length  of  the  tul)ercle  bacillus.  It  is 
apt  to  occur  in  clumps  and  does  not  stain  very 
readily  with  methylene  blue.  A  rather  weak 
aidution  of  carbol-'fuchsin,  however,  gives  good 
staining  of  the  micro-organism.  The  bacillus  of 
Friedliinder  is  the  less  conunon  of  the  pneiunonic 
organisms.  It  is  capsulatcd  and  decolorizes  by 
Gram's  nietho<l  of  staining.  The  more  com- 
mon cause  of  pneumonia,  the  pneumocwcus  or 
diplococc\is  lanceolatus.  is  also  surrounded  by 
a  capsule,  but  is  shorter  than  the  Friedliinder 
bacillus    and    does    not    decolorize    by    Gram's 


rrp  cKLtH. 
(fl)  noturnl  condition:   (b)  otter  the  addttton  of  acetic 
add. 

bv  the  forms  of  microorganism  which  are  found 
growing  there.  Thus  a  long  bacillus  which  oc- 
curs in  chains,  the  so-called  15oas-Gppler  bacillus, 
is  a  conunon  habitat  of  a  stomach  which  is  free 
from  hyilrochloric  acid,  and  whose  contents  are 
undergoing  lactic  acid  fermentation.  The  Sar- 
cina',  on  the  other  hand,  a  species  of  cocci  which 


MICROSCOPY. 


461 


MICROTASIMETER. 


hang  together  iu  culjes  of  eijrht,  sixteen,  thirty- 
two,  etc.,  occur  in  exactly  opposite  gastric  con- 
ditions, i.e.  where  hydrochloric  acid  is  present 
and  lactic  acid  is  absent.  Yeasts,  molds,  and 
leptothri.x  are  also  found. 

Serous  exudates  usually  show  little  of  diag- 
nostic import.  After  standing  or  after  centri- 
fuging,  the  sediment  may  show  some  epithelial 
cells,  red  blood  cells,  leucocytes,  fat  globules, 
cholestorin  crystals,  etc.  Bacteria,  if  present, 
are  usually  in  such  small  numbers  as  to  ro(|uire 
culture  for  their  recognition.  Fairly  frequently, 
however,  the  gonococcus  may  be  found  in  the 
exudate  of  gonorrhceal  arthritis,  by  simply  stain- 
ing tlie  sediment.  Less  frequently  the  tu- 
bercle bacillus  may  be  identified  in  a  similar 
manner. 

Purulent  exudates  when  examined  under  the 
microscope  show  large  numbers  of  pus  cells 
which  are  mainly  polynuclear  leucocytes.  Red 
blood  cells  and  exfoliated  epithelium  are  also 
often  present.  Of  bacteria  may  be  mentioned 
the  tubercle  bacillus,  the  bacillus  of  anthrax, 
the  diphtheria  bacillus,  the  streptococcus,  sta- 
pliylococcus,  gonococcus,  and  pneumoeoccus.  For 
methods  of  examining  for  tubercle  bacillus,  see 
article  on  Tubebculosis  ;  for  streptococcus,  and 
stapliylococcus,  see  article  on  Bacteria;  for 
pneumoeoccus,   see   Pneumo.nia. 

The  diphtheria  or  Klebs-Loeffler  bacillus  may 
i)e  found  in  sputum.  For  examination  it  is 
usually,  however,  obtained  directly  from  the  sus- 
pected membrane.     See  Diphtheria. 

Leptothrix  and  Oidium  albicans  are  organisms 
sometimes  found  in  exudates  associated  with  dis- 
eases of  the  mouth  and  pharynx.  The  former  is 
not  infrequently  the  apparent  cause  of  very  ob- 
stinate pharyngitis,  while  the  latter  is  found  in 
connection  with  the  disease  known  as  thrush. 

Tissues  axd  Orgaxs.  The  examination  of 
pieces  of  tissue  or  of  organs  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  nature  of  the  disease  affecting 
them  is  often  of  great  importance. 

Some  tissues  may  be  examined  in  the  fresh 
state  by  simply  teasing  apart  in  such  an  inert 
lluid  as  normal  saline  solution  (three-quarters 
per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  sodium  chloride). 
The  satisfactory  examination  of  most  tissues  re- 
quires, however,  a  more  or  less  elaborate  prelimi- 
nary preparation.  This  consists  in  ( 1 )  fixing, 
(2)  hardening,  (.3)  imbedding,  (4)  section  cut- 
ting,  (5)   staining,  and   (fl)   mounting. 

( 1 )  Fixing. — This  consists  in  placing  the  tis- 
sue, as  soon  as  possible  after  its  removal,  in  a 
.solution  which  will  kill  the  tissue  elements  rap- 
idly so  that  they  retain  the  same  form  and 
structure  that  they  had  during  life.  Of  the 
most  commonly  used  fixing  agents  may  be  men- 
tioned alcohol;  formalin,  in  aqueous  solutions  of 
from  2\<2  to  10  per  cent. ;  and  Miiller's  fluid 
( potassiinn  dichromate,  2.5  grams;  sodium  sul- 
jiliate,  1  gram;  water,  100  o.  c). 

(2)  nardrning  and  Preserving. — .\fter  fixing, 
tissues  are  usually  thoroughly  washed  in  run- 
ning water  and  then  hardened  in  graded  alcohols, 
i.e.  first  in  .50  per  cent.,  then  in  (iO  per  cent.,  then 
in  80  per  cent.  For  permanent  preservation  they 
are  usually  left  in  80  per  cent,  alcohol. 

(3)  Imbedding. — This  is  for  the  purpose  of 
impregnating  the  tissues  with  some  substance 
which  will  hold  them  together  during  the  subse- 
quent manipulations.     The  now  most  commonly 


employed  imbedding  mass  is  celloi<lin,  although 
for  special  purposes  parallin  is  used. 

(4)  Section  Cutting. — This  is  now  accom- 
plished by  means  of  an  instrument  known  as  a 
microtome.  While  many  of  these  instruments 
are  quite  complicated,  the  purpose  of  them  all  is 
to  carry  a  knife  through  the  specimen  in  such  a 
way  that  sections  of  any  desired  thickness  may  be 
obtained. 

(5)  Staining. — Sections  may  be  stained  in  a 
great  varietj'  of  ways.  For  general  purposes 
what  is  known  as  "staining  double'  gives  satis- 
factory pictures.  Tliis  is  accomplished  by  stain- 
ing the  specimen  first  in  a  watery  solution  of 
ha-motoxylin  and  then  in  an  alcoholic  solution 
of  eosin.  The  specimens  are  ne.xt  placed  in  oil 
of  origanum,  which  removes  the  alcohol  and  ren- 
ders the  sections  more  transparent   ('clearing*). 

(6)  Mounting. — From  the  oil  the  section  is 
transferred  to  a  glass  slide,  the  excess  of  oil  re- 
moved by  blotting  with  filter  paper,  a  drop  of 
Canada  balsam  placed  on  the  specimen,  and  the 
whole  covered  by  means  of  a  cover  glass.  This 
makes  a  permanent  mount. 

For  other  methods  of  staining  and  mounting 
the  reader  is  referred  to  special  text-books  on 
histology  and  histological  technique. 

Bibliography.  Carpenter,  The  Microscope  and 
Its  Rci-elations  (8th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1901); 
Lee,  TIte  Mierotomist's  Vadc-Mecutn  (5th  ed., 
Philadelphia,  1900)  ;  Henneguy,  ilethodes 
techniques  de  Vanaiomie  microscopique  (Paris, 
1887);  Sz;v'nionowicz,  Lchrbueh  der  Histologie 
(Wiirzburg,  1900)  ;  Dunham,  Histology,  Normal 
and  Morbid  /Philadelphia,  1898)  ;  Cl'arkson,  A 
Text-Book  of  Histoloyg  (Philadelphia,  1896); 
Bohm-DavidofT-Huber,  Lehrbueh  der  Histologie 
dcs  Menschen  (Wiesbaden,  190.3)  ;  Stiihr,  His- 
tologie (10th  ed.,  Jena,  1903);  Abbott,  Princi- 
ples of  Bacteriology  (3d  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1895)  ; 
Delafield  and  Prudden,  Pathological  Anatomy 
and  Histology  (6th  ed.,  Xew  York,  1901)  ;  Nich- 
ols, Clinical  Laboratory  Methods  (New  Y'ork, 
1902)  ;  Peyer,  An  Atlas  on  Clinical  Microscopy 
(Xew  York,  1885)  ;  Pellew,  Manual  of  Chemis- 
try   (Xew   Y'nrk,    1892). 

MI'CROSOME  (from  Gk.  iuKp6s,  mikros, 
.small  -f-  ciifia,  soma,  body).  A  name  given  to 
minute  granules  which  occur  in  protoplasm. 

MI'CROSPORAN'GIUM  (NeoLat.,  from 
Gk.  /uKpis.  7nikros,  small  -\-  (rirbpo!,  sporos, 
seed  -f  dyyctov,  angcion,  vessel,  from  S.yyot, 
angos,  jar).  The  spore-case  (sporangium)  which 
produces  the  microspores.  For  example,  the  pol- 
len sacs  of  flowering  plants  are  microsporangia. 
See  Heterospory;  Sporangium. 

MI'CROSPORE  (from  Gk.  ^i/opit,  mikros, 
small  +  cnrSpo!.  sporos,  .seed).  In  the  higher 
plants,  the  smaller  of  the  two  kinds  of  spores 
produced.  They  develop  the  small  male  plants 
(male  gametophytes) .  Pollen  grains  are  micro- 
spores of  flowering  plants.  See  IIeterospoby; 
Spore. 

MICROSPOR'OPHYLL  (from  Gk.  /xiKpSt, 
mikros,  small  +  crirSpoi.  sporos.  seed  -|-  <(iv\\op, 
phyllon,  leaf).  In  higher  plants,  the  leaf  struc- 
tures (sporophylls) .  that  bear  the  microspores, 
e.g.  the  stamen  of  flowering  plants.  See  Hetero- 
spory; SpoRorini-L. 

MI'CROTASIMTETER  (from  Gk.  p.iKp6,,  mi- 
kros, small   -f    riaii,  tasis,  extension   -|-  p.(Tpov, 


MICROTASIMETEB. 


462 


MIDDELBTJRG. 


metron,  measure).  An  instrument  invented  by 
Thomas  A.  Edison  in  1877  for  the  purpose  of 
measuring  very  minute  variations  of  tempera- 
ture or  moisture.  The  action  of  the  apparatus 
depends  on  the  effect  wliieli  the  pressure  of  an 
expanding  rod  has  upon  the  electrical  resistance 
of  a  piece  of  carbon  jjlaccd  in  tl\e  circuit  of  a 
galvanic  battery.  A  rod  of  vulcanite  is  used  as 
the  expanding  element  when  it  is  desired  to  em- 
ploy the  instrument  to  ascertain  slight  variations 
in  the  heat  vibrations  coming  from  any  object, 
as  the  sun,  or  a  gas  or  electric  light.  This  rod 
is  adjusted  in  a  strong  frame  kept  at  an  equable 
temperature,  so  that  no  expansions  or  contrac- 
tions shall  exert  any  influence  except  those  which 
take  place  in  the  vulcanite  rod  itself.  In  the 
chamber  which  receives  one  end  of  this  rod  or 
plate  there  is  placed  under  a  follower  or  slide  a 
piece  of  carbon,  which  becomes  compressed  with 
great  force  upon  the  expansion  of  the  vulcanite 
rod.  If  radiant  heat  is  to  be  measured,  a  large 
fumiel  is  placed  in  front  of  the  ajiparalus  to 
gather  the  rays  and  throw  them  upon  the  rod 
or  plate.  When  the  rays  increase  in  intensity 
the  rod  expands,  compresses  the  button,  and 
changes  its  resistance,  the  variation  of  which  is 
indicated  by  a  galvanometer.  The  instrument 
was  used  to  ascertain  the  variations  in  the 
radiation  from  the  sun  during  the  solar  eclipse 
of  July  28,  1878.  It  may  also  be  used  to  note 
the  variations  taking  place  on  a  day  when  clouds 
are  passing  across  the  sun's  disk,  or  when  the 
transmission  of  its  rays  is  aflfccted  by  increase 
or  decrease  of  moisture.  It  may  be  used  as  a 
delicate  hygrometer  by  substituting  in  place  of 
the  vulcanite  rod  a  body  containing  gelatin, 
which  expands  under  the  intluence  of  moisture. 
The  chief  disadvantage  possessed  by  this  instru- 
ment is  that  the  carbon  does  not  regain  its  orig- 
inal resistance  after  the  ])rcssure  is  removed. 
Modern  micro-radiometers  and  bolometers  are,  in 
addition,  far  more  sensitive  and  are  usually  em- 
j)loyed  for  the  measurement  of  radiation, 

MI'CROTOME.     See  Microscope,  and  Plate 

of  Mi(  Rciscori:. 

MI'DAS  ( Lat.,  from  Gk,  MiSaj) ,  A  common 
name  of  the  more  ancient  Phrygian  kings,  of 
whom  Midas,  the  son  of  Gordius  and  Cybele,  is 
the  most  famous.  According  to  one  legend  he 
captured  8ilenus  by  mixing  wine  with  the  water 
of  the  fountain  at  which  the  god  drank,  and  thus 
secured  for  himself  the  wisdom  of  the  god.  Herod- 
otus tells  this  story  as  .\Iace<lonian,  but  later 
writers  transferred  it  to  Phrygia.  Another  ver- 
sion, told  by  Ovid,  rclat<'s  that  he  restored  Si- 
lenus  to  Dionysus,  and  wlien  asked  by  the  god 
to  name  his  reward,  prayed  that  whatever  he 
touched  might  become  gold,  from  which  so  great 
inconvenience  ensued  that  he  was  glad  to  get 
himself  relieved  from  the  burden  by  washing,  at 
the  command  of  the  god,  in  the  Pactolus,  the 
sands  of  which  became  thenceforth  productive  of 
gold.  Another  legend  represents  him  as  having 
offended  Apollo  by  assigning  the  prize  in  the 
musical  contest  to  Marsyas.  or  in  later  versions 
to  Pan,  and  as  having  therefore  been  endowed 
by  him  with  a  pair  of  ass's  ears.  These,  con- 
cealed under  his  Phrygian  cap,  were  known 
only  to  his  barber,  who  dared  tell  no  man. 
but,  unable  to  contain  his  secret,  wliisiwred  it 
1o  the  earth.  His  precaution,  however,  was 
vain,    for   the    reeds    which    sprang   up    at    this 


spot,  as  they  rustled  in  the  wind,  proclaimed  the 
news  to  the  world.  Midas  seems  an  ancient 
Phrygian  nature-god,  probably  conceived,  like 
Silenus  and  other  similar  fructifying  deities, 
in  animal  form,  but  transformed  by  Greek  story- 
tellers. The  storv  of  the  ass's  ears  is  a  common 
folk-tale. 

MI'DAS,  A  genus  of  marmosets ;  but  some- 
times  the  special  name  of  the  nuirakina  (Midas 
rosniid  ) .     ."^ee  M.\k.moset. 

MIDDELBtTRG,  mId'd'l-boorG.  The  capital 
of  the  Province  of  Zealand,  Netherlands,  situated 
on  the  island  of  Walcheren  (Map:  Xctherlands, 
B  3).  It  is  connected  with  the  sea  by  a  canal 
five  miles  long,  which  admits  ships  of  heavy 
burden.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  broad 
canal,  and  has  handsome  houses,  ornamented 
with  gardens ;  the  canals  and  streets  are  shaded 
with  trees.  The  town  house,  built  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  has  a  beautiful  tower,  and  is 
decorated  with  twenty-five  colossal  statues  of 
counts  and  countesses  of  Holland.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  thirteenth  century  an  abbey  was 
founded  here,  which  was  later  enriched  by  Wil- 
liam II.,  Count  of  Holland  and  Zealand.  The 
buildings  are  now  occupied  as  the  meeting  place 
of  the  Provincial  States.  Tlie  new  church  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  the  naval  heroes  J.  and  C. 
Evertsen,  and  a  monument  to  the  German  King 
William  of  Holland.  The  town  possesses  a 
provincial  library,  a  giimnasium,  a  high  school, 
and  a  normal  school,  and  is  the  seat  of  several 
learned  societies,  with  important  collections  of 
antiquities  and  objects  of  local  interest.  The  city's 
commerce  was  formerly  very  large.  It  has  some 
inland  trade  in  grain,  potatoes,  and  madder,  and 
manufactures  of  cotton  goods.  Population,  in 
1892,  17,500;  in  1000,  18,837,  Middelburg  was 
a  llanse  town  in  the  Middle  .\ges.  having  received 
ils  cliartcr  in  122").  In  1574,  during  the  war  for 
independence,  it  was  captured  by  the  Dutch  from 
the  Spaniards  after  a  siege  of  two  years.  It 
suffered  heavily  during  the  wars  between  England 
and  France  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

MIDDELBURG,  Paul  of  (144.5-1.534).  A 
Dutch  nialhcMiatician,  born  at  Middelburg, 
Avhence  his  name.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louvain,  took  orders,  became  canon  of 
.Saint  Barthelemy  at  Middelburg,  and  also 
taught  mathematics,  medicine,  philosophy,  and 
theology  there.  For  having  expressed  himself 
regarding  the  faults  of  his  fellow-citizens,  he 
was  banished  froijj  the  town.  He  went  to  Lou- 
vain, where  he  lectured  on  mathematics  so  suc- 
cessfully that  the  Grand  Council  of  Venice  of- 
fered him  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Padua. 
By  1484  he  was  at  the  Court  of  Francesco 
Maria  della  Rovere,  Duke  of  Urbino,  to  whom 
he  became  physician  anil  by  whom  he  was 
appointed  to  the  abbacy  of  Castel  Durante.  It 
was  also  at  the  instigaliim  of  the  Duke  that  he 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Fossondirone  in  14114.  In 
l.')13  he  presided  at  the  I'iftli  Lateran  Council 
(l.')12-17),  where  he  spoke  on  the  necessity  of  a 
revision  of  the  existing  calendar,  later  under- 
taken by  Gregorv'  XIIl.  He  was  esteemed  the 
first  mathematician  of  his  day.  His  publications 
include:  T'rnrticn  <lr  I'nrrin  Conuli  llnlionibim 
(1484):  Epistoln  A polor/cl itii  Mrifjistri  I'niili  do 
Middrlbiirpo  (1487),  in  which  he  answers  vari- 
ous objections  rai-sed  by  mathematicians  against 


MIDDELBURG. 


463 


MIDDLE   AGES. 


a  revision  of  the  Jiili:iii  ealeiular;  and  Paulina  dc 
Hcvla  I'uschw  Cvlchratione  (1513),  in  which  he 
deniiinst rates  with  much  learning  that,  owing  to 
dcfeetive  reckoning,  tlic  Easter  festival  was  fre- 
quently celebrated  at  a  period  a  month  earlier 
than  that  determined  by  the  Council  of  Nice. 
Consult:  lialdi,  Cronica  de'  matemalici  (Urbino, 
1707)  ;  De  Paquot,  M<h)wires  pour  servir  a  I'his- 
toirc  littcrairc  de  dix-sept  provinces  des  Pays- 
/{(7s    (Louvain.    170.')-70). 

MIDDENDORFF,  niid'dcndurf,  Alexander 
TiiEoiiOR  VOX  (1815-94).  A  Russian  traveler  and 
naturalist.  He  was  born  in  vSaint  Petersburg 
and  studied  medicine  in  Germany.  With  Baer, 
in  1S40,  he  made  an  ornithological  expedition 
into  Lapland,  and  four  years  afterwards  made 
an  important  trip  in  Nortlieast  Sil)eria.  His 
journeys  were  detailed  in  Government  reports, 
and  in  his  book.  Reise  in  den  dussersten  Nordcn 
iind  O.iteii  .S'i6i/-ien.s  (1848-7.5).  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Saint  Petersburg  Academy  (Zoologi- 
cal Section)  and  for  some  time  its  secretary; 
founder  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society; 
and  in  1S40  gold  medalist  of  the  London  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

MIDDLE  AGES.  The  designation  applied  to 
the  historical  period  between  the  times  of  clas- 
sical antiquity  and  modern  times.  The  beginning 
and  close  of  this  period  are  not  very  definite. 
It  is  usual,  however,  to  regard  the  Middle  Ages 
as  beginning  with  the  overthrow  of  tlie  Western 
Roman  Em])ire  bj'  the  barbarians  in  the  fifth 
century,  and  ending  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Some  scholars  prefer  to  regard  tlie  Renais- 
sance (q.v. )  as  the  beginning  of  modern  history. 
By  some,  who  prefer  to  use  precise  landmarks, 
the  Jliddle  Ages  are  made  to  extend  from  the 
end  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  476  to  tliat  of  the 
Byzantine  or  Greek  Empire  in  1453,  when  Con- 
stantinople was  taken  by  the  Turks.  Others 
again  make  the  Middle  Ages  terminate  with  tlie 
discoverj'  of  America  in  1402.  The  term  Dark 
Ages  is  frequently  used  to  cover  the  greater  part 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  designation  being  applied 
by  some  to  the  period  from  the  fifth  to  the  elev- 
enth century,  and  by  others  made  to  embrace  all 
but  the  last  two  centuries  of  the  iliddle  Ages. 

In  .\.D.  305  the  Empire  was  divided.  Before 
tliat  there  was  a  single  Roman  Empire,  embrac- 
ing practically  tlie  whole  Christian  world,  extend- 
ing from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Fluphrates,  from  the 
Rliine  and  the  Danul)e  to  the  great  Sahara,  with 
a  single  government,  the  same  system  of  laws, 
an  official  language.  Christianity  was  the 
recognized  State  religion.  The  Roman  civil- 
ization was  in  its  essential  features  uniform 
throughout  the  Empire;  a  great  network  of  roads 
bound  all  tlie  parts  together.  In  the  fifth  century 
the  Germ.anic  barbarians  overran  the  Western 
Eni])ire  and  settled  as  conquerors  in  the  various 
parts.  Thus  the  three  most  impoi-tant  factors 
which  were  to  influence  the  civilization  of  West- 
ern Eurojie  during  the  early  Middle  Ages  were 
the  Roman,  the  Christian,  and  the  German.  The 
Roman  civilization  liad  absorbed  to  a  considerable 
extent.  (Jrcek  art.  Greek  literature.  Greek  philoso- 
phy, and  (ircek  science.  It  had  developed  to  a 
marvelous  degree  a  system  of  administration  and 
law.  It  had  so  completely  assimilated  the  vari- 
ous races  in  the  Western  Empire  that  they  were 
proud    to    be    called    Romans.      The    Christian 


Church  had  brought  in  liigli  ideals  and  had 
taught  new  duties.  But  at  the  same  time  it 
exalted  asceticism,  and  had  a  tendency  to  oppose 
everything  pagan  which  it  was  possible  to  eradi- 
cate. Much  of  the  classical  literature  and  art 
was  under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  because  these 
were  so  intimately  associated  with  the  pagan 
religions.  Consequently  the  Church  diminished 
the  inheritance  whicli  the  Middle  Ages  would 
otherwise  have  received.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Church  adopted  the  magnificent  Roman  system 
of  administration  and  tlius  became  a  great  cen- 
tralizing governmental  force.  The  German  bar- 
barians contributed  to  the  mediaeval  civilization 
certain  ideas  of  freedom,  and  of  the  importance 
of  the  individual,  as  shown  in  their  public  as- 
semblies, but  the  most  important  contribution 
was  the  Germans  themselves,  a  strong  race,  capa- 
ble of  rapid  advance,  and  always  ready  to  as- 
similate itself  to  surrounding  conditions.  Fur- 
thermore, those  who  settled  in  the  Empire  were 
relatively  few  in  number,  and  consequently  were 
profoundly  influenced  by  the  more  numerous 
jjopulation  among  which  they  dwelt. 

The  fiftli  and  sixth  centuries  were  marked  by 
the  migrations  of  the  German  nations.  One  tribe 
after  another  broke  through  the  Roman  frontier 
and  carved  out  a  territory  for  itself.  By 
600  almost  the  whole  of  the  former  Western 
Empire  was  in  the  power  of  the  Germans.  Diir- 
ing  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  the  Ro- 
manic population  and  the  barbarians  were  going 
through  a  process  of  fusion.  By  800  the  two 
formed  practically  a  homogeneous  society  of  a 
composite  nature.  The  civilization  was  far  higher 
than  that  of  the  early  Germans,  far  lower  than 
that  of  the  Romans.  During  this  period  the 
Church  was  converting  and  bringing  under  its 
authority  the  various  peoples  of  the  North  and 
West.  (See  TH.-iNKS.)  Its  monks  were  mis- 
sionaries of  culture  and  also  political  agents  of 
great  importance  in  binding  the  separate  nations 
to  Rome.  From  800  there  was  again  a  Roman 
Empire  in  the  West.  (See  Charle.s  the  Greiat.) 
Although  the  Carolingian  Empire  soon  disin- 
tegrated, its  brief  existence  had  been  of  great 
importance  as  a  precedent,  and  had  had  a  lasting 
efTect  upon  the  relations  between  the  Germans 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  the  States 
which  arose  with  the  disruption  of  the  Prankish 
realm  the  absence  of  a  strong  central  government 
threw  each  district  upon  its  own  resources.  Local 
rulers  arose,  defended  their  territories  against 
invaders,  and  maintained  a  semblance  of  order. 
These  leaders  were  sometimes  bishops  or  abbots, 
as  well  as  lay  nobles.  The  power  fell  into  their 
hands.  (See  Feudali.sm.)  The  Church  was  the 
only  bond  of  union  and  the  only  restraining  force 
in  the  disturbed  conditions  of  the  times.  It  be- 
came a  mighty  engine  of  government,  whose 
interests  were  by  no  means  restricted  to  religious 
matters.  From  this  time  until  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  the  Cliureli  vras  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  medi.TVal  history.  Its  author- 
ity, wealth,  and  influence  increased  constantly; 
its  members  were  prominent  in  every  sphere. 

In  the  Latter  half  of  the  tenth  century  Otho 
the  Great  (q.v.)  connected  the  fortunes  of  Ger- 
many and  Italy  by  restoring  the  empire  of 
Charles  the  Great.  His  action  was  to  result  in 
the  weakness  and  disunion  of  both  countries,  but 
for  three  centuries  the  German  monarch  wa.s  in 
appearance  the  leading  power  in  Western  Europe. 


IffilDDLE  AGES. 


464 


MIDDLEBURY  COLLEGE. 


During  this  period  the  Xormans  (q.v.)  conquered 
Enjiland.  Southern  Italy,  and  Sicily,  and  strong 
monarchies  began  to  develop  in  England,  Fnince, 
and  Spain.  Ever  since  the  early  part  of  the 
eightli  century  Christendom  had  been  waging  a 
fierce  warfare  against  the  Moliammcdan  ])ower 
in  tlie  West.  At  the  close  of  the  elcvciitli  cen- 
tury began  a  great  onslaught  of  Western  Europe 
upon  the  Mohammedan  power  in  the  East,  known 
as  the  Crusades.  The  broadening  of  the  horizon, 
the  resultant  skepticism,  and  the  enrichment  of 
Europe,  which  resulted  from  the  Crusades,  caused 
the  progress  in  many  lines  to  be  more  rapid.  The 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  were  periods  of 
great  intellectual  activity,  marked  by  the  foimda- 
tion  of  universities,  the  prevalence  of  heresy,  tlie 
development  of  vernacular  literature,  the  rise  of 
the  cities,  the  growth  of  national  feeling.  The 
following  centuries  are  generally  designated  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance    (q.v.). 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  Middle  Ages  as  a 
whole,  because  there  was  a  constant  evolution 
for  over  1000  years.  The  characteristics  which 
contrast  most  sharply  with  those  of  the  classical 
world  are  these:  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  civiliza- 
tion as  a  whole  was  much  ruder  and  mixed  with 
barbaric  elements;  the  individual  was  of  greater 
importance  than  the  State:  men  were  dominated 
by  a  militant,  vital  religion.  If  contrasted  with 
the  modern  period  which  followed:  In  the  ^Middle 
Ages  the  human  intellect  was  restricted  bj-  a 
deference  to  the  authority  of  tradition  in  every 
phase  of  life,  which  was  wliidly  at  variance  with 
the  critical  and  skeptical  attitude  of  thought. 
Again,  the  physical  world,  the  world  of  investi- 
gation, the  world  of  action,  were  very  limited  for 
the  media-val  num.  The  discoveries  at  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  Centura-  which  disclosed  new  con- 
tinents were  coincident  with  the  development  of 
the  printing  press,  the  revolution  in  warfare  due 
to  the  introduction  of  gunpowder,  and  the  dis- 
coveries in  the  various  .scii'nces  which  opened 
new  worlds  of  thought  and  activity.  The  im- 
portant artistic  activity  of  the  ^fiddle  Ages  falls 
into  three  distinct  epochs,  the  Early  Christian 
(see  Christian  Art),  Romanesque,  and  (iothic. 
under  which  titles  the  art  of  the  period  is 
treated. 

Of  general  works  dealing  with  the  Middle 
Ages  the  following  may  be  noted:  Lavisse  and 
Rambaud.  IJi.iloirr  q{-n{-rnlr,  vols,  i.-ii.,  with 
helpful  bibliographies  (Paris.  I80.'?-04)  ;  fJib- 
bon.  Dcrlhir  uiid  Fall.  ed.  Bury  (London.  ISOfi- 
1(100)  :  Hryce.  Ilohi  h'onuin  Empire  (ib.,  l.'^T.'?)  : 
Poole.  lUuslrationx  of  the  llintori/  of  Mrrlidrnl 
Thouf/hl  (ib.,  1884)  ;  Milnian.  Latin  rhrintianilii 
(ib.,  1883)  :  Assman,  Grxi-hichle  den  Mittilnllrrn 
(Rrunswick.  18r,."?-fi2)  ;  Ilodgkin.  Jtahi  and  Tier 
Iiiiddrr.i  (Oxford.  1880)  ;  Bury.  Later  Jioman 
Kmpire  (London.  1880)  :  Oregorovius,  Tlixtorii  of 
the  fit)/  of  Itome  in  the  Middle  .tf/rs  (ib,,  1804- 
1000)  :  Lacroix,  The  Arts  in  the  Middle  Apes 
(ill..  1S80)  :  id.,  ffcienee  and  Literature  in  the 
Middle  Apen  (ib..  1880)  :  Lecky.  Tlisloni  of  Eu- 
riipean  Morals  ( ib.,  ]S7.t);  .\dams.  Cirili::iilion 
Durimj  the  Middle  Af/es  (New  York.  1S8.'?)  ; 
Enierton.  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Af/e.i  (Bos- 
ton. 189fi)  :  id..  Medirrval  Europe  (ib..  1800): 
Oman.  European  History,  'itdftlH  (London. 
1803)  :  Tout.  The  Empire  and  the  Papaei/.  fllS- 
J27S  (ib..  1808)  :  Cunningham.  Wenlern  Cirili:a- 
tion  (Mediaval  and  Modern  Tinies)  (Cambridge. 
England,    1000).      .S'e    articles    on    the    various 


nations  and   the  separate  biographies  of   rulers 
and  important   men. 

MID'DLEBORO.  A  town,  inchiding  several 
villages,  in  Plymouth  Countv,  ilass.,  35  miles 
south  by  east  of  Boston;  on  the  Xemasket  River, 
and  on  four  branches  of  the  Xew  York.  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  Railroa<l  (Map:  Massa- 
chusetts, F  4).  It  has  a  public  library,  is  an 
attractive  .summer  resort  on  account  of  the 
picturesqueness  of  its  scenery,  and  is  noted  as 
an  industrial  centre.  Its  manufacturing  in- 
terests, which  are  promoted  by  the  valuable 
water-power  derived  from  three  falls,  are  rep- 
resented by  several  large  shoe  factories,  wool- 
en mills,  jmrhu'-grate  works,  iron  foundries,  saw 
and  planing  mills,  marble  works,  and  varnish 
and  stove  polish  factories.  The  government  is 
administered  bv  town  meetings.  Population,  in 
1800.  GO().t:  in  1000.  688.5.  Settled  about  1002 
on  the  site  of  an  old  Indian  village.  Xemasket, 
iliddleboro  was  incorporated  in  10(50.  Consult 
Barber,  Historical  Collections  of  Massachusetts 
(Worcester,  1840). 

MID'DLEBURY.  A  village  and  the  county- 
scat  of  Addison  County,  Vt. :  50  miles  south- 
west of  the  State  capital.  Montpclier,  on  the 
Rutland  Railroad  (ilap:  Vermont.  B  .5).  The 
village  is  situated  in  the  Otter  Creek  Valley, 
near  the  Green  Mountains,  in  a  region  of  pic- 
t\iresque  scenery.  It  is  the  seat  of  Middlcbury 
College  (q.v.),  and  has  the  Sheldon  Art  Museum 
and  Library,  a  ladies'  library,  and  a  fine  co\irt- 
house  and  opera  house;  also  attractive  fair 
grounds.  The  industries  are  represented  by  agri- 
cultural interests  and  by  several  marble  quar- 
ries, nuirble  mills,  iron  foundry,  lime  kilns,  and 
Hour,  saw,  door,  sash,  and  pulp  mills.  The 
village  possesses  valuable  water  power.  L'nder 
a  revised  charter  of  1877.  Middlcbury  is  gov- 
erned by  a  board  of  trustees,  chosen  annually, 
who  elect  subordinate  administrative  officers. 
Population,  in  ISOO.  171)2;  in  1000.  1807.  Mid- 
dlcl)ury  was  founded  in  1773.  but.  owing  to 
threatened  attacks  from  the  English  and  the 
Indians,  was  almost  completely  deserted  during 
the  Revolutionary' War.  In  1813  it  was  incor- 
porated as  the  borough,  and  in  1832  as  the 
village  of  Jliddlebury.  Consult  Swift.  History 
of  the  Tou-n  of  Midd'lrbtiry   (Middlcbury.  1859). 

MIDDLEBXJRY  COLLEGE.  A  college  es- 
tal.Ji-licd  at  Middhbury.  \'l..  in  1800.  under  no 
denominational  contnd.  although  its  allilia- 
tions  are  Congregatiimal.  It  is  a  purely  colle- 
giate institution,  with  a  curriculum,  partially 
elective,  leading  to  the  degrees  of  B..\.  and 
B.S.  The  de[)artments  of  instruction  are  mental 
and  moral  science.  (Jreek.  Latin.  English,  mod- 
ern languages,  history  and  political  science, 
physics  and  mathematics,  chemistrv  and  nat- 
ural history.  In  1002  it  had  11  instructors.  118 
students,  a  library  of  2fl.l.">4  volinnes,  an  endow- 
ment of  $400.000. 'and  an  income  of  .■?24.non.  The 
campus,  presented  to  the  corporation  by  Col.  Seth 
Storrs  in  ISIO.  is  a  beautiful  iiark  of  30  acres. 
It  contains  five  buildings;  Painter  Hall  (1814), 
Starr  Hall  (18liO),  the  Chapel  (1880),  the 
Egbert  Starr  Library  (1000).  and  the  Warner 
Science  Hall  (1001).  Middlcbury  has  been  co- 
educational since  1883.  luit  in  1002  a  charter  was 
granted  by  the  Legislature,  authorizing  the  es- 
tablishment by  the  corp<iraf  ii>n  of  a  separate  col- 
lege  for  wonu>n.     The  centennial  of  the  college 


MIDDLEBURY  COLLEGE. 


465 


MIDDLETON. 


■was  eelobratc'd  in  I'.IUO.  Us  gnmiids  and  build- 
ings were  valued  at  .HiiOO.OOU,  and  tlie  whole  col- 
lege property  at  $051,000.  The  library  contains 
20, 154  volumes. 

MIDDLE  C.     In  music,  the  note  c',  which  is 
on   the    lirst   leger    line    below   the   treble   staff. 


# 


or  above  the  base  staff 


The  C  elef  always  represents  the  note  termed 
middle  C,  and  the  lines  and  spaces  above  or 
below  are  designated  accordingly. 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH.  See  English  Lan- 
ci  AiiK  ;   E.MiLisn  Literature. 

MIDDLE  KINGDOM.  A  native  name  of 
China,  believed  by  its  inhabitants  to  be  the 
middle  point  of  the  eartli. 

MIDDLE      LATITUDE      SAILING.        See 

SAlUNliS. 

MIDDLEMARCH.  A  novel  by  George  Eliot 
<1872).  It  appeared  serially  in  Black irood's 
Magazine  in  1871.  The  author  considered  this 
story  of  a  provincial  town  her  greatest  work.  It 
consists  of  two  stories,  that  of  the  Vincy  family 
and  that  of  Dorothea  Brooke,  who  is  the  chief 
character.  She  marries  a  stiff  clergyman,  Mr. 
Casauban,  and-  is  soon  disillusionized.  Rosa- 
mond Vincy,  a  beautiful  girl,  marries  Dr.  Lyd- 
gate,  and  proves  a  hindrance  to  bim.  The  gen- 
eral teaching  of  the  novel  is  that  people  even 
of  high  ideals  are  changed  and  hampered  by 
circumstances. 

MIDDLESBROUGH,  mid'd'lz  b'ruh.  A  man- 
ufacturing town,  port,  and  Parliamentary  bor- 
ough in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, at  the  mouth  of  the  Tees,  48  miles  north 
of  York  (Map:  England,  E  2).  The  town 
is  well  built,  with  handsome  specimens  of  archi- 
tecture, ecclesiastical,  municipal,  and  commercial. 
In  the  royal  exchange,  a  fine  building,  the  weekly 
iron  market  is  held  on  Tuesdays,  attended  by 
persons  connected  with  the  iron  trade  from  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  as  well  as  foreigners. 
Albert  Park,  containing  72  acres,  is  tastefully 
laid  out.  The  town  owns  its  water,  gas,  abattoirs, 
markets,  and  cemeteries,  and  maintains  baths, 
wash-houses,  and  free  libraries.  Middlesbrough 
was  founded  in  18.30,  and  the  following  year  had 
1.54  inhabitants.  The  opening  of  the  docks  in 
1842  gave  additional  importance,  and  the  popula- 
tion rose  to  6000.  From  the  year  1852,  when 
iron  ore  was  discovered  in  the  Eston  Hills, 
the  town  increased  rapidly,  and  has  acquired  an 
important  position  as  an  iron  manufacturing 
centre,  turning  out  over  2,000,000  tons  per  year 
of  pig  iron  alone,  and  having  smelting  furnaces 
on  an  extensive  scale,  iron  foundries,  manufac- 
tures of  rails,  locomotive  engines,  tubes,  boilers, 
etc.  There  are  also  chemical  works  and  potteries, 
and  shipbuilding  is  extensively  carried  on.  There 
arc  spacious  docks,  and  a  breakwater  nearly  2i.A 
miles  long.  The  average  annual  value  of  the 
export  trade  is  $.32,500,000.  and  the  town  has 
also  a  considerable  import  trade.  iIiddlcsl)rough 
■was  incorporated  in  1853.  Population,  in  1891, 
75.500:  in  1001,  01,300.  Consult  Rcid,  Mithjlcs- 
hrniKih  and  IlsJuJiilrr  ( Middleslirough,  1881). 

MID'DLESEX.  The  metropolitan  county  of 
England,  in  the  southeast  of  the  country,  bounded 
north  bv  Hertford  and  south  bv  Surrev  (Map: 
England,    F    5).      Np^t    to    Rutland    it    is    the 


smallest  of  the  English  counties,  its  area  being 
only  181,301  statute  acres,  or  283  square  miles, 
a  considerable  portion  of  which  comprises  a  large 
area  of  metropolitan  London.  Outside  of  London 
the  land  is  chielly  devoted  to  grass  and  hay 
farms  and  to  market-gardens,  the  produce  of 
which  is  sent  to  supply  the  metropolis.  Capital, 
Brentford.  Population,  in  181)1,  3,251,700;  in 
UMll,  3.585.100. 

MIDDLE  TEMPLE.  One  of  the  four  Inns 
of  Court.  The  Inns  of  the  Middle  Temple  are  so 
called  from  the  group  of  ancient  buildings  oc- 
cupied by  them,  which  were  the  seat  of  the 
knights  templars  and  passed  into  the  hands  of 
tlie  lawyers  after  the  dissolution  of  that  famous 
order  of  eliivah-y.     See  Inns  of  Court. 

MID'DLETON.  A  municipal  borough  in 
Lancasliire.  England,  five  miles  north-northeast 
of  JIanchester  (ilap:  England,  D  3).  Its  chief 
industries  are  the  manufactui'es  of  cotton  and 
silk ;  coal  is  mined,  and  it  has  also  chemical 
works.  It  has  a  granunar  school  dating  from 
1572.  The  municipality  is  progressive,  owns  gas 
works,  electric  lighting  plant,  markets,  and  pub- 
lie  baths,  and  maintains  free  library,  park,  recre- 
ation grounds,  and  a  sewage  farm.  Population,  in 
1891,  22,150;   in  1901,  25,180. 

MIDDLETON.  A  town  of  Annapolis  County, 
Xov.a  Scotia,  Canada,  the  northwest  terminus  of 
the  Xova  Scotia  Central  Railway,  102  miles 
•west-northwest  of  Halifax  (Map:  Xova  Scotia, 
D  5).  It  also  has  a  station  on  the  \Yindsor  and 
Annapolis  Railway.  Lucrative  iron  and  copper 
mining  is  carried  on  in  the  neighborhood.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901.  2000. 

MIDDLETON,  Arthur  (1681-1737).  An 
American  colonist,  born  in  South  Carolina.  He 
held  high  offices  under  the  proprietary  govern- 
ment, and  in  1719  was  president  of  the  conven- 
tion which  placed  South  Carolina  directly  under 
the  Crown.  After  the  establishment  of  the  Royal 
Government,  he  became  president  of  His  Maj- 
esty's Council,  and  as  such  was  Acting  Governor 
from  1725  until  the  arrival  of  the  first  regularly 
appointed  royal  Governor  in  1731. 

MIDDLETON,  Arthur  (1742-87).  A  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  South 
Carolina.  In  1754  he  went  with  an  uncle  to 
England,  ■where  he  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
Westminster  School,  and  Saint  .John's  College, 
Cambridge.  He  returned  to  South  Carolina  in 
1703,  settled  at  Middleton  Place,  became  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  and  from  1705  to  1706  served  in  the 
Commons  for  Saint  Helena.  He  then  again  went 
abroad,  and  spent  three  years  in  England  and 
Southern  Eurqjie.  On  his  return  in  1772  he  was 
again  elected  to  the  Commons,  and  in  1774  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Upper  House  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Congress.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  and 
boldest  opponents  of  the  royal  authority,  and 
early  in  1775  became  a  member  of  the  Secret 
Service  Committee,  and  in  June  of  the  same 
year  of  the  Council  of  Safety.  Early  in  1776 
he  helped  frame  a  constitution  for  the  State, 
and  later  in  the  same  year  he  was  sent  as  a 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  and  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  1778  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature, 
and  was  also  chosen  President  and  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  South  Carolina,  but  declined.  He 
assisted  in  the  defense  of  Charleston,  and  upon 
the  capture  of  that  place  was  imprisoned  in  Saint 


MIDBLETON. 


466 


MIDDLETOWN. 


Aufjustine,  and  later  in  the  prison  ship  Jersey. 
Ufiiig  exchanged  in  July,  1781,  he  was  again 
electfd  to  the  Continental  Congress,  where  he 
served  until  peace  was  declared.  Later  he  be- 
came a  nieniher  of  the  State  Legislature  and  a 
trustee  of  Cliarleston  College.  .Middleton  was 
a  man  of  much  energy  and  judgment,  an  able 
debater,  and  a  forceful  writer.  Under  the 
])3eudonym  of  "Andrew  Marvel"  he  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  effective  political  essays;  he  also  left 
stenographic  reports  of  many  of  the  debates  in 
wliicli   lie   participated. 

MIDDLETON,  Coxyehs  (IG8:M750).  A 
divine  i)f  the  Cl\urch  of  England.  He  was  born 
December  27,  1(J83,  at  Vork  or  Kichniond,  in 
Yorkshire.  He  studied  at  Camlnidge.  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1702,  was  elected  a 
Fellow  in  1700,  and  shortly  after  married  a  lady 
of  fortune.  The  views  he  expressed  and  defended 
were  generally  such  as  to  draw  down  upon  him 
the  imputation  of  being  an  "■infidel  in  disguise." 
though  some  of  them — such  as  that  the  Jews 
borrowed  some  of  their  customs  from  Egj'pt, 
that  the  primitive  writers  in  vindicating  Scri])- 
ture  found  it  necessary  sometimes  to  recur  to  al- 
legory— are  now  commonly  held.  Jliddlclon  died 
at  Ilildersliam,  in  Cambridgeshire,  July  28,  1750. 
His  princijial  writings  are:  A  Letter  from 
Rome,  slwiring  an  exact  Conformity  hetireeti 
Popery  and  Paf/anism;  or  ike  Religioyi  of  the 
•present  Romans  derived  from  that  of  their 
Heathen  Ancestors  (1729),  which  provoked  the 
most  violent  indignation  among  Roman  Catholics; 
and  The  llistori/  of  the  Life  of  M.  Tiillins  Cicero 
(2  vols.,  1741 ),  a  work  lioth  interesting  and  valu- 
able. All  his  pam])hlets.  treatises,  etc.,  were 
collected  and  published  under  the  title  of  Mis- 
cellaiKdiis  ^y<>li:s  (4  vols.,  London,  1752). 

MIDDLETOlf,  Sir  Fhederick  DonsoN  (1825- 
98).  A  liritish  soldier.  He  was  born  in  Belfast, 
Ireland,  and  graduating  at  the  Royal  Jlilitaiy 
College  at  Sandluirst  in  1842,  saw  active  service 
in  New  South  Wales,  Xew  Zealand.  Burma,  and 
India.  In  the  Indian  ilutiny  (1857-58)  he  was 
decorated  with  the  Victoria  Cross  for  gallant 
conduct.  In  1808  ho  accompanied  his  regiment 
to  Canada,  but  returned  to  England  in  1S70.  In 
1884  he  returned  to  Canada  as  coiiiiiiaiidor-in- 
chief  of  Canadian  militia,  and  in  1885  lie  ener- 
getically suppressed  the  Riel  rebellion  in  the 
Xorthwest,  for  whicli  he  received  from  the  Cana- 
dian Parliament  a  grant  of  $20,000.  and  the 
honor  of  kiiiglithond  from  the  Queen.  In  1890  he 
returned  to  England,  and  in  1806  was  appointed 
keepiT   iif    till'   crown   jewels. 

MIDDLETON,  llKNUY  (1771-184C).  An  Amer- 
ican politii'inn  and  diplomat,  the  son  of  Arthur 
Middleton  (q.v.).  lie  was  born  in  Charleston,  S. 
C,  was  carefully  educated  by  juivate  tutors  and 
at  South  Carolina  College,  and  in  1801  was 
elected  to  the  South  Carolina  Legi-ilature,  where 
his  brilliant  powers  as  an  orator  attracted  wide 
attention  and  led,  in  1810,  to  his  election  as  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State.  He  held  this  ollice  until  1812, 
was  n  strong  supporter  of  the  war  policy  of  the 
Madison  Administration,  and  in  1815,  after  a 
brief  retirement  from  jiolitics,  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, serving  until  1820.  In  that  year  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Monroe  Minister  of  the 
Ignited  States  to  Russia,  where  in  a  service 
of  ten  years  he  did  much  to  strengthen  the  com- 
mercial  relations  between   the   two   nations,  ne- 


gotiating in  1824  the  first  treaty  which  provided 
for  the  regulation  of  trade  and  fisheries  in  the 
Pacific.  On  his  return  to  America  in  1830,  he 
retired  fnini  jiublic  life. 

MIDDLETON,  Thomas  ( 1570?- 1027).  An 
English  dramatist,  born  probably  in  London. 
Hardly  a  detail  of  his  life  is  known.  He  seems 
to  have  studied  law,  and  may  thus  be  one  of 
the  two  Tliomas  Middletons  entered  at  Crav's 
Inn  in  1593  and  1596.  It  is  thought  that  "he 
began  writing  for  the  stage  as  early  as  1599. 
But  the  first  mention  of  him  is  in  Hcnslowe's 
Diary,  on  May  22,  1602.  He  was  then  collaborat- 
ing with  Munday,  Drayton,  Webster,  and  others 
on  a  lost  play  called  Ca-sar's  Fall.  In  this  year 
he  published  a  comedy  entitled  lilurt,  Master- 
Constable,  and  in  1603-04  two  prose  tracts.  The 
Uluck  Book  and  Father  Uuhburd's  Tales,  lively 
and  highly  colored  satirical  sketches  of  London 
life.  Between  this  time  and  his  death  he  wrote 
more  than  twenty  plays,  and  twelve  masques 
and  pageants.  In  1620  he  was  made  dironologer 
to  the  city  of  London.  He  died  in  London  near 
July  1,  1627.  He  was  successful  in  both  comedy 
and  tragedv.  His  humor  is  seen  at  its  best  in 
A  Trick  to  Catch  the  Old-One  (  1608)  ;  The  Roar- 
ing (lirl  (1611);  The  Spanish  (li/psy,  a  tragi- 
comedy (acted  as  early  as  1623,  but  not  printed 
till  1653)  ;  A  Chaste  Maid  in  Chcapside  (not 
printed  till  1630).  All  except  the  third  in  this 
list  depict  contemporary  Loudon  life.  The  sec- 
ond has  as  heroine  the  notorious  Mary  Erith, 
known  as  Moll  Cutpurse.  Middleton's  dramatic 
jiower  is  at  is  height  in  ^yomen  lienarc  H'oHir/i 
(first  printed  in  1657).  It  is  a  romantic  tragedy 
fouiidi'd  in  part  on  the  history  of  Bianca  Capello. 
Almost  eipial  to  this  play  arc  The  Spanish  dypsy, 
cited  above,  and  The  ChanncHnfi  (printed  ll!53). 
A  Game  at  Chess,  a  political  drama,  attacking 
Spain,  aroused  such  enthusiastic  hatred  that  the 
Spanish  Ambassador  protested,  and  the  piece  was 
taken  off  the  stage  after  scoring  a  great  success 
( 1624) .  A  play  called  The  Witch  (  printed  1778) 
is  of  considerable  interest  because  it  has  the  same 
motive  as  .Shakespeare's  Macbeth.  Consult 
Works,  ed.  by  Bullen  (8  vols.,  London.  1886); 
and  selections  from  the  plays,  ed.  by  Havelock 
Ellis,  with  an  introduction  by  Swinlnirne,  for 
tlie  Mciiiiaid  SiTies   (London,  1887). 

MIDDLETON,  Thomas  Fansiiaw  ( 1769- 
1822).  Bishop  of  Calcutta.  He  was  born  in  Kcdle- 
ston,  Derbyshire,  England;  was  educated  at 
Christ's  Howpital,  and  graduated  at  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1792:  was  ordained  to  a 
curacy  in  Gainsborough  in  1792.  and  was  after- 
wards inciinibcnt  at  Tansor.  Xortliamptonsliirc; 
Bytham,  Lincolnshire:  Saint  Pancras,  Loiidcui ; 
and  other  jiarishcs.  In  1814  he  was  consecrated 
first  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  where  he  did  much  to 
promote  the  advancement  of  Christianity  and 
education,  founded  the  Bishop's  ^lission  College 
in  1820,  and  established  a  consistory  court.  He 
was  editor  for  short  periods  of  the  journals  The 
Country  Spectator  at  Gainsborough,  and  The  lirit- 
ish Critic  (new  .series)  in  London.  The  work  by 
which  he  was  best  known  was  that  on  The  Doc- 
trine of  the  fircrk  Article  Applied  to  the  Criti- 
cism- and-  Jlhislratiun  of  the  A'cic  Testament 
(1808).  A  Life  of  liishop  Miihlleton.  by  C.  W. 
IjC  Bas.  was  published  in  London   in   1831. 

MID'DLETOWN.  \  city  and  the  county-seat 
of   Middlesex   County,  Conn.,   14  miles  south  of 


MIDDLETOWN. 


467 


MIDHAT  PASHA. 


Hartford ;  on  the  Connecticut  River,  and  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad 
(Map:  Connecticut,  E  3).  It  is  connected  with 
the  opposite  town  of  Portland,  known  for  its 
brownstoue  quarries,  by  an  unusually  long 
drawbridge,  iliddletown  is  the  seat  of  W'csleyan 
University  (q.v. )  ;  the  Berkeley  Divinity  School 
(Protestant  Episcopal),  opened  in  1854;  the 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane;  and  the  State 
Industrial  School  for  Girls.  Other  features  are 
the  municipal  building,  and  the  Russell  Free  Li- 
brary of  about  14,000  volumes.  The  city  has 
considerable  trade,  as  the  river  is  navigable  as 
far  as  Hartford  for  light-draught  steamers,  thus 
increasing  the  transportation  facilities,  ilidille- 
town  is  also  an  important  industrial  centre,  with 
manufactures  of  cotton  webbing,  hammocks, 
pumps,  marine  hardware,  locks,  harness  trim- 
mings, silver-plated  ware,  and  rubber,  bone,  and 
silk  goods.  There  are  valuable  mineral  deposits 
in  the  vicinity'.  Jliddletown  is  governed,  under 
a  charter  of  1882,  by  a  mayor,  elected  biennial- 
ly, and  a  city  council,  chosen  on  a  general 
ticket.  The  water-works  are  owned  and  operated 
by  the  municipality.  Population,  in  1890,  0013; 
in  1000,  9589. 

Founded  in  1050,  and  incorporated  as  a  town 
under  the  name  JIattabeseck  in  1651,  Middle- 
town  received  its  present  name  in  1053,  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1784.  Previous  to  the 
Revolution  and  for  some  time  thereafter  it  was 
a  very  important  commercial  port,  a  large  num- 
ber of  its  citizens  being  engaged  in  the  West 
Indian  trade.  For  many  years  prior  to  1886, 
when  the  Custom  House  was  moved  to  Hartford, 
it  was  a  port  of  entry.  Consult  an  article 
on  '"Middletown"  in  The  Connecticut  Quarterly 
(Hartford,  1808)  ;  also  Whittemore,  Tlistory  of 
Middlesex  County,  Connecticut  (New  York, 
1884). 

MIDDLETOWN.  A  town  in  Newcastle 
County,  Del.,  25  miles  south-southwest  of  Wil- 
mington ;  on  the  Philadelphia.  Wilmington  and 
Baltimore  Railroad  (ilap:  Delaware,  P  3),  It 
has  considerable  fruit-canning  interests,  owing 
to  its  location  in  the  noted  fruit-growing  belt  of 
the  .State,  and  manufactures  farming  implements, 
carriages,  etc.  Population,  in  1890,  1454;  in 
1900,   1567. 

MIDDLETOWN.  A  city  in  Orange  County, 
N.  v..  67  miles  northwest  of  New  York  City, 
near  the  Wallkill  River,  and  on  the  Erie,  the 
New  Y'ork,  Ontario  and  Western,  and  the  New 
York,  Susquehanna  and  Western  railroads 
(Map:  New  York,  F  4).  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  (homaiopathic) , 
and  has  a  public  library  and  a  fine  high  schofil 
building.  The  centre  of  an  agricultural  and 
dairying  district,  Middletown  enjoys  a  consider- 
abl(^  trade  in  the  products  of  the  region;  and 
among  its  industrial  establishments  are  woolen 
and  straw  hat  factories,  ear  shops  (N.  Y''.,  O. 
and  W.)  saw  and  file  works,  cigar  factories,  a 
tannerjf,  a  milk-condensery,  and  manufactories 
of  shirts  and  cut  glass.  The  city  is  governed, 
under  a  revised  charter  of  1902.  by  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  common  council 
which  elects  the  city  clerk,  corporation  counsel, 
and  engineer,  and  confirms  the  executive's  nomi- 
nations to  the  board  of  health,  other  municipal 
olTicials  being  chosen  by  popiilar  vote.  The  city 
owns  and  operates  the  water-works.     Population, 


in  1890,  11,977;  in  1900.  14,522,  Settled  before 
the  Revolution  and  named  from  its  central  loca- 
tion between  Jlontgomery  nnd  -Mount  Hope,  Mid- 
dletown was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1848, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1888.  Its  situa- 
tion as  the  half-way  station  between  the  Hudson 
and  the  Delaware  rivers,  on  the  old  Minisink  road 
leading  to  the  'far  West'  of  New  York  State,  made 
it  of  considerable  importance  in  the  later  years 
of  the  eighteenth  and  the  early  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century;  while  its  position  as  a  termi- 
nal of  the  Erie  Railroad,  and  the  consequent  es- 
tablishment of  a  foundry  abotit  1845,  gave  it  a 
start  as  an  industrial  centre. 

MIDDLETOWN.  A  city  in  Butler  County, 
Ohio.  35  miles  north  of  Cincinnati;  on  the 
Miami  River,  and  the  iliami  and  Erie  Canal,  and 
on  the  Cleveland.  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint 
Louis,  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  and  Dayton, 
and  the  Cincinnati  Northern  railroads  (Map: 
Ohio,  B  7).  It  has  a  Masonic  Temple  and  a  fine 
opera  house;  and  there  are  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  tobacco,  paper,  bic.vcles.  ajid  agricultural 
implements.  Middletown.  settled  as  early  as 
1794,  is  governed  by  a  ma.vor.  elected  biennially, 
and  a  unicameral  council  which  controls  im- 
portant elective  and  confirming  powers.  The 
water-works  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  mu- 
nicipality. Population,  in  1890,  7681;"  in  1900, 
9215. 

MIDDLETOWN.  A  borough  in  Dauphin 
Count}',  Pa,,  9  miles  southeast  of  Harrisburg; 
on  the  Susquehanna  River,  and  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  rail- 
roads (Map:  Pennsylvania.  E  3).  It  is  in  a 
farming  section,  and  has  flouring  and  planing 
mills,  iron  furnaces,  stove  works,  tube  and  iron 
works,  ear  shops,  a  furniture  faetor.v.  tannery, 
and  stone  quarries,  the  principal  products  of 
which  constitute  a  considerable  export  trade. 
The  electric  light  plant  is  owned  by  the  munici- 
palit.v,  Middletown  was  founded  in  1756  and 
was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1828.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  5080;    in  1900.  5608. 

MIDGE  (AS.  mycg,  OHG.  mucea.  Ger,  Miicke, 
Icel,  my,  midge,  fly;  connected  with  Gk.  /ivTa, 
myia.  fly).  The  popular  name  of  the  little  flies 
of  the  family  Chironomidfe,  applied  also  in  Eu- 
rope to  the  Simuliida>.  which  in  this  country 
are  called  'black  flies'  and  'buft'alo  gnats.'  There' 
is  nothing  very  specific  in  the  use  of  the  name, 
and  it  is  generally  applied  to  almost  any  minute 
flying  insect,  most  of  which  are  true  flies. 

MIDHAT  PASHA,  me'd'hat'  pa-shil'  (1822- 
84).  A  Turkish  statesman,  born  proiialily  in 
Bulgaria.  His  origin  was  humble,  but  his 
marked  ability  secured  him  rapid  prouiotinn  in 
the  Ottoman  civil  service.  He  visited  England 
and  France;  was  made  a  pasha;  governed  with 
energy  and  wisdom  Bulgaria  and  other  provinces ; 
and  in  1872  was  named  CJrand  Vizier.  He  had 
alread.v  identified  himself  with  the  progressive 
part.v  known  as  Y'oung  Turkey,  and  was  disliked 
and  feared  by  the  reactionaries.  He  took  a  lead- 
ing part  in  the  conspiracv  which  led  to  the  de- 
thronement of  Abdul-Aziz  CMay  .'^O,  1876),  and 
was  made  Grand  Vizier  December  20.  1876.  by 
-Mid-ul-Hamid  II..  but  was  disnii-;scd  in  Febru- 
ary. 1877,  and  had  to  flee,  A  constit\ition  which 
he  had  promulgated  failed.  Later,  he  was  per- 
mitted to  return,  and  became  Governor  of  S.vria 
and  then  of  Sm.yrna,     In  ISSl  he  was  tried,  with 


UIDHAT  FASHA. 


468 


MIDWAY  ISLAND. 


others,  upon  the  charge  of  murdering  Abdiil- 
Aziz,  and  was  condeuuied  to  dea(h,  but  the  sen- 
tence was  commuted,  lie  died  in  Arabia,  Jlay  8, 
1884.  He  was  the  author  of  La  Turquic,  son 
passe,  son  avenir  (I'aris.  1878).  Consult:  I.e'- 
ouzon  Le  Duo.  Midlial  I'dsha  (ib.,  1870)  :  Bruns- 
vik,  /.<(  vcritr  stir  Midhat  Fasha  (ib.,  1877). 

MID'IANITES.  A  name  applied  somewhat 
indefinitely  in  the  Old  Testament  to  groups  of 
Bedouins.  According  to  Gen.  xxv.  2,  Midian,  the 
eponymous  ancestor,  is  a  son  of  Abraham  through 
his  'Arabic'  wife  Keturah.  That  the  ilidianites 
are  to  be  reckoned  with  the  Arabs  is  clear,  but 
■we  find  them  now  at  Mount  Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  1), 
again  to  the  east  of  Israel  (Gen.  xxv.  4),  while 
in  the  days  of  Gideon  they  advance  from  the 
Syrian  desert  (.Judges  vi.),  and  again  (Num. 
xxv.  G-9)  they  occupy  the  northern  portion 
-of  Moab.  This  shifting  about  is  to  be  accounted 
for  not  merely  by  the  natural  movements  of 
nomadic  tribes,  but  through  the  generic  mean- 
ing that  ilidian  seems  to  have  acquired,  much  as 
in  the  Talmud,  Tai,  which  originally  designated 
-a  particular  Arabic  clan,  Ijecomcs  the  designation 
for  Arabs  in  general.  The  Miiiianites  as  de- 
scribed in  .Judges  (vi.-viii.)  are  thorough  Bed- 
ouins, whereas  the  ilidianites  around  Sinai  are 
.a  pastoral  people.  The  latter  seem  to  have  been 
-the  original  Midianites.  and  the  fact  that  Jethro, 
Moses'  father-in-law,  is  described  as  a  'ilidian- 
ite'  ( Ex.  iii.  1 ) ,  whereas  in  Judges  i.  16  he  is 
•called  the  'Kenite,'  is  due  to  the  more  compre- 
hensive character  of  the  former  term,  which  led 
to  its  gradual  extension  until  it  became  synony- 
mous with  Bedouin.  The  land  of  Midian  ex- 
tended northward  from  Horeb.  or  Sinai,  close 
to  the  eastern  shore  of  the  (iulf  of  Akabah.  A 
place,  called  Modiana  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
■close  to  the  Red  Sea.  and  about  opposite  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  an<l  no  doubt 
this  stands  in  some  relationship  in  the  original 
application  of  !Midian  in  the  Old  Testament. 
•Consult  Burton,  (lold  Mines  of  Midian  (London, 
1878);    I.iiiid  of  Midian  lievisited   ( ib.,  1870). 

MIDLOTHIAN,  mid-lO'Tiii-an.  A  county  of 
Scotland.     See  Edixiuroiisiiiue. 

MIDNAPUR,  niid'naponr'.  The  capital  of 
■a  district  of  Bardwan.  Bengal,  British  India.  (IS 
miles  by  rail  west  of  Calcutta,  witli  which  it  is 
also  connected  by  a  canal.  It  is  an  educational 
centre  with  a  municipal  college,  high  schoid.  pub- 
lic library,  and  printing  establishments,  and  is 
also  the  scat  of  an  active  American  missionary 
settlement.  It  has  manufactiircs  of  <'opper,  brass, 
silk,  and  indigo,  and  an  imporlant  trade.  Popu- 
lation, in  ISOl.  32.2r,4:  in  1001,  .■(3.140. 

MIDNIGHT  APPOINTMENTS.  In  Ameri- 
can histoiv,  :i  tfiiii  appliril  1o  the  appointments 
made  by  .John  Adams  on  the  last  night  of  his 
administration  as  President. 

MIIVRASH  (Heb.,  from  diirash,  to  seek, 
scan  li  I .  Till'  general  name  given  to  the  expo- 
sition of  the  Old  Testament  which,  for  about 
1.500  years  after  the  Exile,  formed  the  centre 
of  all  mental  activity  both  in  an<l  nut  of  the 
schools,  among  the  .Tews.  The  prohibitions  and 
ordinances  contained  in  the  Pcniatcuchal  codes 
•\vere  specified  and  particularizj'd  according  to 
certain  hermeneuticnl  rules,  and  further  sur- 
rounded by  traditional  ordinances  and  inhibi- 
tions. This  division  of  Alidrash  is  represented 
^by  the  Halaclm   (q.v.).  the  binding  authoritative. 


civil,  and  religous  law  as  laid  down  in  the  Tal- 
mud. Another  branch  of  the  Midrash.  however, 
is  the  llaggada  (q.v.),  a  kind  of  free  |)oetical 
homiletics,  on  the  wliole  body  of  tlie  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  the  term  ilidrash  wilhuut  further 
speeitlcation  generally  refers  to  this  branch  of 
rabbinical  literature.  The  chief  collections  of 
this  part  of  the  Midrash  are  Midrash  lluhha  or 
Midrash  haggadol  (on  the  Pentateuch  and  the 
five  scrolls),  and  I'csikta  to  various  sections  of 
the  Bible.  A  complete  German  translation  of  the 
Midrash  Rabba  was  begim  by  August  Wiinsche 
in  1880.  Besides  this  there  are  Midrashim  to 
the  separate  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Xumbers,  and  Deuteronomy.  Con- 
sult: Steinschneider,  Jewish  Literatii/-e  (Lon- 
don, 18.i7)  ;  Chenery,  "Legends  from  the  Mid- 
rash," in  l^wj',  Miscellanies  of  Hebrew  Literw- 
lure  (ib.,  1877)  ;  Abrahams,  Jeicish  Literature, 
c.   iv.    (Philadelphia,   1899). 

MIDRIFF.     The  diaphragm   (q.v.). 

MIDSHIPMAN.  A  title  in  the  United 
States  Xavy  abolished  by  act  of  Congress  of  Au- 
gust, 1882;  but  revived  in  1902  and  substituted 
for  the  title  of  naval  cadet.  The  term  is  de- 
rived from  the  fact  that  tlie  'young  gentlemen' 
under  instruction  on  British  men-of-war  to  be- 
come oflicers  were  assigned  to  quarters  amidships 
abreast  the  mainmast  on  the  lower  deck.  In  the 
American  na\-y  midshipmen  rank  next  below 
ensigns.  Formerly,  those  not  yet  graduated 
from  the  naval  academy  were  styled  cadet 
midshipmen. 

MIDSHIPMAN.     See  S.vpo. 

MIDSHIPMAN  EASY,  Mr.  A  story  by 
Frederick  iMarryat  (183U).  It  sets  forth  the 
perilous  and  amusing  adwntures  of  Jack  Easy, 
a  J'oung  scapegrace,  who  enlists  in  the  British 
Navy,  and  after  a  long  course  of  discipline  re- 
nounces his  early  theories  of  the  equality  of 
men. 

MIDSUMMER  EVE.    See  S.\ixT  .John's  Eve. 

MIDSUMMER   NIGHT'S   DREAM,   A.     A 

comedy  by  Sliakesjieare,  written  about  1.50.5, 
printed  in  1600.  when  two  editions  appeared,  by 
Thomas  Fisher  and  by  .James  Roberts,  the  lat- 
ter being  u.sed  for  the  folio  reprint.  It  is  evi- 
dently a  masc]ue  or  festival  play,  and  is  a  jumble 
of  chissic,  niedia'val,  and  fairy  lore.  Tlie  p:irts 
of  Theseus  and  llippolyta  may  have  been  taken 
from  Chaucer's  "Kniglit's  Tale,"  but  more  prob- 
ably from  North's  translations  of  Plutarch's 
"Theseus"  (1579).  Pyranms  and  Thisbe,  drawn 
from  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  may  have  come 
through  Chaucer's  Legend  of  tlood  ironiCH.  or 
was  based  on  Robinson's  HandfiiU  of  Pleasant 
Delights.  Oberon.  originating  in  the  French 
Hiion  of  Hordcaux  in  the  Cliarleiuagne  cycle,  is 
found  in  (heene's  ./anus  I\.  (1500).  'Titania. 
without  the  name,  can  be  traced  to  Chaiicer's 
"Wife  of  Bath's  Tale."  Puck  is  the  Robin  Good- 
fellow  of  old  English  folk-lore.  The  rest  of  the 
fairy  scenery  is  Shakespeare's  own,  except  for  a 
slight  debt  to  John  l.yly. 

MIDWAY  ISLAND.  A  small  island  in  the 
Pacific  in  about  latitude  28^  N.  and  longitude 
179=  .30'  \V..  important  only  as  the  cable  station 
of  the  ComuKTcial  Pacific  Cable  Company  be- 
tween Honolulu  and  Guam.  The  cable  was  laid 
in    lOO.'i.      The    cable    distance    to    Honolulu    is 


MIDWAY  ISLAND. 


469 


MIEROSLAWSKI. 


sUtU'd  as  1254  miles  and  to  Guaiu  as  2593  miles. 
Tlif  island  is  little  move  tlian  a  rock  rising  at 
its  highest  point  less  than  .50  feet  al)Ove  the  sea 
and  about  one  and  one-eighth  miles  long  and 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide. 

MIDWIFE,  and  MIDWIFERY.  See  Ob- 
stetrics. 

MIDWIFE  FROG,  or  Ubstetrical  To.\d.  A 
smoutli  toail-like  terrestrial  frog  {Alytes  ubsietri- 
caiis)  of  the  family  Discoglossida?,  found  along 
the  Mediterranean  coast,  and  numerous  and 
ubiquitous.  From  March  to  August  tlie  double 
tall-niite  of  the  male,,  sounding  like  a  small  bell, 
is  heard,  but  it  is  diliicult  to  see  the  performer. 
The  remarkable  feature  of  this  frog's  life,  how- 
ever, is  its  egg-nurture.  When  the  female  is 
ready  to  extrude  her  eggs,  which  are  of  large  size 
and  "attached  to  one  another,  in  two  rosary-like 
strings,  to  the  number  of  several  dozen,  the  ac- 
cepted male  mounts  upon  her  back.  During  the 
e.xpulsion  of  the  eggs  they  are  fecundated  by  the 
male,  who  then  pushes  his  hind  linilis  through 
the  tangled  mass,  after  which  he  releases  the 
female,  and  retires  to  his  hole  dragging  with  him 
the  burden  wrapped  about  his  legs.  He  conies 
out  each  night  to  feed  and  to  moisten  the  eggs 


MIDBIFE    FROG. 

in  the  dew  or  the  nearest  puddle,  and  after  about 
three  weeks,  when  the  eggs  are  nearly  ready  to 
hatch,  he  takes  them  into  the  water,  where  lie  re- 
mains until  the  tadpoles  escape  through  the 
softened  envelopes.  Broods  born  in  early  sum- 
mer mature  the  same  autumn,  but  later  broods 
remain  as  t-adpoles  until  the  following  May.  A 
second  species  {Alytes  cisternasi),  of  similar 
haliits,    occurs   in    Central    Spain    and    Portugal. 

MIEE,  mg-ar'.  A  Mexican  town,  situated 
on  the  Rfo  Grande,  110  miles  in  a  straight  line 
from  its  mouth  (ilap:  Mexico,  J  4).  It  is  noted 
in  connection  with  an  attempted  invasion  of 
Mexico  by  Texans  in  1842.     Population,  4000. 

MIEKES,  me-a'ras.  A  mining  town  of  North- 
ern Spain  in  the  Province  of  Oviedo.  It  is  situ- 
ated 0  miles  southeast  of  the  City  of  Oviedo, 
among  forest-covered  mountains,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  gardens  and  orchards.  It  has  a  score 
of  mines  and  extensive  factories  for  iron  and 
chemical  products.  In  the  neighborhood  are  im- 
portant mines  of  coal.  iron,  and  cinnabar.  Popu- 
lation, in  1000,  17.867. 

MIEREVELT,  me'if-velt,  MicniEL  .Tan.sze 
(  l.')(i7-10.")l).  A  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Delft. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  A.  van  jlntfoort,  called  Pdock- 
landt.  of  Utrecht.  He  rece'  ed  a  pension  from  the 
Archduke  Albert  of  Au;;     la,  at  whose  Court  he 


lived  in  Delft.  Miorevelt's  portraits  are  in 
many  of  the  museums.  They  are  of  varying  im- 
portance, as  he  was  often  assisted  by  hi^  pupils, 
particularly  by  his  son.  Pieter  van  Mierevelt 
(l,JUUl(i23) ,  wlio  imitated  the  manner  of  his 
father  with  much  success.  Among  tlie  best  por- 
traits by  the  elder  Mierevelt  are  those  of  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  and  otliers  of  the  Princes  of 
Orange,  John  Barueveldt,  and  several  of  the 
Prince  of  Nassau. 

MIERIS,  me'ris.    A  family  of  Dutch  painters. 
Fra.xs  van-  Mieris,  the  elder  (1035-81),  a  genre 
painter,  was  born  in  Leyden,  April  12,  1G35.    He 
was  a  pupil  of  Torenvliet,  of  Gerard  Dou,  and  of 
Adri;wi  van  den  Tempel.     His  pictures  are  char- 
acterized by  elegance  of  drawing,  and  his  coloring 
is  clear,  delicate,  and  rich,  especially  in  painting 
velvets,  satin,  and  other  ricli  stutTs.     Tliey  are 
treated  too  superficially  and  smoothly,  however, 
to  lie  strong.     His  principal  works  include  the 
'•Lady  in  the  Crimson  Jacket,"  National  Gallery, 
London:    '"Lady    at    Her    Toilet,"    "Two   Ladies 
Drinking  Tea,""  "Interior  of  a  Household."  and  a 
"Male  Portrait,"  in  the  Louvre;   "Boy  Blowing 
Soap-Bubbles"  and  "Artist  and  His  Wife"  (1(563), 
in  the  Hague  Museum  :  a  "Lady  Writing  a  Letter" 
(1680);   a  "Lady  Plaving  Guitar,"  Amsterdam 
Museum:  the  "Soldier"   (1062)  ;  "Woman  Faint- 
ing," Munich  Gallerv;   and  the  "Tinker,"  Dres- 
den Gallery.— Jan  v.\"n  Mierls  ( 1660-00) ,  a  genre 
and    portrait    painter,   son   and    pupil   of   Frans 
the  elder;   he  studied  also  under  Lairesse.     Ex- 
amples of  his  work  are  an  "Assembly  of  Ladies 
and   Gentlemen   with    Lute-Player,"   Gotha    Mu- 
seum; "Surgeon  Dressing  a  Wound,"  Hermitage, 
Saint   Petersburg. — Willem   van   Mieris  (1662- 
1747),    a   genre    and    mythological    painter    and 
sculptor,  was  born  in  Leyden,  the  son  and  pujiil 
of    Frans    the    elder.      His    work    represents    the 
school  in  its  decline,  and  is  inferior  to  his  father's 
in  drawing  and  impasto.    He  also  modeled  statu- 
ettes and  vases  adorned  with  bas-reliefs.     Among 
his   works   are   the   "Trumpeter,"    the    "Poultry 
Dealer,"  and  the  "Merry  Toper,"  all  in  the  Dres- 
den Gallery. — Feans   van   Mieris,   the  younger 
(1689-1763).     A  genre  painter  and  writer.     He 
was  the  son  and  pupil  of  Willem,  and  a  distin- 
guished antiquary,  and  published  works  of  merit 
on    numismatics    and    history.      His    books    in- 
clude   the    Historic    der    nederlandsclu-    vorsten 
(1732-35)     and    Groot    clmrtcrboek    der    graven 
ran   Holland,  van  Zeeland  en  h^ren  van  Yries- 
Innd    (1753-56),     Among  his   paintings  are  the 
"Pharmacy"    (1714),  Amsterdam  Museum;   por- 
trait of  his  father   (1737).  Copenhagen  Gallery; 
and  the  "Fishmonger"    (1747),  Rotterdam  Mu- 
.seum. 

MIEROSLAWSKI,  ni.ve'r6-sl;iv'ske,  Ludwik 
(1814-78).  A  Polish  revolutionary  leader,  born 
at  Nemours.  France.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Polish 
officer  in  the  service  of  France,  received  his  edu- 
cation at  the  military  school  in  Kalisz.  and 
joined  the  Polish  insurgents  in  1S30.  Jlieroslaw- 
ski  distinguished  himself  greatly,  and  was  made 
an  officer,  serving  until  the  fall  of  Warsaw, 
when  he  .settled  in  Paris.  Here  he  published  a 
number  of  books  in  Polish  and  French,  particu- 
larly a  military  history  of  the  Revobitiou  in  Po- 
land. In  1846  he  was  at  the  head  of  another  rev- 
olutionary movement  in  Poland,  which  resulted 
in  his  being  captured  and  sentenced  to  deatli. 
From  this  fate  he  was  rescued  by  the  outlireak  of 


MIEROSLAWSKI. 


470 


MIGNARD. 


the  general  revolutionary  movement  of  184S. 
Alter  lighting  in  I'osen,  Mieroslawski  resigned  his 
commaml  in  the  face  of  ultimate  defeat.  In  1849 
he  participated  in  the  revolutioniiry  movement  in 
!Sicily.  and  after  resigning  his  command  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  revolutionary  army  in 
Baden,  but  eventually  retired  to  Paris.  His  last 
appearance  as  a  revolutionist  was  in  Poland  in 
lS(i3,  and,  after  the  failure  of  that  attempt,  he 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  writing  political 
pamphlets.     He  died  in  Paris,  Xovember  23,  1878. 

MIFFLIN,  KoRT.    See  Fokt  JIifflin. 

MIFFLIN,  Lloyd  (1846—).  An  American 
poet,  horn  in  Columbia,  Pa.  His  father  was  J. 
Houston  ^MitHin,  a  portrait  painter  and  writer  of 
verse.  Some  of  his  highly  polislied  sonnets  cele- 
brate the  beauties  of  liis  birthplace.  These  son- 
nets have  gradually  won  their  author  recognition 
as  a  genuine  poet.  The  following  are  his  prin- 
cipal volumes  of  verse:  The  Hills  (18i>.5)  ;  At  the 
Gates  of  tiony  (1897);  TIic  .Slopes  of  Helicon, 
and  Other  Poems  (1898)  :  Eehoes  of  Greek  Idyls 
(1899)  :  paraphrases  in  sonnets  from  Bion,  Mos- 
chus.  and  Bacchylides :  and  The  Fields  of  Dawn 
and  Later  Sonne'ts   (1900). 

MIF'FLIN,  Thomas  (1744-1800).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  statesman.  He  was  born  at 
Philadelphia,  of  Quaker  parentage.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Philadelphia  College  in  1700,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  in  1772  and 
1773,  and  in  1774  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress.  Entering  the  army  as  a 
major  in  1775,  he  became  Washington's  first 
aide-de-camp  with  the  rank  of  colonel;  was  made 
quartermaster-general  in  August,  177.5:  and 
linally  (February  19,  1777)  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  and  appointed  a  member 
of  the  Board  of  War.  During  the  retreat  from 
Long  Island,  he  commanded  the  covering  party, 
and  afterwards  rendered  valuable  service  by 
rousing  the  jK-ople  to  enlist,  bringing  essential 
aid  to  General  Washington  before  the  battles  of 
Trenton  and  Princeton.  Becoming  dissatisfied 
witli  Washington's  management  of  the  war,  he 
intrigued  for  his  removal,  forming  with  Conway 
and  others  tlie  so-called  'Conway  Cabal'  (q.v.), 
on  the  failure  of  which  he  was  replaced  (^larch, 
1778)  by  Xathanael  Greene  as  quartermaster- 
general,  and  in  October,  1778.  was  removed  from 
the  Board  of  War.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1782,  and  became  its  president  the  following 
year.  He  was  a  member  and  Speaker  of  the 
Pennsylvania  State  Legislature  in  178.5.  and  a 
delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  '  of 
1787.  I'roni  1788  to  1790  lie  was  president  of 
the  Kxecutive  Council  of  Pennsylvania,  and  from 
1790  to  1799  was  Governor  of  the  State.  Con- 
sult Simpson,  KminenI  Pliilailelphians  (18.59). 

MIFFLIN,  W.VRNKR  (174.598).  An  American 
reformer,  cousin  of  General  ^lifTlin.  He  was  born 
of  Quaker  parentage  in  Aecomac  County.  Va. 
While  a  mere  boy.  he  became  impressed  with  the 
Avrong  of  slavery,  and  about  1774  freed  all  liis 
slaves  and  gave  them  compensation  for  past  serv- 
ices. From  that  time  forward  he  traveled  about 
frequently  to  the  various  meetings  of  his  sect, 
and  did  nuich  to  create  a  sentiment  against  slav- 
ery among  his  fellow  Quakers.  His  religious 
principles  led  him  to  oppose  the  Revolutionary 
War,  and  at  the  request  of  the  Yearly  fleeting  at 
Philadelphia  he  visited  both  Howe  and  Wash- 
ington in  order  to  point  out  the  wickedness  of  the 


struggle.  Mifflin  is  perhaps  best  remembered  for 
having  in  November,  1792,  presented  to  Congress 
a  memorial  against  slavery  which  resulted  in 
a  spirited  debate  over  the  question  of  the  right 
of  petition. 

MI&'DOL.  A  place  in  Fgjpt  mentioned  in 
E.xodus  xiv.  2,  Ezekiel  xxix.  10  (Authorized  Ver- 
sion, margin),  Jeremiah  xliv.  1.  The  name  is 
identical  with  the  llelircw  midyaal,  'tower,' 
'castle.'  As  an  appellation  it  occurs  in  Egyptian 
inscriptions  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century 
B.C.  The  exact  location  of  the  iligdol  referred  to 
in  the  story  of  the  Exodus  is  uncertain,  and  it 
is  impossible  to  detei'mine  whether  the  same  place 
is  meant  in  Ezekiel  and  Jeremiah.  A  ilaktal  is 
spoken  of  in  Papyrus  Anastasi  v.  20  as  the 
'watchtower  of  Seti,'  and  this  appears  to  have 
been  somewhat  south  of  Taku.  which  may  be  the 
Succolh  of  Exodus.  But  neither  of  these  places 
can  be  identitied.  From  Ezekiel  xxix.  10  it  is 
evident  tliat  a  locality  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Egypt  is  intended,  as  it  is  contrasted  with  Syene 
in  the  extreme  south.  In  Jeremiah  xliv.  1  it 
is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Tahpanhes 
(Daphnie)  and  Noph  (Memphis),  and  in  Jere- 
miah xlvi.  9  as  a  place  inhabited  by  exiled  Jews. 

MIGNARD,  me'nyar',  Nicolas  (1600-68). 
A  French  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Troyes. 
He  went  to  Rome  in  the  suite  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Lyons,  and  there  engraved  a  number  of  the 
pictures  of  Annibale  Carracci.  On  his  return  to 
France  he  settled  at  Avignon  where  he  lived 
until  ICfiO.  Thus  he  is  often  called  Mignard  of 
Avignon  to  distinguish  him  from  his  famous 
brotlicr,  Mignard  the  'Roman.'  Through  Car- 
dinal Mazarin.  the  painter  was  presented  to 
Louis  XIV.  and  painted  the  portrait  of  that 
King,  and  of  many  of  his  courtiers.  In  1003  he 
became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Painting. 
He  decorated  the  lower  floor  of  the  Tuileries.  and 
also  made  two  religi<nis  pictures  for  the  Char- 
treuse of  Grenoble  and  a  few  etchings. 

MIGNARD,  Pierre  (1012-9.5).  A  French 
portrait  and  historical  painter,  a  brother  of 
Nicholas  iliguard.  He  was  born  at  Troyes, 
studie<l  under  .Jean  Boucher  in  Bourges  and 
Simon  ^'ouet  in  Paris,  and  resided  for  twenty- 
two  years  in  Italy,  where  he  was  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  works  of  Annibale  Carracci. 
At  Rome  he  painted  the  portraits  of  Pope 
Alexander  VII.  and  many  of  the  Roman  no- 
bility, and  at  Venice  many  Venetian  nobles. 
Tn  10.57  he  was  summoned  bj'  Louis  XIV.  to 
Paris,  where  he  paint<'d  the  King's  portrait 
and  that  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  In  1004  he  deco- 
rated the  cupola  of  the  Church  of  Val-dcGrAce, 
Paris,  where  he  rc|)resented  a  colossal  Paradise 
with  two  hundred  figures,  some  of  which  are 
three  times  the  size  of  life.  This  is  the  most 
ambitious  fresco  decoration  in  France,  hut  the 
color  has  sufTered  nuich  from  time.  He  also 
painted  decorations  in  the  palace  of  Versailles. 
He  was  famous  in  Paris  as  the  leader  of  the  op- 
position against  Ix"  Mrun  and  the  Academy,  but 
\ipon  the  hitter's  death  in  1090  he  fell  heir  to  nil 
his  positions.  He  was  made  director  of  the  Go- 
belins, and  was  elected  director  of  the  .\cadeniy. 
He  died  in  Paris.   .May  .10.   109.5. 

Mignard  was  the  leading  French  portrait  paint- 
er of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  other  pictures 
are  rather  cold  and  conventional,  but  his  color- 
ing, derived   from  the  Venetians,  is  good.     The 


MIGNARD. 


471 


MIGNOT. 


Louvre  contains  a  nunibiT  of  liis  works,  includ- 
ing the  portrait  of  Madame  de  Alaintenou,  "Haint 
Cecilia,"  and  '■t^aint  Luke  Painting  the  Virgin." 
Others  are  in  the  galleries  of  Versailles,  Madriil, 
Saint  Petersburg,  Vienna,  Berlin,  London,  and 
Florence.  Consult  Lebrun-Dalbanne,  Etude  siir 
I'ierre  Mignard  (Paris,  1878). 

MIGNE,  me'ny',  Jacques  Paul  (1800-7.5). 
A  Konian  Catholic  editor.  He  was  born  in  Saint 
Flour,  France,  October  25,  1800,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Orleans.  In  1824  he  became  a  priest 
and  performed  the  functions  of  his  office  till 
1833,  when  a  pamphlet  published  by  him,  entitled 
Uc  la  liberie,  -par  ■«»  pretre.  brought  upon  him 
the  censure  of  the  Bishop  of  Orleans,  who  for- 
bade its  publication.  Migne  went  to  Paris,  and 
the  same  year  established  L'Vnivers  Religieux 
I  later  called  mei'eh-  L'Vnivers) ,  designed  to  har- 
monize the  Church  with  the  free  spirit  of  civil 
government.  Later  he  commenced  the  publi- 
cation of  a  collection  of  works  called  Cours  corn- 
plets  de  thcologie  et  d'ecriture  sainte,  and  founded 
a  publishing  house  on  a  large  scale  called  L'iin- 
primerie  catholigue,  designed  to  furnish  standard 
religious  works  at  a  low  price.  He  established 
the  daily  "ierite,  whicli  in  18.50  became  the 
Vourrier  de  Paris.  The  Cours  complels  finally 
grew  into  a  very  long  series  of  volumes  of  stand- 
ard authors  under  the  general  head  of  Biblio- 
thigue  universelle  dii  clerge  et  des  la'iques  in- 
struits.  The  parts  which  are  best  known  are 
Fatrologia  Latina,  in  221  volumes  (Paris,  1844- 
64)  ;  Patrologia  Grwca  (Greek  and  Latin)  in 
1G5  volumes  (Paris.  18.57-60);  and  Patrologia 
Grac'i  (in  a  Latin  version),  in  85  volumes  ( Paris, 
1856-67).  They  are  reprints  of  the  famous 
Benedictine  editions  and  many  others,  and  bring 
together  very  conveniently  well  nigh  the  whole 
librarv  of  the  ecclesiastical  writers  to  Innocent 
111.  (d.  1216).  Migne  died  in  Paris,  October  25, 
1S75. 

MIGNETj  me'nva',  Francois  Auguste  Mabie 
(1796-1884).  A  French  historian.  He  was  born 
!May  8,  1796,  at  Aix.  in  Provence,  studied  law  in 
his  native  city  with  his  life-long  friend.  Adolphe 
Thiers,  and  in  1822  went  to  Paris  in  order  to 
devote  himself  to  a  literary  career.  He  found 
employment  in  writing  for  the  public  journals, 
and  after  giving  lectures  on  modern  history, 
which  were  received  with  great  apjuobation,  he 
wrote  his  Eistoire  de  la  rerolulion  franeaise 
(1824).  In  1830  Mignct  and  Thiers  in  conjunc- 
tion founded  the  liberal  journal  Le  Na- 
tional. After  the  Revolution  of  July  he  be- 
came a  Councilor  of  State,  and  Keeper  of 
the  Archives  of  the  Ministrv  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, but  he  lost  these  offices" in  1848.  In  1836 
he  was  received  into  the  French  Academy.  He 
edited  Negociations  relatives  a  la  siieeession 
d'Espagne  sovs  Lovis  XIV.  (1836-42).  Other  of 
his  works  are:  Notices  et  memoires  historii/ties 
(184.3-18.53.  18.54)  :  Tie  de  Franklin  (1848)  :  Ilis- 
toire  de  Marie  Htuart  (1851)  :  Charles  Quint, 
son  ahdication.  son  sejotir  et  sa  mart  an  monas- 
tere  de  Yiiste  (10th  ed.  1882):  Eloges  histo- 
rii/ues  I  nth  ed.  1S84)  :  and  Rivalit^  de  Franrois 
I.  rt  de  Charles  V.  (1872-75)  :  also  a  drama  en- 
titli'd  Antonio  Perez  et  Philippe  IT.  (1845-40). 
Mignet  died  in  Paris.  JMarch  24.  1884.  Consult: 
Trefort.  Mignet  iind  seine  ^yerke  (Budapest. 
1885)  ;  Simon,  Mignet.  Michelct.  Henri  Martin 
(Paris,  1889). 


MIGNON,  me'nyo.N'  (Fr.,  darling).  (Ij  An 
Italian  girl  in  love  with  Wilhelm,  in  Goethe's 
Wilhelni  Meislem  Lchrjahre  (q.v.).  Her  love 
is  not  returned,  and  she  dies  broken-hearted. 
(2)  An  opera  founded  on  ^yilhehn  Meister,  with 
music  by  Ambroise  Thomas  and  libretto  by  Carre 
and  Barbier.  (3)  A  derisive  name  applied  to 
the  efi'eminate  favorites  of  Henry  III.  of  France, 
and  to  the  King  himself. 

MIGNON,  Abkaiiam  (e.1040-79).  A  German 
painter,  born  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  He 
studied  under  Jacob  Marrel,  who  took  him  to 
Haarlem,  where  he  became  the  pupil  of  Jan 
David  de  Heem.  the  celebrated  fruit  and  flower 
painter.  He  selected  subjects  similar  to  those 
his  master  painted,  but  never  equaled  him.  His 
composition  is  more  formal,  his  color  less  agree- 
able, and  there  is  too  much  detail,  although  his 
better  works  are  rich,  warm,  and  harmonious. 
Among  his  more  notable  works  are  a  study  of 
flowers,  fruit,  and  other  objects,  and  some  '"Flow- 
ers in  a  Vase,"  in  the  Amsterdam  JIuseum.  The 
Van  der  Hoop  Collection  in  Amsterdam  also  has 
a  dish  with  fruit,  oysters,  and  bread,  that  is 
more  broadly  painted  than  is  usual  with  him. 
Of  his  six  pictures  in  the  Louvre,  two  are  very 
fine — a  '"Bouquet  of  Wild  Flowers,"  and  "flow- 
ers and  Fruit."  He  is  also  well  represented  by 
similar  pieces  in  Dresden,  Munich,  Brussels,  The 
Hague.  Mcnna,  and  other  Eurofiean  galleries. 

MIGNONETTE,  min'yun-et'  (Fr.  mignonette, 
diminutive  of  OF.,  Fr.  mignon,  favorite,  dainty, 
from  OHG.  minna,  Ger.  Minne,  love,  Icel.  minna, 
recollection;  connected  with  Goth  gamunan,  AS. 
miinan,  Icel.  muna.  to  be  mindful,  Lat.  mens,  Gk. 
/jL^vos,  menos,  mind.  Skt.  man.  to  think).  Reseda 
odorata.  An  annual  or  perennial  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Resedacea>,  a  native  of  the  north 
of  Africa,  widely,  cultivated  in  gardens  during 
summer  and  in  greenhouses  and  windows  dur- 
ing winter  for  its  fragrant  flowers.  It  has  lan- 
ceolate entire  or  trifid  leaves,  and  erect  terminal 
racemes  of  small  yellowish-white  flowers,  which 
have  a  six-parted  calyx  as  long  as  the  corolla, 
and  three-toothed  capsules.  What  is  called  tree 
mignonette  is  not  even  a  distinct  variety,  but 
merely  the  common  kind  trained  in  an  erect  form, 
and  prevented  from  early  flowering  by  pinching 
off  the  ends  of  the  shoots.  White  or  upright 
mignonette  {Reseda  alba),  a  native  of  Southern 
Europe,  another  very  popular  species,  which 
grows  from  two  to  three  feet  higli  and  bears  its 
white  flowers  with  brownish  antliers  in  dense 
erect  spikes,  makes  a  fine  bor<ler  plant  and  grows 
well  on  ordinary  garden  soils.  The  seeds  are 
sown  in  the  open  in  April  or  May  and  later  on 
the  plants  arc  thinned  to  a  foot  or  18  inches 
apart.  Dyer's  weed,  or  weld  (Reseda  Lnteola) , 
is  a  tall  species  with  long  spikes  of  yellowish 
flowers.  All  species  are  generally  propagated 
from  seeds,  but  cuttings  are  sometimes  used. 

MIGNOT,  men-yu'.  Loris  RCmy  (1831-70). 
An  American  landscape  painter,  born  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.  He  studied  under  Schelfliont  at  The 
Hague,  and  was  elected  a  National  Academician 
in  1859.  but  during  the  Civil  War  and  afterwards 
he  lived  in  London,  and  traveled  nuich  abroad. 
His  landscapes  treat  a  variety  of  subjects,  and 
are  painted  with  considerable  skill.  They  in- 
clude: "Lagoon  of  (Juavaquil.  South  America" 
(1863);     "Evening    in  'the    Tropics"     (1865); 


MIGNOT. 


4T2 


MIGRATION. 


"Snow   in   Hyde   raik;"   "Sunset  off  Hastings" 
(1870);  and'Mount  Chimborazo"   (1871). 

MIGRAINE,    nii-gran'     (OF.,    Fr.    migraine, 
frcini  Lat.  Iicmivnntioii,  from  Ok.  i/iunpavia.    hciiii- 
l.raiiia,  pain  in  one  side  of  the  head,  from     ///x/-, 
hfmi;  half  +  nimviuv,   kmnion,  head),  Megrim, 
11emicr.\nia,  .Sick  Headache.    A  paroxysmal  af- 
fection characterized  tiy  severe  headache,  usually 
one-sided  and  often  associated  witli  disorders  of 
vision.     It  is  sometimes  hereditary.     Women  are 
the  chief  sutTerers.     Mife'iaine  is  often  associated 
with  gout,  rheumatism,  decayed  teeth,  eye  strain, 
and  uterine  disorders.     It  is  often  due  to  rellex 
causes,  such  as  powerful   emotions,   mental   and 
bodily    fatigue,   disorders    of    digestion,   and   the 
like. "   There   are   often   i)remonitory   signs   of  an 
attack.    There  may  he  spasms  of  the  pupil  of  the 
eve  on   the  affected  side;   or  the   sight  may  he 
blurred  or  there  seem  to  be  balls  of  light  or  zig- 
zag lines,  or  gorgeous  colors.     The  tongue,  face, 
and  hand  may  experience  numbness  or  tingling. 
There  is  sometimes  dizziness.     The  headache  is 
generally  located  on   the  temple,  or  in  the  fore- 
head or' in  the  eyeball;   it  is  penetrating,  sliarp, 
and   boring   in   character.      It    spreads   gradually 
over  the  side  of  tlic  head,  sometimes  extending  to 
the  Beck  and  even   to  the  arm.     The  face  may 
then  be  pale  and  there  may  be  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  the  two  sides.    Nausea  or  vomiting 
appears  very  early  in  the  attack.     Few  affections 
are  more  prostrating  than  migraine.     The  attack 
endures  for  a  varial)le  time;  the  sufferer  is  usual- 
ly   incapacitated    for    about   three   days.      Those 
subject   to   migraine    should    avoid   excitement ; 
there  should  be  regular  meals  and  the  diet  sliould 
be  moderate.     Ilydrotlicrapy  and  out-ofdoor  life 
are   important   adjuvants.  '   The    physician    will 
direct  the  treatment   toward  the  removal  of  the 
conditions  upon  which  the  attacks  depend.     The 
eyes  should  be  examined  for  possible  errors  of 
refraction  or  lieterophoria.  either  of  which  maybe 
the  underlving  cause  of  migraine,     .\moiig  drugs 
the    bromides,    iron,    arsenic,    nitroglycerin,    can- 
nabis    indica.    quinine,    chloroform,     aiitipyrine, 
caffein.  nux  vomica,  and  ergot  may  be  employed 
according  to  the  cause  which   produces  the  mi- 
graine.     None    of    these    drugs    should    be    used 
except    upon    a    physician's    advice.      Dangerous 

symptoms  of  collapse  have  been  known  to  follow 
the  use  of  jilunaeetin.     K.lectricity  has  been  found 

lieli)ful.  During  the  paroxysm  the  sufferer  sliould 

remain  f)uiet  in  IkmI  in  a  dark  room.     See  Hea»- 

ACIIE. 

MIGRATION  (Lat.  mitimlio.  from  migrarc, 
to  migrate).  The  movement  of  peoples,  with 
all  their  household,  from  one  place  to  an- 
other, usually,  though  not  necessarily,  for  the 
purpose  of  settlement,  fleneral  movements  of 
]iopulation  were  no  doubt  common  in  prehistoric 
times.  an<l  in  the  historic  period  there  have  been 
several  notable  migrations  that  have  largely  af- 
fected the  history  of  civilization.  Students  of 
African  ethnology  have  traced  migrations  among 
the  negro  tribes  of  that  continent  that  are  of 
importance  to  the  ethnographer:  and  a  more 
complete  knowledge  of  the  ethnology-  and  pre- 
historic areliieology  of  .Vmeriea  will  probably 
make  it  possible  to"  trace  such  migration.^  among 
the  American  tribes,  and  perhaps  will  throw 
some  light  upon  their  origin.  But  the  histor- 
ically important  migrations  are  those  that  have 
taken  place  in  the  Eurasian  continent. 


The  ARVAX.S.     The  accepted  hypothesis  until 
very  recently  has  been  that  the  so-called  Aryan 
or  'indo-European   family — embracing  the  Celts, 
Teutons,  Greeks,  Latins,  Slavs,  Letts,  and  Indo- 
Iranians — originated  in  the  Pamir  region  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  whence   the  last-named  group  moved 
into    India   and    the    Iranian    Plateau,  while   the 
remaining   groups    migrated   westward    into   Eu- 
rope, the  Celts  leading  the  way  and  advancing  to 
the   western  contines  of   the  continent,   the   Teu- 
tons settling  about  the   Baltic,  the  Greeks  and 
Latins  finding  their  way  to  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Letts  to  the  Baltic  Provinces  and  Lithuania, 
and  the  Slavs  makin"  their  home  in  the  great 
region   of   steppes   and    rivers   .southeast   of   the 
Letts.      Later    investigation   of    the    renuiins   of 
primitive  man  in  Europe,  together  with  a  close 
comparative    study    of    the    Aryan    tongues,    has 
cast  grave  doubt  upon  this  thcoin',  and  made  it 
seem  altogether  possil)le  that  there  never  was  an 
undivided  Aryan  family,  and  that  the  European 
Aryan  groups'  originated  very  near  their  present 
habitats:  that  perliai)s  the  Baltic  was  the  origi- 
nal  centre  of  diffusion  of  European  races,  and 
that  the  Gra-co-Latins  migrated  southward  to  the 
Mediterranean   and   the    Indo-lranians   southeast 
into  -Asia.     Another  hypothesis  locates  the  origi- 
nal .\ryan  home  in  the  steppes  of  Southeastern 
Europe,   whence    it    is   supposed   that   at   a   very 
early  period  the  Indo-lranians  moved  southeast- 
ward and   the  European  groups  northwest   and 
southwestward.      See    Aryans;    iNUO-tiERMANic 
Languages. 

The  Germans  and  Huns.    The  migrations  of 
the    Teutonic    or    Germanic    tribes,    during    the 
years  of  decline  of  the  Roman  Emiiire.  had  a  pro- 
'found  influence  npon  the  social  and  |iolitic.al  de- 
velopment of  Europe,  anil  are  known  ])ieeminent- 
ly  as  -the  migrations'    ( Vijlkcrwanderung) .     The 
Germans,   in   the   centuries   following   the   period 
when  Tacitus  gave  his  lucid  and  generally  cor- 
rect account  of  them  in  the  (Icrmnnin.  were  en- 
gaged in  intertribal  strife,  which  resulted  in  the 
loss  of  identity  of  several  of  the  weaker  tribes, 
the  remnants  of  which  were  merged  in   the  new 
confederacies — (Joths,  Vandals.  Alemanni.  Franks 
((iq.v.),  and   Burgundians.      In   the   fourth   cen- 
tury   a.d.     the    Goths    were     spread    over    the 
country  north  of  the  Danube.     There  came  upon 
them  from  Asia  a  great  migratory  wave  of  the 
nomadic  Huns    (q.v.),  an  aggregation  of  Turko- 
Tatar    tribes,    whose    ancestors    had    held    the 
Chinese   Empire   in   temporary   subjection.     The 
Goths  were  unable  to  resist  this  inroad  of  over- 
whelming numbers,  and  a  part  of  them,  the  Visi- 
goths, who  were  nearest  tlie  llaiuibe.  threw  them- 
selves on  the  merev  of  the  Emiieror  \'alens  and 
crossed   the   river  in   370.     Soon   after,  owing  to 
ill-treatment  at  the  hands  of  Roman  officials,  they 
revolted  against  the  Empire,  defeated  the  Roman 
army  in  a  battle  under  the  walls  of  Adrianoplo 
(a.d.  .378).  in  which  \'alens  was  killed,  and  then 
moved  westward  under  their  King.  .Marie  (q.v.), 
into  the  valley  of  the   Po.     The   forces   of   the 
Western     Empire    under    the    Vandal     Stilieho 
cheeked    their    progress    temporarily    an<l    drove 
them  back  into  Pannoiiia  :  but   after  the  murder 
of  Stilieho  in  40S  they  returned  to  Italy  and  cap- 
tured Rome   (4101,  soon  after  which  .Marie  died. 
His  followers,  at   first  in  the  service  of  the  Em- 
pire, afterwards  on  their  own  account,  went  into 
Southern  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  there  founded  the 
Visigothic   kingdom,   the    Gallic    |iart    of   which 


MIGRATION. 


473 


MIGRATION. 


continued  until  it  was  uunquiicii  by  tlie  Franks 
(50710).  The  jiait  south  of  the  l'.yrenecs  was 
conquered  in  the  great  .Mohammedan  invasion  of 
711.  The  Vandals  left  tlieir  homes,  which  lay 
between  the  Gotlis  and  the  Baltic,  and  moved 
southeast  and  then  westward  to  Pannonia,  where 
thev  were  when  the  battle  of  Adrianople  showed 
eonelusively  the  weakness  of  the  Roman  lOmpire. 
After  a  restless  period  of  several  years  they  were 
again  in  motion  in  40(i,  united  witli  the  Suevi  and 
Alani.  They  swept  forward  through  the  north  of 
Gaul  and  southward  into  Spain,  where  they  pre- 
ceded the  Visigoths,  who  appeared  in  the  Penin- 
sula and  overthrew  them  in  the  naine  of  Rome. 
In  429  they  crossed  the  straits,  conquered  the 
Xorth  African  provinces,  set  up  a  Vandal  king- 
dom, and  entered  upon  a  career  of  ]iira(y  on  the 
Mediterranean.  In  455  they  raided  and  sacked 
Rome.  The  Vandal  kingdom  was  overthrown  in 
534  by  the  armies  of  the  Emperor  .Justinian 
(q.v  )'.  The  Burgundians.  living  on  the  Vistula 
near  the  Goths  and  the  Vandals,  migrated  south- 
ward to  the  Rhine  frontier  of  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  third  century,  received 
some  land  from  tlie  Emperor  Honorius,  and 
spread  over  the  Rhone  and  Sfione  valleys  soon 
after  the  founding  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom. 
Tlie  Burgundian  kingdom  there  established  was 
con()uered  by  the  Franks  in  534. 

The  Ostrogoths,  who  had  as  a  whole  been  sub- 
dued by  the  Huns  when  tlieir  cousins  the  Visi- 
goths escaped  across  the  Danube,  settled  in  Pan- 
nonia about  453.  In  470  Tlieodoric,  the  ablest 
of  all  the  barbarian  chieftains  of  the  period  of 
tlie  migrations,  became  King  of  the  Ostrogoths. 
He  otl'ered  the  services  of  his  people  to  put  down 
the  independent  kingdom  whicli  had  been  set  up 
in  Italy,  in  defiance  of  the  Empire,  by  Odoacer.  a 
German  adventurer.  With  the  expectation  of 
conquering  for  themselves  new  and  pleasanter 
homes  in  Italy,  the  Ostrogothic  people  set  out 
with  all  their  impedimenta.  The  forces  of 
Odoacer  were  successfully  encountered  in  Lom- 
bardy  and  he  was  driven  back  into  his  capital. 
Ravenna,  where  he  endured  a  long  siege.  The 
city  was  finally  taken  and  the  defeated  King 
was  treacherously  killed.  Tlieodoric  then  set  up 
a  kingdom,  acknowledging  nominal  subjection  to 
the  Emperor,  but  in  reality  acting  as  an  inde- 
pendent sovereign.  He  developed  the  most  equit- 
able and  enlightened  government  then  existing  in 
the  Roman  world ;  but  his  own  strong  head  and 
hand  were  necessary  to  maintain  it,  and  after 
his  death  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  in  Italy  grad- 
ually lost  its  power,  and  was  finally  overtlirown 
under  Justinian  in  553,  when  Narses  (q.v.)  com- 
pleted the  reconquest  of  Italy  for  the  Eastern 
Eiujiire.  The  Ostrogothic  occupation  left  a  per- 
manent influence  upon  the  laws,  customs,  and 
language  of  Italy,  although  these  remained  at 
bottom  thoroughly  Italian,  the  German  leaven 
being  a  comparatively  small  one. 

There  was  one  more  German  migration  into 
Italy,  that  of  the  Lombards,  who  entered  the 
country  from  Pannonia,  in  5(57,  They  settled  in 
the  valley  of  the  Po,  in  the  region  which  has  been 
named  for  them,  Lonibardy,  Their  rule  extended 
at  one  time  throughout  the  Peninsula,  except 
over  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  (q.v.)  and  Rome. 
Their  influence  upon  Italian  life  was  lasting  he- 
cause,  although  their  kingdom  was  overthrown 
as  a  political  power  by  Pepin  and  Tharles  the 
Great,  they  remained   in   their   Italian  home,   a 


permanent  factor  in  the  population.     See  Italy;. 
Lombards. 

These  were  all  true  migrations,  not  simply 
military  invasions,  the  whole  people  in  each  case 
moving  over  the  country  witli  all  their  goods,  and 
transferring  their  abodes.  Each  one  of  these 
Germanic  kingdoms  left  a  pennanent  impression 
upon  the  life  and  institutions  of  the  country  in 
whicli  it  was  established,  altliough  as  a  formal 
political  institution  each  gave  way  to  others. 
With  the  Huns,  whose  movement  westward  had 
set  the  Visigoths  in  motion,  it  was  difl'erent. 
The}'  had  no  affinities  with  the  Aryan  groups  an.l 
were  regarded  with  horror  and  detestation  by  all 
of  the  European  peoples  alike.  Tliey  were  not 
home-seekers,  but  natural  nomads,  who  lived  by 
fighting  and  by  plunder.  They  threatened  the 
Danube  frontier  of  the  Emjiire  for  many  years, 
and  in  449  their  King,  Attila  (q.v.).  led  his  own 
tribes,  with  a  miscellaneous  contingent  of  Ger- 
man adventurers,  across  to  Northern  Gaul,  where 
a  heavy  blow  was  aimed  at  the  weakened  rem- 
nant of  Roman  power.  The  invasion  was  cheeked 
by  a  union  of  Visigothic  and  Imperial  forces  un- 
der Aetius  and  Theodorie  (qq.v. )  in  a  great  bat- 
tle near  Chalons-sur-Marne  (451).  Attila  never- 
founded  a  State  that  was  more  than  an  armed 
camp,  and  his  power  went  to  pieces  at  his  death, 
in  455.  From  that  time  the  Huns  disappeared  as 
an  organized  power,  leaving  no  influence  behind, 
as  did  the  abler  and  more  stable  Germans. 

The  conquest  of  Gaul  by  the  Franks  (q.v.) 
beginning  in  486  differed  from  the  other  German 
folk-wanderings  in  that  it  was  effected  primarily 
by  true  militaiy  campaigns  from  a  strategic  base. 
The  Franks  had  their  original  homes  along  the 
Gallic  border,  and  they  made  a  regular  military 
invasion  of  Gaul,  effecting  a  thorough  conquest 
before  making  a  settlement  in  the  country.  This 
gave  the  Frankish  kingdom  a  more  lasting  foun- 
dation than  those  which  were  established  by  the 
migration  of  comparatively  small  bodies  into  the 
midst  of  alien  populations,  with  a  higher  degree 
of  civilization.  There  remains  but  to  mention  the 
migrations  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  living  on  thfr 
North  Sea  coa.^t  about  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe 
and  the  Weser,  and  northward,  whose  pirate 
forces  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  invaded 
Britain  and  made  the  beginning  of  England. 
See  Angles  :  Anglo-Saxon.s  :  .Iutes, 

Slavs;  Avars;  Bitlgars;  Magyars,  The  mi- 
gration of  the  Germans  was  followed  by  a  great 
movement  of  Slavic  peoples  westward  and  south- 
ward from  the  plains  of  what  is  now  Russia,  At 
the  same  time  the  non-Aryan  Avars  and  Bulgars 
pressed  into  the  regions  of  the  middle  and  lower 
Danube.  At  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  oc- 
curred the  migration  of  the  Magyars  into  what 
is  now   Hungary. 

Asi.\Tic  Trihes.  The  nomadic  habits  of  the 
interior  tribes  of  Asia  of  the  Mongol-Tatar  stock 
have  made  great  migratory  movements  of  these 
warlike  peoples  numerous,  likely  to  occur,  in 
fact,  whenever  a  leader  of  large  capacity  and  am- 
bition has  arisen  among  them.  It  is  difficult  to 
classify  many  of  these  movements  as  migrations 
or  as  military  invasions,  since  they  partake  sr> 
much  of  both  characters.  Most  notable  of  these 
was  the  great  ilongolian  niovement  set  on  foot 
by  Genghis  Khan  (q.v.),  which  established  Mon- 
gol dynasties  in  China  and  Persia,  threatened 
even  Central  Europe,  and  placed  Russia  under 
the  Tatar  yoke  for  several  centuries.     In  these 


MIGRATION. 


474 


MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


cases  the  tribes  traii.-lVn-Lil  themselves  to  the 
conquered  countries  to  a  considerable  extent  and 
maintained  a  restless  life  until  their  unstable 
military  States  were  broken  up  by  new  conquerors 
or  by  their  own  dissensions  and  lack  of  capable 
leadership.  .See  Mongol  Dynasties;  Timur; 
TrRKEY.  section  Ethnology. 

For  the  effect  of  the  Germanic  migrations 
on  the  history  of  Kuropean  civilization,  see  Er- 
HOPE.  section  on  History.  For  bibliojp-aphy,  see 
the  articles  on  the  various  barbarian  nations,  as 
Franks.  Goths,  etc. 

MIGRATION,  Wagner's  Law  of.  In  evolu- 
tion, one  lit  tlie  main  agencies  leading  to  the 
isolation  of  animals,  and  consequently  to  the  for- 
mation of  local  races,  varieties,  and  -species.  This 
was  first  pointed  out  by  Moritz  Wagner  in  1868. 
He  stated  his  views  in  three  general  propositions: 

( 1 )  The  greater  the  change  in  the  conditions  to 
which  individuals  are  subjected  on  emigrating  to 
another  territory,  the  more  intense  must  be  the 
inherent  individual  variability  of  each  organism ; 

(2)  the  less  the  even  tenor  of  this  increased  in- 
dividual variability  of  organisms  is  interrupted 
by  frequent  crosses  with  emigrants  of  the  old 
stock,  the  more  frequently  will  nature  be  success- 
ful in  forming  a  new  variety  or  incipient  species 
by  the  accumulation  and  inheritance  of  fresh  char- 
acteristics: (3)  the  more  advantageous  to  the 
variety  the  change  in  each  single  organ,  the  bet- 
ter it  will  be  able  to  adapt  itself  to  surrounding 
circumstances:  and  the  longer  the  selection  of  an 
incipient  variety  of  colonists  remains  undis- 
turbed by  the  old  stock,  the  more  frequently  will 
a  new  species  arise  out  of  the  variety.  These 
laws  arc  fully  illustrated  by  Wagner  in  his 
works,  and  by  later  observers.  Wagner  claimed 
that  evolution  by  natural  selection  is  impossible, 
unless  it  be  assisted  by  geographical  isolation,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  swamping  elfects  of  inter- 
crossing. The  numerous  facts  obse^^■ed  by  \^  ag- 
ncr  and  others  show  that  some  of  the  barriers 
isolating  incipient  species  are  broad  rapid  rivers, 
oceans,  and  mountains.  He  speaks  of  the  ex- 
traordinary phenomena  of  so  many  species  of 
plants  and  animals  peculiar  to  the  volcanoes  and 
isolated  mountains  of  Quito.  "Without  the  dis- 
tribution of  organisms  by  migration  in  connection 
with  local  selection  it  would  be  inexplicable. 
The  gigantic  isolated  mountains  of  this  highland 
act  a  similar  part  in  the  forinatiim  of  varieties 
and  species  as  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  for 
instance,  of  the  Galapagos."  Wagner  also  claimed 
that  adaptation  to  changed  conditions  of  life  and 
transformation  appear  to  be  tantamount  to  a 
renovation.  Species,  he  said,  which  did  not  mi- 
grate, and  consequently  did  not  alter  in  form, 
liecame  extinct.  Consult  Wagner.  The  Dnririn- 
■ian  Theory  nml  the  Liiir  of  the  .Uirjrntion  of  Oryan- 
■i-ims  (Jlimich.  1808:  trans,  bv  Laird,  London, 
187.'?). 

MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS.  The  word  mi- 
gration is  used  in  two  senses:  either  to  refer  to 
those  periodical  changes  of  location  such  as  are 
made  by  many  species  of  birds  and  fishes,  by  some 
mammals,  and  by  a  few  insects:  or  to  those 
irregular  di-*persions  caused  by  overcrowding  and 
lack  of  fond  or  water. 

MA>t.\tAi,s.  Among  mammals  migrations  in 
the  first  «cnse  are  mainly  confined  lo  certain 
Cetacea.  which  regularly  move  from  and  to  the 
polar  seas,  with  the  alternating  seasons.    Regular 


seasonal  moveiiieuts,  truly  migratiiry  but  short, 
are  practiced  by  many  land  animals,  especially 
the  herbivores.  All  deer,  goats,  sheej).  antelopes, 
and  the  like,  which  dwell  in  mountainous  regions, 
regularly  ascend  the  heights  in  early  summer  to 
get  the  new  grass,  find  safer  solitudes,  escape 
the  lowland  flies,  and  otherwise  better  themselves. 
In  the  fall  they  come  down  as  the  snow  and  cold 
increase  upon  the  heights,  and  seek  the  valleys 
or  the  neighboring  plains.  The  American  bison 
formerly  was  wont  to  retreat  from  the  moim- 
tains  to  the  plains  during  severe  winters,  while 
those  on  the  northerly  plains  tended  to  move 
south.  Before  the  time  of  railroads  the  great 
body  of  the  pronghorns  of  the  plains  used  to 
migrate  from  the  northern  area  of  their  range  to 
the  milder  regions  south  of  the  Platte  River, 
and  returned  north  in  the  spring.  Still  more 
striking  is  the  regular  and  prolonged  annual 
migration  of  the  caribou  from  the  Arctic  shores 
of  America  to  the  southerly  interior,  especially 
in  the  region  north  and  east  of  Hudson  Hay:  they 
cannot  live  so  far  north  during  the  winter,  but 
go  back  as  soon  as  the  snow  melts  in  spring.  In 
all  these  cases  there  is  an  accompanying  migra- 
tion of  certain  large  predaceous  animals,  such  as 
wolves,  which  depend  upon  the  grazers  for  food. 
Similar  facts  may  be  cited  from  the  plain  re- 
gions of  Asia,  Australia,  Patagonia,  the  Sahara, 
and  South  Africa,  where  seasonal  changes,  either 
of  cold  or  drought  or  the  parching  of  pasturage, 
compel  annual  migrations  to  and  from  other 
regions  not  far  distant.  It  will  be  seen  that 
these  movements  are  under  compulsion  of  the 
lack  of  food  (or  frequently  in  desert  regions  of 
water),  and  are  eontintied  only  when  and  so  far 
as  is  necessary.  Mammals  are  too  slow  and 
hampered  in  their  movements  on  land  to  make 
long,  rapid  journeys,  such  as  a  bird  or  fish  is 
able  to  accomplish  through  the  unobstructed 
air  or  water ;  and  most  mammals  either  can 
find  fond  all  the  year  round,  or  have  acquired 
the  [xiwer,  by  storage  of  provisions  or  by  sinking 
into  dormancy,  of  tiding  over  the  seasons  of 
scarcity. 

Overflows  of  Mammalian  Life.  Mammals, 
including  man,  take  jiart  in  certain  much  more 
rare  but  more  universal  and  permanent  removals. 
The  most  conspicuous  instance  is  afTorded  by  the 
lemmings  of  Central  Xorw;iy  and  Sweden,  which 
at  uncertain  intervals  come  down  in  vast  hordes 
into  the  lowlands,  as  is  fiillv  described  under 
Le.mminc.  They  travel  by  ni.ixht.  feed  and  mul- 
tiplv  excessively,  and  in  from  one  to  three  years 
the  few  which  escape  the  hordes  of  enemies 
following  them  reach  the  .\tlantic  or  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia.  It  is  believed  that  these  sudden 
incursions  are  the  dispersal  of  an  overpopula- 
tion in  the  ordinary  habitat  of  the  species,  due 
to  a  combination  of  favoring  circumstances  caus- 
ing an  increase  of  a  nalurally  fcctind  race  until 
the  countrv  cannot  longer  su])port  the  nmnbers. 
The  animals  are  started  abroad  by  famine,  and 
continue  the  flight  in  aimless  restlessness  until 
an  equilibrium  is  restored.  The  same  thing  hap- 
pens oceasionallv  with  various  other  small 
rodents.  'Plagues'  of  mice  have  broken  out  fre- 
quentl.v  in  the  grain-growing  regions  of  Southern 
Russia  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  the 
western  part  of  the  I'niled  States,  imlil  bunting 
kept  down  fhc  stock,  there  used  to  be  irregular 
but  prodigious  movements  of  squirrels  (normally 
extremely  numerous  there),  which  would  appear 


MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


475 


MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


in  droves  mi'i-  a  widu  ranjic  of  foinitiy.  all  travel- 
ing; steadily  in  one  direetion,  until  tliey  {jradually 
vanished.  The  writings  of  Auduhon,  tiodman, 
and  other  early  naturalist.s  contain  many  records 
of  these  niovenients,  which  did  not  cease  until 
about  1S40.  'I'lio  theoretic  and  liistoric  incur- 
sions of  human  hosts  from  Asia  into  Europe,  the 
spread  of  the  IJantu  races  which  overran  Africa, 
and  similar  'waves'  or  'migrations'  of  conquering 
men,  fall  into  tlie  same  category,  but  their 
superior  adaptability  has  enabled  them,  or  some 
of  them,  lo  remain  and  possess  tlie  land. 

Insects.  The  insects  afTord  many  cases  of 
mass  movements,  similar  to  those  of  mammals, 
and  also  a  rare  approach  to  true  migrations.  The 
swarms  of  'grasshoppers,'  or  locusts,  which  oc- 
casionally visit  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  are 
among  one  of  the  most  familiar  phenomena  of 
those  regions;  and  they  are  accompanied  by  a 
rapacious  following  of  birds  and  mammals  feed- 
ing upon  the  traveling  hosts  of  insects,  which 
disperse,  dwindle,  and  finally  disappear.  In  the 
United  States  the  most  disastrous  incursions  of 
these  insects  have  been  from  the  Roel^y  Moun- 
tains eastward.  They  are  of  irregular  occur- 
rence and  the  returning  swarm  the  succeeding 
year  is  composed  only  of  the  <lesccndants  of  the 
original  emigrants — a  fact  which  contains  a  hint 
as  to  the  possible  origin  of  tlie  tnie  migratory 
habit  in  others.  Irregular  movements,  without, 
so  far  as  we  know,  any  attempt  to  return  to  the 
original  home,  are  illustrated  by  tlie  armj'-worm, 
chinch-bug  (qq.v. ),  and  cotton-worm  (see  COT- 
Tox-lxsEcTS) .  These  migrations  are  due  to  over- 
crowding and  lack  of  food.  There  are  still  slower 
migrations  among  insects,  which  may  be  termed 
'spreading.'  Thus  the  Colorado  potato  beetle,  a 
native  of  tlie  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau,  spreaa 
eastward,  when  suitable  food  was  offered  it  l)y 
the  cultivation  of  potatoes,  until  it  now  occurs 
all  over  the  potato  region  of  Eastern  North 
America,  and,  like  the  brown  rat,  it  permanently 
occupies  all  the  new  territory  it  enters.  A  few 
insects  ibuttertlies)  are  known  to  migrate  in  the 
sense  that  fish  and  birds  do. 

Reptile.s  and  Fishes.  Such  phenomena  are 
entirely  unknown  among  reptiles,  for  obvious 
reasons,  with  the  possible  exception  of  sea-going 
turtles,  which  may  withdraw  into  dee])er  water 
or  more  southerly  latitudes  in  winter  than  in 
summer,  ilany  fishes  ])erforni  long  and  com- 
plex wanderings,  but  how  they  are  guided  in 
some  cases  across  and  up  and  down  the  ocean 
will  be  a  very  difficult  problem  to  solve.  Salmon 
and  other  anadromes  come  from  the  sea  each 
spring,  and  ascend  hundreds  of  miles  up  rivers 
80  as  to  spawn  in  places  suited  to  the  needs  of 
the  young.  The  fish  .so  bred  return  to  spawn 
in  the  water  of  their  birth,  as  has  been  demon- 
strated by  marking  smelt  that  have  been  trans- 
planted and  hatched  in  rivers  previously  un- 
occupied by  them ;  the  marked  smelt  returned 
from  the  sea  to  spawn  in  the  river  of  their 
adoption.  Experiments  upon  herring  along  the 
Massachusetts  coast  confirm  this  conclusion.  Sea 
fishes  generally  retire  to  comparatively  deep 
water,  and  probably  many  species  go  southward 
in  winter,  while  in  summer  they  spread  north- 
ward and  approach  the  shores,  river-mouths,  or 
other  spawning  jilaces.  These  migrations  are  in- 
duced by  reproductive  desires  and  necessities, 
and  the  slight  variation  in  the  time  of  the  com- 
ing of  each  species,  which  fishermen  expect  with 
Vol.  X(II._31. 


fair  regularity,  seems  due  to  variations  in  the 
temperature  of  the  water.  It  is  probable  that 
even  these  ocean  wanderers  return  to  the  same 
part  of  the  coast  where  they  were  bred,  and  that 
in  some  cases,  as  of  the  Atlantic  salmon,  exag- 
gerated notions  have  prevailed  as  to  the  distance 
to  which  they  go  in  winter.     Sec  Salmo.v. 

The  Migk.\tion  of  Birds.  More  conspicuous 
and  interesting,  and  quite  as  difiieult  to  explain, 
are  the  migrations  of  the  birds,  which  have  been 
the  theme  of  poetry,  homily,  and  fable,  as  well 
as  a  baffling  subject  of  inquiry,  ever  since  men 
began  to  notice  the  ways  of  animals. 

Most  persons  have  a  vague  idea  that  the 
habit  of  yearly  migration  among  birds  is  uni- 
form and  universal ;  but  this  is  not  so.  Most 
birds  do  not  migrate  at  all,  and  among  those 
that  do  great  diversity  exists,  so  great  that  the 
custom  seems  almost  an  individual  rather  than 
a  racial  one.  The  whole  body  of  ratite  birds — 
ostriches,  rheas,  cassowaries,  and  the  like — are 
non-migratory.  The  fish-eating  sea-fowl  make  no 
more  of  an  anniial  migration  than  is  necessary 
to  escape  from  the  ice  and  darkness  of  their 
most  polar  haunts  to  where  there  may  be  open 
sea.  These  are  wanderers  rather  than  migrants. 
Gulls  and  terns,  geese,  ducks,  and  the  wading 
marsh  and  beach  birds  are  in  the  main  migra- 
tory, and  include  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
examples.  Of  the  game-birds  fewer  are  real 
migrants,  but  here  again  a  few  notable  exceptions 
exist,  of  which  one  of  the  most  familiar  is  that 
of  the  common  Eui'opean  quail,  which  has 
been  taken  so  numerous!}-  for  centuries  on 
both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  whose 
migratory  flocks  still  feed  travelers  wandering 
in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai.  The  pigeon  tribe  is 
sedentary  as  a  rule,  also,  yet  one  of  its  species — 
tlie  passenger  pigeon  of  North  America — has  be- 
come the  very  tyjje  and  exem|)lar  of  a  migratory 
bird.  Many,  but  not  all,  birds  of  prey  regularly 
migrate,  but  it  is  a  question  whether  thej'  do 
not,  in  most  cases,  accompany  the  movements 
of  the  smaller  birds  rather  than  travel  of  their 
own  impulse.  Parrots  are  almost  wholly  non- 
migratory.  It  is  not,  then,  until  we  have  passed 
twenty-one  of  the  twenty-three  classified  orders 
of  birds  (with  the  exceptions  above  noted)  that 
we  come  to  those  groups — the  picarian  and  pas- 
serine birds — in  which  the  custom  of  seasonal 
migration  is  a  prominent  characteristic.  These 
are.  to  be  sure,,  the  most  numerous  as  well  as 
the  most  highly  organized  orders;  yet  a  large 
number  even  here  do  not  migrate  at  all  from  tem- 
perate regions,  but  form  a  'resident'  or  'partially 
migrant'  population  in  all  moderate  latitudes, 
where  they  remain  all  the  year  round.  On  the 
whole,  the  large  majority  of  the  total  list  of  the 
birds  of  the  world  are  non-migratory  to  any  con- 
siderable degree. 

^^'hen  we  examine  the  minority  which  does  an- 
nually alternate  between  southerly  winter  and 
northerly  sunnner  residences,  many  curious  facts 
are  discernible.  First,  it  is  noticeable  that  all 
migratory  birds  belong  to  the  colder  latitudes  of 
the  globe:  and.  on  the  other  hand,  that  those 
groups  which  are  wholly  non-migratory  represent 
the  primitive  types — birds  whose  ancestry  goes 
back  to  times  when  a  comparatively  warm  cli- 
mate prevailed  over  the  now  unbearably  cold  and 
sterile  polar  regions.  In  general,  two-thirds  of 
the  birds  of  the   middle   temperate   zones,   both 


MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


476 


MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


north  and  >uiitlij  arc  iiiigraiits,  ainl  tlic  total  is  a 
very  small  part  of  the  entire  avifauna  of  the 
^vo^ld.  Taking  up  the  character  i)f  the  nii<;ratory 
birds  as  a  class,  it  appears,  first,  that  they  are 
such  as  cither  subsist  wholly  or  mainly  on  soft- 
bodied  insects,  larvie,  worms,  and  the  like,  or  give 
their  young  such  fare;  second,  such  as  gain  their 
living  from  fresh  or  brackish  waters  or  nuid, 
which  is  likel}'  to  freeze:  and  third,  such  as  fol- 
low small  birds  in  order  to  prey  upon  them.  It  is 
also  significantly  true  that  they  represent  fami- 
lies whose  mass  and  alliliations  are  found  in  the 
tropics,  in  many  oases  only  one  or  two  species 
being  known  elsewhere.  Europe's  single  cuckoo, 
our  single  (Eastern)  humming-bird,  our  few 
tanagers,  orioles,  and  the  like,  are  familiar  and 
striking  examples  of  this  fact.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  non-migratory  or  'resident'  birds  of  the 
temperate  zones  belong  to  families  mainly  dis- 
tributed outside  the  tropics,  and  sejjarable,  broad- 
ly speaking,  on  other  grounds.  This  state  of 
things  points  to  the  explanation  that  the  extra- 
tropical  parts  of  the  world,  depopulated  of  birds 
by  the  cold,  ice,  and  excessive  rains  of  the 
Pleistocene  or  "(ilacial'  period,  were  restocked 
from  the  crowded  intertropical  preserves  as  fast 
as  the  amelioration  of  the  climate  permitted 
plants  and  animals  to  occupy  the  temperate  and 
subarctic  regions;  and  that  the  reactive  effect 
of  the  new  country  steadily  checked  colonization 
by  selecting  only  those  species  adapted  or  adap- 
tive to  the  new  conditions.  In  this  light,  the 
seasonal  migration  of  birds  must  be  viewed  as  an 
annual  excursion,  constantly  repeated  by  certain 
species  that  have  the  habit  land  not  by  others), 
outward  from  equatorial  regions  to  a  greater  or 
less  distance  poleward. 

Beginning  of  the  Seasonal  Movement.  As 
the  close  of  the  rainy  season  ajjproaches  in  the 
tropics  migratory  strangers  gradually  separate 
themselves  from  the  resident  birds,  now  beginning 
domestic  cares,  and  disappear.  What  starts  them 
off,  just  as  the  rains  are  bringing  an  increase  of 
both  plant  and  insect  food,  we  do  not  know. 
Their  ovaries  show  little  pre|)aratory  enlarge- 
ment, and  few  or  none  are  mated.  .\s  they  slowly 
proceed,  keeping  pace  with  the  lifting  sun  and 
the  opening  spring,  they  will  gradually  concen- 
trate upon  certain  highways,  or  'migration 
routes.'  The  old  males  take  the  lead,  probably 
merely  through  s\iperior  strength  of  wing:  and 
it  is  not  until  the  hulk  of  these  have  passed  by 
that  the  females  ;ippear,  followed,  after  an 
interval,  by  yearling  birds. 

Tlie  weather  encountered,  always  uncertain, 
influences  this  progress  decidedly,  warm  souther- 
ly winds  encouraging  the  birds  to  go  forward, 
while  cold  spells  or  northerly  storms  check  them, 
sometimes  for  a  fortnight  or  more,  and  occasion- 
ally destroy  large  numbers.  When  sunshine  and 
southerly  breezes  again  prevail  the  acoiimulated 
host  goes  forward  in  what  observers  call  a  "wave' 
of  migration.  Such  checks  are  hical :  and  larger 
influences  have  an  effect,  so  that  the  movement 
is  nnifonnly  earlier  in  some  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent than  in  others. 

Mic.RATiON  RofTES.  Tt  is  also  true  that  the 
movement  is  not  uniformly  distribtited.  On  the 
eontrarv',  there  are  certain  definite  routes  or 
paths  which  birds  follow  in  especially  great 
numbers.  The  greater  of  these  routes  or  'fly 
lines'  are  generally  recognized   and   seem   to  be 


determined  partly  by  topograpliy.  but  to  a  greater 
degree  bv  considerations  of  security  and  sub- 
sistence. The  most  thickly  fre(iuented  routes  are 
along  ocean  coasts,  river-valleys,  or  mountain 
ranges.  European  specialists,  like  Palmen  and 
Middendorf,  have  outlined  several  such  'fly  lines' 
witli  great  particuhirity.  and  when  sketched  upon 
a  map  they  are  seen  to  coincide  in  a  general  way 
with  the  valley  system  of  that  continent.  .Simi- 
lar highways  are  traceable  in  North  America. 
One  runs  along  the  Pacific  coast,  ami  another 
u|)  the  valley  of  the  Rio  (irande  and  along  the 
connected  valleys  and  parks  between  the  parallel 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  East  of  the 
plains  a  horde  of  spring  birds  enters  the  United 
States  along  the  ea.stern  lowlands  of  Mexico,  and 
by  way  of  the  West  Indies,  and  soon  divides  into 
definite  streams  of  travel.  Parted  first  by  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  AUeghanies  into  two 
main  currents,  one  goes  to  the  right  up  the 
Atlantic  coast  and  through  the  Hudson  Valley 
and  Xew  England,  while  a  second,  to  the  left, 
ascends  the  Jlississippi,  Missouri,  and  Ohio,  di- 
verging more  and  more  up  tributarv  valleys, 
until  all  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the 
continent  are  supplied.  A  little  reflection  will 
show  how  likely,  from  the  nature  of  the  case, 
are  these  routes.  They  are  natural  bird-roads, 
without  obstacles,  and  they  afford  easy  guidance, 
plentiful  vegetation,  and  eonsc<iuent  protection 
against  enemies  and  storms,  and  the  abiuidance 
of  insect  food  belonging  to  watercourses. 

XocTiKNAL  Axn  HiGii-Fi.viN(i  Mkikant.s.  a 
large  part  of  the  migration  of  nianv  birds  is  made 
at  night,  especially  the  natural  night-fiiers.  like 
owls  and  goat-s\ickers,  and  the  great  body  of  small, 
timid  birds,  that  in  their  daily  life  .seek  conceal- 
ment and  obtain  their  food  in  shadv.  secluded 
places.  It  is  onlv  the  day-goers  that  we  or- 
dinarily see  migrating,  and  these  more  eoni- 
monlv  in  spring  th:in  fall;  hut  every  observer  has 
note(l  how  after  a  favorable  night  the  woods 
will  be  full  of  birds  at  dawn  where  none  were  to 
be  seen  the  evening  before.  English  and  American 
ornithologists,  led  by  Baird,  about  1S7.5.  have  col- 
lected at  light-houses  and  other  watching  places 
systematic  data  in  respect  to  night  migration. 

Ol'idance.  What  guides  these  travelers  on 
their  annual  journevs  across  continents  and  over 
seas?  This  has  been  an  eager  question  ever 
since  men  began  to  watch  the  ways  of  the  birds. 
If  anything  approaching  a  rule  has  lieen  dis- 
closed, it  is  tliat  diversity  prevails  ratlier  than 
imiformity.  Binis  closely  allied  in  structure, 
diet,  nesting  habits,  and  so  forth,  vary  im- 
mensely in  the  extent  and  manner  of  their  migra- 
tions. W'hile  some  travel  twice  a  .year  from  the 
equator  to  near  the  poles,  others  of  the  same 
family,  or  geiuis  even,  never  leave  warm  lati- 
tudes at  all.  The  increasing  perception  of  this 
individualit.v  in  aninuils  inclines  one  more  and 
more  to  believe  that  migratory  birds  are  guided 
by  the  teaching  of  their  elders,  and  by  their  own 
observation  and  memorv.  rather  th;in  by  any  ex- 
traordinary' faculties  or  process.  Brewster  de- 
clares that  the  manner  of  migration  of  our  birds 
is  determined  by  one.  two,  or  three  of  the  follow- 
ing considerations,  viz.:  (I)  Habitual  manner 
of  procuring  food:  (2)  disposition;  (.1)  wing- 
power.  Much  evidence  exists  in  favor  of  this 
simple  and  practical  explanation,  hut  unfortu- 
nately contrary  and  unexplained  facts  still  con- 


MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


477 


MIGUEL. 


Iiunt  us.  European  ornithologists  assert  that 
there  the  yoimg  uf  many  species  precede  the 
adults  on  their  journey  southward  in  the  autunni. 
Cooke  and  Widman,  in  tlieir  ehiborale  Uiporl  on 
Bird  Miyralion  in  the  Mississiptii  \ullcy,  say 
the  same  for  the  interior  of  North  America.  On 
the  other  liand,  William  Brewster,  who  has  ob- 
served this  matter  with  the  highest  zeal  and 
intelligence,  maintains  the  opposite  view  as  the 
result  of  long  experience  in  Xew  England  and 
Eastern  Canada,  and  declares  that  the  young 
never  precede  older  birds  in  the  fall,  explaining 
that  the  first  southward  flights  of  adult  birds 
have  been  overlooked  because  they  were  unex- 
pectedlv  early.  He  has  elucidated  this  with 
much  detail  in  the  Memoirs  (No.  1)  of  the  Nut- 
tall  Ornithological  Club. 

That  this  is  the  true  history  of  migration  in 
respect  to  many  and  various  kinds  of  birds  can- 
not be  gainsaid:  that  it  is  an  allsullicient  ex- 
planation is  not  universally  admitted.  The 
powers  of  recognition  and  recollection  involved 
are  doubted  by  some ;  yet  all  animals  are  strong 
in  this  direction — perhaps  no  mental  faculties 
are  so  distinctly  manifested  by  brutes  as  ob- 
servation and  memory.  Examples  might  be 
drawn  from  eveiy  class,  but  homing  pigeons  are 
most  closely  to  the  point.  There  can  be  no  reason 
to  suppose  other  birds  are  less  able  in  this  re- 
spect until  we  have  taken  pains  to  exploit  their 
abilities.  No  mj'sterious  'homing  faculty'  need  be 
summoned.  The  great  height  at  which  pigeons 
usually  fly  enables  them  to  survey  a  wide  extent 
of  coimtry.  and  find  some  points  with  which  they 
have  been  previously  familiarized ;  from  this  a 
second  is  visible  and  so  on,  leading  the  pigeon 
straight  home  as  the  pioneer  follows  a  blazed 
trail  through  a  forest.  Wild  birds  may  be  sup- 
posed to  do  the  same,  and  their  wish  to  get  a 
very  wide  view  of  the  landscape  explains  the 
height  to  which  they  rise  in  these  journeys  and 
their  descent  and  confusion  in  murky  weather. 
From  a  height  of  10.000  feet  both  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  for  example,  would  probably  be 
visible  to  a  bird's  eye,  at  any-  rate  in  the  nar- 
rower places  where  they  mostly  cross.  It  must 
be  confessed,  however,  that  this  explanation  does 
not  cover  the  ca,se  of  those  birds  which  migrate 
aero.ss  ocean  spaces  of  one  or  two  thousand  miles. 
Here  it  seems  necessary  to  believe  that  they  are 
guided  by  an  intuitive  sense  of  direction — a 
frelinft  for  the  points  of  the  compass,  so  to  speak. 
Something  so  closely  akin  to  this  instinctive 
power  of  orientation  is  observable  among  other 
animals,  including  the  human  savage,  that  it 
may  be  very  well  conceded  to  the  birds. 

Bibliography.  For  references  to  early  essays, 
and  to  many  essavs  and  books  in  European  lan- 
guages, consult  Newton,  article  "Migration,"  in 
Dictionary  of  Birds  (London  and  New  York, 
(18!)3-96),  and  Giebel,  Thesaurus  Ornilhologiw 
(Leipzig,  1872-77);  Baiid.  "Distribution  and 
Migrations  of  North  American  Birds"  (three 
articles),  in  American  Journal  of  Science  and 
Arts.  ser.  2.  vol.  xli.  (New  Haven,  1800)  ;  Allen. 
"Birds  and  Weather."  in  Scribner's  Magazine, 
vol.  xxii.  (New  York,  October.  1881)  ;  Brewster. 
"Bird  Migration."  in  Memoirs  (No.  I)  of  the 
yuttall  Ornithological  Club  (Cambridge,  1886)  : 
Cooke,  Report  on  Bird  Migratioti  in  the  Missis- 
sipin  Valley  (United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  1888)  ;  Palmen,  translation 


by  .Shoemaker  of  a  report  to  the  International 
Ornithological  Congress  at  Budai)est,  1891,  in 
Ke/iort  of  the  timithsonian  Institution  for  JS92 
(Washington,  ISiKi)  :  (iatke.  Die  Vogelivarte 
Helgoland  (Brunswick,  1801),  translated  by 
Rosenstock  as  Heligoland  us  an  Ornithological 
Observatory  (Edinburgh,  189.5);  Whitlock,  The 
Migration  of  Birds:  A  Consideration  of  Herr 
Giitke's  Views  (London,  1897).  This  combats 
many  of  Giitke's  statements  and  theories.  Dixon, 
The  Migration  of  Birds:  An  Attemj)t  to  Reduce 
Arian  Season  Flight  to  Law  (amended  edition, 
London,  1897),  an  ambitious  book  of  theory,  not 
well  sustained;  Beddard,  Book  of  Whales;  Scud- 
der.  The  Butterflies  of  New  England  (Boston, 
1886). 

MIGRATION  OF  PLANTS.  The  natural 
movement  of  plants  from  one  area  to  another. 
This  term  is  thus  somewhat  in  contrast  to  natu- 
ralization (q.v.).  Migration  of  species  is  possi- 
ble by  reason  of  variations  in  the  structural 
adaptations  which  are  found  in  most  plants. 
Among  these  perhaps  the  most  important  are 
the  structures  which  are  concerned  in  the  dis- 
persal of  seeds  and  spores,  which  may  be  scat- 
tered by  means  of  birds,  wind,  or  water  to  very 
great  distances.  Besides  this  type  of  dispersal, 
certain  plants  may  be  scattered  in  a  vegetative 
wav  for  great  distances  and  become  established 
far  from  the  original  home.  Thus  the  common 
water  weed  Elodea  is  believed  to  have  spread 
all  over  Europe  vegetatively  from  a  single  plant 
introduced  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  It  seems  likely  that  after  a  time  a 
certain  equilibrium  between  the  various  species 
of  the  world  will  have  been  reached,  and  that 
each  particular  species  will  be  found  in  the  con- 
ditions best  suited  to  it.  When  this  time  comes, 
further  migration  would  seem  to  be  without  re- 
sult, whether  the  scattering  of  seeds  takes  place 
or  not.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
various  factors  enter  in  to  disturb  any  equilib- 
rium which  may  be  formed.  In  the  first  place, 
there  are  changes  in  the  organic  world  itself; 
that  is,  new  species  of  both  plants  and  animals 
are  developed  from  time  to  time  through  evolu- 
tion and  new  disturbances  in  the  so-called  equilib- 
rium must  arise.  In  the  second  place,  the  ex- 
ternal world  sutlers  tremendous  changes.  It  is 
probably  this  last  cause  which  has  been  most 
responsible  for  the  migration  of  plants.  Through 
the  geological  ages  continents  have  arisen  and 
passed  away,  and  all  these  changes  must  have 
been  accompanied  b.y  changes  in  the  mutual  rela- 
tions of  the  species  then  living.  C^langes  in 
climate  have  taken  place  many  times  in  the 
world's  histon*.  and  all  of  these  changes  must 
have  been  attended  with  great  plant,  niigrations. 
To  illustrate:  the  oncoming  of  the  ice  epoch 
caused  a  southern  movement  of  the  climatic  zones, 
and  the  species  which  had  become  adapted  to  a 
particular  climate  moved  south  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  pari  passu  with  the  climatic  move- 
ment. Post-glacial  times  have  witnessed  north- 
ern migrations  which  are  necessarily  much  slower 
than  the  northern  migrations  of  the  southern 
zones.  Plants  must  not  be  regarded  as  less  active 
migrants  than  animals,  though  they  make  no 
seasonal   migrations. 

MIGUEL,  mg-gal'.  Dnm  Maria  Evaristo 
(1802-66).  An  aspirant  for  the  Portuguese 
throne,  the  third  son  of  John  VI.  of  Portugal. 


MIGUEL. 


478 


MIKLOSICH. 


He  was  brought  up  in  lirazil,  and  went  to  Por- 
tugal in  1821  with  very  little  education,  a 
debauchee,  and  a  superstitious  bigot.  He  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  reactionary  party, 
and  plotted  the  overthrow  of  liis  father  and  of 
constitutional  government.  In  1824  he  caused 
lii.s  father  to  be  closely  guarded,  arrested  the 
ministers,  and  sought  to  overthrow  the  Govern- 
ment, but  failed,  and  was  sent  into  lianishment. 
In  1S2U  his  brother  Doni  Pedro,  Emperor  of 
Brazil,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  relimiuished 
the  crown  of  Portugal  to  his  j-oung  daughter, 
Dona  JIaria  da  Gloria,  and  betrothed  her  to 
her  uncle  iliguel,  who  was  made  regent.  Dom 
Miguel  in  1828  usurped  the  throne,  abolished  the 
Constitution,  and  introduced  a  reign  of  terror. 
Dom  Pedro,  who  liad  been  forced  to  abdicate  the 
throne  of  Brazil  in  1831.  placed  himself  in  18.J2 
at  the  head  of  an  expeditionary  force,  which 
had  been  collected  by  the  op|)onents  of  Dom 
Jliguel.  and  inocccded  to  dethrone  the  usurper. 
He  entered  Oporto  in  July,  and  a  year  later, 
after  the  defeat  of  Dom  Miguel's  fleet,  was  in 
possession  of  Lisbon.  England  and  France  inter- 
vened, and  Dom  Migiiel  wa.s  forced  to  give  up 
all  claims  to  the  crown  (1834).  He  died 
at  Brombach,  in  Baden.  To  the  common  esti- 
mate of  Dom  Miguel's  character  excejilion  is 
taken  by  Cardinal  llergenriitlier.  in  the  Ihind- 
htich  der  allfieiin'iiK'n  Kirchcnycschichte  (ISSli), 
vol.  iii..  p.  847  fT.,  where  he  is  spoken  of  as  a 
jiolile  prince  who  jjossessed  the  affection  of  his 
subjects. 

MIHRAB,  mi-r-lb'.     See  Kiblah. 

MIKADO,  m^-ka'dft  (Jap..  Exalted  Gate). 
Formerly  the  popular  and  oflicial  title  of  the 
Emperor  of  Japan,  occurring  in  poetry  and  his- 
tory throughout  the  whole  range  of  .Japanese  lit- 
erature. "Ihougli  comparatively  obsolete  in  the 
Japan  of  the  twentieth  century,  the  word  has 
found  a  fixed  and  honored  jdace  in  the  English 
language  and  literature.  The  dynasty  of  the 
mikados  is  probably  the  oldest  in  the  world,  the 
present  ruler,  Mutsnhito  (q.v.),  being  reckoned 
by  some  authors  the  12.'!d  of  the  Imperial  line,  the 
lirst  being  .linmui-Tenno,  who  in  the  ollicial 
chronology-  liegan  to  reign  n.c.  (ibO.  Descent  is 
claimed  from  the  gods  that  created  heaven  and 
earth.  The  origin  of  the  line  is  lost  in  mythol- 
ogj-,  and  there  is  little  or  no  historical  founda- 
tion for  it  before  the  fourth  century.  The  first 
seventeen  mikados,  n.c.  (iOO  to  a.d.  399,  are  said 
to  have  died  at  ages  ranging  from  100  to  141 
years.  The  average  reign  in  the  whole  line  is 
twenty  years.  Each  mikado  has  a  personal 
name,  but  no  family  name,  nor  is  the  name  of  a 
mikado  ever  repeated.  Each  has  also  a  posthu- 
mous title,  by  which  lie  is  known  in  history. 
Seven  of  the  mikados  were  women.  The  mikado'.s 
person  is  sacred  and  inviolable,  and  he  is  the 
fountain  of  nil  authority  and  the  centre  of  all 
government  and  history. 

MIKA'NIA  (Xeo-T.at..  named  in  honor  of 
.1.  C.  .\likan.  a  Hohemian  botanist  of  the  nine- 
teenth century).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Coinpositir,  nearly  allied  to  Eupa- 
torium  (q.v.).  'I'he  heads  arc  four-flowered,  and 
Imve  four  involucral  scales.  Mikfinin  o/)i<iiiiili.i 
is  a  Brazilian  species,  with  erect  stem,  and  heart- 
shaped  leaves.  at)Ouniling  in  a  bitter  principle 
and  an  aromatic  oil,  reputed  useful  in  medicine. 
Mikania  amara  and  Mikania  cordifotia  (twining 


herbs),  also  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of 
South  America,  are  among  the  plants  which 
have  acquired  a  high  reputation — deserved 
or  undeserved — for  the  cure  of  snake  bites.  The 
former  is  remarkable  for  the  large  indigo-blue 
spots  on  the  imder  side  of  its  ovate  leaves. 
ilikania  scandeiDs,  sometimes  called  climbing 
hempweed,  is  a  native  of  the  United  States,  grow- 
ing in  moist  soils  from  Xew  England  to  Texas. 

MIKHAILOFF  -  SHELLER,      nie'Ka  yil'df- 

sllel'ler.  ALEXAXDEH.  ^^■l■  SllEI.LEU,  Alexaxueb 
MiKiiAu.oM  rcii. 

MIKHAILO VSKI,  me'Ka-yll^f'skS,  Xikolai- 
oviTCii  (1820-05).  A  Kussian  journalist  and 
novelist,  born  in  the  Ural  iloiuitains.  He  was 
educated  in  Saint  Petersburg,  and  began  his  lit- 
erary work  with  translations,  ehielly  from  Heine. 
These  were  collected  in  one  volume  (18.58),  and 
his  articles  for  the  Sovrciinnenik  {Vontem- 
purarii)  and  other  journals,  as  well  as  his 
stories,  notably  Adam  Adanwvitch  (1851),  were 
published  in  two  volumes  in  18.59.  He  shared  the 
dreams  of  the  revolutionists  of  his  own  country, 
and  in  18(15  was  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died. 

MIKHAILOVSKI,  me'Ka-yll-of'skf ,  Nikolai 
KoxsiA.NTiNoMTi  II  (1842—).  A  Kussian  critic. 
He  Iranshited  Byron  into  Russian,  but  it  was  his 
critical  work  on  the  famous  Annuls  of  the  I'uther- 
land,  with  which  he  was  eonnecte<l  from  1808  to 
its  suppression  in  1884.  that  made  him  famous. 
For  it  he  wrote  literary  notes  regularly,  begin- 
ning in  1872,  and  many  scientific  papers,  on  Dar- 
winism, socialism,  positivism,  and  the  systems  of 
Spencer  and  Mill.  Best  known  is  the  monograph 
ou  The  True  Xatttrc  of  Progress  (translated  into 
French  by  Louis,  Qu'est-ce  que  le  progresf  1879). 
His  style  is  brilliant. 

MlkHAiLOVSKII-DANiLEVSKil,  me'Ka- 
yil-ol'-kc''  ila'nf-lyel'>ki-.  Alexandeu  Ivanovitch 
(1790-1848).  A  Kussian  soldier  and  historian. 
He  took  part  in  the  war  with  France  (1812-13) 
as  KutusolT's  aide-de-cami).  and  was  head  Chan- 
cellor of  Wolkonski  in  1813-14.  In  the  war  with 
Turkey  (1829)  he  serveil  as  major-general,  was 
promoted  to  be  lieutenant-general  in  1835.  and 
was  a  member  of  the  war  council  and  Senator  in 
1839.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Turkish  War  of 
lSOO-12  (1843),  besides  accounts  of  his  experi- 
ences in  the  campaigns  of  1812-13  ( 1834),  and  of 
1814-15  (1849-501.  His  collected  works  were 
published  (1849-50)  in  seven  volumes.  They 
are  marked  by  a  freedom  of  style  and  a  patriotic 
sentiment  that  sonu'times  verged  into  inaccu- 
racies. 

MIKLOSICH,  mlk'l.'.-sluch,  Franz  vox  (1813- 
91).  A  Slavic  philolotrist.  He  was  born  in  Lut- 
tenberg.  Styria.  studied  law  at  (Jratz.  and  settled 
to  practice  in  \'ienna  in  1838.  He  became  inter- 
ested in  Slavic  philology',  and  first  attracted  at- 
tention by  his  review  of  Bopp's  Comparative 
(irammar  in  1844.  Henceforth  he  devoted  him- 
self to  philologv',  and  until  his  death  his  produc- 
tivity was  enormous.  In  1844  he  obtained  a  posi- 
tion in  the  Imperial  Library,  and  in  1850  was 
ma<le  (irofessor  of  Slavic  phihdogA-  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna,  retaining  his  |)ost  until  1886. 
His  scientific  career  is  remarkable  for  profundity 
of  resi'areh.  He  is  the  founder  of  modern  Slavic 
philology.  Aside  from  numerous  articles  on  spe- 
i-ial  [xjints  of  phonetics,  syntax,  archnpology,  etc., 
the  most  important  of  his  works  are:    Verglei- 


MIKLOSICH. 


479 


MILAN. 


chende  Grammatik  der  slaicischcn  Sprachcn 
(1874-79);  Lexicon  Palwosloicnico  (Irwco-Lati- 
«i(m(2d  ed.  1805),  the  best  of  its  kind  for  coiii- 
plcteni'ss  and  the  abimdance  of  material;  Elyiiw- 
loyisches  Wortcrbuch  dcr  s-tainschrn  Uprachai 
( 18Sti)  ;  Formeiilchrr  dcr  altsloirriii.schrii  Sjjiud'hc 
{id  ed.  1854)  ;  Altsloicenische  Laatlehre  (3d  ed. 
1878)  ;  and  Altslawenische  Formenlehre  in  Para- 
digmen    ( 1874) . 

MIKLUCHO-MACIiAY,  inekluiJ'Ko-ma-kli', 
Nikolai  (184ii-S8).  A  Russian  traveler  and 
ethnographer,  born  in  the  L'lvraine  of  a  noble 
family.  He  studied  medicine  and  zoology  at 
Saint  Petersburg  and  in  Gcruuiny.  In  1800  he 
went  with  Haeckel  to  Madeira ;  visited  the  Ca- 
nary Islands  in  1867,  and  after  a  trip  to  Jlorocco 
in  1870  undertook  a  great  anthropological  tour  in 
Oceanica.  At  Sydney  he  founded  a  museum  and 
zoological  station,  and  in  1S85  returned  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  where  he  died  before  he  had  classified 
his  collections.  He  wrote  on  liis  travels  in  New 
Guinea  in  Petermann's  Mitteiluitgen  (1874  and 
1S78),  and  on  the  temjierature  of  oceanic  depths 
for  the  Biillrtiii  of  the  Saint  Petersburg  Acad- 
emy (1871),  and  made  many  other  contributions 
to  ticlinical  journals  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Aus- 
tralia. 

MIKNAS,  mik'nas.    A  tow  n  of  Jlorocco.     See 

■Ml  (JlINKZ. 

MIKOVEC,  mf-kd'v6ch,  Feedijtand  Bketislav 
(1820-0:i).  A  Bohemian  dramatist  and  archse- 
Qlogi,st,  born  at  Biirgstein.  aiul  educated  at 
Ceskfl  Lfpa  and  Prague.  He  founded  tlie  literary 
journal  Luiiiir  (  1850).  and  edited  two  volumes  of 
Bohemian  antiquities  umler  the  title  Htaroiit- 
nosti  a  patndthtj  eeme  feske  (1858-64).  Rewrote 
the  tragedies.  Zijhuha  rodu  Pfemimlofski'ho ("The 
Fall  of  the  Premyslids,"  1851)  ;  Dimitri  Ivanorid 
(1850),  and  other  dramatic  works. 

MILAN,  mil'an  or  mi-lan'  (It.  Milano,  Lat. 
Mcdiolniiuin).  The  second  largest  city  in 
Italy,  the  chief  city  in  Lombardy.  and  the 
capital  of  the  Province  of  Milan.  It  is  situated 
in  the  great  plain  of  Lombardy,  300  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  the  little  river  Olona.  an  affluent  of 
the  Po,  93  miles  northeast  of  Turin  and  106 
miles  west  of  Venice;  latitude  45°  28'  N..  longi- 
tude 9°  11'  K.  (Map:  Italy,  D  2).  The  climate 
is  rather  changeable  and  trying.  It  is  ex- 
tremely hot  in  summer  and  quite  cold  in  win- 
ter, the  winds  from  the  frozen  Alps  sweeping 
across  the  Lombardy  plain.  The  thermometer  at 
times  drops  below  zero.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  55.4°  F. ;  rainfall.  30.37  inches. 

Milan  is  a  fairly  symmetrical  polygon  in  shape, 
the  circuit  of  its  customs  district  lieing  now 
nearly  twenty  miles.  Its  focus  is  the  splen- 
did Piazzo  del  Duomo  (Cathedral  Square), 
from  which  broad  avenues  and  electric  rail- 
ways radiate  in  all  directions.  These  radials 
are  connected  by  an  inner  circle  of  mod- 
ernized streets  just  outside  the  canal  that 
marks  the  location  of  the  ancient  moat  and  of 
the  inner  and  most  ancient  city.  An  additional 
connection  is  furnished  by  a  splendid  boulevard. 
and  by  a  belt  electric  railway  seven  miles  long 
beyond  the  sixteenth-century  walls  that  are 
pierced  by  a  dozen  gates,  and  are  now  planted 
with  trees  and  used  as  a  promenade,  commanding 
the  view  of  the  suburbs.  The  most  magnificent 
of  the  radials  is  the  modern  Via  Dante,  leading 
from  the  handsome  Piazza  de'   Mercanti  to  the 


spacious  Fore  Bonajjarte.  and  thence  to  the  New 
I'ark,  which  was  fornu-rly  a  part  of  a  national 
drill-ground.  This  park  is  paved  with  wooden 
blocks  on  a  concrete  foundation,  and  on  each  side, 
next  to  the  front  foundati(in  walls  of  the  houses, 
has  large  sul)ways  containing  water  and  gas 
pipes,  electric  wires,  etc.  It  is  beautified  by  a 
large  pond  and  spacious  promenades,  and  is  faced 
by'  the  C'astello,  and  also  by  the  Anfiteatro  dell' 
Arena,  which  was  constructed  by  Napoleon  I.  for 
races  and  is  capable  of  seating  30.000  persons. 
The  park  is  lighted  by  electricity  at  night. 
Adorning  the  northeastern  section  of  the  city  are 
the  splendid  Giardini  Pubblici.  surpassed  by  few 
gardens  on  the  Continent.  The  Corso  Vittorio 
Emanuele  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  shopping 
streets  in  Italy,  and  the  centre  of  traffic  in  Jlilan. 
The  Galleria  Vittorio  Emanuele,  connecting  the 
Piazza  del  Duomo  with  the  Piazza  della  Scala, 
is  a  splendid  glass-covered  arcade,  with  shops, 
designed  by  one  of  Milan's  distinguished  archi- 
tects, Mengoni.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin 
cross,  with  a  cupola  180  feet  in  height. 

Architecture  is  superbly  represented  in  Milan, 
nearly  all  styles  being  displayed  in  rare  ex- 
amples. Bramante  dwelt  here  many  years,  and 
left  his  genius  impressed  on  more  than  one  fine 
monument.  The  city  is  particularly  famous  for 
fine  churches.  Of  these  the  principal  is  the 
world-renowned  Gothic  cathedral,  one  of  the 
finest  of  ecclesiastical  structures,  ranking  with 
Saint  Peter's  at  Rome  and  the  Cathedral  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  at  Florence.  The  vast 
church  has  an  exterior  of  white  Carrara  marble, 
which  is  adorned  by  98  pinnacles  and  with  more 
than  2000  statues,  besides  a  variety  of  carvings 
of  unsurpassable  beauty.  In  form  it  is  a  Latin 
cross,  with  a  length  of  486  and  a  breadth  of  287 
feet.  The  height  of  the  tower  is  356  feet.  Its 
fouudation  was  laid  in  1380  by  Gian  Cialeazzo 
Visconti,  and  during  its  erection  many  of  the 
greatest  European  architects  contributed  designs 
for  its  embellishment.  Within  it  Napoleon  was 
crowned  King  of  Italy  in  1805.  The  view  of  the 
Alps.  Lombardy.  and  the  city  from  the  top  of  the 
cathedral  is  celebrated.  The  quaint  mediaeval 
Church  of  Sant'  Anibrogio,  erected  on  the  site 
of  a  church  founded  by  Saint  Ambrose  in  the 
fourth  century,  possesses  inscriptions,  sarco- 
phagi, and  monuments  full  of  antiquarian  in- 
terest, and  is  historic  as  the  place  where  the 
German  emperors  were  crowned  kings  of  Italy. 
There  are  also  the  Dominican  Church  of  Santa 
ilaria  delle  Grazie,  which  contains  in  its  refec- 
tory the  now  almost  obliterated  picture  of  the 
"Last  Supper."  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci;  the 
Church  of  San  Carlo  Borromeo  (1847);  and 
San  Xazaro,  which  possesses  a  masterful  fresco 
by  Lanino.  and  also  San  Sebastiano,  once  a  Ro- 
man temple.  The  Church  of  San  Satiro  has  a 
beautiful  sacristy — a  creation  of  Bramante. 
The  mural  paintings  of  Luini  in  the  Church  of 
San  Giorgio  al  Palazzo  are  visited  by  all  art 
lovers.  San  Lorenzo  is  an  important  church, 
and  is  in  addition  the  oldest  one  in  the  city, 
tracing  its  history  back  to  Roman  times. 

•  If  the  secular  buildings  of  Milan,  the  most 
noteworthy  is  the  magnificent  Brera  Palace,  for- 
merly a  .Tesuit  college.  an<l  now  used  for  the  fine 
arts,  with  the  official  name  of  Palace  of  Arts  and 
.'>ciences.  (For  illustration,  see  LoMn.\RnY.  Re- 
x.MssAXCE  ABcniTECTrRE.  1  Within  its  vast  pre- 
cincts this  unique  institution  includes  an  academy 


MILAN. 


480 


HILAN. 


of  art,  a  choice  {,'"11^0'  of  paintings  of  the 
BoTognese  ami  Lombard  scliodls.  a  line  collec- 
tion of  casts  for  nKKlelin^;  purposes.  :i  spk-mlid 
national  library  eotitainin;,'  about  .'i.'iO.OdO  vol- 
umes and  pamphlets,  and  a  rare  eiiUection  of 
manuscripts,  medals,  and  antiiiuities.  It  has  also 
attached  to  it  an  observatory  and  a  bdtanical 
•rarden.  The  masterpieces  of  painting  here  include 
Raphael's  far-famed  ".Sposalizio,'"  Mantegna's 
"Piettl,"  and  Bellini's  "Saint  Mark."  The  Brera 
has  been  greatly  enlarged  latterly,  and  many 
pictures  of  high  rank  have  been  added  to  its  col- 
lection. One  of  the  features  of  the  national  li- 
brary is  a  room  devoted  to  the  editions  and 
autograph  writings  of  llanzoni.  Another  large 
library  is  the  Ambrosian  (q.v. ).  The  liorromeo 
Palace  also  has  a  meritorious  collection  of  paint- 
ings. The  Museo  P(ildi-Pezzoli  nlTers  a  fine  col- 
lection of  paintings,  weapons,  furniture,  porce- 
lain, etc.  The  IMuseo  Civico  is  worthy  of  men- 
tion for  its  superb  ornithological  collection. 
There  is  also  a  permanent  art  exposition,  and 
Jlilan   now   has  good   scientific   collections. 

The  Palazzo  Reale  and  the  areliic[)iscopal 
palace  are  old.  and  have  some  attractive  fea- 
tures. The  fine  and  elaborate  Castello  di 
Porta  Giovia  dates  from  1308.  and  is  the 
castle  of  Milan,  being  associated  with  the  city'.s 
governmental  and  historic  career.  Among  the 
noteworthy  new  and  attractive  secular  buildings 
arc  the  Exchange,  finished  in  1!)01.  tlie  prefecture. 
and  Palace  of  .lust  ice.  Xotal)le  features  in  the 
city  also  are  (he  Court  of  tlie  Marino  Palace,  the 
Corinthian  Colonnade,  the  finest  relic  of  Ttoman 
times  in  .Milan,  and  the  well-known  triumphal 
arch  begun  by  Xapoleon  T.  Other  conspicuous 
public  monuments  are  the  statues  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel II.  and  of  Cavour.  Canova's  notable 
statue  of  Napoleon  I.,  the  huge  equestrian  statue 
of  Garibaldi,  an  equestrian  statue  of  Napoleon 
III.  in  conimcmuraliim  of  .Magenta,  the  monu- 
ment to  Leonardo  liy  .Magni.  the  statues  of  Car- 
dinal Borromeo  and  Parini.  and  the  monument 
to  Manzoni.  The  Cimitero  .Monumcntalc.  with 
its  decorative  tond)s  and  its  elaborate  crematicjn 
tcniple,  is  visited  by  all  tourists.  Milan  is 
famous  for  its  vast  Scala  Theatre,  which  was 
built  in  1178  for  operas  and  ballets.  It  accom- 
modates StiOO  persons.  Milan  is  the  centre  for 
music  in  Italy.  The  famous  Conservatory  of 
Music  is  established  in  the  buildings  of  an  an- 
cient monastery. 

In  recent  years  many  new  schools  have  been 
built,  and  the  number  of  day  and  evening  scholars 
has  increase<l  rapidly.  Milan  has  an  Academy 
of  Science  aiid  Literature,  a  college  for  girls,  and 
medical,  high,  and  normal  schools.  The  fine  poly- 
technic, dating  from  ISfi.5,  a  commercial  academy, 
an  agricultural  school,  a  royal  astronomical  ol)- 
servatory.  an  ,\ccademia  di  Belle  Arti  are  other 
educational  in-titutions.  Thi're  are  also  a  mu- 
nicipal zoiilogical  colU'ction,  and  botanical  gar- 
dens, and  theatres.  The  government  of  the 
city  is  highly  elhcient.  and  enormous  sums 
have  been  expended  on  public  improvements. 
The  fiiiinln  is  composed  of  men  of  wealth  and 
family  connections,  and  also  of  a  nund)er  of 
successful  business  and  professional  men.  The 
new  system  of  sewers  empties  into  the  swift  cov- 
ered-over Seveso.  whence  the  sewage  passes  to  the 
Adriatic  by  way  of  the  Po.  The  city  water  for 
domestic  purposes  comes  principally  from  large 
artesian  wells,  and  for  industrial  purposes  from 


the  canals.  The  <lifferent  philanthropic  organiza- 
tions under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Charities 
liavc  property  valued  at  over  .HoIi.DOO.OOO,  and  a 
yearly  income  of  .'fil.tiOO.OOO.  The  ilaggiore  hos- 
pital is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  accommo- 
dating 4(J00  patients.  It  dates  from  14.50.  It  is 
a  splendid  brick  cilitice.  part  Gothic,  part  Renais- 
sance. There  are  deaf  and  duml)  institutions,  and 
institutions  for  surgical  operations  and  for  ail- 
ments of  the  eyes.  Milan  has  also  public  dor- 
mitories,  soup-kitchens,   etc. 

Milan  is  the  leading  financial  city  of  Italy  and 
possesses  vast  wealth.  It  has  a  ehandwr  of  com- 
merce and  a  stock  exchange.  It  markets  large 
quantities  of  grain,  cheese.  Imtter,  eggs,  and  poul- 
try, and  manufactures  silk,  leatlier.  and  woolen 
goods,  stationary  engines,  locomotives,  railway 
machinery,  carriages,  furniture,  glass  and  earth- 
enware, and  chemical  products.  A  royal  mint 
and  a  royal  tobacco  factory  are  situated  here, 
and  there  is  a  corn  exchange.  It  is  the  centre 
also  of  the  Italian  book  trade,  deserving  to  be 
called  the  Leipzig  of  Italy.  In  modern  sculpture 
likewise  it  holds  a  leading  rank.  Not  only  are  its 
industries  by  far  tlie  most  important  in  Italy,  lint 
its  commerce  is  very  extensive.  The  (irand  Canal 
connects  the  navigable  Olona  with  Lake  Maggiore 
and  the  Tieino.  'I'he  city  is  also  in  canal  commu- 
nication with  the  Po.  and  with  Lake  Como 
through  the  Adda.  It  is  an  important  centre  of 
the  national  railway  system.  When  the  new 
8im]ilon  Tunnel  is  opened  llie  already  immense 
traflic  with  mid-Europe,  through  the  Saint 
Gotthard,  will  be  lieavily  increa.sed.  Milan  is 
connected  by  street  railways  with  the  neighbor- 
ing towns  of  Lombardy.  The  local  system  of 
electric  street  railways  is  excellent.  The  city 
owns  the  lines  of  this  system  and  shares  in  its 
profits ;  the  Edison  Comjiany  operates  the  plant. 
In  the  last  twenty  years  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury Milan  grew  more  rapidly  than  anv  other 
Italian  citv.  Population,  in  KSli).  124.000:  in 
1800,  191,000;  in  1881.  .-i-il.S:!!! ;  in  lilOl.  4111.400. 

Ill.sToRV.  .Milan,  tiu'  ancient  .Mediolamnii.  ap- 
jicars  first  definitely  in  history  in  n.c.  222,  when 
it  was  taken  by  the  consuls  Scipio  and  Marcus 
Marcellus  from  the  (iauls.  It  rose  to  great  prom- 
inence at  the  close  of  the  third  century  A.D..  when 
Diocletian  made  it  the  cai>ital  of  Italy.  There- 
after Milan  was  frequently  a  favorite  Imjierial 
residence.  It  was  from  Milan  that  Constaiitine 
issued  in  ."il.'l  the  famous  edict  by  whieli  Chris- 
tianity was  recognized.  Milan  became  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  and  from  t^7i  to  .S!)"  this  ofiicc  was 
held  by  the  celelirated  .\mbrose  (q.v.).  He  es- 
tablished a  ritual,  which  in  some  points  varied 
considerably  from  the  Roiiuin.  and  for  a  time 
Milan  was  the  religious  metropolis  of  Northern 
Italy,  and  almost  entirely  independent  of  Rome. 
This  first  era  of  prosperity  was  destroyed  by  the 
barbarian  invasions:  in  :").'?i1  the  city  was  laid 
waste  liy  the  (ioths.  and  only  in  the  tenth  century 
did  it  begin  to  r ver. 

During  the  greater  p:irt  of  the  Middle  .Ages 
the  population  of  Milan  was  divided  into  great 
nobles  (rnpitiinri) ,  petty  knights  (  rnlvnu.ioren), 
and  the  general  populace.  Eor  a  long  time  the 
history  of  the  city  turns  upon  condirts  between 
these  various  classes.  In  lO.'iO  the  .Archbishop 
.Aribert  sought  to  make  hims<df  independent  of  all 
ecclesiastical  and  teTii))oral  control,  and  for  this 
purpose  united  with  the  rnpitnnci.  He  was 
however,  opposed  by  the  Emperor  Conrad  II.,  who 


MILAN. 


481 


MILAN  I. 


was  aidod  liy  tlie  i<//i((A.wns.  The  Kinperor 
ill  1037  gave  his  allies  tlie  full  iiiiierilaine  of 
their  feuilal  holdings,  for  whieli  they  had  been 
struggling;  Ariliert  was  overllirown,  but  tlie 
sudden  death  of  Conrad  in  1030  put  an  end  for  a 
time  to  the  eoiitliet.  Henry  III.  (1030-.5<i)  ruled 
the  whole  Empire  ( Italy  iiieluded )  with  a  firm 
hand,  but  during  his  reign  tlie  forees  developed 
which  resulted  in  the  great  eonlliet  of  the  I'ataria 
after  his  death.  According  to  the  Ambrosian 
rules  priests  were  permitted  to  marry,  but  llilde- 
brand  (later  I'ope  Gregory  VII.),  wliose  influ- 
ence at  Kome  began  about  104."),  urged  the  sup- 
pression of  this,  and  also  sought  to  connect  the 
Church  of  Milan  more  closely  with  that  of  Rome. 
He  was  aided  in  this  attempt  by  the  lower  classes 
of  the  populace,  who  were  known  as  patarini.  i.e. 
ragamullins,  and  were  in  reality  infected  with 
the  Xlanichean  heresy.  Opposed  to  this  whole 
movement  was  the  Archbishop  and  his  ])arty. 
supporteil  bv  the  Empire,  which,  under  Henry 
IV.  ilOjO-ilO(i).  was  also  at  war  witli  the 
Papacy.  The  conflict  was  violent,  and  in  1060 
the  Archbishop  (Juido  himself  was  assassinated. 
The  struggle  terminated  with  a  compromise,  by 
which  marriage  of  priests  was  forbidden  for  the 
future,  but  those  who  were  married  might  retain 
their  wives.  The  independent  position  of  the 
archbishops,  however,  was  gone  forever,  and  the 
way  was  clear  for  the  establishment  of  a  repub- 
lican commune,  especially  as  a  very  powerful  ar- 
tisan class  had  gradually  developed. 

The  city  was  ruled  by  consuls  elected  by  tlie 
three  orders,  and  it  rapidly  acquired  a  hegemony 
over  the  other  Lombainl  cities.  When,  however, 
Frederick  Barbarossa  became  Emperor,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  reestablish  the  old  Imperial  power  in 
Italy,  and  in  1153  began  active  warfare  against 
Milan.  Twice  the  city  was  compelled  to  submit, 
in  1158  and  1 1(i2,  and  the  last  time  it  was  razed 
to  the  ground.  The  cities  of  Xorthern  Italy,  wliich 
at  first  had  been  glad  to  witness  the  destruction 
of  a  rival,  now,  however,  saw  their  own  danger, 
and  hastened  to  the  assistance  of  llilan  tiniler  the 
leadership  of  Pope  Alexander  III.  (1159-81 ) .  The 
Lombard  League  was  formed  against  the  Emperor, 
and  in  1176  Frederick  was  defeated  at  Legnano, 
and  in  1183  by  the  Peace  of  Constance  recognized 
the  independence  of  Milan  and  the  other  cities  of 
Lonibardy.  .\ffer  these  foreign  dangers  were 
aviTted,  intestine  strife  again  broke  out  between 
the  three  parties:  between  the  crcdrmii  dri  con- 
soli,  a  council  of  400  members,  named  by  the 
great  nobility;  the  motfn,  a  council  of  100.  named 
by  the  valvafisores ;  and  the  rredenza  di  Sant' 
Amhrofiio,  a  council  of  300,  named  by  the  popu- 
lace. Wearied  by  these  continuous  quarrels,  the 
<'itizens  began  to  call  in  foreigners  to  rule  and 
mediate,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  office  of  the 
podmlu.  The  first  one  was  llierto  Visconti,  who 
was  chosen  in  1186,  and  ruled  for  a  year.  He  had 
several  successors.  In  1220  the  Lombard  League 
was  renewed  to  prevent  the  aggressions  of  Fred- 
erick II.,  who  was  finally  defeated  in  1237  at  the 
battle  of  Cortenuova. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  Milan  gradually 
lost  its  republican  liberties.  In  1250  the 
Giielph  leader  Martino  della  Torre  lieaded  the 
citizens  in  a  struggle  against  the  Ohibelline 
nobles,  and  assumed  the  lordshij)  of  the  city.  But 
in  1277  a  revolution  was  effected  by  the  Cliibel- 
lines  under  the  Archbishop  Ottone  Visconti,  who  in 
turn  became  the  ruler  of  the  citv,  and  in  1205  the 


power  descended  to  his  nephew  Matteo  Visconti. 
From  that  time  the  Visc-onti  (q.v.)  ruled  Milan 
almost  continuously  until  1447.  L  nder  their  su- 
premacy was  not  only  Milan,  but  the  whole  of 
Lonibardy ;  the  arts  were  fostered  and  prosj)erity 
was  genenil.  In  1305  the  Emi)eror  Weneeslas 
granted  Cian  Galeazzo  Visconti  the  title  of 
Duke  of  .Milan.  The  last  of  the  Visconti,  Filippo 
Maria  (1412-47),  was  succeeded  in  1450  by  his 
son-in-law,  the  celebrated  condottiere  Francesco 
Sforza  (q.v.).  The  Sforzas  were  the  typical 
princes  of  the  Renaissance,  patrons  of  art  and 
learning,  but  at  the  same  time  guilty  of  the  great- 
est cruelties.  Milan  became  involved  in  the  many 
Italian  wars  of  the  period,  and  finally,  in  1494, 
Ludovico  .Sforza  called  in  the  French.  From  this 
time  on  the  history  of  ililan  as  such  has  little  in- 
terest. Louis  XII.  of  France,  as  a  descendant  of 
the  Visconti.  claimed  Jlilan,  and  the  city  and 
duchy  for  a  wliile  changed  hands  repeatedly  Ije- 
tween  the  French  and  the  Sforzas,  the  latter  being 
supported  by  Spain.  In  1535  the  last  of  the  male 
line  of  the  Sforzas  died,  and  Milan  became  a  Span- 
ish possession.  In  1 7 13  the  Peace  of  Utrecht, 
which  ended  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
gave  Lombardy  to  Austria.  In  1797  Milan  be- 
'came  the  capital  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic, 
founded  by  Xapoleon,  and  in  1805  the  capital  of 
the  Xapoleonic  Kingdom  of  Italy.  The  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1815  gave  Lombardy  back  to 
Austria,  and  Milan  shared  with  the  rest  of  the 
Hapsburg  possessions  the  oppressions  of  the 
iletternich  regime.  On  March  18,  1848,  the  in- 
habitants rose  in  insurrection,  and  on  March  23d 
General  Radetzky  was  compelled  to  evacuate  the 
city,  which  was  occupied  by  the  Sardinian  forces. 
On  August  0th,  however,  Radetzkv  reentered 
Milan.  The  riots  of  March,  1849,  and  Feb- 
ruary 6,  1853,  were  vigorously  suppressed  by  the 
Austrian  connnanders.  In  1859,  after  the  battle 
of  .Magenta,  the  .\ustrians  evacuated  the  city, 
which  was  handed  over  to  Xapoleon,  who  sur- 
rendered it  to  Sardinia  with  the  rest  of  Lom- 
bardy. In  May,  1898,  it  was  the  scene  of  serious 
bread  riots. 

Bibliography.  Schwarz,  Mailands  Lage  und 
Bedeutung  als  HandeUstadt  (Cologne,  1890)  ; 
Shaw,  Municipal  Government  in  Continental 
Europe  (Xew  York,  1895):  Beltrami,  lieminis- 
cenre  di  storia  e  d'arte  nella  citta  di  Milano 
(ililan,  1891-92)  :  and  for  the  history:  Sismondi, 
Histoirc  des  rcpiMi(iues  itnlicnnex  du  moi/en  age 
(Paris,  1840)  ;  Cusani,  Storia  di  Milano  (Milan, 
1862-67)  :  De  Castro.  Milano  c  la  republica  cisal- 
pina  (ib.,  1880)  ;  Bonfadini.  Milano  nei  suoi 
monnmenii  storici  (ib.,  1883-80)  :  id.,  Le  origini 
del  comiine  di  Milano  (ib.,  1890)  :  and  Holtz- 
mann,  Mailand,  ein  Gang  dtirch  die  Stadt  und 
ihrc  Gcachichte    (Leipzig.   1899). 

MILAN.  \  town  and  the  county-seat  of  Sulli- 
van County,  Mo.,  105  miles  west  by  north  of 
Quincy,  III.;  at  the  junction  of  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington and  Kansas  City  and  the  Quincy.  Omaha 
and  Kansas  City  railroads  (Xlaii;  ilissouri.  CI). 
It  is  in  a  farming  and  stock-raising  region,  which 
has  some  mineral  deposits,  particularly  of  coal. 
The  principal  industrial  establishments  are  flour 
and  lumber  mills,  and  shops  of  the  Quincy, 
Omaha  and  Kansas  City  Railroad.  Milan  being  a 
division  point  on  that  road.  Population,  in  1890, 
1234;    in    1900.   1757. 

MILAN  I.,  OBRE^'OV^T^H.  'I'hni-nr.'vich  (1854- 
1901).     Prince  of  Servia  from  1868  to  1882,  and 


MILAN  I. 


483 


MILDEW. 


King  from  18S2  to  ISS'.i.  He  was  born  Au{,'ust  22, 
ISoi.  at  Manas»ee,  Kuniania,  and  was  educateil 
at  Paris.  The  assassination  of  Prince  ilicliael 
111.,  in  18G8,  caused  his  recall  to  .Servia, 
wliere  he  was  proclaimed  Prince.  A  council  of 
regency  adniinistereil  tlie  government  till  lie  was 
eighteen.  The  revolt  of  Servia  against  the  Otto- 
man power,  its  alliance  witli  Russia  in  the  Kusso- 
Turkish  War  (q.v.),  and  its  resulting  indepen- 
dence and  recognition  as  a  kingdom  ( 1H82),  made 
his  reign  mcmoraljle.  In  1875  lie  married  Na- 
talie Ketchko,  the  daughter  of  a  Russian  colonel, 
and  his  tjuarrels  with  her  and  his  personal  vices 
deprived  him  of  all  prestige.  In  ISSS  he  was  il- 
legally divorced,  and  on  March  G.  ISS!).  he  abdi- 
cated in  favor  of  his  son  Alexander.  He  became 
reconciled  to  Natalie  in  1893.  and  died  at  Vienna, 
February  11,  1901.     See  Servia. 

MILAN  DECREES.  See  Continental 
System. 

MILANES  Y  FTJENTES,  me'la-nas'  6 
fwan'tAs.  .JosK  .Iaci.nto  (1814-031.  A  Cuban 
poet,  horn  at  ilatanzas.  His  lirst  verses  ap- 
peared in  the  Aguinaldo  lluhancro  (1837),  and 
were  favorably  received.  From  this  time  his 
work  was  well  known.  His  early  life  had  been, 
one  of  poverty  and  hardship,  but  afterwards  he 
obtained  a  satisfactory  ])osition.  and  was  able  to 
travel  abroad  in  1848.  He  had  been  the  victim 
of  a  mental  disease  for  some  time,  and  during 
the  last  years  of  his  life  was  quite  insane.  The 
poetrr  of  ililanes  is  contemplative  and  melan- 
choly, and,  like  that  of  his  fellow  jioets  Ileredia 
and  Pliieida,  saddened  by  the  thought  of  his  coun- 
trv's  wrongs.  Kditions  of  his  poems  were  pub- 
li-^hed  at  Havana    (lM4()t   and  New  York   (18U4). 

MILA  Y  FONTANALS,  mC-lii'  e  fin'ta-nills', 
JIa.m  EL  (1818-84).  -V  Spanish  historian  of  lit- 
erature, born  at  Villafranea  del  Panades.  He 
was  appointed  professor  in  the  liiiversity  of 
Barcelona  in  1845.  The  influence  of  his  philo- 
Bopliical  studies  is  apparent  even  in  so  early  a 
work  as  his  Arte  poHicn  (1884).  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  liomancrriUo  Catalan  (1848),  a  col- 
lection of  the  lyrics  of  his  native  region,  and  bj' 
the  Elemcnlos  dc  Uteratura  and  the  Tcoria  lite- 
raria.  which  apply  philosophical  methmls  to  the 
study  of  literature.  His  Olism-ariniim  xohrr  la 
pnrxia  pojiular  appeared  in  1853.  His  noblest 
productions  are  Lou  troiailorrs  en  Enpnna  ( 18G1) 
and  l.a  pnenia  herniro-popular  (1874).  Consult 
Rubio  y  Ors,  yotiria  <lr  In  rida  )i  cscrilox  de  D. 
}taniiri  Milii  y  Fontanals  (Barcelona.  1887).  and 
the  edition  of  bis  Olirax  roniplctax.  prepared  by 
M.  Meni'ndez  y  Pelayo  (Barcelona,  18S5). 

MILAZZO,  m.*-lat'sft.  or  MELAZZO.  A  city 
in  the  Province  of  Me^-ina.  Sir  ily,  HI  miles  by 
rail  west  of  the  city  of  .Messina,  at  the  base  of  a 
narrow  peninsula,  four  miles  long  (Map:  Italy. 
K  9).  It  has  a  very  large  and  safe  harbor  which 
in  bad  weather  serves  as  a  refuge  for  vessels 
that  have  just  left  or  are  trying  to  make  the 
northern  entrance  of,  the  Strait  of  Messina,  It 
has  a  city  hospital,  a  technical  school,  a  city  li- 
brnry.  n  municipal  theatre.  It  markets  wine, 
fish."  cattle,  fruit,  and  sulphur,  and  has  a  con- 
siderable foreign  trade.  Population  (commune), 
in  1881,  13,('i9n;  in  1001,  1(!.422.  .Milazzo  is  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Myhe,  founded  prior  to  the 
eighth  century  n.r,  by  colonists  from  Messina, 
A  great  naval  victory  was  won  here  over  the  Car- 
thaginians in  B.C.  200  bv  O.  Duilius,    The  cro^vll- 


ing  point  of  Garibaldi's  victorious  Sicilian  cam- 
jiaign  was  his  defeat  of  the  Neapolitans  here, 
.July  2(1,    l.Si;(). 

MIL'BURN,  William  Henry  (1823-1903). 
An  American  clergyman.  He  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  studied  at  Illinois  College,  He 
entirely  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye  and  partially 
that  of  the  other  while  he  was  a  boy,  and  finally 
became  wholly  blind.  He  became  a  traveling 
preacher  in  the  ilethodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
1843,  and  was  appointed  to  circuits  in  Illinois 
and  the  South,  with  .several  appointments  at 
Montgomery,  Ala,,  in  1848,  and  .\)obile  in  1850, 
and  for  two  years  after  1852  preached  in  an  in- 
de])eiident  church.  He  was  ordained  a  deacon  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  18(i5.  and 
priest  in  18tit!.  but  returned  to  the  ilethodist 
Church  in  1871.  lie  was  elected  chaplain  of 
Congress  in  1845  and  1853,  chaplain  of  the  Hou.se 
of  Kepre.scntatives  in  1885  and  in  succeeding 
terms,  and  was  cliaplain  of  the  Senate  from  1893 
to  1902.  He  pul)lished  h'i/lc.  Axe,  and  Haddtr- 
bags,  Symbols  of  ^Vestl•rn  Character  and  Civiliza- 
tion (185(!)  ;  Ten  Years  of  Preacher  Life,  Chap- 
ters from  an  Autobiography  (1858);  Pioneers, 
Preachers,  and  People  of  tlie  M ississippi  \'altey 
(I8(>0,  comprising  lectures  given  at  the  Lowell 
Institute  in  1854)  ;  The  Lance,  Cross,  and  Canoe 
in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  (1893), 

MILDER-HATJPTMANN,  inM'der-houpt'- 
man,  An.na  Pai  i.tnk  (17S5-1838),  A  German 
opera  singer,  born  at  Constantinople,  the  daugh- 
ter of  an  Austrian  attache.  She  studied  under 
Tomascelli  and  Salien  in  Vienna;  made  her  lirst 
appearance  in  that  city  in  1803,  but  was  at  the 
height  of  her  power  in  Berlin  (1815-29).  She 
toured  Russia.  Sweden,  and  Denmark  at  the  close 
of  her  stajic  career, 

MILDEW  (AS.  meledeaic.  honeydew,  from 
'mele,  (ioth.  milip,  Lat,  mel,  Gk,  /lAi,  meli, 
honey  +  deair,  dew).  A  somewhat  indclinite 
term  used  (o  designate  a  number  of  plant  diseases 
that  are  caused  by  fungous  jiarasites,  as  well  as 
spots  caused  by  microscopic  fungi  on  cloth,  paper, 
leather,  glassware,  etc.  In  England  the  term  as 
applied  to  plant  di.sea.ses  has  a  much  wider  sig- 
nificance than  in  the  I'nited  States.  It  is  there 
made  to  include  what  are  known  in  America 
as  cereal  rusts  and  smuts,  as  well  as  many  other 
diseases  not  recognized  as  due  to  the  mihlews 
proper.  In  the  United  States  the  mildews  are 
divider!  into  two  classes,  the  true  or  powdery 
mildews,  due  to  fungi  belonging  to  the  order 
Erysiphaceir.  and  the  false  or  downy  mildews 
caused  by  fungi  of  the  order  Peronnsporaceie. 
The  powdery  mildews  attack  the  leaves,  stems, 
flowers,  and  fruits  of  many  of  our  most  valued 
plants.  For  the  most  part  they  form  superficial 
flour  like  patches  of  white  upon  their  host  plants. 
The  fungus  most  commonly  develops  over  the 
surface  of  the  leaves  and  sends  minute  suckers 
through  the  epidermis,  by  which  they  absorb 
nourishment  from  the  host.  They  cause  distorted 
and  stunted  jjrowth,  and  often  the  death  of  (he 
part  of  the  plant  affected.  During  the  summer 
the  fungus  sends  up  numerous  branches,  which 
bear  myriads  of  one-celled  spores  called  eonidia, 
by  which  the  mildew  is  rapidly  spread  to  other 
plants.  Later  in  the  season  thick-walled  resting 
spores  are  prudiiced,  by  wbi<h  the  fungus  is  car- 
ried through  the  winter.  These  spores  have  ap- 
pendages of  various  kinds,  by  which  they  retain 


MILDEW.  483  MILELLl. 

their  attachment  to  the  leaves,  and  in  the  spring  ])iesent  English  mile  by  lioni  142  to  144  yards, 
tliey  develop  a  new  generation  of  thin-walleil  Un  the  Continent  of  KuroiJe  previous  to  the  gen- 
spores  lor  the  spread  of  the  disease.  Tliere  are  iTal  adoption  of  the  nietrie  system,  the  length 
about  150  described  species  of  powdery  mil-  of  the  modern  mile  hi  ditlercnt  countries  exhibit- 
dews,  and  there  are  few  of  our  plants  that  arc  cd  a  remarkable  diversity  not  satisfactorily  ac- 
not  subject  to  attack  from  some  of  them.  Among  counted  for.  Before  the  time  of  Elizabeth  scien- 
the  common  ones  injurious  to  economic  plants  liiic  writers  made  use  of  a  mile  of  5000  English 
are  the  apple,  pear,  and  cherry  mildew  (I'ud-  feet,  from  the  notion  that  this  was  the  Roman 
tisiilicFra  oj-ymntha;) ,  rose  mildew  (S/jhwrutlwcii  niile,  forgetting  the  dilVcrcnce  in  value  between 
IKiiiiiosn) .  hop  mildew  (Sphwrotlieca  custagnvi),  the  English  and  Roman  foot.  The  present  Eng- 
grape  mildew  {Uncinula  spiralis),  mildew  of  Ijsh  statute  mile  was  incidentally  defined  by  an 
wheal  and  other  grasses  {Eri/siphe  graminis),  act  passed  in  the  thirty  fifth  year  of  the  reign 
gcjoscbcrry  mildew  {Sphwroiheca  uiors-ia-a;) ,  eu-  of  Elizabeth  to  be  "8  furlongs  of  40  perches  of 
cumber  mildew  {Erysiphe  cichoraccaruin) ,  which  10%  feet  each" — i.e.  1700  yards  of  3  feet  each — 
also  attacks  verbenas,  sunflowers,  asters,  and  and  it  has  since  retained  this  value.  The  gco- 
other  plants,  pea  mildew  {Erysiphe  niartii) ,  etc.  graphic,  nautical,  or  sea  mile  is  variously  de- 
Downy  mildews  are  internal  parasites  whi<-h  grow  fined  as  (a)  the  length  of  a  minute  of  latitude 
through  the  tissues  of  the  plants  tlial  bear  them,  at  any  point,  (b)  the  mean  length  of  a  minute 
and  only  appearing  outside  to  shed  their  micro-  of  latitude  (0082.00  feet),  and  (c)  the  length 
scopie  spores.  The  branches  of  the  fungus  bearing  of  a  minute  of  longitude  on  the  equator  (6087.15 
thoe  spores  are  often  .so  abundant  as  to  give  a  feet).  The  United  States  Coast  Survey  hag 
peculiar  downy  or  frosty  appearance  to  the  leaf  adopted  as  the  standard  geographic  mile  the 
or  other  part  of  the  plant  infested.  The  spores  length  of  a  minute  of  latitude  of  a  sphere  having 
(conidia)  are  one-celled,  thin-walled,  and  are  the  same  surface  as  the  earth.  This  gives  a 
readily  blown  about  by  the  wind.  Falling  upon  length  of  6080.27  feet.  The  British  Admiralty 
a  new  leaf  or  plant,  if  the  moisture  conditions  niile  is  6080  feet.  As  the  United  States  statute 
are  favorable,  they  quickly  germinate  and  set  mile  is  5280  feet,  a  nautical  mile  is  1.15155 
up  a  new  infection.  In  this  way  they  spread  statute  miles,  or  1853.24  meters.  For  ordinary 
with  great  rapidity,  and  often  produce  epidemic  purposes  of  navigation  the  naiitical  mile  is  as- 
outbreaks  of  disease.  The  resting  spores  are  sumed  to  be  equal  to  a  minute  of  latitude  in  the 
formed  within  the  tissues  of  the  host,  and  are  region  navigated,  the  error  being  inappreciable 
tluis  carried  over  from   season  to  season.     They  in  the  calculations. 

are   liberated    by   the   decay    of   the   tissues    sur-         The  following  table  gives  the  length,  in  English 

rounding  them,  and  from  these  a  new  generation  statute  miles,  of  the  various  miles  that  have  been 

is  derived.     Among  the  downy  mildews  are  some  or  are  commonly  used: 
of  the  most  .serious   plant   parasites.     The  more  Euk.  miles 

common  ones  are  the  potato  rot  or  mildew  {Phtj-  Enellsh  t'eographical  mile =1.153 

,  .,  .    ,      .         ,  ^  ji  1  -11  German  geoi^raphical  mile =4.611 

tophlhora   mfestans) ,   the  grape   downy   mildew  Tusuan  mile =  1.027 

(I'hisDwpara  viticola).  lima-bean   mildew    {Phy-  Ancient  Scotch  mile =1.127 

tophthora  phaseoii).  lettuce  mildew  {Bremia  „erman^*t^ne;;:::::::::::::;:::::::;zz:::;3^    =3:89? 

lavtucw),  onion  mildew   {Peronospora  schleideni-  Prussian  mile =4.680 

unit),  cucumber  and  melon  downv  mildew    {Plas-  Danish  mile =4.684 

mopnra  ciihriisis).  downy  mildew  of  raiiishes  and  s^^"^ '^"^■:::::z:z:zzzz::::z'z::"z  =5:201 

other    oruciferous    plants     {Cystopiis  cintdiilus) ,  Oernian  long  miie!!..."!..."!.'.."!..'.'... =5.753 

etc.      ^fost    of  these   mildews   are   more    fully   de-  Hanoverian  mile =  6.568 

scribed  under  the  diseases  of  their  respective  fi^i^^^''z::::::::""::::::::::::::::::z^^^^^        Zo.^ 

host    plants.      The    problem    of    combating    them         and  29  kii!  =  18  English  s'tetutem^^^ 
has  been  a  subject  of  much  experimentation  in         ^^^    Weights    .^nd    Measure.s    and    Metric 

America  and  in  Europe.     It  has  been  tound  that  tjysTFM 
nianv  of  the  powder\' mildews  can  ba  hehl  in  check 

and'often  serious  loss  prevented  by  dusting  the  MILEAGE.      Compensation    reckoned    at    so 

plants  with  sulphur,  or.  if  in  a  house  or  frame  much  per  mile  in  lieu  of  traveling  expenses  usual- 

where  it  can  be  done,  exposing  them  for  a  few  mo-  '.v  allowed  i)uhlie  officers,  who  arc  compelled  to 

ments  to  the  fumes  of  boiling,  but  not  burning,  journey  to  the  seat  of  government  in  order  to 

sulphur.  Spraying  thoroughly  and  repentedlv  with  discharge    their    official    duties.      It    is    usually 

Bordeaux  mixture,  ammonia'cal  copjier  carbonate  reckoned  according  to  the  shortest  route  by  which 

solution,  or  other  standard  fungicide    (q.v.)    will  the   officer  is   able  to   travel,   although  there   are 

prevent    the    serious    attack    of    both    classes   of  sometimes   cases   of   constructive   mileage   where 

mildews.     Success  in  these  preventive  treatments  compensation  is  allowed  for  distances  which  are 

depends   upon   thoroughness.      See   Disea.ses    OF  nnt    actually   traveled.      The    mileage    .system    of 

Plants-  Fingi    Economic  compensation  is  in  very  general  use  in  the  I'nited 

MILE.     A  measure  of  length  in  common  use  ^tatf-     "  '''V'  it^'";it''n  j"  t''^, '•'''^if^  to  make 

in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  and  their  legislators  entirely  independent  of  the  transporta- 

colonics.     The  name  is  also  in  use  on  the  Conti-  *""!  companies  which  carried  them  to  and  from 

nent   of   Europe   to   designate   generally   a    much  t'"-"-    respective    capitals.      Railroad    companies, 

larger   measure    of   length,    although    the   official  however,   have   always    freely   granted    passes   to 

measure    is    now    generally    the    kilometer.       It  Senators  and  Representatives,  and  this  has  led  to 

is  derived  from  the  Roman  miUiare.  which  con-  *''«   enactment   by    several    State    legislatures   of 

taincd      1000     paces      imiUe     passuum)      of     5  laws  forbidding  any  public  otiicial  from  .accepting 

Roman    feet    each,    the    pace    heing    the    length  gratuitous  passage  from  public  earners, 
of    the    step    made    by    one    foot.      The    Roman         MILELLl,     me-lel'h'.     noMENTCO      (1841  —  ). 

foot    being    between     11.62    and    11.05    English  An  Italian  poet,  born  at  Catanzaro.  in  Calabria, 

inches,  the  Roman  mile  was  thus  less  than  the  He  was  educated  for  the  priesthood,  but  did  not 


MILELLI. 


484 


MILETUS. 


take  orders,  and  all.iward^  taught  fur  several 
years,  llis  publications  include  several  volumes 
of  poetry,  which  sliow  much  inuigination,  but 
little  sustained  force,  llis  volume,  Odi  payune 
(1879)  was  much  criticised,  not  only  for  its 
pagan  spirit,  but  on  account  of  the  attacks  on 
]Maiizoni.  Other  works  are:  In  giovinezza 
(1879)  ;  Giocondn  (1874)  ;  llicmaliii  (1874)  :  Po- 
vertd  (1879)  ;  Discvrpla  (1881)  :  //  rupimeitio  di 
Elena  (1882):  Vanzonierc  (1884);  \'crdc  iiiilico 
(1885);  and  Miscellanea  (1880),  a  volume  of 
essays. 

MILES,    Nelson    Appleton     (1839—).      An 
American    soldier,    born    at    Westniinslcr,    Mass. 
He  was  engaged  in  mercantile  jiursuits  in  Boston 
between  1850  and  1801.     In  September,   1801,  he 
was  commissioned  captain  of  the  Twenty-second 
Massachusetts  Infantry;  in  iMay,  1802,  he  became 
lieutenanlcolonel    of    the    Sixty-first    New    York 
Volunteers,   and    participated    in   the   Peninsular 
campaign  and  the  battle  of  Antietam.     In  Sep- 
tember.   1802,    he    was    promoted    to    be    colonel 
of  volunteers,     lie  served  in  the  battle  of  Fred- 
ericksburg,    was     wounded     at     Chancellorsville. 
and  took  part  in  the  campaign  before  Richmond 
in  1804.     He  was  commissioned  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers   May   12.   1804,  and  was  brevetted 
major-general    of"  volunteers    in    August,    1804. 
for  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Reams's  Station. 
On  October  21,  1805,  he  was  commissioned  major- 
general  of  volunteers;  in  July.  1806.  he  was  ap- 
pointed    colonel.      Fortieth      Infantry,      Regular 
Army;  and  on  March  2.  1807,  he  was  brevetted 
brigadier  and  major-general,  I'.  S.  A.,  for  brav- 
ery at  Chancclloisville  and  Spottsylvania.     Din- 
ing  the    succeeding   years    (iencral    Miles's   chief 
service  was  against  the  Indians  in  the  West.     In 
1875  he  defeated  the  Cheyenne.  Kiowa,  and  Co- 
manche tribes,   and   in    18'7()   the   Sioux   and   Nez 
Perefs  in  Montana;  and  in  1886  he  made  a  cam- 
paign against   the   Apaches   and   compelled   their 
chiefs,  Geronimo  and  N'atchez.  to  surrender.     For 
this  service  he  received  the  thanks  of  the  legis- 
latures  of   Kansas,   Montana.   New    Mexico,   and 
Arizona.     In   l.HOn  !»1   he  suppressed  some   Indian 
outbreaks    in    South    Dakota.      In    1880    he    was 
commissione<l    a    brigadier-general.      In    1890    he 
became   a    major  gemral.   and   on   the   retirement 
of  General  Scliofield.  in  1895.  he  became  the  com- 
manding general  of  the  army.    During  the  strike 
riots  of  1894  in  Chicago  he  commanded  the  United 
States  troops,  and  later  visited  the  scene  of  the 
Gra^eo-Turkish   War.  ami  in   1897  he  represented 
the  United  States  Army  at  (Jueen  Victoria's  .lubi 
lee.     During  the   war  of    1898   against    Spain   he 
directed  in  (wrson  the  occupation  of  Porto   llico. 
Within  a  period  of  two  weeks  the  entire  western 
part  of  the  island   was  cdeared  and  the  Spanish 
forces  defeate<l.     The  total  loss  of  the  Americans 
was  only  four  killed  and  forty  wouniled.     He  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  lii'utenant-general  in  Febru- 
ary, 1901.  in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  Congress  of 
June  6,   innn.      In   1902  0.1  he  made  a  tour  of  in- 
spection in  the  Philippine  Islands,     He  published 
Personal  Prrollerlioiis.  or  from   y'eir  EnilUiitd  to 
the  Golden  dale   (18971.  in  addition  to  militarj' 
reports  and  maga/inc  articles. 

MILES  GLORIOSTTS,  mi'lez  gln'ri  r.'sfis 
(T.al..  braggart  siddier  I .  .\n  entertaining  comedy 
by  Plautus,  It  is  a  broail  farce,  with  a  very 
slight  plot  resting  entirely  on  the  exaggerated 
representation  of  the  leading  ohnracter. 


MILE'SIANS.  Tlic  original  Gaelic  colonists 
of  Ireland,  so  called,  according  to  the  bardic 
accounts,  from  the  three  sons  of  ilil  (Latinized 
Milesius),  who,  coming  in  force  from  the  opposite 
coast  of  Spain  or  Gaul,  landed  on  tlie  southern 
end  of  the  island  and  defeated  the  preceding 
colonists  and  conquerors,  the  Tuatha-de  Uanaan, 
in  two  great  battles,  thus  making  themselves 
masters  of  the  country.  The  date  is  indclinitcly 
placed  some  centuries  before  the  Christian  Kru. 
Tliis  was  the  last  of  the  traditional  prehistoric 
colonizations  of  Ireland,  the  dominant  .Milesians 
fusing  with  the  Tuatha-de-Danaan  (q.v.)  and 
Firbolg  (q.v.)  to  form  the  Irish  race  as  we  find 
it  at  the  dawn  of  history.  The  native  kings, 
chieftains,  and  prominent  families  up  to  the 
])eriod  of  the  Norman  Conquest  all  claimed  direct 
descent  from  Milesian  ancestry. 

MILESIAN  TALES  (MAj;<r(ara.  Milcsiaka). 
The  name  given  to  a  class  of  sliort,  indecent  anec- 
dotes in  \ogue  at  .Miletus  and  through  Asia 
Minor  in  the  first  century  n.c.  The  compilation 
of  six  Ijooks  of  these  stories  was  as<-ril)ed  to  a 
certain  Aristides  of  Miletus.  Specimens  of  these 
works  can  be  seen  in  the  translation  of  Sisenna, 
printed  in  Biicheler's  small  edition  of  Petronius 
(Boston,  1882). 

MILES  O'REILLY,  mllz  6-rI'li.  The  pseu- 
donym of  tlic  .American  s(ddier  and  l>oet  Charles 
Graliam    Ualpiiie    (([.v.  I . 

MILET  DE  MXJBEAU,  mi-'la'  dc  my'rC/. 
Louis  Marie  Axtoine  Dkstoi  ff.  Baron  (17.'>0 
1825).  A  French  soldier  and  politician,  born  at 
Toulon.  He  entered  the  army  and  was  made  a 
c:iptain.  As  a  member  of  the  States-General, 
in  1789,  he  voted  witli  the  Right;  afterwards 
\w  commanded  the  artillery  in  the  army  of  occu- 
pation in  Italy.  In  179:i  lu'  was  banished  as  a 
suspect,  but  was  ])ermitteil  to  return  to  France  two 
years  later,  and  was  made  a  brigadier-geiu'ral  in 
1796,  lie  was  War  Minister  for  a  few  months 
in  1799,  was  created  a  baron  by  Napoleon  in 
180!t,  was  a  prefect  of  Corrt'^ze  in  1802  10,  ami 
director  of  the  general  War  Departiiieiit  in  1S14, 
but  retired  two  years  afterwards.  He  edited  the 
I'crouse  journals,  which  were  published  under 
tlie  title  Voyafie  de  La  Peroiisc  aiilonr  du  niniide 
nsr>-H8  (1797'.  2d  ed.  1798),  and  translated  into 
(ierman,  Swedish,  and  English. 

MILE'TXJS  (Lat.,  from  C.k.  MiXrjxos.  Milelos). 
AnciiMlly  tlie  greatest  and  most  nourishing  city 
of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor.  It  was  situated  on  the 
Latmic  Gulf,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ma'ander,  ami 
was  famous  for  its  woolen  manufactures  and  for 
its  extensive  trade  with  the  north.  The  site  is 
said  to  have  been  occupied  by  a  Carian  town, 
when  the  Ionian  colonists,  under  Xeleus,  seized 
the  place.  niassa<reil  the  men,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  their  wives.  Though  Un-  inhabitants 
prided  themselves  on  their  Ionian  descent,  the 
names  of  their  tribes  show  the  iiresence  of  a 
foreign  element.  The  city  early  came  to  occupy 
a  conim;inding  position  in  the  Greek  coniiiiercial 
world,  and  established  many  colonies  in  the  north. 
as  Aliydos  and  Lampsacu's.  on  th.'  Hellespont; 
Cyzieus,  on  the  Propontis;  Siiiope.  Ollii:i.  Istria. 
Toiiii.  and  Panticapa-iim.  on  the  Bla<k  Sea.  1  n- 
der  the  tvrant  Thrasybulus  it  oirered  so  resolute 
a  resistance  to  the  I.ydian  kings  that  it  was  at 
last  received  into  an  alliance  on  ccpial  terms.  It 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Ionian  revolt  (n.C. 
500),  and  after  the  battle  of  Lade  was  besieged 


MILETUS. 


485 


MILHATJ. 


by  the  Persians,  ami  alUr  a  long  resistance  cap- 
tured and  destroyed  in  li.c.  494.  It  seems  to  liave 
revived  after  the  I'urniation  of  tlie  Athenian 
League,  and  near  the  close  of  the  l'<d()[)unncsian 
War  ventured  to  revolt  and  join  the  Spartans. 
It  also  oliered  some  resistance  to  Alexander,  hut 
seems  to  have  declined  from  that  time,  though 
it  continued  to  e.\ist  for  several  centuries.  Saint 
Paul  spent  two  or  three  days  there  on  his  last 
journey  to  .Jerusalem  heforc  his  imprisonment 
at  Home,  and  delivered  his  farewell  address  to 
the  elders  from  Ephesus,  who  visited  him  at 
his  recpicst  (Acts  xx.  l.ix.xi.  1).  Another  visit, 
referred  to  in  I.  Timothy  iv.  20,  is  best  placed 
in  a  period  later  than  that  covered  h.v  the  Book 
of  .Acts.  .Miletus  has  a  distinguished  |)lace  in  the 
history  of  tireek  literature,  having  been  the  birth- 
place of  the  philosophers  Thales,  Anaxiraander, 
and  .\uaxinienes.  and  of  the  historians  Cadmus 
and  HecatiPus.  Its  harbor  is  now  filled  up,  and 
the  site  is  a  swampy  plain,  occupied  by  the  little 
Turkish  village  of  Palatia.  Excavations  were 
begun  by  the  Berlin  JIuseum  in  1899.  and  in 
spite  of  great  dilliculties  have  determined  the 
course  of  the  ancient  walls,  some  streets,  the 
Bouleuterion  and  part  of  the  Agora,  and  other 
points  important  for  the  topography  of  the  city. 
Preliminary  reports  are  published  in  the  Sitz- 
vnfinhcrirhte  der  Akademie  der  M'insenschaft  zu 
Berlin  for  1900  et  seq.  See  also  the  unfinished 
work  of  Rayet  and  Thomas,  Milct  et  le  Golf  Lut- 
niifiiic   (Paris,  1877  et  seg. ). 

MI'LEY,  John  (1813-95).  An  American 
theologian  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
He  was  born  near  Hamilton.  Butler  County, 
Ohio;  graduated  at  Augusta  College,  Ken- 
tucky, in  18.38:  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  same  year, 
and  served  churches  in  Ohio  and  Eastern  New 
York  from  1838  to  1873,  except  during  1848-50, 
when  he  was  teacher  in  Wesley  Female  College 
in  Cincinnati.  In  1873  he  became  professor  of 
systematic  theology'  in  Drew  Theological  Semi- 
nary. Madison.  \.  J.,  which  chair  he  filled  till 
his  death.  He  \\as  the  author  of  a  Treatise  on 
Clans  Meetings  (1851)  ;  The  Atoneinml  in  Christ 
(1879),  which  advocates  the  governmental  the- 
ory; and  Systematic  Theology  (1892-94).  He 
was  a  progressive  conservative,  holding  to  the 
substance  of  the  traditional  Methodist  theology, 
but  introducing  important  and  sonic  even  radical 
change-  of  view. 

MILFOIL.     An  herb.     See  Achillea. 

MIL'FORD.  A  seaport  in  Pembrokeshire, 
Wales,  iiM  the  famous  Milford  Haven,  six  miles 
from  its  entrance,  and  273  miles  west  of 
London  by  rail  (Map:  England,  A  5).  The 
haven  is  formed  by  an  estuary  running  inland  for 
17  miles  to  Langwin  (easily  reached  by  vessels 
of  2000  tons),  and  varies  from  one  to  two  miles 
in  breadth.  It  is  protected  from  winds  by  a 
girdle  of  hills;  its  lower  reaches  arc  well  forti- 
fied. The  distance  of  Milford.  however,  from  the 
Channel,  the  highway  of  British  conmierce.  is  a 
serious  disadvantage,  and  its  trade  is  not  com- 
mensurate with  its  natural  advantages.  The 
town  has  passenger  and  cattle  traffic  with  Irish 
ports,  and  an  average  of  2700  vessels  of  575.000 
tons  biirilen  enter  and  clear  anmially.  Area  of 
docks.  fiO  acres;  depth  of  water  over  sill  (high 
tide),  34  feet.  The  proposition  to  make  Slilford 
the  eastern  terminus  of  the  English  transatlantic 


steamers  has  been  long  discussed,  as  it  would 
shorten  by  several  hours  the  time  now  necessary 
for  reaching  London.  The  United  States  is  repre- 
sented by  an  agent.  The  town  owns  its  water  and 
gas  sup])lics.  The  haven  is  frequently  mentioned 
in  Shakespeare's  Cymbeline.  Henry  VII.,  when 
Earl  of  Kichniond,  landed  here  in  1485.  on  his 
way  to  claim  the  crown.  Population,  in  1891, 
4070;  in   1901,  5102, 

MILFOBD.  A  town  in  New  Haven  County, 
Conn.,  nine  miles  southwest  of  New  Haven;  on 
Long  Island  Sound,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wepo- 
waug  River,  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Conneeticut.  C  5). 
It  is  an  attractive  summer  resort,  with  line  boat- 
ing and  bathing  facilities.  Its  noteworthy  fea- 
tures include  the  Taylor  Library  of  9000  volumes, 
an  interesting  Memorial  Bridge,  erected  (1889) 
on  the  two  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  the  town's  settlement,  a  soldiers'  monument, 
and  the  Broad  Street  Park  of  four  acres.  The 
leading  industries  are  farming,  seed-growing, 
oyster  cultivation,  and  the  manufacture  of  straw 
hats,  electrical  supplies,  silverware,  telephone 
apparatus,  and  shoes.  Population,  in  1890.  3811; 
in  1900,  3783. 

Milford,  called  Wepowage  by  the  Indians,  was 
settled  in  1039  by  a  company  from  New  Haven 
and  Wethersfield.  In  1644  Milford  became  one 
of  the  six  towns  which  constituted  the  confed- 
erate 'Colony  of  New  Haven.'  and  in  1664  it  came 
\nider  the  jurisdiction  of  Connecticut.  Robert 
Treat,  an  early  colonial  Governor,  lived  in  Mil- 
ford, and  here,  from  1061  to  1663,  the  regicides 
Uollc  and  \A'halley  were  secreted.  Consult  "Early 
Milford."  an  article  in  the  Connecticut  Maqazine, 
v<d.   V.    (Hartford,    1899). 

MILFORD.  A  town  in  Kent  and  Sussex 
counties,  Del.,  about  60  miles  south  of  Wilming- 
ton ;  on  Mispitton  Creek,  and  on  a  branch  of  the 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Washington  Rail- 
road (Map:  Delaware.  Q  5).  A  steamship  line 
;ilso  connects  the  town  with  Philadelphia.  It  is 
tlic  shipping  point  for  the  surrounding  agricul- 
tural and  fruit-growing  district,  and  has  various 
industrial  interests.  There  is  a  subscription 
library  of  about  1500  volumes.  Milford  was 
founded  in  1680.  and  was  incorporated  in  1787. 
Population,  in   1890,  2565:   in   1900,  2500. 

MILFORD.  A  town  in  Worcester  County, 
Mass.,  18  miles  southeast  of  Worcester;  on  the 
Charles  River,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Albany 
and  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
railroads  ( Map :  Massachusetts,  D  3 ) .  It  has  a 
fine  high-school  building,  and  a  memorial  hall 
which  contains  the  public  library,  and  is  noted  as 
a  manufacturing  centre,  its  products  including 
boots  and  shoes,  straw  goods,  silk,  machinery, 
foundry  and  machine-shop  i)roducts.  etc.  There 
are  also  extensive  quarries  of  granite,  which  is 
Used  in  the  construction  of  many  buildings  in 
the  town,  and  which  is  shipped  in  large  quanti- 
ties. The  government  is  administered  by  town 
meetings,  which  are  convened  at  least  twice  a 
year.  Population,  in  1890.  8780:  in  1900.  11.376. 
Settled  as  early  as  1669,  Milford,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  750.  was  incor[)oratcd  as  a  sejiarate  town 
in  1780.  having  previously  been  the  East  Precinct 
of  Jlendon.  Consult  Ballon,  Histori/  of  the  Toien 
of  Milford   (Boston,  1882). 

MILHATI,   me'16'.     A  town   of  France.     See 

IMlLL.M-. 


MILIARIA. 


486 


MILITARY  ACADEMY. 


MILIA'RIA  (I.at.  iViii.  sj;.  of  miliarius,  rc- 
latiii;.'  tu  millet,  from  milium,  niilk't).  .\  struc- 
tuial  all'ec'tion  of  the  sweat  glands,  caused  by 
an  obstruction  to  the  sweat  secretion,  and  gen- 
erally accompanied  by  inflammation.  It  is  classed 
with  the  skin  diseases. 

In  miliaria  crystallina,  or  sudumiiia,  the  non- 
inflammatory form,  the  lesion  consists  of  minute, 
pearly  vesicles  set  closely  together,  but  always 
discrete,  generally  appearing  on  the  neck,  chest, 
and  abdomen,  but  sometimes  in  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  vesicles  appear  rapidly,  and  depart 
in  a  few  days.  Invasions  of  fresh  crops  may 
occur,  thus  continuing  the  erui)tion  for  weeks. 

In  miliaria  vesiculosa,  or  rubra,  inllanimation 
occurs  in  the  gland,  and  the  vesicles  appear  as  if 
raised  on  a  red  base.  This  is  the  strophulax,  or 
red  yum,  of  the  ancients,  and  is  seen  principally 
in  children  during  hot  weather  and  when  exces- 
sively heavy  clothing  is  worn. 

Miliaria  /lapulosa.  or  lichen  tropicus,  is  com- 
monly known  as  prickly  heat.  In  this  variety 
red,  pointed  papules  are  crowded  together,  with 
here  and  there  a  vesicle  or  pustule.  It  is  ac- 
companied by  e.Kcessive  sweating  and  aimoying 
prickling  and  tingling.  It  is  a  tropical  di.sease, 
of  which  a  milder  form  is  seen  in  this  country. 

The  treatment  of  miliaria  consists  in  removing 
heavy  clothing,  administering  cool  baths  and 
saline  diuretics,  and  applying  hx'ally  soothing 
and  astringent  lotions,  such  as  lead  water,  black 
wash,  dilute  vinegar,  or  ixiwdercd  camphor  mixed 
with  starch  or  oxide  of  zinc. 

MIL'IA'RIUM  AU'RETJM  ( Lat.,  gcdden 
milestone  I.  .\  gilded  column  of  bronze  con- 
nected with  the  rostra  in  tlie  Koman  Forum. 
Un  it  were  engraveil  the  distances  of  the  postal 
stations  from  the  city  gates  on  the  great  roads 
leading  out  of  Rome.  It  was  set  up  in  B.C.  29  by 
Augustus,  and  portions  of  the  marble  base  on 
which  it  stood  were  discovered  on  the  s|)ot  in 
1849. 
MILIARY  FEVER.  See  Miliaria. 
MILICZ  (iiic'liclii  OF  Kkem.sier  (132.5-74).  A 
predecessor  of  John  Huss.  He  was  born  at 
Kremsier,  Moravia ;  entered  holy  orders,  and 
was  attaclied  to  the  C'n\nt  of  the  lOinperor  Charles 
IV.;  became  a  canon  and  later  archdeacon.  In 
13fi.3  he  resigned  his  appointments,  giving  him- 
self up  to  preaching,  and  was  very  successful. 
He  went  to  Rome  in  1307  to  expound  his  views 
as  to  ecclesiastical  abuses,  but  was  thrown  into 
prison  by  the  Incpiisition,  fnmi  which  he  was 
released  by  Pope  I'rban  V.,  on  his  arrival  from 
Avignon  in  the  autumn  of  that  .year.  lie  re- 
turned to  Prague,  where  he  preached  daily  with 
greater  success  than  ever  till  in  1374  he  was 
summoned  before  the  Papal  Court  at  .\vignon, 
upon  loiiiplaint  as  to  his  orllicMhixy.  preferred 
by  the  clergy  of  Pragiie.  He  obeyed,  and  the 
com[ilaint.  after  investigation,  was  dismissed. 
He  die<l  in  .-Vvignon,  on  .lune  29,  1374.  Consult: 
Palacky.  Die  VorUiufer  dcs  Hus\iitrnlhiims 
(Prague.  18(59):  lx>ehler.  •fohann  ran  ^\'iclif 
und  die  Yorgeschichlr  dvr  Reformation,  vol.  ii. 
(Leipzig.  1873). 

MILIN'DA.  The  Pali  form  of  the  name  of 
the  Craco  I!:m  trian  King  Mcnander  (q.v.).  In 
the  literature  of  the  liuddhists  his  name  is  im- 
portant through  a  book  entitled  MiHiidajiaiiha, 
or  "Questions  of  Milinda,"  a  work  which  pro- 
fesses to  give  nn  account  of  a  discussion  between 


him  and  the  P>uddliist  sage  Xagascna.  It  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Davids.  The 
Qucstiuiis  uj  Kill!/  iJiliiKla    (O.xford,   1890-94). 

MILITARY  ACADEMY,  Royal.  An  estab- 
lishment at  Woohvich.  England,  through  which 
must  pass  all  candidates  for  tlie  Itoyal  Artillery 
and  tlie  Royal  Engineers.  8ee  MiLiiwKY  Educa- 
tion. 

MILITARY  ACADEMY,  United  St.-vtes. 
The  national  institutiim  for  the  tlieoretical  and 
practical  training  of  cadets  for  commissions  in 
the  I'nited  States  Army.  It  is  situated  at  West 
Point.  N.  v..  on  the  west  baiUs  of  the  Hudson, 
oO  miles  from  its  mouth,  amid  the  picturesque 
peaks  of  the  Highlands.  This  place  has  been 
occupied  as  a  military  post  continuously  since 
.lanuary  20,  1778.  (See  West  Poi.nt  for  Revolu- 
tionary histor.v  of  the  locality  and  description 
of  the  modern  ])ost  buildings,  surroundings, 
etc.)  The  Academy  itself  had  its  origin  in  a 
resolution  passed  bv  Congress  on  October  1.  177G, 
which  appointed  a  committee  to  prepare  a  plan 
for  ''a  militai'y  academy  for  the  armv."  On  .lone 
20,  1777,  it  was  ordered  that  a  Corps  of  Invalids 
organized  as  "a  militar.v  school  for  young  gen- 
tlemen previous  to  their  being  appointed  to 
marching  regiments"  be  instituted;  which  order 
was  carried  into  ctTect  almost  immediately.  <!en- 
eral  Washington  was  untiring  in  Ids  etVorls  to 
establisli  tlie  acadeiii.v,  and  il  was  at  his  request 
in  1781  that  the  Corjis  of  Invalids  was  marched 
from  Philadelphia  to  join  the  garrison  at  \Vest 
Point.  Two  years  later  Washington  again 
lirought  the  idea  of  a  military  academy  before 
his  olliccrs  at  Xewburgh,  and  made  a  s])ecial 
reference  to  it  in  his  message  of  December  3, 
1793.  On  Ma.y  9,  1794.  his  ideas  and  as])irations 
were  cr,vstallized  in  a  law  approved  on  tliat  date. 
whereby  was  authorized  tlic  organization  of  a 
corps  of  engineers  and  artillerists  with  two 
'cadets'  to  each  com|)aiiy,  and  a  school  of  in- 
struction for  them  was  established  at  West 
Point  in  the  same  year. 

Prior  to  1781  there  were  at  West  Point  three 
separate  buildings,  used  as  an  engineer  school, 
hiborator.v,  and  librarv  respectively.  In  179ti  the 
buildings  occujiied  by  the  corps  were  burned 
down,  and  thus  for  a  time  the  work  of  the  .\cad- 
cniy  was  suspended.  Instruction  was  resnmi'd 
on'Se]ileiMl)cr  1.  ISOl.  by  ordi-r  of  the  Secretary 
of  W;ir,  who.  on  .July  20th  of  that  year,  issued 
an  order  directing  that  all  the  cadets  of  the  Corps 
of  Artillerists  should  report  at  West  Point  for 
instruction.  The  faculty  of  the  Academy  at 
this  time  was  made  up  of  four  army  ollici'is  and 
a  civilian,  who  acted  as  administrators  and  in- 
structors. The  actual  creation  of  the  Military 
.Vcadeniy  as  il  is  known  to-da.v  occurre<l  in  1S02. 
under  the  authorization  of  !in  act  of  Congress 
approved  on  March  llith.  West  Point  was  se- 
lected for  its  location,  and  with  a  class  of  ten 
cadets  present  it  was  formall.v  oin-ned  on  .Tuly 
4,  1802.  Tlie  bill  authorized  "the  establi^hnn'nt 
of  a  corps  of  engineers  to  consist  of  live  per- 
sons, a  major,  two  first  lieutenants,  two  second 
lieutenants,  and  ten  cadets,  with  the  pay  of  $10 
|)er  month.  Provision  was  also  made  for  pmiiio- 
iions  in  the  corps,  not  to  exceed  one  colmicl.  one 
lieutenant,  two  majors,  four  captains,  four  lirst 
lieutenants,  and  four  sccmid  lir'iitenanls ;  but 
it  was  also  distinctly  ordained  that  the  entire 
corps  should  not  exceed  twenty  officers  and  cadets. 


MILITARY  ACADEMY. 


487 


MILITARY   ARCHITECTURE. 


The  I'ollowiiij;  vi-ar  an  imrca.se  of  forty  cadets 
was  auUiori/.ed,  and  in  180S  loti  became  eligible, 
but,  owing  to  the  lack  of  provision  for  them  at 
the  Academy,  very  few  of  them  were  enabled  to 
re)>ort  for  instruction. 

The  Academy  jjasscd  through  many  vicissi- 
tudes about  this  time,  and  in  March,  1812,  was 
without  a  single  instructor.  Students  entered 
without  any  mental  or  [)liysical  examination  and 
without  any  regard  to  age.  The  War  of  1812, 
however,  called  tlie  attention  of  the  Government 
to  the  pressing  needs  of  tlie  Academy.  Only  71 
students  had  been  graduated  in  its  first  ten 
years,  and  President  Madison  called  the  attention 
of  Congress  to  the  necessity  of  making  the  Acad- 
emy a  scientific  as  well  as  a  military  college,  in 
consequence  of  which,  on  April  2!),  1812.  the 
Academy  was  reorganized  upon  the  principles 
which  underlie  its  present  organization.  In 
1818  the  rules  approved  by  President  Monroe 
went  into  effect  and  provided  that  the  assign- 
ment of  cadets  to  the  ditl'erent  corps  in  the  army 
and  their  relative  rank  must  depend  upon  their 
general  merits,  to  be  determined  by  a  competent 
board  of  examiners,  and  that  cadets  should  not 
be  promoted  until  after  they  had  received  a  di- 
ploma. Colonel  Sylvaniis  Thayer  was  appointed 
Superintendent  of  West  Point  in  1817,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  making  the  institution  famous  among 
the  military  schools  of  the  worlil.  In  1815  he  was 
sent  by  the  Government  to  Eurojie.  to  study  mili- 
tary schools,  and  during  the  sixteen  j'ears  of  his 
superintcndcncy  (  1S17  to  183:t)  completely  re- 
organized tlie  curriculum  of  the  United  States 
school.  He  organized  the  .system  of  divisions 
of  classes  into  sections;  organized  the  corps  of 
cadets  into  a  battalion ;  and  created  the  position 
of  commandant  of  cadets.  In  18,33  he  took  is- 
sue with  President  Andrew  Jackson  reganling  de- 
tails of  management  and  resigned  his  post.  In 
1838  it  was  again  offered  him,  together  with  con- 
cessions that  gave  him  almost  absolute  control, 
but  he  declined  to  accept.  From  this  time  on 
little  change  has  been  made  in  the  organization 
of  the  Academy  other  than  those  natural  to  the 
progress  of  time. 

The  Civil  War  (1801-6.5)  brought  West  Point 
into  considerable  prominence  throughout  the  civ- 
ilized world ;  so  much  so  that  since  then  its 
methods  have  been  carefully  studied  by  the  ex- 
perts of  nearly  every  great  Euro]iean  country. 
Every  one  of  the  commanding  generals  on  both 
sides  in  the  great  War  of  the  Rebellion  who 
earned  high  military  honors  was  a  graduate  of 
West  Point, 

The  authorized  number  of  cadets  in  1903  was 
481,  and  the  number  of  instructors  81.  The 
course  of  instruction  is  to  a  large  extent  mathe- 
matical and  professional.  The  curriculum  in- 
cludes: Mathematics,  drawing,  nattiral  and 
experimental  philosophy,  chemistry,  chemical 
physics,  mineralogv'. .geology,  electricity,  history; 
international,  constitutional,  and  military  law; 
the  French  and  Spani.sh  languages,  drill  legiila- 
tions  of  all  arms  of  the  service,  civil  and  military 
engineering,  the  art  and  science  of  war,  and 
ordnance  and  gunnery.  The  superintendent  is 
assisted  by  a  military  staff,  and  the  instruction 
is  given  by  an  academic  staff,  consisting  entirely 
of  army  officers,  with  the  additional  rank  of  pro- 
fessors, assistant  professors,  and  instruotors  of 
the  several  departments  in  which  they  serve. 

In  1902  the  requirements  for  candidates  seek- 


ing admission  were  raised,  which,  while  it  makes 
the  entrance  examination  more  ditlicult.  greatly 
assists  the  student  during  his  period  of  in- 
struction at  the  Academy  by  reducing  the 
amount  of  work  he  is  called  upon  to  do  during 
his  course.  The  system  of  training  ollicers  at 
West  Point  is  regarded  as  more  complete  than 
that  of  any  other  country;  but  perhaps  the 
greatest  dillerence  is  the  West  Point  method 
of  holding  the  student  firmly  to  his  studies  dur- 
ing his  four  years'  course.  lie  mingles  little 
with  the  outside  world,  except  in  his  furlough 
at  the  close  of  two  years,  so  that  the  four  most 
impressionable  years  of  his  life  are  spent  in  a 
training  and  environment  well  calculated  to  pro- 
duce a  thorough  soldier.  The  Academy  has  been 
described  as  a  model  institution  by  many  dis- 
tinguished European  military  authorities,  and 
in  the  reorganization  of  the  methods  of  military 
instruction  in  England  many  of  the  \\'est  Point 
ideas  were  suggested.  The  \Vest  Point  cadet  uni- 
form (see  Uniforms,  JIilitary)  is  the  famous 
cadet  gray. 

Bibliography.  Consult:  Mansfield,  Tiw  Uniled 
fStates  Academy  at  West  Point  (Hartford,  Conn., 
1803)  ;  Farley,  West  Point  in  the  Early  Hixties 
(Troy,  N.  Y..'  1902)  ;  Boynton,  History  of  West 
Point  and  Its  Military  importance  During  the 
American  I'evolution  (New  York,  1804);  Han- 
cock, Life  at  West  Point  (New  York,  1902)  ; 
Cullum,  rHoyrophical  Rcfiister  of  the  O/ficrrs  and 
Graduates  of  the  United  Htutcs  Military  Academy 
(3  vols.,  New  York,  1808-79)  ;  and  the  Annual 
Reports  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Academy 
(United  States  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington) . 

MILITARY  ARCHITECTURE.  The  vari- 
ous branches  of  architecture  and  engineering 
used  by  military  science  in  defensive  works  of 
different  kinds.  The  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  Fortification  for  the  military  discus- 
sion of  this  subject.  The  more  important  details 
of  military  architecture  will  be  found  described 
under  their  own  titles. 

Egypt.  The  fortified  cities  and  forts  of  Egypt 
are  the  earliest  yet  explored,  though  doubtless 
earlier  ones  were  erected  in  Babylonia.  The 
earliest  completely  fortified  city  in  good  preserva- 
tion is  El-Kab.  which  formed  a  parallelogram 
of  about  1500  by  2000  feet.  The  walls  were  of 
brick,  over  thirty  feet  thick,  and  less  than 
thirty  feet  high,  with  gates  only  on  two  sides. 
There  were  no  towers,  no  ])roject  ions,  no  curved 
lines,  no  moats,  simplj-  a  plain  sharp-angled 
parallelogram,  and  the  gates  were  merely  open- 
ings. Such  walls  have  been  found  at  Thebes, 
Heliopolis,  and  in  many  other  cities.  Eg>'ptian 
engineers,  however,  were  siifficiently  skillful  in 
the  Middle  Empire  to  take  advantage  of  the 
natural  defensive  features  of  rocky  situations, 
and  to  abandon  the  defective  rectangular  ground- 
plan;  this  is  evident  at  Kiuumeh  and  Semneh 
at  the  Second  Cataract,  built  to  protect  Egypt 
from  Nubian  invasions.  Crude  brick  was  the 
material,  projecting  buttresses  strengthened  the 
walls  at  intervals,  and  there  were  stations  where 
archers  could  protect  the  approaches;  the  wide 
moat  which  encircled  the  fort  was  defended  by  a 
low  stone  wall :  the  interior  of  the  fort  was  filled 
up  solid  to  the  level  of  a  chemin-de-ronde.  The 
Hittite  wars  made  the  Eg^'ptians  acquainted  with 
the  far  more  advanced  systems  of  Western  Asia. 
Towers,  bastions,  elaborately  fortified  gates,  and 


MILITARY  ARCHITECTtTBE. 


488 


MILITARY  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  uau  of  fttoue  lor  brick  were  some  of  the  re- 
sults. 

Westekn  Asia.  The  use  of  oruile  brick  has 
made  impossible  any  lU'Liiled  knowledge  of  the 
methods  of  fortilioaliun  used  in  Babylonian 
cities,  though  they  are  known  to  have  been  pro- 
tected by  walls  of  immen.se  tliiekness  and  height. 
The  plan  of  placing  the  royal  palace  on  one  side 
and  using  it  as  a  citadel,  of  rectangular  shape, 
was  followeil  by  the  Assyrians,  as  shown  in  the 
city  of  Sargon,  near  Nineveh.  Hut  it  was  in  the 
more  mountainous  countries  of  Western  Asia,  es- 
pecially in  Syria  and  .Armenia,  that  the  earliest 
really  scientilic  types  of  military  engineering 
were  thought  out.  The  rectangular  type  was 
abandoned  in  favor  of  the  ciroilar  or  ovoidal, 
by  which  the  weak  angles  were  entirely  avoided. 
In  place  of  a  single  wall  with  an  advance-wall 
or  scarp,  there  were  usiuilly  three  concentric 
lines  of  increasing  heights,  each  with  towers  and 
battlements  and  rhemins-de-roitde.  The  Hittite 
cities  were  the  most  famous  of  such  fortifications, 
from  which  both  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians 
learned  much  of  the  art  of  building,  of  attack- 
ing, and  of  defending  fortresses.  The  mountain- 
ous races  of  Western  Asia  thus  created  a 
type  that  was  to  remain  the  highest  known  to 
military  architecture,  and  to  I)e  perpetuated  by 
the  successors  of  .Alexander,  by  the  Byzantine 
Emperors,  and  by  the  Crusaders. 

.-EiJKAN  Peopi.ks.  The  I'elasgians  and  other 
-•Egean  peoples  built  also  in  stone,  often  witli 
Cyclopean  and  polygonal  masonry.  There  were 
many  tj'pes:  first,  the  grimps  of  defensive  forts 
on  the  outskirts,  or  constituting  a  citadel;  then 
later,  the  walls  encircling  the  entire  city.  This 
wall  sometimes  rises  sixty  or  seventy  feet;  the 
citadel  as  much  more. 

Creek.  The  great  majority  of  fortifications 
found  in  Greece  belong  to  the  prehistoric  period 
just  descrilH'd.  for  instance,  those  in  .\carnania, 
at  Orchomenus  and  Pliigalia.  The  advances  made 
in  later  historic  times  are  shown,  for  example, 
at  Mantinea,  with  two  round  towers  protecting 
its  double  gate,  and  especially  at  Messene.  with 
gates  within  large  towers  having  a  circular  inner 
court.  The  towers  are  battlcmcnted  and  are 
sometimes  rectangular. 

Roman.  The  walls  of  Pompeii,  of  Aosta,  and 
of  Rome  are  a  few  among  many  examples,  show- 
ing the  use  of  a  simple  encircling  wall.  The 
walls  of  Aurclian  show  three  tiers  of  defenses, 
two  lines  of  embrasures  opening  on  galleries,  and 
the  chrmindc-rondc  behind  the  battlements,  be- 
sides, a  fourth  and  higher  line  at  the  summit  of 
the  numerous  square  towers.  A  uniiiue  combina- 
tion of  camp,  palace,  and  fortress  was  Diocle- 
tian's palace  at  Spalato,  also  a  superb  work  of 
late  Roman  architecture,  with  heavily  projecting 
circular  and  rectangular  towers. 

By/.a.ntine.  The  Eastern  Empire  continued 
the  traditions  of  the  ancient  Orient.  Antioch, 
Edessa,  Constantinople.  Amida,  and  other  great 
cities  trace  their  genealogy  from  .Alexander's  suc- 
cessors to  .Justinian,  The  essa.v  of  Procopius  on 
the  fortresse.i  of  .Fustininn  shows  how  the  Byzan- 
tine science  of  fortification  was  then  being  revo- 
lutionized under  this  Oriental  influence,  as  in  the 
great  works  at  Dara.  Between  the  towers  per- 
manent C'chaugettes  an<l  inachieo\ilis.  hurdle'^,  or 
overhanging  galleries,  were  built — originally  of 
wood,  but  then  of  stone,  in  order  better  to  let 
missile.s  fall  on  the  besiegers.    The  system  of  sev- 


eral concentric  walls  triuuiplicd  jK'rmanently  over 
the  single  rectangular  Roman  circuit.  The  citadel 
was  not,  as  with  tlic  Romans,  placed  in  the  cen- 
tre, but  in  touch  with  one  of  the  oviter  walls,  so 
that  if  the  city  were  taken,  communication  could 
still  be  maintained  between  the  citadel  and  the 
outside  world.  Their  system  was  adopted  through- 
out the  Empire  and  even  in  Europe,  under  Jus- 
tinian. 

Mohammed-^x.  In  the  great  wars  with  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  the  swarming  Arabs  and  their 
converts  quiekl.v  learned  the  science  of  military 
engineering,  and  exhibited  its  results  throughout 
their  great  empire,  especially  after  the  Titanic 
struggle  with  the  Macedonian  dynasty  in  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  The  great  field  was, 
as  always,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  and 
Asia  Minor.  These  lands  are  still  covered  with 
the  ruins  of  forts,  castles,  and  fortified  cities  of 
this  period.  Even  when  Saladin  liad  (aim  forti- 
fied, its  great  gates  built,  and  its  triple  walled 
citadel  erected,  he  called  architects  from  Syria. 
The  Mohammedans  opposed  to  the  Byzantines 
lines  of  fortresses  corresponding  to  theirs,  whose 
strength  is  celebrated  in  their  literature.  When 
the  Crusaders  came  to  the  East,  they  came  into 
contact  with  these  two  forms  of  Oriental  engineer- 
ing, and  borrowed  its  ideas  for  the  West.  The 
golden  age  of  military  works  in  the  Orient  ex- 
tended from  the  nintli  to  the  twelftli  century. 
The  combination  of  citadel  and  palace,  which  did 
not  originate  in  Europe  until  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, was  then  a  common  thing  with  the  emirs 
of  "the  Mohammedan  world:  many  such  castles, 
of  which  the  (iranada  Alhambra  is  an  example, 
are  still  found  in  ruins;  sumptuously  beautiful 
within,    magnificently    strong   without. 

.Medi.eval  Eirope.  With  the  barbarian  inva- 
sions of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  then'  had 
been  a  veritable  fury  of  haste  to  fortify  the 
cities  throughout  the'  Roman  world.  This  was 
]iarticul;nly  notici'al)le  in  (iaul.  for  instance  at 
(ircnoble  and  Vienna,  and  in  Spain,  as  at  Carta- 
gena. Media-val  cities  often — as  at  Carcassonne 
^lave  their  later  fortifications  based  on  late 
Roman  or  Oothie  prototypes.  But  ordinarily 
the  Roman  fortification  was  a  canlniiii.  which 
did  not  inclose  the  city.  City  defense  seems  to 
have  remained  at  a  higher  level  than  feudal 
castle  architecture  until  the  twelfth  century,  for 
while  castles  long  remained  mere  earthworks  in 
the  north  of  Europe,  cities  had  stone  walls,  and 
even,  as  at  Piaccnza.  two  concentric  circuits; 
and  while  the  castle  keeps  were  rectangular  and 
in  the  centre  of  the  circuit,  the  citadels  were 
often  curvilinear  and  astride  the  outer  walls. 
Tor  a  well-preserved  fortified  city  the  l)est  ex- 
ample is  Carca.ssonne  in  Southern  France,  built 
during  the  twelfth  and  thirtecTith  centuries.  It 
has  an  inner  ami  an  outer  circuit  with  lowers  of 
several  shapes,  bastions,  and  barliicans,  witli 
a  magnificent  citadel  on  the  west  edge,  Cologne, 
Cracow,  .\igues-M(Utes,  and  Xuremberg  have 
more  or  less  complete  medin>val  fortifications, 
usually  of  somewhat  later  date. 

In  so  far  as  military  architecture  is  connected 
with  art  and  not  science,  the  thirteenth,  and  espe- 
cially the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  were 
the  golden  age  in  Europe,  becnuse  then  strength 
was  no  longer  the  sole  oliject.  and  irsthelie  l)cauty 
was  as  miiih  aimed  at  in  these  structures  as  in 
cathedral,  monastic,  or  private  architecture,  in 
so   far  as  consistent  with   safety.     This   trans- 


MILITAKY  ARCHITECTURE 


489 


MILITARY   EDUCATION. 


forniatiou  so  tar  as  it  atlectid  feudal  buildings 
has  been  described  under  Castlk,  and  is  exeui- 
plilied  by  such  structures  as  Vajda-Hunyad 
castle  in  Hungary,  Maricnburg  in  Prussia,  and 
the  ducal  castle  "of  Milan.  The  exquisite  de- 
tails of  Gothic  architecture  and  decoration, 
vaulted  halls,  giant  fireplaces,  tracery,  and  sur- 
face decoration  were  multiplied.  The  city  gates, 
as  at  Liibeck,  Cologne,  Tangerniiinde,  St«ndal, 
became  works  of  municipal  decoration  as  well  as 
defense.  Consult  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of 
the  article  C.\sii,k. 

MILITARY  BRIDGES.  See  Bridges  and 
Docks,  Mimtary. 

MILITARY  COMMISSIONS.  Special  mili- 
tary courts  created  during  the  occupation  of  con- 
quered territory,  for  the  trial  of  ofl'enses  which 
cannot  by  the  rules  of  war  be  tried  or  punished 
by  courls-inartial,  and  yet  which  are  not  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  any  existing  court.  A  mili- 
tary commission,  unlike  a  court  martial,  is  ex- 
clu.sively  a  war  court.  It  nuiy  be  legally  con- 
vened and  assume  jurisdiction  only  in  time  of 
war  or  when  the  civil  authority  is  suspended 
on  account  of  the  existence  of  martial  law  or 
military  government.  The  powers  and  procedure 
of  this  class  of  military  tribunals  have  not  been 
defined  by  statute  law  nor  have  they  even  been 
expressly  authorized  by  any  act  of  Congress, 
although  they  have  repeatedly  been  recognized 
by  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  depart- 
ments of  the  Government.  According  to  usage 
the  same  rules  which  apply  in  the  organization 
and  procedures  of  courts-martial  are  held  to 
be  applicable  to  military  commissions,  and  their 
proceedings  are  subject  to  review  in  the  same 
manner  and  by  the  .same  authority  as  courts- 
martial.  Certain  offenses  which  in  time  of  peace 
are  regarded  as  civil  ofl'enses  become  in  time  of 
war  military  offenses,  and  are  triable  by  mili- 
tary commission,  even  though  the  civil  courts 
may  be  open  and  in  the  unobstructed  discharge 
of  their  duties.  During  the  Civil  War  and  re- 
construction periods  capital  offenses  were  fre- 
quently tried  by  military  commissions  and  the 
parties  punished,  although  they  were  in  neither 
the  military  nor  the  naval  service,  and  in  spite 
of  the  constitutional  provision  that  all  persons 
held  for  capital  or  otherwise  infamous  crimes, 
except  when  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  service, 
shall  be  tried  by  jury.  Consult:  Benet,  Military 
Lair  and  the  Practice  of  Courts-Martial  (New 
York,  1868)  ;  ^\r\(\\e\mer,Military(lorernment and 
.1/(7rNo(  Law  (Washington.  1892).  See  Military 
Law;  Courts.  Military;  Milligan,  Ex  Parte. 

MILITARY  COURTS.  See  Courts.  Mili- 
tary. 

MILITARY  EDUCATION.  The  education 
of  the  modern  military  othccr  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  preparatory  and  the  techni- 
cal. The  increased  demands  made  ujion  him  in 
the  exercise  of  his  profession  entail  a  most 
exacting  and  comprehensive  preliminary  train- 
ing; so  much  so,  that  in  many  countries  candi- 
<lates  for  army  commissions  are  trained  from 
earliest  youth,  and  molded  mentally  and  physi- 
cally for  their  future  career.  Below  will  be 
given  a  review  of  the  systems  of  military  educa- 
tion as  practiced  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States. 

In  .\i^STRiA  army  training  for  cadets  begins 
between   the   ages   of   fourteen    and    seventeen — 


there  being  fifteen  schools  (ItiuUchulcii)  set 
apart  for  that  work.  On  graduation  cadets  are 
taken  into  the  army  and  granted  commissions 
according  to  seniority,  each  selecting  his 
own  regiment  or  corps  in  the  branch  to  which 
he  is  assigned — subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
oUicers  of  such  regiment  or  corps.  The  higher 
academy  of  Wiener-Xeustadt,  with  its  three 
years'  course  for  cavalry  and  infantry  oliicers,  and 
the  Technical  Academy  of  Vienna,  with  a  similar 
course  for  artillery  and  engineer  oliicers.  receive 
most  of  their  pupils  from  the  higher  military 
preparatory  schools  set  ajjart  for  the  sons  of 
officers  of  limited  means.  Pupils  capable  of 
passing  the  entrance  examination  of  the  acade- 
mies may  enter  direct.  German  is  the  language 
used  in  all  military  educational  establishments, 
the  curriculum  also  being  based  on  the  German 
system. 

Belgium  trains  the  officers  of  all  arms  at  the 
Ecole  Militaire,  Ixelles,  the  course  covering  a 
))eriod  of  two  years  for  infantry  and  cavalry,  and 
four  for  artillery  and  engineers.  Entrance  is 
gained  by  competitive  examination,  there  being 
an  average  of  eighty  vacancies  in  the  school  each 
year. 

England  possesses  two  military  educational 
institutions:  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at 
Woolwich,  which  is  set  apart  for  Royal  Engineers 
and  Royal  Artillery  cadets;  and  the  Royal  Mili- 
tary College  at  Sandhurst  for  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry cadets.  No  one  is  allowed  to  compete  who 
has  not  been  passed  by  the  Commander-in-Chief, 
as  socially  qualified  to  hold  a  commission.  Both 
institutions  are  organized  on  a  military  basis, 
each  being  governed  by  a  military  odiccr  styled 
(Governor  and  Commandant,  appointed  by  and 
responsible  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War, 
through  the  Commander-in-Chief.  The  Governor 
is  assisted  by  a  staff  officer,  with  the  title  of 
assistant  commandant  and  secretary,  who  com- 
mands the  cadet  company,  and  takes  charge  of 
all  records  and  correspondeni-e.  The  entrance 
examinations  are  conducted  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners;  and 
there  is  also  a  rigid  physical  examination.  The 
age  of  admission  is  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
years,  successful  candidates  paying  half-yearly 
fees,  the  amount  of  which  varies  with  the  status, 
official  or  otherwise,  of  their  families.  Sons 
of  private  gentlemen  are  required  to  pay  £150 
each  half-year;  and  sons  of  admirals  or  generals 
£80.  If  the  cadet  is  the  son  of  an  ofiicer  below 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army,  or 
commander  in  the  navy,  he  pays  only  £40;  and 
if  the  son  of  a  deceased  officer  whose  family  has 
been  left  in  poor  circumstances,  only  £20  each 
half-year  is  required.  Cadet  pay  at  the  rate  of 
three  shillings  per  diem  is  granted  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, which  does  not  nearly  suffice  to  meet 
the  regular  and  necessary  expenses  of  the  cadet. 
He  is  also  required  to  pav  £25  to  cover  the  ex- 
pense of  uniform,  books,  etc..  and  to  supply 
liimself  with  all  other  articles  of  clothing,  etc. 
The  period  of  instruction  covers  two  years,  and 
is  divided  into  four  classes,  of  which  the  fourth 
is  the  junior.  Tlie  third  and  fourth  classes  are 
educated  together,  but  on  passing  out  of  the 
third  class  into  the  second,  the  cadets  are  sepa- 
rated into  two  divisions,  engineers  and  artillery, 
where  they  remain  until  graduation.  Those  pass- 
ing out  of  the  third  class  with  the  best  per- 
centage of  marks  go  to  the  engineers,  and  the 


MILITARY  EDUCATION. 


490 


MILITARY  EDUCATION. 


remaimlor  to  llie  aitillory.  Oiicu  tlic  assignment 
has  liien  made  to  any  particular  division  a  trans- 
fer is  iR'ver  allowed.  The  liuyal  Military  (.'ulleye 
at  Sandhurst  is  eonlined  to  cadets  for  cavalry 
and  infantry,  the  entrance  examination,  fees, 
academic  terms,  and  cadet  pay  being  similar  to 
the  Huyal  Military  Academy.  A  few  cadets  are 
received  as  Royal  cadets,  or  India  cadets,  who 
enter  without  payment,  and  receive  a  small  al- 
lowance. They  are  usually  specially  favored 
sons  of  poor  or  distinguished  ollicers,  or  have 
served  as  Court  pages.  The  course  of  instruction 
extends  over  a  period  of  eighteen  months,  divided 
into  three  terms,  or  classes  of  six  months  each, 
known  as  junior,  intermediate,  and  .senior.  The 
peculiarity  of  the  British  method  of  instruction, 
compared  with  that  of  all  other  countries,  is 
the  brief  period  of  instruction  in  the  schools, 
and  the  very  exacting  competitive  standard  and 
examination  for  admission,  which,  as  well  as  the 
expense  involved  at  the  very  outset,  limits  the 
class  from  which  cadets  are  drawn. 

The  School  of  Military  Enyineering  at  Chatham 
is  the  school  at  which  young  oflicers  appointed 
from  the  Royal  Military  Academy  receive  tlieir 
practical  training.  It  is  a  school  of  applica- 
tion, the  graduate  cadet  remaining  two  years  on 
probation,  after  whieli  he  is  assigned  to  his 
corps.  Otiicers  of  other  arms  receive  a  short 
course  of  instruction  in  field  engineering  at  the 
school,  as  do  a  proportion  of  both  commissioned 
oHicers  and  men  of  other  arms,  and  the  pioneer 
sergeants  of  infantry  regiments. 

The  Se)wul  uf  (liiniirry  at  Shoeburyness  is  the 
school  of  application  for  artillery  cadets  and 
officers,  as  well  as  the  general  training  .school 
for  officers  and  men  of  the  Royal  -Vrtillery,  The 
instruction  in  ordnance  numufacture,  laboratory 
work,  chemistry,  electricity,  and  metallurgy,  etc., 
is  given  at  the  Artillery  Collcqe,  Woolwich.  The 
Army  Medical  School  at  Xetley,  near  Southamp- 
ton, is  for  the  instruction  of  eamlidates  already 
medically  qualified  in  the  duties  of  milit;iry, 
medical,  and  surgical  work,  and  the  system  of 
military  hygiene.  On  conclusion  of  tlic  course, 
candidates,  if  successful,  are  assigned  commis- 
sions in  the  army  as  vacancies  occur.  The  fftaff 
Collcfie  at  ('aiul)erly.  near  Sandhurst,  receives  a 
limited  number  of  officers  each  year,  for  advanced 
and  special  work  in  the  study  of  modern  lan- 
guages, fortification,  and  artillery,  grand  tactics, 
stall"  duties,  military  administration,  topography, 
law  and  eipiitation.  Admission  is  obtained  by 
competitive  examination,  candidates  being  re- 
quired to  have  served  at  least  five  years,  hold 
at  least  captain's  rank,  or  have  passed  the  ex- 
amination for  that  rank,  and  be  recommended 
by  their  eonnnanding  officers  as  qtialified  physi- 
cally, educationally,  tem])erainentally.  techni- 
cally, and  to  he  of  good  personal  habits.  They 
must  be  under  thirty-seven  years  of  age.  On 
passing,  graduates  are  attached  for  a  few  weeks 
to  each  of  those  branches  of  the  service  with 
which  they  have  had  nn  previous  experience  or 
servioc.  The  l<chool  of  Musketry  (Hythe)  is  to 
the  infantry,  cavalry,  and  engineers  what  Shoe- 
buryness is  to  the  artillery.  For  schools  for 
rank  and  file,  see  .\RMy  Schools, 

T'^RiXNCt;  possesses  twenty-three  niilitarj'  schools, 
grouped  into  higher  schools  and  preparatory 
.schools.  There  are  seven  of  the  latter,  includ- 
ing the  orphan  school  at  La  Boissiere,  Of  the 
fonner  class   the  most   important   is  the   Ecole 


Hiipcrieure  dc  la  tlucrre,  where  instruction  is 
given  in  tactics,  strategy,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  the 
(Jerman  and  Russian  langiuxges.  The  French 
system,  as  a  whole,  is  very  minutely  and  com- 
prehensively organized.  The  l^cole  t'olytechiiique 
at  Paris  supplies  the  education  necessary  to  of- 
ficers of  scientilic  or  technical  corps  as  engineers, 
artillery,   telegraph,  etc. 

The  GEiiMAX  Arniy  recruits  its  officers  almost 
entirely  from  two  classes:  Avantageurs  and 
cadets.  The  former  either  submit  to  special 
examination  or  produce  on  demand  a  diploma 
from  an  authorized  public  educational  institu- 
tion. There  are  ten  schools  for  cadets  wlio  enter 
at  eleven  years  of  age.  At  fifteen  they  graduate 
into  the  Lichterfelde  Academy  near  Berlin,  and 
after  completing  its  course,  continue  their  studies 
with  the  avantageurs.  Both  classes  complete 
their  preliminary  education  in  one  of  the  eleven 
war  schools,  the  course  in  which  occujiies  four 
terms,  extending  over  a  period  of  three  years; 
in  all,  thirty-five  weeks.  Artillery  and  engineer 
officers  after  one  or  two  years'  army  service  pass 
from  one  to  two  years  in  the  Berlin  or  Munich 
schools  of  military  instruction. 

Military  Schools  in  Italy  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  (1)  The  College  Militari,  or 
preparatory  schools.  (2)  The  military  academies 
at  Turin  for  engineers  and  artillery,  and  at 
Jlodena,  for  infantry  and  cavalry,  (.i)  Scuole 
militari  compU'Uientari  (schools  of  application). 
The  Scuola  di  (liierra.  the  school  of  application 
for  artillery  and  engineer  officers,  is  at  Turin, 
and  the  cavalry  .school  is  at  Pinerola,  The 
cour.ses  of  instruction  at  the  military  acade- 
mies of  Turin  and  .Modcna  are  three  years  and 
two  years  respectively.  There  is  a  school  for 
under  officers  at  Caserta,  where  approved  non- 
commissioned officers  are  educated  for  eoimnis- 
sion.  In  each  arm  of  the  ser\'ice  fully  one-third 
of  the  commissions  are  held  by  men  from  the 
ranks. 

The  military  academies  of  .Japan  conqiare  very 
favorably  with  the  best  in  Kurope,  being  in  ef- 
fect organized,  as  is  the  army,  on  the  German 
model.  There  are  establishments  devoted  to  mili- 
tary education  under  the  Jlinister  of  War,  in- 
eluding  the  school  of  military  nuisic  and  the 
various  schools  of  a]>plication.  In  1002  several 
jiarties  of  Chinese  army  olficers  were  sent  by 
their  (iovernment  to  undeigo  a  course  of  in- 
struction at  the  .Japanese  Military  .\cademy. 

-Military  Kuicatio.v  in  the  Uxitko  State.s  is 
l)rnctically  a  university  system,  bringing  as  it 
does  all  the  different  branches  of  military  educa- 
tion into  one  system  and  under  the  direct  control 
and  supervision  of  a  body  of  specially  qualified 
officers,  making  every  part  of  the  system  efi'ective. 
The  I'nited  Slates  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point,  X,  Y.  (sec  Military  .Xcademy,  UNiTEn 
States),  is  the  foundation  of  the  entire  system, 
and  is  generally  conceded  to  be  uneipialed  in  the 
thoroughness  and  comprehensiveness  of  its  train- 
ing. The  practical  education  of  the  cadet,  in  its 
broadest  sense,  begins  with  his  assignment  to  his 
regiment  or  corps,  there  being  in  addition  an 
officers'  school  at  each  military  post  for  elemen- 
tary instruction  in  theory  and  practice.  The 
special  service  schools  or  schools  of  application 
are:  (a)  the  .\rtilli'ry  School  at  Fort  Monroe, 
Va.:  (b)  the  Kngineer  .School  of  .\pplicaf  ion. 
Washington  Barracks.  D.  C. ;  (c)  the  School  of 
Submarine  Defense,  Fort  Totten,  N.  Y.;   (d)   the 


MILITARY   EDUCATION. 


491 


MILITARY  INSIGNIA. 


School  of  Aiipliialioii  for  Cavali}'  and  Field 
Artillery,  at  Fort  Kiley,  Kan.;  (e)  the  Army 
Medical  School,  W  ashington,  D.  C.  The  (ieneral 
Service  and  Statl'  College  (q.v.)  is  at  Fort  Leav- 
enworth, Kan.,  and  the  War  College  (q.v.)  at 
Wasliington  Barracks,  D.  C.  A  general  super- 
vision of  all  the  diH'erent  schools  enumerated 
above  is  exercised  by  the  War  College  Board. 
Ollioers'  schools  at  military  posts  and  the  Gen- 
eral Service  and  Staff  College  are  ojicn  to  Na- 
tional (iuard  and  volunteer  oflicors,  as  well  as 
to  graduates  of  military  schools  and  colleges 
wliicii  liave  had  Regular  Army  otiicers  as  instruc- 
tors. (For  other  .schools,  see  Akmy  Sciiooi,.>?. ) 
Consult  The  Military  iichools  of  Europe  (Mili- 
tary Information  Division,  War  Department, 
Washington.  lS!l(i). 
MILITARY    ENGINEERING.     See    Engi- 

XEERIMI.    MlIJlAKV. 

MILITARY    FRONTIER.      See    Frontier, 

JIlHIARY. 

MILITARY  GOVERNMENT.  The  admin- 
istration of  territory  taken  from  the  enemy 
which  is  authorized  under  martial  law  (q.v.).  It 
is  under  this  power,  arising  from  the  necessity 
of  the  case,  that  provisional  governments  are 
instituted  in  conquered  territory.  All  proceed- 
ings of  government  under  martial  law  are.  within 
the  scope  of  their  authority,  as  legal  and  consti- 
tutional as  any  other  military  proceedings. 

MILITARY  HONORS.  Compliments  paid 
to  certain  olficers.  orticials.  or  other  distinguished 
persons.     See  S.^li'tes. 

MILITARY  INSIGNIA.  Devices  used  to 
di>tinguisli  the  various  corps,  branches,  ranks, 
and  grades  of  the  military  and  naval  services. 
In  all  the  armies  of  the  world  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  employ  badges  and  devices  to  mark 
the  necessary  distinctions  incident  to  such  organi- 
zations. The  term  insignia  is  here  employed  to 
include  such  badges,  devices,  etc.,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  equipment,  clothing,  etc.  The  custom 
in  Europe  is  a  natural  result  of  the  evolution  of 
the  various  countries  both  politically  and  uiili- 
tantly.  and  in  the  case  of  England  ))articularly 
the  badges,  mottoes,  and  devices  used  by  the 
various  regiments  are  emblematic  of  conspicuous 
incidents  in  their  history  and  not  infrequently 
have  been  taken  in  battle  from  some  regiment  of 
the  enemy. 

Connneneing  with  the  insignia  distinguishing 
the  various  grades  of  rank.  German  usage  may 
he  described  at  length,  seeing  that  its  system  in  a 
large  measure  obtains  in  every  other  army  in 
Europe.  Throughout  the  Imperial  Army  the 
epaulets  of  all  commissioned  ranks  are  crescent- 
shaped.  The  various  grades  are  distinguished  as 
follows:  (1)  General  field-niarshal,  two  batons 
(staffs  of  command  crosswise  over  each  other), 
(2)  General-in-Chief,  three  stars.  (3)  General 
of  the  infantry,  cavalry,  or  artillery,  colonel, 
captain,  two  stars.  (4)  Lieutenant-general,  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, first  lieutenant,  one  star:  major- 
generals,  majors,  and  second  lieutenants  do  not 
wear  a  star.  Second  and  first  lieutenants  and 
captain  wear  epaulets  having  a  golil  rim  but 
no  trimming:  colonels,  lieutenant-colonels,  and 
majors  wear  epaulets  with  gold  rims  and  silver 
trimming.  The  general  field-marshal,  general- 
in-chief.  lieutenant-general,  and  major-general 
are  distinguished  by  the  silver  rims  and  silver 
trimming  of  the  epaulets.  The  non-commissioned 
Vol.  Xllk— :i2. 


raidis  are  distinguished  by  the  gold  or  silver  lace 
on  the  collars,  cuffs,  and  facings  of  the  tunics. 
t)n  the  shoulder-strai>s  is  the  number  of  the 
soldier  and  tlie  monogram  of  his  reginu'Ut.  The 
various  arms  of  the  service  are  also  distinguished 
by  the  color  of  the  tunic  lace;  for  instance,  in- 
fantry regiments  have  red  lace.  On  the  right 
side  of  every  tJernian  soldier's  helmet  is  placed 
the  black,  white,  and  red  cockade  of  the  German 
Empire,  while  the  cockade  on  the  left  side  indi- 
cates the  particular  State  of  the  (Jerraan  Con- 
federation to  wliich  the  regiment  belongs,  as  fol- 
lows: Prussia,  black-white;  Bavaria,  wliite-sky 
blue;  Hamburg-Bremeu-Lubeck,  white  with  red 
cross;  Saxony,  white-green,  Wiirttemberg,  black- 
red;  Baden,  yellow-red;  Hesse,  wintered; 
ilecklenburg,  sky  blue-yellow-red;  Oldenburg, 
white-dark  blue  witiL  red  cross ;  Saxe-Weimar, 
yellow-green ;  Brunswick,  sky  blue-yellow ;  An- 
halt,  green ;  Saxon  duchies,  green-white ;  Lippe, 
yellow-red;  Schaumburg-Eippe,  white-red;  Wal- 
deck,  yellow-red ;  SchwarzburgSondershausen, 
white-dark  blue;  Schwarzburg -Uudolsta-dt,  dark 
blue-white:  Reuss.  yellow-red.  Other  distinguish- 
ing marks  between  the  various  .services  of  the 
German  Army  are  found  in  the  color  of  their 
uniform,  for  which  see  L'niform.s,  Military. 

In  the  British  Army  insignia  plays  an  impor- 
tant part.  It  is  used  as  much  to  encourage  esprit 
de  corps  as  a  mark  of  distinction  between  regi- 
ments. There  is  a  large  degree  of  variety  in  the 
badges  in  use  among  the  various  regiments  of  the 
army,  most  of  them  reminiscent  of  stirring 
periods  in  regimental  history.  In  1836  the  King 
commanded  that  an  account  shovild  be  published 
concerning  the  insignia,  badges,  devices,  etc.,  of 
the  regiments  of  the  army,  together  with  the 
particulars  recounting  the  reasons  for  their  ex- 
istence. The  result  was  a  very  excellent  liistorr 
of  the  British  Army.  The  introduction  of  the 
territorial  system  in  1881  destroyed  in  a  measure 
the  individuality  of  the  regiment  and  made  it  a 
part  of  the  territorial  district  to  which  it  was 
assigned.  In  the  effort  to  still  further  bind  the 
regiment  and  its  district  together  the  attempt 
was  made  by  the  military  administration  to 
abolish  much  of  the  insignia  formerly  character- 
istic of  the  different  regiments.  The  attempt, 
however,  created  so  much  op])osition  and  ill  will 
among  all  ranks  of  the  army  that  a  compromise 
was  effected,  and 'to-day  nearly  all  the  old  de- 
vices are  employed,  the  expense  usually  being 
borne  by  the  odicers  of  the  regiment.  The  au- 
thorized and  unauthorized  ba<lges  include  the 
royal  arms  (in  the  case  of  the  giiards  and  all 
other  regiments  distinguished  by  the  prefi.x 
'royal' ) ,  the  whole  or  part  of  numerous  orders, 
and  other  royal  honors.  Still  others  are  purely 
regimental,  i.e.  badges  distinguishing  regiments 
of  the  same  arm,  as  castles,  arms  of  counties  and 
cities,  the  Prussian  eagle,  the  French  eagle,  the 
death's  head,  the  elephant,  the  antelope,  tiger, 
dragon  of  Wales,  dragon  of  China,  the  sphinx  of 
Eg\'pt  (this  is  worn  by  the  thirty  regiments  who 
served  in  the  first  English  expedition  against 
the  French  in  Egypt),  the  Paschal  Lamb,  the 
white  horse  of  Hanover,  the  white  horse  of 
Kent,  the  lion  of  England,  a  gun.  a  grenade,  the 
bugle  (all  light  infantry  and  rifle  regiments  are 
distinguished  by  this  badge),  the  bear  and  ragged 
staff,  the  figure  of  Britannia.  Saint  George  and 
the  dragon,  the  harp  and  crowni.  the  shamrock 
(as  in  the  case  of  the  newly  formed  Irish  guards) , 


MILITAIIY  INSIGNIA. 


492 


MILITARY  INSIGNIA. 


the  Scottish  thistle,  the  Cross  of  Saint  Andrews, 
and  manv  others.  The  royal  arms  are  borne  by 
the  Royal  Engineers  and  the  Royal  Artillery,  the 
ditTerenoe  between  them  beint;  in  the  mottoes. 
Quo  Fas  et  (Jtoria  diicuiit  ami  Ibiquc.  With  the 
latter  motto  is  conjilcd  an  artillery  frtm. 

As  with  Germany,  the  various  branehes,  arms, 
departments,  etc.,  of  the  service  are  distinguished 
by  their  distinctive  uniforms  and  not  by  any 
particular  badge.  In  the  mounted  branehes,  rougli 
riders  (or  young  horsemen)  are  distinguished  by 
a  spur  worn  above  the  elbow  on  the  sleeve  of  the 
tunic:  farriers  and  shoeing  smiths  wear  a  horse- 
shoe. Expert  swordsmen,  and  gjmnasium  in- 
structors of  all  branches,  wear  the  crosseil  swords. 
Marksmen  (sharpshooters)  of  all  arms  wear  the 
crossed  guns  jjlaced  immediately  above  the  cuff 
of  the  tunic.  Pioneers  wear  the  crossed  axes  on 
the  upper  sleeve.  Commissioned  and  non-commis- 
sioned ranks  of  the  infantry  wear  the  sash,  which 
in  the  ease  of  ollicers  is  of  silk  ami  is  worn  over 
the  left  shoulder,  and  with  non-commissioned  olli- 
cers is  of  worsted  and  worn  over  the  right  shoul- 
der. Scottish  Higldand  regiments  are  further 
distinguished  l)y  the  dillerences  in  pattern  of 
their  clan  tartans.     See  Uniforms,  Milit.^kv. 

In  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
army  ranks  were  largelv  copied  after  French, 
Prussian,  and  English  usages.  General  and  stalF 
officers  were  distinguished  by  the  color  of  their 
sash  or  'ribband,'  which  was  worn  over  the 
waistcoat  and  tinder  the  coat.  Cockades  were 
worn  by  all  other  commissioned  ollicers,  and  the 
noncommissioned  ollicers  wi're  distinguished  by 
the  color  of  their  epaulet.  On  .Jiuie  IS.  1780.  a 
general  order  was  pronuilgated  authorizing  the 
following  insignia  of  rank  and  graile:  Major- 
generals  to  wear  two  stars  on  each  ejiaulct  : 
brigadier-generals,  one  star;  field  officers  w:ore 
two  e[>aulets;  captains,  one  epaulet  on  the  right 
shoulder  only:  and  lieutenants,  one  epaulet  on 
the  left  shouhler.  Other  distinguishing  marks 
were  details  of  miiforni.  In  17S2  the  system  of 
wearing  stripes  as  badges  of  rank  and  service 
by  the  rank  and  file  was  instituted.  Changes 
were  frequent  up  to  the  Civil  War,  hul  the  in- 
signia since  that  time  have  remained  substan- 
tially the  same,  the  more  important  changes, 
partieularlv  those  of  1002,  having  had  to  do  with 
tniifnrm  and  equipment  rather  than  of  insignia. 
Officers'  insignia  are  as  follows: 

(A)  A  coat  of  arms  of  the  United  States, 
made  of  gold  or  gilt  metal,  or  dull  finish  bronze, 
worn  on  the  cnlhir  of  the  dress,  service,  or  white 
coat,  is  plaicd  at  a  distance  of  one  inch  from 
each  end  of  the  collar.  When  worn  upon  the 
dress  or  white  uniform  the  coat  of  arms  is  of 
golil  or  gilt  metal.  When  worn  upon  the  service 
uniform  it  is  of  dull  bronze  metal, 

(B)  The  insignia  of  corps,  department,  or  arm 
of  service  are  as  follows:  .\djutant-Generars  De- 
partment, a  shield  of  gidd  or  gilt  metal:  In- 
spector-General's Dc'p.irlnient.  gold  or  gilt  sword 
and  fa-ees  crosse<l  and  wre;ithed:  .ludge  .Vdvo- 
onte-t!encrars  Department,  sword  and  pen  in  gold 
or  gilt  metal,  crossed  and  wreathed:  (Jnarter- 
mnster's  Department,  sword  and  key  crossed  on 
a  wheel,  surmounted  on  a  spread  eagle,  of  gold 
or  gilt  metal,  platinum  and  enamel;  Suhsistenee 
Department,  a  silver  crescent,  one-half  inch  be- 
tween cusps,  cusps  to  the  rear;  Pay  Department, 
a  diamiinil,  threeqtiartcrs  of  an  inch  by  one  inch, 


in  gold  or  gilt  metal,  placed  with  shorter  diam- 
eter vertical;  .Medical  Department,  a  cadiiceus, 
of  gold  or  gilt  metal :  Corps  of  Engineers,  a  silver 
turretcd  castle;  Ordnance  Department,  shell  and 
llamc,  of  gold  or  gilt  metal;  Signal  Corps,  two 
crossed  signal  Hags  and  a  burning  torch,  in  gold 
and  silver;  ollicers  of  the  Kecord  and  Pension 
Ollice,  a  silver  trefoil  within  and  partly  upon  a 
wreath  of  gold  or  gilt  metal;  professors  and 
assistant  professors  of  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy,  shield  and  helmet  surrounded  by 
a  scroll,  in  gold  or  gilt  metal,  according  to  pat- 
tern adopted :  aides-de-camp,  a  device,  one  and 
one-third  inches  high,  consisting  of  a  shield  of  the 
United  States,  ot  ]iroperly  <Milored  enamel  three- 
fourths  incli  high  and  three-fourths  inch  wide  at 
top,  surmounted  by  a  gold  or  gilt  eagle,  with 
wings  displayed,  on  blue  field  of  the  shield  a 
star  or  stars  according  to  rank  of  the  general  on 
whose  staff  the  officer  is  serving.  This  device  is 
worn  on  the  collar  in  lieu  of  corps  or  line  device. 

The  devices  appropriate  to  the  various  arms 
of  the  service  are  as  follows:  Cavalry,  two 
crossed  sabres,  one  inch  high,  with  number  of 
regiment  above  intersection:  of  gold  or  gilt 
metal.  .\rtillery,  two  crossed  cannons,  design 
to  l)e  one  inch  high,  of  gold  or  gilt  metal,  with 
oval  at  inter.section  having  a  scarlet  centre;  the 
red  oval  in  the  insignia  for  officers  of  coast  ar- 
tillery exhibits  an  oblong  i)rojectile  in  gilt  out- 
line; for  officers  of  field  artijlery.  a  gilt  wheel 
in  outline.  Infantry,  two  crossed  rifles,  design 
to  be  one  inch  high,  with  numU'r  of  regiment 
above  intersection;  of  gold  or  gilt  metal.  Regi- 
mental stall'  ofiicers,  regimental  adjutants,  quar- 
t<'rmasters,  commissaries,  and  squadron  and  bat- 
talion adjutants  wear  in  the  lower  angles  of 
their  insignia  the  devices  (of  gold  or  gilt  metal) 
of  the  res[)ective  departments  to  which  their 
duties  corres])ond;  the  battalion  adjutant  ami 
([uartermaster  of  engineer  battalions  wear  the 
same  devices  above  the  centre  turret,  Cliaplains, 
the  same  as  for  regimental  staff  ofiicers,  except 
that  the  pendant  design  is  a  Latin  cross  of  the 
same  material  and  size.  The  insignia  of  corps, 
department,  or  arm  of  service  is  placed  upon  the 
collar  of  the  dress,  service,  and  white  coat  at 
a  distance  of  five-eighths  of  an  inch  from  the 
coat  of  arms,  and  is  of  gold  or  g^ilt  metal  with 
the  <lress  or  white  tiniform  and  of  dull  bronze 
metal  with  the  service  imiform. 

(C)  The  insignia  of  rank  is  placed  on  the 
shoidder  loops  of  the  service  coat  and  the  white 
coat  near  the  shoulder  seam  as  follows:  General 
and  lieiitenant-gener:>l.  such  as  they  nia.v  pre 
scribe:  major-general,  two  silver  stars;  briga 
dier-general,  one  silver  star:  colonel,  one  silver 
spread-eagle:  lieutenant-colonel,  one  silver  leaf; 
major,  two  silver  bars;  captain,  two  silver  bars: 
first-lieutenant,  one  silver  bar. 

Braid  Insignia  of  Rank. — Colonel,  a  single  knot   , 
composed  of  five  strands  of  gold    wire  ln'aid   not   i 
exceeding   one-eighth    inch    in    wiillh    is    applied  i 
to    the    sleeve    of    the    full    dress    coat    below    the  | 
elbow,  the  base  resting  on  the  gold  hand  of  the 
sleeve:     lieutenant-colonel,     fo\ir     braids,     single 
knot:   major,  three  braids,  single  knot:   captain, 
two    braids,    single    knot :     first    lieutenant,    one 
braid,    single    knot ;    second    lieutenant,    without 
braid:    chaplain,    without    braid.       The    outside 
dimensions   of   the   braid    insignia    are    the   same 
for   all    officers,    the   diminution    being    made   by 
taking  strands  from  the  interior. 


MILITARY  INSIGNIA. 


493 


MILITARY  LAW. 


Braid  insignia  for  uvuieuatr,  made  of  Hat  black 
mohair  suiitai-lic  braid  onf-eiglilb  of  an  inrli  in 
witltli.  follows  tile  form  of  the  braid  insignia  for 
dress  coals,  but  is  applied  with  the  base  resting 
at  lower  end  of  the  sleeve. 

Epaulets. — For  general  olTicers — Of  gold  with 
solid  crescent,  the  only  device  being  the  coat  of 
arms  of  the  United  States  embroidered  in  gold. 

Shoulder  Knots. — Of  gold  wire  cord  one-fourth 
inch  in  diameter,  formed  of  three  cords  in  four 
plaits  and  rounded  top,  fmishcd  with  small  gilt 
regulation  button;  about  five  and  one-half  inches 
long,  extending  from  the  seam  of  the  sleeve  to 
the  seam  of  the  collar:  slightly  stiliened  with  a 
flexible  backing  which  is  covered  with  cloth  of  the 
color  of  the  coat  and  made  detachable. 

Shoulder  straps  are  as  follows :  General — Dark- 
blue  cloth,  one  and  three-eighths  inches  and  four 
inches  long,  bordered  with  an  embroidery  of  gold, 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  wide;  two  silver  embroid- 
ered stars  of  five  rays  each  and  gold  end^roidered 
"-•irnis  of  the  United  States"  between  them. 
Lieutenant-tlcneral — Dark-blue  cloth,  one  and 
three-eighths  inches  wide  and  four  inches  long, 
borilered  with  an  embroidery  of  gold  onc-cjuarter 
of  an  inch  wide,  three  silver-embroidered  stars  of 
five  rays  each,  one  star  in  the  centre  of  the  strap 
and  one  at  each  end,  equidistant  between  the 
centre  and  outer  edge  of  the  strap,  the  centre 
star  to  be  the  largest.  Major-General — The  same 
as  for  a  lieutenant-general,  except  that  there  are 
two  stars  instead  of  three ;  the  centre  of  each  star 
to  be  one  inch  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  gold 
embroidery  on  the  ends  of  the  straps;  both  stars 
of  the  same  size.  Brigadier-General — The  same 
as  for  a  major-general,  except  that  there  is  one 
star  instead  of  two  at  the  centre  of  the  strap. 
Colonel — The  same  as  for  a  brigadier-general, 
omitting  the  star,  with  a  silver  embroidered 
spread  eagle  on  the  centre  of  the  strap,  two 
inches  between  the  tijis  of  the  wings,  having  in 
the  right  talon  an  olive  branch  and  in  the  left  a 
bundle  of  arrows;  an  escutcheon  on  the  breast 
as  represented  in  the  "Arms  of  the  United 
States."  Color  of  the  cloth  of  the  straps  to  be 
that  selected  for  the  trimming  of  the  uniforms. 
Lieutenant-Colonel — The  same  as  for  a  colonel, 
according  to  corps,  department,  or  arm,  of  serv- 
ice, omitting  the  eagle,  with  a  silver  embroidered 
leaf  at  each  end,  each  leaf  extending  seven-eighths 
of  an  inch  from  the  end  of  the  strap.  Major — 
The  same  as  for  a  lieutenant-colonel,  with  a  gold 
embroidered  leaf  at  each  end,  instead  of  silver 
leaf;  each  leaf  extending  seven-eighths  of  an  inch 
from  the  end  of  the  strap.  Captain — The  same 
as  for  a  major,  omitting  the  leaves;  at  each  end 
two  silver  embroidered  bars  of  the  same  width 
as  the  border,  placed  parallel  to  the  ends  of  the 
strap;  the  distance  between  them  and  the  border 
equ.nl  to  the  width  of  the  border.  First  Lieuten- 
ant— The  same  as  for  a  captain:  at  each  end  one 
silver  endiroidered  bar  of  the  same  width  as  the 
border,  placed  parallel  to  the  ends  of  the  strap, 
at  a  distance  from  the  border  equal  to  the  width 
of  the  border.  Second  Lieutenant — The  same  as 
for  a  first  lieutenant,  omitting  the  bars,  .\ddi- 
tional  Second  Lieutenant — The  same  as  for  a 
second  lieutenant.  Chaplain — Of  dark-blue  cloth 
of  the  usual  size  and  pattern,  with  a  plain  Latin 
cross  of  silver   in   the  centre. 

Corps  badges  were  first  employed  during  the 
Civil  War  and  proved  to  be  an  extremely  valu- 
able means   of   identification.     The  devices   em- 


ployed include  a  triangle  (Fourth  Army  Corps)  ; 
the  star  and  crescent  (Seventh)  ;  a  six-pointed 
star  (Eighth)  ;  an  acorn  (Fourteenth)  ;  an  arrow 
(Seventeenth);  a  maltese  cross  (Nineteenth); 
a  shield  (Twenty-third).  The  device  for  Wilson's 
cavalry  corps  consisted  of  crossed  swords  sur- 
mounted by  a  carbine.  The  Signal  Corps  was 
distinguished  by  the  crossed  flags  and  torch. 
Division  headi|uarters  were  marked  by  a  square 
Hag  upon  which  was  a  badge  ilesignating  the 
character  of  the  headquarters.  The  old  Twen- 
tieth Corps  did  not  at  first  wear  a  badge,  but 
when  the  new  Twentieth  was  formed  by  the  con- 
solidation of  the  Eleventh  and  I'welfth  Army 
Corps,  it  adopted  the  badge  of  the  Twelfth,  a 
five-pointed  star.  During  the  Spanish-American 
War  the  various  corps  were  distinguished  by  the 
following  corps  badges:  Artillery  Corps,  crossed 
conical  projectiles,  with  round  shot  above  the 
centre;  Cavalry  Corps,  a  winged  horse-foot;  First 
Corps,  the  letter  "I"  inclosed  in  a  circle;  Second 
Corps,  a  four-leaf  clover;  Third  Corps,  a  three- 
toothed  clutch ;  Fourth  Corps,  a  caltrop ;  Fifth 
Corps,  a  five-bastioned  fort ;  Sixth  Corps,  a  six- 
spoke  hub;  Seventh  Coriw,  a  seven-pointed  star; 
Eighth  Corps,  two  overlapping  circles,  very  much 
resembling  the  figure  eight;  Ninth  Corps,  a  nine- 
toothed  buzz-saw ;  Tenth  Corps,  two  triangles 
point  to  point ;  Eleventh  Corps,  same  design  as 
for  the  Tenth  Corps,  with  thi'  addition  of  a 
horizontal  bar  through  the  centre :  I'welfth  Corps, 
a  square  with  a  clover-leaf  at  each  corner;  Thir- 
teenth Corps,  a  palm-leaf:  Fourteenth  Corps,  a 
square  with  half  circles  on  each  side;  Fifteenth 
Corps,  a  bugle;  Sixteenth  Corp^.  a  spear-head: 
Seventeenth  Corps,  a  battle-axe;  Eighteenth 
Corps,  an  arch.  The  color  of  the  symbol  deter- 
mines the  division  of  the  corps,  as:  red.  First 
Division;  white,  Second  Division:  blue.  Third 
Division.  Such  badges  are  worn  on  the  hat  or 
cap.  Commissioned  officers  wear  them  on  the 
left  breast,  and  not  on  the  hat.     See  Uniforms, 

MlLIT.^RY  AND  NaV.\L  ;  AlGUILLETTES ;  ChEV- 
B0K.-5 ;   etc. 

MILITARY  JUSTICE,  Bi  reau  of.  See 
Military  Law. 

MILITARY  LAW.  That  part  of  the  law  of 
the  land  which  prescribes  and  enforces  the  public 
obligations  of  persons  in  the  military  service. 
The  civil  law  not  being  adequate  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  militai-y  community,  peculiar  laws 
and  institutions  have  been  framed  for  its  regu- 
lation, which  invest  military  authority  with  the 
right  to  punish  oll'enders  who  are  under  military 
rule  for  ofl'enses  contrary  to  military  discipline, 
or  breaches  of  military  duty,  the  essential  object 
being  to  maintain  order  and  discipline  in  the 
army.  Every  country  that  maintains  a  standing 
army  generally  enacts  articles  for  its  govern- 
ment, and  confers  special  and  limited  powers 
upon  the  military  authorities  to  enable  them  to 
enforce  their  provisions. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  confided 
to  Congress  the  power  to  keep  np  a  standing 
army,  and  to  make  rules  and  regulations  for  its 
government.  Under  this  grant  Congress  has  en- 
acted ".\rticles  of  War"  and  other  similar  enact- 
ments which  together  constitute  the  statutory 
military  law  of  the  United  States.  These 
statutes  deal  not  only  with  military  offenses  and 
punishments,  but  also  with  the  constitution, 
composition,  jurisdiction,  and  procedure  of  mili- 
tary courts.    The  power  of  the  President  to  issue 


MILITAKY  LAW. 


494 


MILITARY  LAW. 


regulations  and  oriUi>.  lo  tlie  iuniy  is  a  riglit 
imiiionUil  to  liis  ronslitutional  power  as  Com- 
inanderinChicf,  and  is  a  means  for  earrying 
into  execution  liis  sovereign  power.  Sueli  orders 
of  the  President,  as  Coniniander-iu-Cliief,  and  of 
superior  officers,  wlien  not  in  conllict  with  exist- 
ing law  and  regulations,  are  also  a  part  of  the 
code  military.  To  declare  what  the  law  for  the 
army  shall  be  is  the  province  of  Congress.  But 
to  interpret  this  law  is  a  judicial  function.  While 
Amerii'un  niililiuy  law  is  mostly  statutory,  we 
must  go  to  the  decisions  of  the  courts  and  to  the 
opinions  of  the  attorneys-general  for  interpreta- 
tion and  explanation  of  the  enacted  word. 

Ci  STOMS  OF  TiiK  Skuvice  in  i)eace  and  in  war 
arc  a  source  of  military  law.  These  usages  have 
become  to  the  army  a  kind  of  common  law,  sup- 
plementing the  statute  law  and  regulations.  The 
oath  administered  to  the  members  of  a  court- 
martial  rc(|uires  them  in  doubtful  cases  to  ad- 
minister justice  aci-oriling  to  ■'the  customs  of  war 
in  like  cases."  This  oath  is  almost  identical 
with  the  one  taken  by  mcml>ers  of  courtsnuirtial 
in  tlie  British  service,  and  the  term  "custom  of 
war"  as  u.sed  in  the  Articles  of  War  of  the  United 
States  nuist  not  be  understood  as  referring  only 
to  the  usages  of  the  army  of  the  Inited  States. 

Pebsons  Sun.iKCT  to  the  JIii.itary  Law  are 
(1)  officers  and  soldiers  on  the  active  list, 
whether  militia  or  others,  mustered  and  in  pay  of 
the  United  States,  (2)  rclircil  olliccrs  and  sol- 
diers. (3 1  persons  who  fraudulent  1_\  enlist  and 
receive  pay  and  allowances  thereunder,  (4)  dis- 
charged ollicers  and  soldiers  who  have  defrauded 
the  United  States,  (5)  discharged  ollicers  after 
summary  dismissal  and  general  prisoners.  In 
time  of  war  spies,  retainers  to  the  camp,  persons 
who  relieve  and  aid  the  enemy  in  the  way 
specified  in  the  statutes,  are  included.  When  a 
person  subject  to  military  law  commits  an  of- 
fense lie  is  jjlaced  in  arrest  or  conrmenicnt.  Ex- 
cept in  cases  of  (|uarrcls,  frays,  and  disorders 
commanding  ollicers  only  have  power  to  |)ut  offi- 
cers in  arrest.  An  officer  arrested  eonlines  himself 
to  his  quarters  until  his  arrest  is  ma<le  open  or 
its  limits  extended,  lie  is  not  permit tid  to  wear 
a  sword  or  to  visit  officially  his  commanding  or 
superior  officer,  unless  directed  to  do  so.  When- 
ever a  coinmaiuliiig  (iHiivr  places  an  (illicer  in  ar- 
rest and  releases  him  witliout  preferring  charges 
he  makes  a  written  re|)ort  to  the  di'partment 
commander  of  the  cause.  When  an  officer  is  put 
in  arrest  for  the  purpose  of  trial,  except  at  re- 
mote stations,  the  officer  ordering  the  arrest  must 
see  that  he  has  a  copy  of  the  charges  on  which  he 
is  to  lie  tried  within  eiirht  days  after  his  arrest. 
Non-commissioned  officers  and  ])rivates  to  be 
tried  by  summary  cdiirt  arc  generally  placed  in 
arrest  in  their  (piartcrs.  Privates  to  be  tried 
by  general  court-martial  are  confined  in  the 
guardhouse,  t'onliiiement  without  trial  as  a  pun- 
ishment for  an  oirens<'  is  forbidden.  Consequent 
upon  arrest  follows  a  preliminarv  investigation 
as  to  the  crime  or  ofTensc  charged  against  the 
prisoner  and  the  evidence  upon  which  it  is  to  be 
supported.  If  the  otl'ense  is  one  for  trial  by  a 
superior  court,  the  charges  are  forwarded  by  the 
commanding  officer  with  the  statement  that  he 
has  investigated  them,  and  his  opinion  as  to 
whether  or  not    they  can  be  sustained. 

Certain  various  ofl'enses  against  militarv  law 
when  committed  in  time  of  war  are  i)unishable 
with  death.     Tn  time  of  pence  the  oidinarv  pun- 


ishments are  dishonorable  di>cliaige.  confinement 
at  hard  labor,  and  forfeiture  of  pay.  The  ma.xi- 
iiuim  punishment  is  only  given  when  the  otl'ense 
is  of  the  worst  type,  or  when  an  example  is  nec- 
essary. In  a  few  instances  the  punishments  are 
peremptory.  The  purposes  of  military  process 
and  proceedings  in  res|)ect  to  oll'enses  against 
military  law  have  reference  always  to  the  pre- 
vention in  future  of  the  commission  of  these 
ofl'enses.  In  the  military  code  of  Kngland  promi- 
nence is  given  to  the  principle  of  honor,  and  as 
the  life  of  the  military  comnuiiiity  will  always 
depend  on  the  zealous  inainteiiance  of  this  pro- 
fessional characteristic,  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant ])iirposes  for  which  the  military  law  exists 
is  to  preserve  the  honor  and  purity  of  the  service. 

.\merican  militarv  law  began  with  the  War 
of  tlie  Rev(dutioii.  .\rticles  of  war  were  first 
made  for  the  government  of  the  army  on  the 
30th  of  June.  1775.  In  April.  ISOU.  the  present 
military  code  was  estal)lished.  This  code  was 
derived  immediately  from  the  Kngllsh  military 
laws,  and  for  many  y<'ars  the  American  officer 
was  compelled  to  look  to  English  treatises  on 
military  law  to  solve  questions  which  aro.se  in 
the  course  of  his  judicial  duties.  In  1864  a 
military  law  department  was  established  by  Con- 
gress, to  be  known  as  the  Bureau  of  Military 
Justice.  In  1883  this  bureau  was  consolidated 
w  ith  the  corps  of  the  judge-advocates  of  the  army 
under  the  title  of  "JudgcAdvocal<'s  IVjiartment." 
which  it  still  retains.  This  department  as  now 
organized  consists  of  a  judge-advocate-geiieral, 
and  eleven  judge-advocates,  holding  permanent 
commissions  in  the  department.  These  judge- 
advocates  are  stationed  in  time  of  peace  at  the 
headquarters  of  the  several  military  depart- 
ments into  wliieli  the  country  is  divided.  In 
time  of  war  they  are  at  the  headcpiarters  of 
corps  and  divisions.  They  are  consultative  of- 
ficers and  legal  advisers.  In  important  trials 
the  <lirect  resjjonsibilit.v  of  their  pro.secution  is 
u])on  them.  'Ihev  n'ceive  and  revise  the  pro- 
ceedings of  courts-martial  held  in  their  several 
departments,  give  legal  opinions,  and  administer 
oaths.  In  the  English  .\rmy  a  judge-advocate 
never  acts  as  a  i)rosecutor  or  witness  for  the 
])rosecution.  He  is  a  helper  to  the  court,  and 
the  ])rosecutor  and  the  prisoner  are  entitled  to 
his  opinion  on  anv  point  of  law  that  is  relevant 
to  the  trial.  The  judge-advocategeiieral  is  a 
member  of  Parliament,  a  Privy  Councilor,  and  a 
responsible  adviser  to  the  Crown  in  all  cases  of 
general  courts-martial  which  the  Crown  con- 
firms. 

Military  law  requires  that  before  a  sentence 
of  a  court  can  be  executed  it  must  be  con- 
firmed. In  England  the  sentences  of  general 
courts-martial  are  confirmed  by  the  King,  or 
by  an  officer  holding  a  warrant  from  the  King. 
Ill  the  United  States  tlic  officer  ordering  the 
court,  or  the  officer  commanding  for  the  time 
being,  must  approve  a  sentence  liefore  it  can  be 
executed.  Except  in  certain  convictions  in  time 
of  war  a  sentence  of  death  must  be  confirmed 
by  the  President.  In  time  of  peace  no  sentence 
of  a  court-martial  directing  the  dismissal  of  an 
officer  can  be  executed  until  approved  bv  the 
President.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  confirming  of- 
ficer to  see  that  the  finding  .nnd  sentence  are 
legal,  and  that  the  latter  does  not  award  a  pun- 
ishment in  excess  of  the  punishment  authorized 
bv   law.     Where  the  sentence  of  a  <ourt martial 


MILITARY  LAW. 


495 


MILITABY  POLICE. 


imposes  several  puuishmeuts  one  or  more  may  be 
approved. 

The  principal  offenses  connnittetl  by  soldiers 
are  doertiou,  fraudulent  enlistment,  disobedi- 
onee  to  superiors,  quitting  or  sleeping  on  post, 
drunkenness,  absence  without  leave,  selling  or 
losing  by  neglect  clothing  or  equipment,  and  mis- 
cellaneous offenses  to  the  prejudice  of  good  or- 
der and  military  discipline.  A  person  in  the 
military  service  is  not  freed  from  his  civil 
obligations.  He  is  still  a  citizen  and  amenable 
to  the  civil  authority  for  violation  of  local  laws. 
He  is  liable  to  be  taxed  for  his  real  estate  or 
household  g(X)ds.  He  may  vote  at  the  place 
where  he  has  a  legal  residence. 

French  JIilitarv  Law  is  administered  by 
means  of  regular  trial  and  sentence  before  a 
military  tribunal,  or  by  infliction  by  any  su- 
perior of  inferior  punishments  for  mere  faults. 
The  punishments  inflicted  upon  officers  for  faults 
against  discipline  are:  Simple  arrests,  rigorous 
arrests,  reprimand  from  the  colonel,  and  prison. 
Faults  of  officers  too  grave  for  disciplinaiy  pun- 
ishment are  referred  to  courts  of  inquest.  Coun- 
cils of  war,  answering  to  our  general  court- 
martial,  take  cognizance  of  the  graver  violations 
of  military  law,  which  can  only  be  punished  by 
alllictive  or  infamous  punishments.  The  .judg- 
ments of  councils  of  war  may  be  revised  by 
councils  of  revision.  If  the  latter  annul  the 
judgment  referred  to  them,  proceedings  and  de- 
cision are  sent  to  a  second  council  of  war  hav- 
ing jurisdiction  in  cases  of  judgments  annulled 
by  councils  of  revision.  There  is  also  a  court 
of  appeal  in  cases  of  trial  and  sentence  for  the 
crime  of  capitulation.  This  court  is  styled  'The 
Court  of  Ca.ssation.'  Punishments  in  the  Ger- 
man, .\ustrian.  and  Russian  armies  are  similar 
to  those  in  the  French  service. 

Knglisu  JIilitary  Law  so  nearly  resembles 
the  American  as  to  require  in  this  article  but 
brief  description.  It  is  embodied  in  the  Army 
Act  of  1881,  and  is  kept  in  operation  from  year 
to  year  by  the  passing  of  the  Army  Annual  Act. 
It  consists  of  a  written  and  unwritten  part.  ( 1) 
The  written  part  consists  of  the  Army  Act,  rules 
of  procedure.  King's  Regulations,  general  orders, 
army  circulars  and  orders,  royal  warrants,  and 
orders  in  council,  (2)  The  unwritten  part  con- 
sists of  the  laws  or  customs  of  war.  The  sov- 
ereign has  power  to  make  articles  of  war,  but 
the  articles  of  war  and  the  Mutiny  Act  have  been 
consolidated  in  the  Army  Annual  Act,  and  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  necessity  for  articles  of  war  will 
ever  arise  again.  The  military  code  of  England 
describes  in  detail  the  serious  offenses  against 
military  law  and  prescribes  the  maximum  pun- 
ishment that  can  be  awarded  for  them. 

Consult:  For  the  United  States,  Winthrop, 
Militarii  Laic  and  Precedents  (Boston,  1896); 
Manual  for  Courtfi-Martial,  prepared  by  direc- 
tion of  the  Secretary  of  War  for  the  use  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States  (ed.  1001).  For 
England.  Simmons,  Courts-Martial ;  Clodc,  Mili- 
iary  and  Martial  Law  (London,  1872)  ;  and 
Pratt,  Military  Laic  (London,  1892).  See 
Courts,  Military;  Martial  Law. 

MILITARY  MUSIC.     See  Band,  Militaky. 

MILITARY  ORDER  OF  FOREIGN  WARS. 

See  FoRKicN  Wars,  Military  Okoer  of. 

MILITARY  POLICE.  A  distinct  corps  of 
Jnilitary    [lolicc.    with    functions    similar   to   the 


provost  guard  in  the  United  States  Army  (see 
Army  OKOA.MZ.vriON ) ,  is  a  part  of  many  Eu- 
ropean armies.  In  the  Hrilish  .^rmy  it  con- 
sists of  mounted  and  dismounted  branches,  with 
headquarters  at  Aldershot  (q.v.).  Their  duties 
are  similar  to  the  civil  police,  but  are  con- 
fined to  the  soldiers  of  the  district  in  which 
they  are  stationed.  In  time  of  peace  thej'  are 
scattered  in  detachments  of  varying  strength 
throughout  tlie  .standing  camps  and  large  garri- 
sons of  England  and  Ireland.  On  active  service 
they  carry  out  the  orders  of  the  provost-marshal 
(q.v.),  and  maintain  good  order  and  military 
discipline  in  the  command  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached. On  the  march  they  are  in  the  rear  of 
the  column,  to  arrest  stragglers,  deserters,  etc, 
(See  M.-VRCHINO.)  They  are  recruited  from  the 
regular  army,  and  are  confined  exclusively  to 
noncommissioned  officers  and  men  of  several 
years'  service  and  unblemished  record.  Every 
member  of  the  force  is  a  noncommissioned  officer, 
and  acts  with  the  full  authority  of  such.  Their 
uniform  is  similar  to  that  of  the  field  artillery. 
In  France  these  duties  are  performed  by  the 
gendarmes  (q.v.).  The  military  police  of  Ger- 
many come  into  active  employment  during  war 
time,  when  each  army  corps  mobilizes  two  de- 
tachments, one  to  accompany  the  corps  itself, 
and  one  for  the  line  of  communications.  Police 
forces  organized  on  a  semi-military  basis  exist 
throughout  the  British  Empire.  The  Royal  Irish 
Constabulary  was  the  model  upon  which  the 
Canadian  Northwest  JMoiinted  Police  was  or- 
ganized, a  force  which  is  altogether  military  in 
organization  and  eiiuipnient,  and  which  has  on 
various  occasions  .served  as  a.  military  corps. 
Their  principal  duties  are  to  jiatrol  the  frontier, 
maintain  the  laws,  and  control  the  Indians,  in 
which  latter  duties  they  have  been  conspicuous- 
ly successful.  Similar  bodies  were  organized 
throughout  Australia,  for  duty  in  the  gold-min- 
ing camps  primarily,  and  afterwards  to  control 
the  natives  and  protect  isolated  ranches  or  sta- 
tions. In  organization  there  is  generally  a  colo- 
nel, lieutenant-colonel,  or  major  at  the  head, 
who  is  in  turn  responsible  to  the  ^linister  of  the 
Interior.  Rank  and  title  are  the  same  as  in 
the  regular  army.  In  South  .\frica  the  Cape 
Mounted  Police,  a  force  consisting  in  1901  of 
68  officers,  1922  men,  and  1.572  horses,  are  avail- 
able for  militaiy  duties  whenever  required,  and 
are  included  in  the  military  defenses  of  the  col- 
ony. The  British  Central  Africa  Protectorate 
employs  a  military  police,  consisting  of  about  250 
Sikhs  from  the  Indian  Army  and  1070  trained 
native  troops.  They  are  under  British  officers, 
and  are  charged  with  the  duties  of  maintaining 
order  and  suppressing  the  slave  traflic  The  area 
under  their  jurisdiction  covers  42.217  square 
miles,  and  is  divided  into  twelve  districts.  They 
also  police  the  eastern  portion  of  the  British 
South  Africa  Chartered  Company's  territory, 
north  of  the  Zambezi,  for  which  they  receive  pay- 
ment. The  Uganda  Rifles  constitute  the  armed 
constabulary  of  the  Uganda  Protectorate,  and 
consist  of  native  levies,  numbering  aliout  4000 
men,  mider  British  officers.  The  Natal  -Mounted 
Police  numbers  about  660  officers  and  men.  and 
constitutes  the  nucleus  of  the  military  forces  of 
the  colony.  The  Rhodesian  military  police  forces 
now  include  all  the  small  bodies  of  men  formerly 
engaged  in  the  division  of  what  is  now  termed 
Rhodesia,  the  corps  as  a  whole  being  under  the 


MILITAKY  POLICE. 


496 


MILITARY  TERRITORIES. 


High  Commissioiur,  as  are  also  the  forces  of  the 
BtiJiUiiiialand  Froteclorate  and  Basutohiiul. 
Similar  forces  arc  maintained  throughout  the 
Gerinau  possessions  in  Kast  and  Southwest  Af- 
rica.    Sec  PitovosT  Maksiial. 

MILITARY  PRISON.  A  prison  set  apart 
for  military  prisoners.  In  the  United  States 
soldiers  sentenced  by  court-martial  to  long  terms 
of  imprisonment  are  sent  to  tlie  military  prison 
at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.  Short  terms  of 
punishment  are  usually  served  at  the  prison  of 
some  post  in  the  department.  The  same  system 
ohtains  in  Kngland. 

MILITARY  PUNISHMENTS.  See  Min- 
TAUV  Law. 

MILITARY  RESERVATION,  Uniteu 
States.  A  term  api)licil  lo  every  military  post, 
station,  or  other  locality  selected  and  set  apart 
for  present  or  future  military  occupation.  De- 
partment commanders  supervise  all  such  reserva- 
tions within  their  territory,  and  are  responsible 
that  trespass  and  damage  are  prevented.  They 
are  also  required  to  see  that  every  consideration 
is  given  to  their  care,  preservation,  and  adorn- 
ment, and  that  every  available  means  is  em- 
ployed to  make  them  attractive  homes  for  the 
army.  The  grounds  are  improved  as  far  as 
possible.  Where  the  reservations  are  of  con- 
siderable extent  or  suflicicntly  practicable,  they 
are  stocked  with  game,  and  stringent  rules  made 
for  the  protection  of  native  singing  birds.  Lands 
reserved  for  military  use,  and  military  ])Osts 
temporarily  evacuated  by  troops,  are  luidcr 
charge  of  the  ((uartermaster's  ilepartmcnt.  Per- 
manent works  of  defense,  and  lands  appurtenant 
thereto,  are  under  the  direction  and  charge  of 
the  engineer  department. 

MILITARY  SCHOOLS.  See  Military  Edu- 
cation :    .Mii.rr\i!v  Ac'AiiKMY,  United  St.vtes. 

MILITARY  SCIENCE,  This  subject  may 
l)e  divided  into  fnur  general  branches:  Slratefj;/, 
or  the  .science  of  nian(euvring  an  army  while 
out  of  the  fire  of  the  enemy  upon  points  the 
possession  of  which  is  of  importance  to  both 
sides;  tactics,  or  the  art  by  which  strategical 
plans  are  carried  into  effect;  engineering,  or  the 
art  of  disposing  troo|)s  and  arranging  or  re- 
moving obstacles;  and  liigiatir/i,  or  the  art  of 
miiving  and  sup|)lying  an  army.  These  subjects 
will  be  found  fully  treated  under  the  separate 
heads. 

MILITARY  SERVICE  rNSTITXTTION 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  An  ..igaiiization 
of  olliccrs  of  tlic  I  iiil<'d  States  l!i'gular  Army 
and  allied  forces.  a.ssociatcd  for  professional  im- 
])rovemeiit,  the  interchange  of  views  upon  mili- 
tary matters,  and  such  topics  in  general  as  may 
be  calculated  lo  promote  the  best  interests  of  the 
army  of  the  United  States.  In  IS""  General 
Stanley.  General  Fry.  General  Rodenbough.  and 
Colonel  Lieber  issued  a  circular  reijuesling  the 
presence  of  the  olliccrs  in  the  army  at  a  meeting 
to  consider  the  practicability  of  forminu'  an  assn- 
ciatiirt]  similar  to  the  Royal  United  S<'rvice  In- 
stitution of  Great  Britain,  .\bout  forty  oflUers 
responiled,  and  in  1S78  the  Military  Service  In- 
stitution was  organixed.  with  General  Hancock 
as  president.  Snbseqirent  presidents  have  been 
Generals  Sehofield.  Miles,  and  Ruger.     The  liead- 

Juarters   of    the    Institution    are    at    Governor's 
sland,  N.  V.     The  -lournal  of  the  Hililnry  Ser- 


vice Institution  published  its  (irst  number  in 
January,  188U,  and  is  devoted  to  regimental 
histories  and  the  discussion  of  contemj)orary 
mililary  questions,  domestic  and  foreign.  It  is 
universally  regarded  as  a  publication  of  great 
international  importance  in  its  own  domain. 
Under  the  management  of  the  publication  com- 
mittee, jirize  essays  ui)on  imiiortaut  military 
subjects  have  been  a  prominent  annual  feature. 
The  library  of  the  Institution  contained  in  ino;i 
nearly  20.000  volumes,  among  which  are  many 
rare  books  and  manuscripts.  There  is  ahso  a 
valuable  collection  of  military  relics  and  tro- 
jdiics. 

MILITARY  TENURE,    See  Tenure. 

MILITARY  TERRITORIES  OF  FRENCH 
SUDAN.  The  ollicial  name  of  three  territories 
comprising  the  eastern  part  of  the  African  re- 
gion formerly  known  as  French  Sudan  (q.v. ), 
and  extending  from  the  eastern  b(mndarv  of 
French  Senegal  and  French  Guinea  to  Lake  (had, 
and  from  the  northern  borders  of  Nigeria.  Da- 
homey, Togo,  the  Gold  Coast,  and  the  Ivory 
Coast,  northward  into  the  Sahara  Desert  (.Map: 
Africa.  D  3).  The  total  area  is  estimated  at 
over  250.000  square  miles,  and  the  poinilation  at 
2,700,000.  The  first  of  the  three  territories 
covers  the  region  around  Timbuktu,  including 
the  towns  of  Yatenga,  Dori,  and  Macini.  The 
second  comprises  the  Middle  Niger  region,  incluit 
ing  the  greater  part  of  the  area  within  the  beinl 
of  the  Niger,  with  residences  at  Mossi  and  tin- 
runsi.  In  its  eastern  boundary  are  the  Niger  and 
Dahomey;  on  the  west  tlie  territory  extends  tu 
the  Sankarani  Kivcr;  on  the  south  it  is  bordered 
by  the  (Jold  Coast  and  by  the  Ivory  Coast  geuer 
ally  along  the  parallel  of  latitude  10°  N.  The 
third  territory,  organized  December  20,  ISll'.i, 
enibraces  all  the  territory  between  the  Niger  and 
Lake  Chad,  with  the  towns  of  Koni  and  Maradi. 
Its  headquarters  are  at  Zinder.  It  e.xtends  into 
the  Sahara  on  the  north,  reaches  the  Wadai  on 
the  east,  and  is  bordered  by  Nigeria  on  the 
south. 

Tlie  territories  are  now  (1003)  administered 
by  three  ollicers,  assisted  by  residents  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Governor-General  of  French 
West  Africa  (q.v.).  However,  a  French  decree 
dated  October  4.  1!)02,  proposes  to  group  tlie 
Middle  Niger  region  (chielly  embraced  in  the 
second  military  territory  as  above  describeil  I 
with  the  region  of  the  upper  Senegal  Kivcr  and 
with  the  Senegal  Protectorate,  so  as  to  form  a 
new  ;i(lministrative  and  tinaneial  unit  under  the 
name  of  the  "Territory  of  Senegaudiia  and  the 
Niger."  This  decree  also  proposes  for  the  future 
some  changes  in  the  system  of  administration. 

The  expense  of  the  region  to  the  mother  cnuu- 
trv  is  somewhat  heavy,  especially  for  military 
needs.  The  army  numbered  S400  in  1001.  about 
one-half  natives.  The  region  of  these  territories 
is  little  known.  .Many  pm-tions  are  considered 
very  fertile,  and  full  of  agrieullural  and  eom- 
mercial  possibilities.  Tli(>  Freiieh  arc  preparing 
to  make  systematic  and  extensive  investigations 
into  these  subjects,  as  well  as  into  that  nf  the 
poi)ulation.  The  climate  in  general  is  not  un- 
liealthful.  The  natives  raise  rice,  millet,  and 
wheat.  In  the  cotmtrA-  around  Tindinktii  (q.v.) 
and  south  into  the  land  of  the  Mossi  has  sprung 
up  an  active  commerce  since  the  entry  of  the 
French  into  the  region.    Timbuktu  is  a  centre  of 


MILITARY  TERRITOIIIES. 


497 


MILITIA. 


trade  in  ^uiu^.  l;ul)l)ei-  is  tlii'  otiicr  leading  ar- 
ticle of  trallic.  The  railway,  wliiuli  has  been 
building  for  many  years  from  Senegal  west 
tlirougli  Kays  and  Kita  to  Bammaku  to  con- 
nect the  Niger  with  the  ocean,  is  now  expected 
to  reach  this  destination  about  lOOG.  Only  almut 
150  miles  remain  to  be  constructed.  Tlie  first 
French  e.xpedition  entered  the  region  of  the  ter- 
ritories in  18G0.  The  French  began  an  active 
conquest  in  1880.  In  18!U  Timbuktu  fell  into 
their  hands.  French  control  of  the  district  was 
ratified  by  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  in  1898. 

MILITCHEVITCH,  me'le-chev'ich,  Milan 
(lft;!l — ).  A  Servian  writer,  born  near  Bel- 
grade. Having  studied  theology  and  done 
some  teaching,  he  obtained,  in  1852,  a  State 
cillice,  and  was  made  secretary  to  the  Servian 
Minister  of  Education  in  1801.  Among  his  geo- 
graphical and  ethnological  writings  are  an  ex- 
haustive topographical  work.  The  Principality 
of  Servia  (1876);  Servian  Peasant  Life  (1867 
and  1873)  ;  The  Kingdom  of  Servia  (1884)  ;  Let- 
ters on  the  History  of  the  Servians  and  Bul- 
garians (1858-59);  Education  in  America 
(1863);  Letters  of  a  Tourist  (1865);  Schools 
in  Servia  (1868):  the  pedagogical  jjeriodieal 
The  School  (1868-76),  and  the  short  .sketches 
Jurmus  and  Fatinui  (1879)  and  Winter  Even- 
ings (1879).  ililitchevitch  is  one  of  the  most 
learned  as  well  as  talented  Servian  authors. 

MILITELLO,  me'le-tel'16,  IN  V.\L  DI  Cat.\- 
KiA.  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Catania,  Sicily, 
situated  about  25  miles  southwest  of  C!atania, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail  (Map:  Italy, 
J  10).  It  trades  in  wine,  fruit,  and  silk.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901    (commune),  11,539. 

MILITIA  (Lat.  militia,  military  service,  sol- 
dier, from  miles,  OLat.  meilcs,  soldier).  An 
organized  military  force.  Originally  organized 
for  national  defense,  it  has,  since  the  advent  of 
.standing  armies,  become  practically  the  second 
line  of  defense  in  England  ami  in  the  United 
States,  representing  the  entire  able-bodied  part 
of  the  population.  Specifically  the  title  applies 
to  the  purely  defensive  branch  of  the  national 
military  system  of  the  countries  referred  to, 
the  mobile  and  territorial  militia  of  Italy  and 
the  opoltchenie  of  Russia  closely  resembling  it. 
The  Landuehr  and  Landsturm  of  (Germany  and 
Austria,  and  the  territorial  army  of  France,  may 
also  be  regarded  as  the  militia  etpiivalcnt.  In 
the  I'nited  States  the  system  differs  somewhat 
from  the  English  in  that  it  is  not  a  Federal  or 
national  force,  vmless  called  into  the  service  of 
the  Federal  Government,  it  being  normally  a 
State  organization.  From  1775  to  1783  the  bulk 
of  the  Federal  armies  consisted  of  State  troops, 
a  condition  which  continued  to  exist  long  after 
the  Revolution  itself.  The  United  States  militia 
consists  of  every  able-bodied  male  citizen  of  the 
respective  States,  Territories,  ami  the  District 
of  Columbia,  and  every  able-bodied  citizen  of 
foreign  Idrth  who  has  declared  his  intention  to 
become  a  citizen,  who  is  more  than  eighteen  and 
less  than  forty-five  years  of  age.  It  is  divided 
into  two  classes — the  organized  militia,  known 
as  the  National  Guards  of  the  State,  Territory, 
or  District  of  Columbia,  or  by  such  other  desig- 
nation as  may  be  given  them  by  the  laws  of  the 
respective  States  or  Territories,  and  the  re- 
mainder known  as  the  reserve  militia.  The  or- 
ganization, armament,  and  discipline  are  the  same 


as  those  prescribed  for  the  regular  and  volunteer 
armies  of  the  United  States.  The  President  may 
call  out,  for  a  period  not  c.\cecding  nine  months, 
such  numbeVs  of  the  militia  of  the  States.  Ter- 
ritories, or  District  of  Columbia  as  he  may  deem 
necessary.  During  their  peiiod  of  service  they 
become  subject  to  the  same  rules  and  articles  of 
war  as  the  regular  forces.  Eacli  Stiite  and  Ter- 
ritory and  the  District  of  Columbiii  has  an  adju- 
tant-general, who  is  charged  with  the  duties  as 
prescribed  by  the  State,  and  the  rendering  of 
regular  reports  to  the  Secretary  of  War  regard- 
ing the  strength,  condition,  etc.,  of  the  organized 
militia  of  the  State  to  which  he  belongs.  See 
United  States  in  the  article  Armif-s. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  is  an  abstract 
of  the  militia  force  of  the  United  States  (organ- 
ized), according  to  the  returns  of  the  Adjutant- 
General  for  1902. 

The  militia  of  Great  Britain  is  a  constitutional 
force  raised  under  authority  of  Parliament  for 
national  defeu.se  only.  It  cannot  be  used  on 
foreign  service  without  its  consent  and  the  au- 
thority of  ParlianEcnt.  Before  the  Norman  Con- 
quest "rents  for  land  were  paid  in  body  service, 
the  able-bodied  men  of  each  family  bearing  arms 
in  numbers  proportionate  to  the  land  held  by  the 
familv.  This  system  is  attributed  to  the  Saxon 
King"  Alfred.  The  country  was  organized  into 
dukedoms,  hundreds,  tithings  (ten  tithings  mak- 
ing the  hundred),  and  families,  the  number  of 
families  in  a  tithing  varying  with  the  necessities 
of  the  times.  After  the  decisive  battle  of  Hast- 
ings (1006)  the  fyrd,  as  the  militia  was  then 
called,  ceased  to  exist  officially,  although  continu- 
ing to  give  the  Normans  considerable  troulile. 
The  national  exigencies  during  the  Seven  Years' 
War  rendered  imperative  the  reorganization  of 
1757,  since  which  period  more  attention  has  been 
devoted  to  it.  In  1871  the  War  Office  assumed 
control,  and  the  county  authorities  ceased  to  have 
any  active  interest  in  it  other  than  the  right  to 
nominate  officers.  It  is  now  (1903)  a  part  of 
the  military  territorial  system,  two  or  more 
local  militia  battalions  being  attached  to  each 
territorial  district,  and  forming  the  third,  fourth, 
or  fifth  battalions  (as  the  ease  may  be)  of  the 
regular  regiments  to  whicli  they  are  attached. 
See  liritish  Empire  in  the  article  Ahmies. 

In  Russia,  what  is  now  the  opoltchenie  was 
originally  a  simple  militia,  w^hich  was  reor- 
ganized 'in  1888  and  again  in  1891,  -when  the 
period  of  service  was  changed  from  forty  to 
forty-five  years  for  the  soldiers  and  from  fifty 
to  tifty-fiv'e  for  officers.  The  opoltchenie  is  now- 
divided  into  two  parts.  The  first,  pycrri  ra^ryad 
— which  is  practically  a  reserve,  and  includes  all 
who  have  passed  or"  served  the  active  term  or 
period — is  intended  princiiially  as  a  source  of 
supply  for  the  filling  up  of  regiments. 

In  time  of  war  or  national  need  cadres  (q.v.) 
are  formed  in  connection,  so  that  when  the 
opoltchenie  is  mobilized  the  organization  is  com- 
plete. The  rtoroyi  razryad,  or  second  part,  in- 
cludes all  who  have  ser\-ed  in  the  first  iiart.  men 
excused  from  other  services  for  ithysical  reasons, 
or  those  who  have  been  excused  as  being  the  sole 
support  of  their  families.  This  division  can 
only  be  called  out  for  the  organization  of  militia 
corps,  and  then  only  by  Imperial  manifesto.  In 
Italy  the  militia  is  largely  a  reserve  of  the  regu- 
lar army.     The  annual  levies  are  in  three  divi- 


MILITIA. 


498 


MILK. 


Oroakized  Stkenqth,  1901 


&TATE8  AND  TEBRITORIES 

1 

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1 
1 

55 

s  « 

11 

1 
0 

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0. 

1 
0 

s 

B 

0 

wo 
£ 

1 

States 

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■■■■'2 
1 
3 
4 
2 
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"  "i 

"  "i 

""i 
1 

1 
3 
3 

"  "3 
1 
1 
3 
1 

...... 

■""i 
1 

"'"i 

1 

'"  "i 
"i 

6 

a 
5 

2U 

21 

8 

58 

47 

47 

13 

9 

2 

23 

17 

11 

13 

7 

23 

18 

11 

33 

24 

7 

6 

25 

13 

IG 

33 

8 

9 

8 

26 

5 

4 

4 

22 

45 

9 

10 

10 

6 

8 

7 

5 

ti 

■  "6 
3 
7 
7 

13 

31 
21 
19 

129 
59 
56 

299 
69 

194 
9 
42 
38 
30 
48 
36 

100 
41 
49 
41 
28 
66 
21 
25 
20 

121 
.59 
56 

147 
56 
59 
39 
48 
25 
36 
1 
21 
91 
14 
16 
22 

■  21 
.  ...^ 

5 

"'i'i 

20 
13 
12 
47 

71 

79 

36 

231 

74 

127 

498 

156 

465 

20 

87 

106 

52 

111 

305 

225 

66 

147 

93 

88 

l.W 

78 

87 

66 

267 

113 

122 

287 

129 

127 

85 

144 

80 

75 

6 

m 

159 
54 
46 
63 
18 
42 
24 
20 
31 

'25 
27 
40 
27 
69 

108 

110 

.     60 
382 
155 
194 

m9 

273 
700 
42 
139 
140 
112 
176 
3.52 

;«8 

104 

220 

l.W 

128 

251 

126 

119 

91 

416 

186 

195 

470 

193 

195 

l.M 

218 

111 

115 

11 

1U4 

290 

78 

71 

95 

24 

71 

31 

26 

43 

'"42 
60 
60 
46 
130 

1.156 

1.232 

710 

4.737 

1,258 

2,426 

13.551 

3,765 

8,643 

320 

1.915 

2,186 

883 

1.684 

2,677 

4.429 

1.348 

2,361 

1.220 

1,390 

2,829 

1,516 

1,058 

1,213 

6,585 

2,222 

2.911 

6,.'->24 

2,484 

2.578 

1.789 

2.412 

1,484 

1,196 

127 

1.176 

3,173 

1,005 

647 

854 

316 

887 

637 

287 

483 

■I  342 

776 

5  119 

1,413 

2  t;i9 

4  038 

3t'i8 

2.().')4 

Virginia 

2,331 

995 

1,860 

Sou  til  Carolina 

3,029 

4,767 

1,462 

2,681 

1,373 

1.518 

3,080 

1,642 

1,777 

1,304 

6,001 

2,408 

3,106 

Illinois 

6,994 

2,677 

2,773 

1,922 

2,630 

1,595 

1,311 

138 

1,280 

3,472 

1,083 

718 

949 

340 

958 

Malm 

668 

;i23 

rtaii 

526 

Territories 
AlttHka 

341 
662 
566 
495 
1,130 

383 

New  Mexico , 

612 

626 

Hawaii 

541 

1,260 

48 

752 

2,415 

5,536 

8,761 

106.998 

116,749 

sioii.s,  tlic  lirst  Cdnsistinf;  of  men  of  the  perma- 
nent lUiiiy  who  serve  in  tlie  militia  a.s  follows: 
Carabineers  and  non-commissioned  oflieers  of  all 
other  corps  serve  ten  years,  with  unlimited  leave; 
other  eor[)s,  ineludiiifj  cavalry,  servinj;  in  tlie 
niohile  militia  three  or  four  years,  and  in  the 
territorial  militia  seven  years.  The  levies  of  the 
second  division  .serve  three  or  four  years  (ac- 
cordiiifi  to  the  liraneh  of  the  service)  in  the 
niohile  militia,  and  seven  in  the  territminl.  The 
levies  of  the  third  division  serve  nineteen  years, 
with  unlimited  leave,  in  the  territorial  militia. 
The  period  of  trainin};  f<U'  men  of  the  sii'ond  di- 
vision is  from  two  to  six  months,  spread  oV(>r  a 
period  of  several  years.  The  third  divisiim  has 
thirty  ilays'  traininj.'.  In  time  of  war  it  does 
fiarrison  duty,  and  constitutes  the  last  reserve. 

The  French  ti'rritorial  army,  with  its  reserves, 
is  orfianizeil  similarly  to  the  militia  of  Kn<;- 
land,  on  a  purely  local  basis,  .After  servinfr  thir- 
teen years  in   the  active  army  and   its  reserve, 


soldiers  are  assifrned  to  twelve  years'  service  in 
the  territorial  army  and  reserve.  In  Switzerland 
tlie  entire  army,  comprising  as  it  does  every  able- 
bodied  citizen,  is  a  militia,  ref;ardin<;  which  see 
Sn-it.:crl(iiid  in  the  article  AuiUiKs.  See  Land- 
STURM;  La.nuwehb;  National  Uvakd;  Volun- 
teers, Military, 

MILK  (AS,  meole,  meoluc,  Goth,  nii7iifc», 
OHG,  milttk,  Ger.  Milch;  connected  with  AS. 
viclcan,  OHG.  melchan,  Ger.  niilh-ni.  Lat. 
miilgere.  Gk.  dudXyeiv,  umrlprin.  OChurch  Slav, 
mlrsti,  Lith.  iiiil.sli.  to  milk,  Skt.  inarj.  Av, 
marjx,  to  rub  olT).  The  liquid  secreted  by 
the  mammary  glands  of  all  mammals,  and 
used  primarily  to  nourish  their  youufi.  Krom 
the  earliest  time  it  has  been  esteemed  an  im- 
portant and  neces.sary  article  of  food,  and 
many  hidden  virtues  were  ascribed  to  it  by 
the  ancients.  Its  exact  composition  continued 
long  unknown,   and   until   the  beginning  of  the 


MILK. 


499 


MILK. 


seventeentli  century  fat,  casein,  and  whey  were 
the  only  constituents  recognized.  In  tlie  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  Leeuwenhoeck 
discovered  the  microscopical  characteristics  of 
milk,  and  about  the  same  time  Boerhaave  made 
a  qualitative  examination.  The  lirst  quantitative 
analysis  of  milk  recorded  was  made  in  1737  by 
Geolt'rey,  who  determined  with  considerable  accu- 
racy the  casein,  milk  sugar,  and  mineral  matter. 
Woman's  milk  contains  87. 4  per  cent,  of  water 
and  12. ti  per  cent,  of  solids,  the  latter  including 
3.8  per  cent,  of  fat,  1.0  per  cent,  of  casein,  1.3 
per  cent,  of  albumin,  G.2  per  cent,  of  milk  sugar, 
and  0.3  per  cent,  of  ash  (mineral  matter  left 
after  burning).  The  milk  from  different  animals 
varies  considerably  in  composition,  as  shown  in 
the  following  table: 


minus  tile  water  are  designated  total  solids.  The 
projjortion  of  total  solids  is  a  general  indication 
of  the  richness  of  the  milk,  .\mong  the  solids  the 
chief  importance  attaches  to  the  fat.  First,  it  is 
the  measure  of  tlie  value  of  milk  for  butter-mak- 
ing, and  to  a  very  great  extent  for  cheese-making 
also;  second,  it  is  the  constituent  which  more 
than  any  other  gives  milk  its  appearance  of  rich- 
ness; third,  it  fluctuates  more  widely  than  any 
other  constituent.  .Milk  fat  is  a  familiar  sub- 
stance in  the  form  of  butter,  which  containa 
about  85  per  cent,  of  fat,  some  water,  salt,  and 
casein.  The  fat  in  milk  is  in  the  form  of  minute 
globules  held  in  suspension,  and  on  standing  it 
rises  to  the  surface  as  cream  (q.v.),  which  eon- 
tains  some  of  the  other  constituents  in  smaller 
proportion.    The  globules  may  be  readily  seen  by 


Composition  of  Milk  of  Different  Animals 


KIND  OP  ANIMAL 


Cow 

Buffalo.., 

Goat 

Ewe 

Llama.... 

Mare 

Aes 

Camel 

Sow 

Elephant. 
Porijoise. 

Dog 

Cat 


Water 


Per  cent. 
87.2 
81.4 
85.7 
80.8 
80.5 
91.5 
89.6 
86.6 
84.0 
67.9 
41.1 
75.4 
82.1 


Total 
solids 


Per  cent. 
12.8 
18.6 
14.3 
19.2 
13.5 
8.5 
10.4 
13.4 
16.0 
32.1 
58.9 
24.6 
17.9 


In  total  solids 


Fat 


Per  cent. 

3.7 

7.5 

4  8 

6.9 

3.2 

1.2 

1.6 

3.1 

4.0 
19.6 
45.8 

9.6 

3.3 


Casein 


Per  cent. 
3.0 
6.8 
3.2 
5.0 
3.0 
1.2 
,7 
4,6 
7.2 
3.1 
11.2 
6.1 
3.1 


Albumin     Milk  sugar 


Per  cent. 

.5 

.3 
1.1 
1.5 

,9 

.1 
1,6 
4.0 
7.2 
3.1 
11.2 
5.1 
6.0 


Per  cent. 
4.9 
4.1 
4.4 
4.9 
5.6 
5.7 
6.0 
5.6 
3.1 
8.8 
1.3 
3.1 
4.9 


Ash 


Per  cent. 
,7 
,9 


.3 

.5 
.7 
1.1 
.6 
.6 
,7 
.6 


The  above  are  general  averages  of  a  greater 
or  less  number  of  analyses,  depending  upon  the 
kind  of  milk  animal,  each  kind  of  which  gives 
milk  that  varies  more  or  less  with  the  individual 
as  well  as  with  the  species.  There  is,  further- 
more, some  difficulty  in  arriving  at  a  general 
average  for  any  kind  of  mammal,  since  normal 
milk  is  obtained  with  difficulty  from  animals 
unaccustomed  to  being  milked. 

Properties  of  Cows'  Milk.  Since,  in  general 
properties  and  composition,  cows'  milk  is  typical 
of  all  milks,  is  of  chief  commercial  interest,  and 
has  been  studied  much  more  in  detail,  it  will  be 
the  main  subject  of  this  article.  The  milk  se- 
creted immediately  after  parturition  is  termed 
culnxiniiti  (q.v.),  or  berintinfix.  and  difl'ers  consid- 
erahly  from  normal  milk  in  linth  physical  and 
chemical  characters.  Milk  from  which  the  fat  has 
been  removed  by  skimming  or  by  the  separator 
is  called  skim  milk  (q.v.),  and  the  residue  left 
after  churning  cream  is  known  as  buttermilk 
(q.v.).  Whey  (q.v.)  is  the  liquid  remaining 
after  the  curd  of  the  milk  has  been  separated. 

Cows'  milk  is  an  opaque,  whitish  liquid,  some- 
times faintly  yellow  or  bluish,  with  a  slight  alka- 
line reaction  and  a  sweetish  taste  wlien  fresh. 
It  is  heavier  than  water,  its  specific  gravity 
ranging  usually  from  1.029  to  1.035,  the  average 
for  mixed  milk  being  about  1.032,  By  removing 
the  fat  (skimming  the  cream)  the  specific  grav- 
ity is  raised,  and  by  adding  water  it  is  lowered. 
This  is  the  basis  of  a  simple,  but  (when  taken 
alone)  unreliable,  test  of  the  quality  of  milk  and 
of  the  practice  of  skimming.  Chemically,  milk 
consists  of  an  aqueous  solution  of  milk  sugar, 
casein,  albumin,  and  ash,  with  the  fat  in  suspen- 
sion, forming  an  ennilsion.  The  water  and  the 
constituents  dissolved  in  it  constitute  the  milk 
serum,  and  the  constituents  (i.e.  the  dry  matter) 


means  of  a  microscope.  For  a  long  time  fat  glob- 
ules were  believed  to  be  surrounded  by  a  njem- 
brane  or  proteid  coating,  which  was  destroyed  by 
churning  the  cream,  and  thus  allowed  the  fat  to 
unite  into  a  solid  mass.  This  view  is  still  held 
by  some,  but  the  prevailing  belief  at  present  is 
that  the  globules  are  free  and  owe  their 
spherical  form  to  the  surface  tension.  The  glob- 
ules vary  greatly  in  size,  being  from  -j-j'jt;  to 
155(51;  of  'ii  'i''h  '1  diameter.  ,\  pint  of  average 
milk  has  been  estimated  to  contain  not  far  from 
a  million  globules.  The  size  of  the  globules 
varies  with  the  period  of  lactation,  diminishing 
toward  the  close,  and  to  some  extent  with  the 
breed  and  the  individual.  The  globules  in  the 
Jersey  and  Guernsey  milk  are  relatively  large; 
in  Holstein  milk  very  small.  The  large  globules 
rise  more  rapidly,  and  milk  containing  them 
creams  more  readily  and  completely. 

Milk  fat  is  a  pale  yellow  substance  consisting 
of  a  mixture  of  the  glycerides  of  8  or  more  fatty 
acids.  Of  the.se  olein  constitutes  about  35  per 
cent.,  palmitin  25.7,  myristin  20,  laurin  7.5,' 
butyrin  3.85.  caprin  3.0  per  cent.,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  principally  caprylin  and  stearin.  By 
the  action  of  caustic  alkali  these  glycerides  are 
broken  up  into  their  respective  fatty  acids  and 
glycerin,  and  a  certain  relatively  small  ]u-opor- 
tion  of  these,  including  the  butyric,  caproic,  and 
caprvlic  acids,  are  volatile.  The  characteristic 
flavor  and  aroma  of  milk  and  butter  are  due 
largely  to  butyrin,  and  this  decomposes  readily, 
forming  butyric  acid,  which  is  evident  in  rancid 
or  'frowy'  butter.  The  chief  nitrogenous  or 
albuminoid  constituent  of  milk  is  casein,  which 
is  of  prime  importance  in  cheese-making.  It  is 
coagulated  by  rennet  and  by  acids,  and  this  is 
what  gives  sour  milk  its  thick  curdled  appear- 
ance.    The  acid  developed  in  souring  precipitates 


MILK. 


500 


MILK. 


the  casein,  which  gradually  separates  from  the 
soluble  conslituents,  inclosing  much  of  the  fat. 
Casein  is  held  in  solution  in  milk  by  the  presence 
of  lime  salts,  and  lime  water  causes  it  when 
curdled  to  separate  in  a  much  more  finely  di- 
vided condition.  The  albuniin  of  milk  is  not 
curdled  by  acids  or  rennet,  but  is  acted  upon 
by  heat.  Fibrin,  similar  to  that  of  blood,  globu- 
lin, nuclein,  and  several  other  nitrogenous  bodies, 
have  been  found  in  milk  in  small  quantities, 
but  are  of  little  importance.  The  sugar 
in  milk,  chemically  known  as  lactose,  is 
not  so  sweet  as  cam-  sugar.  It  is  in  solution. 
The  ash  of  milk  consists  of  a  mixture  of  a  num- 
ber of  salts,  but  is  composed  ])rincipally  of  the 
phosphates  of  lime  and  potash,  the  chlorides  of 
potash  and  soda,  and  small  amounts  of  phosphate 
of  iron  and  magnesia.  Some  of  the  phosphate  of 
lime  appears  to  be  associated  with  the  casein, 
which  also  contains  some  sulphur.  Most  of  the 
salts  are  in  solution.  Besides  the  constituents 
named,  milk  contains  normally  a  coloring  mat- 
ter, a  trace  of  citric  acid,  urea,  and  several  other 
bodies.  The  fat  and  the  allmmin  of  milk  are  the 
most  variable  constituents,  the  ash  and  tlie  sugar 
the  least  so.  The  casein  bears  a  quite  constant 
ratio  to  the  fat,  rising  and  falling  with  it. 

Variatio.ns  IX  Milk.  The  richness  of  milk 
is  to  a  certain  extent  an  individual  character- 
istic: i.e.  some  individuals  normally  give  rich 
milk,  while  others,  for  no  apparent  reason,  give 
milk  containing  several  per  cent,  more  water. 
The  richness  of  milk  has  been  increa.sed  by  do- 
nu-s(icatinn,  care,  and  breeding,  and  certain 
breeds  of  cows,  sheep,  goats,  etc.,  have  been  pro- 
duced w'uich  give  a  characteristically  rich  milk. 
The  quality  also  varies  with  the  stage  of  lacta- 
tion. The  milk  given  early  in  the  lactation 
period  is  usually  poorer  than  that  secreted  later, 
and  grows  richer  toward  the  close  of  the  period 
until  the  animal  'goes  dry.'  Young  animals 
usually  give  poorer  milk  and  less  of  it  than  after 
the  third  or  fourth  parturition,  and  the  milk 
from  the  first  part  of  any  milking  is  ptxircr  than 
the  last  part,  or  "slrippings."  The  kind  of  food 
has  little  effect  on  the  composition  of  milk,  pro- 
vided it  is  wholesome  and  the  amount  sufficient. 
Food  influences  the  proportion  of  the  different 
fatty  acids  composing  the  fat.  and  so  has  an 
effect  on  the  hardness  and  other  qualities  of  but- 
ter. But  the  rather  prevalent  notion  that  the 
milk  fat.  for  instance,  can  be  permanently  in- 
creased by  feeding  has  been  shown  by  much 
careful  investigation  to  be  a  fallacy.  Little 
is  known  of  the  physiological  processes  by  ^yhich 
the  constituents  of  the  food  are  transformed 
into  milk  constituents.  In  some  cases  there  ap- 
pears to  be  a  direct  transmissicm  of  the  con- 
.slituents  fnmi  (he  food  to  the  milk,  as  is  notice- 
able when  cows  eat  garlic,  onions,  etc.  Tlie  ex- 
periments of  .Jordan  at  the  New  York  State 
Kxp<'riment  Station  have  shown  that  milk  fat 
is  not  derived  solely  from  the  fat  of  the  food,  for 
cows  fed  upon  food  from  which  the  fats  were 
practically  completely  extracted  continued  to  se- 
crete milk  of  normal  composition  for  long  periods, 
and.  juilging  from  the  mainliiiance  of  their 
weight,  did  not  draw  upon  their  body  fat  to  sup- 
jily  this  ingredient,  fnder  the  conditions  of  the 
experiments,  the  carbohydrates  seemed  to  be 
utilized  to  .some  extent  in  the  elaboration  of  milk 
fat.     The  more  the  process  of  milk  secretion  is 


imderstood  the  more  apparent  it  becomes  that 
richness  and  the  volume  of  the  yield  are 
individual  characters,  and  if  cows  have  a  ten- 
dency to  give  poor  milk  no  amount  of  feeding  will 
overcome  it.  The  remedy  lies  in  getting  better 
cows.  For  general  statements  regarding  the  com- 
position of  the  milk  of  ditferent  breeds  of  cows, 
see  C'.\TTLE. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  variation  of  the  milk 
of  ordinary  cows  of  mixed  breeding,  the  data 
obtained  by  Van  81yke  in  New  York  from  the 
analysis  of  the  mixed  milk  of  1.5.000  cows  each 
month  from  ilay  to  October  may  lie  cited.  The 
total  solids  ranged  from  11.17  to  1.3.91  and 
averaged  12.07  per  cent.,  and  the  fat  from  3.04 
to  4.01)  and  averaged  3.75  per  cent.  The  content 
of  total  solids  and  of  fat  was  lowest  during  the 
summer  months  and  increased  in  the  fall.  In 
the  analysis  of  over  three  thousand  samples  of 
milk  at  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station, 
the  total  solids  varied  from  10.02  to  19. .55  and 
averaged  13.57  ])er  cent.,  and  the  fat  from  1.5 
to  10.70  and  averaged  4.32  per  cent.  The  anal- 
ysis of  eight  hundred  sanii)les  made  at  the  ex- 
periment stations  in  ditferent  part.s  of  the  coun- 
try varied  in  total  solids  from  9.3  to  19.7  per 
cent.,  averaging  12.8  per  cent.,  and  in  fat  from 
1.7   to   G.5,  averaging  3.7   per   cent. 

Milk  Fermentations.  Milk  is  subject  to  a 
great  variety  of  fermentatiims.  for  it  is  a  favor- 
able medium  for  the  growth  of  many  kinds  of 
bacteria,  yeasts,  and  other  fungi  which  cause 
numerous  changes  in  its  constituents,  T'hus. 
while  one  class  of  organisms  curdles  milk  by  the 
production  of  lactic  acid,  another  class  gives  it 
an  alkaline  reaction,  at  the  same  time  curdling 
it;  others  impart  to  it  a  deep  blue,  violet,  yel- 
low, green,  or  red  color,  by  the  production  of 
pigments  in  the  milk:  others  give  it  a  bitter  or 
other  unpleasant  taste:  another  class  produces 
alcohol  from  the  milk  svigar.  and  is  taken 
advantage  of  in  the  preparation  of  such  bever- 
ages as  koiuniss  and  kepliir  (((q.v.).  and  still 
others  cause  putrefaction.  The  most  common  and 
familiar  change  is  the  souring  of  milk,  due  >isu- 
ally  to  the  action  of  lactic-acid  bacteria.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  normal  milk  nearly  always 
undergoes  some  sort  of  lactic  fermentation  on 
standing.  The  production  of  lactic  acid  soon 
curdles  the  milk  and  obscures  all  other  forms  of 
fermentation,  and  the  acid  stops  the  growth  of 
other  bacteria  so  that  no  subsi'c|nent  effects  are 
usually  seen.  The  popular  belief  that  the  elec- 
tricity in  the  air  during  thunderstorms  sours 
milk  appears  to  l)e  unfounded,  but  its  rapid  sour- 
ing at  such  times  is  due  to  the  climatic  condi- 
tions prevailing,  which  hasten  bacterial  growth. 
The  same  difliculty  in  keeping  milk  is  experienced 
during  very  hot  weather.  Curdling  is  not  al- 
ways due  to  the  formation  of  acid;  milk  appar- 
ently '.sour'  may  have  no  acid  taste.  In  such 
cases  the  cause  is  d\ie  to  ;ilkaline  fermentation, 
induced  by  another  class  of  organisms.  The  milk 
becomes  coagulated  into  a  soft  slimy  mass,  which 
is  usually  bitter  and  has  an  alkaline  or  neutral 
reaction.  Ordinarily  this  form  of  fermentation  is 
not  very  apparent,  as  the  organisms  causing  it 
grow  slowly  and  the  lactic-acid  organisms  get  the 
start  of  them.  The  organisms  which  produce 
butyric  acid  in  milk  attack  and  decompose  the 
fats,  giving  a  rancid  odor.  In  the  ordinary  han- 
dling of  milk  the  latter  are  of  little  importance, 
but  it   is  supposed  that  the,v  have  an  important 


MILK. 


501 


MILK. 


effect  ui)on  the  keeping  |)iopprties  of  butter. 
Several  organisms  liave  been  deseribcd  wliieli  im- 
part a  bitter  taste  to  milk,  due,  in  some  cases  at 
least,  to  the  production  of  a  billcr  principle, 
ililk  which  has  been  boiled  is  likely  to  develop 
a  hitler  taste,  for  the  reason  that  the  heating 
kills  the  lactie-aeid  germs,  while  the  bacteria 
causing  the  bitter  taste  usually  possess  endo- 
spores  which  are  not  destroyed  by  heat,  and  so 
have  a  clear  field  for  action.  A  slimy  fermenta- 
tion of  milk  is  a  somewhat  common  occurrence, 
and  occasionally  produces  great  trouble  in  dai- 
ries, since  it  destroys  the  milk  for  all  ordinary 
uses.  Such  milk  becomes  thick  and  ropy,  will 
not  cream,  cannot  be  churned,  and  is  unfit  for 
drinking.  It  may  be  caused  by  a  variety  of  or- 
ganisms. There  are  several  forms  of  the  trouble. 
One  known  as  the  'lange  wei'  (long  or  stringy 
whey)  is  made  use  of  in  the  manufacture  of 
Edam  cheese  in  Holland,  to  control  the  gassy 
fermentation   of  the  curd. 

In  addition  to  the  fermentations  and  other 
changes  in  milk  due  to  micro-organisms,  rennet, 
an  unorganized  ferment  obtained  from  the  stom- 
ach of  the  calf  and  from  some  plants,  ferments 
milk,  causing  it  to  curdle.  This  ferment  is  em- 
[)loyed  in  cheese-making  to  produce  the  curd. 
Babcock  and  Russell  have  discovered  an  unor- 
ganized ferment  termed  galaetase  in  milk,  which 
they  believe  to  be  a  normal  and  inherent  con- 
.stituent,  and  which  is  active  in  the  ripening 
of  cheese,  causing  the  characteristic  changes  in 
the  green  cheese  which  make  it  suitable  for 
eating. 

The  chief  sources  of  bacteria  in  milk  are  the 
cow  herself,  the  milker,  the  dust  of  the  stable, 
and  the  dairy  utensils.  It  has  long  been  believed 
that  pure  milk  drawn  from  a  healthy  cow  con- 
tains no  bacteria,  and  that  all  bacterial  contami- 
nation of  the  milk  comes  from  external  sources. 
However,  the  large  calibre  of  the  milk  duct  makes 
it  possible  for  bacteria  to  enter  it  and  grow  to 
a  considerable  extent,  so  that  it  becomes  a  matter 
of  extreme  difficulty  to  obtain  milk  from  the  cow, 
even  with  the  greatest  precautions,  which  shall 
not  be  contaminated.  The  hairs  of  the  cow  are 
always  covered  with  dirt  and  dust,  and  the  air 
of  the  stable  is  charged  with  dust  from  the  fodder 
and  bedding  material,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
lu'event  some  of  this  dirt  falling  into  the  milk 
])ail.  Thus  large  numbers  of  bacteria,  especially 
in  poorly  ventilated  stables,  reach  the  milk.  Any 
dirt  upon  the  hands  or  clothing  of  the  milker 
will  have  abundant  chance  to  get  into  the  milk 
]iails  and  cans.  The  milk  vessels  themselves  are 
an  important  source  of  contamination,  the  cor- 
ners and  creases  retaining  bacteria  which  have 
not  been  removed  or  killed  by  the  washing.  The 
warm  milk  furnishes  favorable  conditions  for  the 
growth  of  these  micro-organisms  which  have 
gained  access,  and  which  for  a  time  multiply  rap- 
idly. 

Several  species  of  bacteria  classed  as  patho- 
genic organisms  are  capable  of  living  or  even  in- 
ercasing  in  milk,  but  since  they  do  not  ferment 
the  milk  or  alter  its  appearance  s\iffieiently  to  be 
detected  by  a  physical  examination,  their  presence 
is  not  readily  determined.  Except  in  very  rare 
instances  the  milk  becomes,  contaminated  after  it 
has  been  drawn  and  in  practically  all  these  cases 
the  cause  of  contamination  is  some  form  of  un- 
cleanliness.  either  of  the  stables,  the  water,  the 
utensils,  or  the  attendants.     It  is  gratifying  to 


know,  however,  that  through  the  efforts  of  the 
tnited  States  l)i|)artnient  of  Agriculture,  the 
agricultural  experiment  stations,  and  the  dairy- 
men ihemselves.  llie  sanitary  management  of 
dairies  is  being  constantly  improved,  and  through 
the  vigilance  of  State  appointed  dairy  inspectors 
unsanitary  conditions  are  destroyed  as  soon  as 
discovered. 

Milk  Adulteration  and  Control.  The  milk 
supply  of  towns  and  cities  has  for  many  years 
been  regulated  by  laws  and  ordinances,  and  sub- 
jected to  inspection.  The  object  of  this  was  for- 
merly to  prevent  adulteration,  bu(  of  recent  years 
the  inspection  has  often  extended  to  the  herds 
and  stables  and  all  tliat  relates  to  the  milk 
trade.  It  has  come  to  be  realized  that  such  fac- 
tors as  the  health  of  the  cows,  hygienic  condi- 
tion of  the  stables,  and  cleanliness  in  the  hand- 
ling of  the  milk  are  quite  as  es.sential  to  pure 
wholesome  milk  as  freedom  from  adulteration. 
Hence  the  veterinary  inspection,  which  has  been 
introduced  in  some  cities,  should  be  extended. 
Milk  is  most  often  tampered  with  by  removing 
a  part  of  the  cream,  or  by  diluting  it  with  water 
or  skim  milk.  Coloring  mailer  is  sometimes 
added  to  make  it  appear  richer,  but  the  addition 
of  chalk,  burnt  sugar,  or  similar  substances  is 
now  rare.  Preservatives,  such  as  formaldehyde, 
borax,  and  salicylic  acid,  are  sometimes  added  to 
prevent  milk  souring.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the 
injuriousness  of  these  preservatives,  but  their 
iise  is  generally  condemned  on  the  ground  that 
they  are  unnecessary  in  pure  milk,  and  that  they 
are  a  cloak  for  unsanitary  practices  in  the  dairy. 
The  standards  for  milk  adopted  by  different 
States  vary  from  11. .5  to  13  per  cent,  for  total 
solids  and  from  2.5  to  3.5  per  cent,  for  fat.  Milk 
found  below  these  standards  is  held  to  be  adul- 
terated. A  standard  of  12.5  per  cent,  of  total 
solids  and  at  least  3  per  cent,  of  fat  seems  fair. 

Various  means  of  testing  milk  as  to  its  qual- 
ity have  been  suggested  from  time  to  time.  Of 
these  the  lactometer  is  the  simplest,  and  has 
been  extensively  used  by  milk  inspectors  who 
have  a  large  number  of  samjdes  to  examine  daily, 
to  detect  watering  or  skimming.  It  is  a  form 
of  hydrometer,  wliich  shows  the  specific  gravity 
of  milk  upon  a  graduated  scale.  But  there 
are  so  many  factors  that  aft'ect  the  specific 
gravity,  and  this  maj-  vary  so  much  in  pure 
milk,  that  the  lactometer  reading  is  only  an  indi- 
cation and  cannot  be  relied  upon  as  final.  The 
most  reliable  and  satisfactory  of  the  simple  milk 
tests  is  the  Babcock  test,  which  has  come  into 
very  widespread  use  in  the  milk  inspection  of 
towns  and  cities,  and  in  determining  the  fat  eon- 
tent  of  milk  as  a  basis  for  paying  for  the  prod- 
uct at  creameries.  (See  Creamery:  Butter- 
Making.)  This  test  is  made  in  a  special  bottle 
having  a  narrow  graduated  lu'ck.  A  definite 
quantity  of  milk  is  treated  in  the  bottle  with 
sulphuric  acid  to  dissolve  the  curd  and  set 
the  fat  free.  The  bottle  is  then  whirled  rap- 
idly in  a  centrifugal  apparat\is  for  a  few  min- 
utes, to  aid  in  separating  the  fat :  hot  water 
is  added  to  bring  the  fat  up  into  the  neck,  after 
which  the  bottle  is  whirled  a  second  time  and  the 
column  of  fat  read  off  on  the  graduated  scale. 
The  reading  gives  the  percentage  of  fat  without 
calculation.  -A  large  number  of  samples  may  be 
tested  simultaneously,  and  the  method  has  been 
shown  to  be  very  accurate  after  a  little  practice. 
It  shows  onlv  the  fat  content,  which  is  the  com- 


MILK. 


502 


MILK. 


Dion  mi-asure  of  riclincss;  but  from  it  and  the 
laetoiiic'tcr  reading  tlie  total  solids  and  other 
const itui-nts  can  bt;  calculated.  A  bacteriological 
examination  is  rarely  made  in  connection  with 
the  ordinary  milk  inspection. 

Milk  as  Food.  Milk  is  peculiarly  adajiled  to 
be  a.  food  for  man  principally  because  it  contains 
the  four  classes  of  nutrients — protein,  fat,  car- 
bohydrates, and  mineral  matter — in  more  nearly 
the  proper  proportions  to  serve  as  a  comjiletc  food 
than  perhaps  any  other  single  food  material.  (See 
Foot).)  A  quart  of  milk  contains  about  four 
ounces  of  nutritive  material,  or  about  tlic  same  as 
lliree-(iuarters  of  a  pound  of  beef  or  six  ounces  of 
bread.  Although  these  quantities  of  milk,  beef, 
and  bread  supply  like  amounts  of  total  nutrients, 
their  nutritive  values  are  not  the  same.  In 
other  words,  they  would  not  be  equally  useful  as 
food,  owing  to  the  relative  proportion  in  which 
the  nutrients  are  present.  Protein,  fat,  and  car- 
bohydrates occur  in  milk  in  about  equal  propor- 
tions. The  chief  nutrients  in  bread  are  carbo- 
hydrates and  protein,  and  in  meat  |irolein  and 
fat.  Either  milk  or  bread  eaten  alone  would 
make  a  better  balanced  food  for  man  than  meat. 
In  general,  milk  and  cream  together  furnish  to 
the  diet  of  average  American  families  about  20 
per  cent,  of  the  total  food,  11  per  cent,  of  the 
total  protein,  and  also  of  the  total  fat,  and 
about  5  per  cent,  of  the  total  carbohydrates. 
Dairy  products  (milk,  cheese,  butter.  an<l  cream) 
furnish  over  22  per  cent,  of  the  total  food,  12 
]jer  cent,  of  the  protein.  :i2  per  cent,  of  the  fat, 
and  .5  per  cent,  of  the  carbohydrates. 

As  regards  the  digestibility  of  all  its  ingredi- 
ents, milk  is  one  of  the  most  digestible  of  animal 
foods.  It  has  been  found  that  on  an  average 
an  adult  digests  about  i)7  per  cent,  of  the  pro- 
tein. 05  per  cent,  of  the  fat.  and  98  per  cent, 
of  the  carbohydrates  of  milk.  According  to 
American  experiments,  a  child  one  year  old 
eating  milk  digests  on  an  average  only  about 
ilO  per  cent,  of  the  protein.  96  per  cent,  of 
the  fat,  and  80  per  cent,  of  the  carboliydrates  of 
cows'  milk.  When  milk  is  taken  into  tlie  stomach 
it  is  speedily  curdled  by  the  action  of  the  pepsin 
and  acid  of  the  gastric  juice.  When  eaten  alone 
or  in  large  quantities,  the  casein  gathers  in  large 
lumps,  which  in  some  persons  nuiy  be  ditricult  to 
digest.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  in- 
fants and  with  adults  whose  digestion  is  weak. 
The  casein  of  human  milk  is  precipitated  in  more 
llocculcnt  form  than  that  of  cows'  milk,  and  is 
thus  more  easily  digested  and  does  not  cause 
irritation.  Lime,  which  tends  to  prevent  the 
i-urdling  of  the  casein  of  cows'  milk  in  lumps,  is 
frequently  added  as  lime  water  to  milk  that  is 
to  be  fed  to  infants  or  to  adults  of  delicate  diges- 
tion. The  results  of  experiments  uj)on  the  efTect 
of  cooking  milk  arc  conflicting.  The  more  com- 
mon experience  seems  to  indicate  that  cooking 
or  heating  the  milk  renders  it  more  diflicult  to 
digest.  Sonic  persons,  however,  cannot  take 
fresh  milk  with  comfort,  but  can  digest  boiled 
milk. 

.Milk  is  often  said  to  !«>  a  'perfect  food.'  It 
is  so  for  the  yoimg  of  the  species  of  animal 
producing  it,  but  there  are  three  reasons  why  it 
cannot  tie  considered  n  perfect  food  for  adults. 
( 1 )  The  proportion  of  water  is  so  large  that  great 
quantities  (from  -I  to  ."j  quarts)  would  have  to 
he  consumed  each  day  in  order  to  obtain  the 
necessary  nutrients.     (2)  Tlie  protein  is  present 


in  rather  large  quantities  as  compared  with  the 
fats  and  carbohydrates.  Thus  the  milk  necessary 
to  furnish  the  0.2S  pound  of  protein  per  day, 
estimated  to  be  re(|uired  by  a  man  at  moderately 
active  work,  would  yield  only  2700  calories  of 
energy,  while  milk  in  suflicient  quantity  to  fur- 
nish the  3400  calories  estimated  as  necessary 
would  yield  0.34  pound  of  protein.  (3)  It  is  a 
well  recognized  fact  that  the  digestive  functions 
require  that  food  itself,  besides  the  water  taken 
with  it,  shall  have  a  certain  bvilk.  Cattle  cannot 
generally  l)e  maintained  in  health  upon  a  con- 
densed ration  such  as  grain;  they  seem  to  require 
a  certain  distention  of  the  stomach,  such  as  is 
brought  al)OUt  by  the  fibre  (celhilose  or  woody 
matter)  of  grass  or  hay.  In  like  manner  it  seems 
desiralile  that  man  should  have  a  certain  amount 
of  bulky  material  to  produce  distention  or  to  pro- 
mote jieristaltic  action  of  the  intestines,  or  for 
other  purposes  not  well  understood.  Of  course, 
the  nutritive  constituents  of  milk,  considered 
separately,  are  highly  cemcentrated  foods.  While, 
therefore,  milk  alone  caimot  be  considered  as  a 
perfect  diet  for  adults,  it  is  of  special  value  as  a 
food  for  invalids,  because  it  is.  as  a  rule,  easily 
taken,  easily  digested,  and  does  not  generally  ir- 
ritate the  alimentary  canal.  Furthermore,  a 
milk  diet  is  more  readily  under  the  control  of  the 
))hysician  both  as  regards  quantity  and  quality 
than  a  mixed  diet  is.  If  for  any  reason 
a  child  cannot  be  nourished  on  mother's  milk, 
the  most  useful  substitute  is  modified  cows'  milk. 
\'arious  infant  foods  and  milk  substitutes  have 
been  proposed  and  are  sold  under  divers  trade 
names. 

As  a  food  for  adults  cows'  milk  is  unusually 
well  adapted  for  use  in  connection  with  other 
foods,  either  in  its  uncooked  form  in  tea  and 
eollee,  as  a  beverage,  as  bread  and  milk,  etc.,  or 
incorporated  and  cooked  with  other  materials. 
In  many  ctilinary  (iroducts  it  can  Ite  used  instead 
of  water,  .\nalysis  of  bread,  rolls,  etc..  made 
with  milk  would  show  about  one-tenth  more  pro- 
tein and  one-twentieth  more  fuel  value  than 
bread  made  with  water.  Milk  is  very  generally 
used  in  many  kinds  of  cake  and  i)astry  and  in 
custards.  Where  desirable  from  economical  rea- 
sons, or  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  ))ro])ortional 
amount  of  protein  in  a  diet,  skim  milk  can  be 
advantageously  substituted  for  whole  milk.  At 
the  i)rice  ordinarily  jiaiil  in  our  large  cities  milk 
is  a  food  of  reasonable  cheapness,  and  at  the 
prices  ])revailing  in  small  cities  and  country 
towns  it  is  an  economical  food.  Condensed  milk 
is  a  more  nutritious  food,  pound  for  ])ound,  than 
fresh  milk,  since  it  has  lieen  concentrated  by 
evaporation.  It  is,  however,  usually  diluted  be- 
fore it  is  used,  aiul  then  approximates  fresh  milk 
more  or  less  closely  in  composition  and  food 
valtic.  If  the  condensed  milk  contains  added 
sugar  its  carbohydrate  content  is,  of  course,  high- 
er than  that  of  unsweetened  condensed  milk,  and 
when  diluted,  proportionally  higher  than  that  of 
fresh  milk.  Cream,  which  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  fat  of  the  milk,  as  well  as  some  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates,  is  chiefly  valuable  in 
the  iliet  as  a  source  of  energy.  Curds  obtained  in 
the  manufacture  of  cheese  are  eaten  to  a  limited 
extent.  They  consist  quite  largely  of  the  casein 
of  milk,  and  hence  supply  the  body  with  building 
material  as  well  as  energy'.  Butter  and  cheese 
(qq.v. ),  the  principal  milk  products  used  as 
food,  are  of  great  importance  as  articles  of  diet. 


MILK. 


5U3 


MILK  FEVER. 


Thp  fornicr,  consisting'  almost  entirely  of  fat, 
supplies  energy;  the  latter,  containing  protein 
in  addition  to  fat,  supplies  both  building  material 
and  energy. 

There  are  at  least  four  distinct  fermented  bev- 
erages prepared  from  milk — kephir  (ci.v. ),  kou- 
miss (q.v.  I.  niatzoon  ((j.v.  I.  ancl  leben.  They  are 
properly  classed  as  food  beverages,  and  are  often 
recommended  for  the  sick  and  for  eoiivalesecnts. 
,\  number  of  special  foods  are  made  from  the  dry 
casein  of  milk  and  are  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  physicians  to  siqiply  protein  in  a 
readily  digestible  form.  The  allmminoids  of  milk 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  egg  sul>stitutes. 
Jlilk  sugar  prepared  from  whey  is  an  important 
article  of  diet  for  invalids  and  is  used  in  medi- 
cine and  in  other  ways. 

BiBLiouRAPiiv.  The  literature  of  milk  is  ex- 
tensive. In  addition  to  the  publications  of  the 
Dairy  Division  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  .\griculture  and  the  bulletins  of  the  various  ex- 
periment stations,  the  following  works  may  be 
menti.med:  Fleischmann,  The  Book  of  the  Dairy, 
A  Manual  of  the  Science  and  Practice  of  Dairy 
TVorA-,  trans,  by  Aikman  and  Wright  (London, 
ISilfi)  ;  Wing,  ililk  and  Its  I'rodnrts  ( Xew  York, 
1897)  :  Snyder,  Chemistry  of  Dairying  (Kaston, 
Pa.,  1897)  ;  Aikman.  Milk:  Its  Xaiure  and  Com- 
position: A  Handbook  on  the  Chemistry  and 
Bacteriology  of  Milk,  Butter,  and  Cheese  {London, 
1895)  ;  Richmond.  Dairy  Chemistry :  A  Practical 
Handbook  for  Dairy  Chemists  and  Others  Having 
Control  of  Dairies  (London,  1899)  ;  Russell, 
Dairy  Bacteriology  (Madison.  Wis.,  1897)  ;  Conn. 
Bacteria  in  Milk  aud  Its  Products  (Philadel- 
phia. 1903)  :  Farrington  and  Woll.  Testing  Milk 
and  Its  Products  (Madi.son,  Wis.,  1898)  :  Mon- 
rad.  Pasteuri::ation  and  Milk  Preservation  (Win- 
netka.  111.,  1901)  ;  De  Rothschild,  Bihliographia 
Lnetnria  (contains  8375  titles)  (Paris, "  1901 )  : 
Ilogan.  Hoir  to  Feed  Children  (Philadelphia. 
1890)  :  Holt.  Disea.ses  of  Infancy  and  Cliildhood 
(New  York.  1899)  ;  C'hapin,  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Infant  Feeding  (Xew  York.  1902)  ;  Farmer's 
Bulletins  Xos.  .'t2,  7'i.  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

MILK  CURE.  The  treatment  of  di.sease  in 
the  adult  by  the  use  of  milk  as  a  diet.  In  the 
milk  cure  all  other  food  and  drink  is  suspended 
for  a  time.  Acting  upon  the  information  that 
milk  requires  about  three  hours  for  complete 
digestion,  four  ounces  of  milk  are  taken  by  the 
patient  every  three  hours,  beginning  on  rising 
in  the  morning.  In  a  few  days,  one  or  two  tum- 
blerfuls  are  taken  at  a  time,  in  place  of  the 
smaller  quantity.  Usually  a  patient  takes  two 
quarts  a  day;  in  some  eases  the  total  amount 
reaches  five  quarts.  It  is  generally  administered 
warm.  In  cases  of  stomachic  or  intestinal  dis- 
orders, the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  is  then  skimmed  before  being 
administered.  Lime  water,  in  the  proportion  of 
one-fourth  of  the  bulk,  overeomes  the  patient's 
repugnance  to  the  diet  and  renders  it  more  easy 
of  digestion.  Or  the  milk  may  be  flavored  with 
coffee,  cocoa,  salt,  or  caramel,  .\fter  two  or 
three  weeks  of  strict  milk  diet,  it  is  advised 
that  a  little  stale  bread  be  added,  three  tiines  a 
day.  .\  week  later,  about  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
rice  or  .a  little  arrowroot  is  aihleil.  .\t  the 
fifth  week  a  chop  is  given  once  a  day.  and  a  few 
days  later  two  chops  a  day  are  allowed.     At  the 


end  of  the  sixth  week  lull  meals  of  various  foods 
are  resumed,  milk  continuing  to  be  a  principal 
part  of  the  diet.  Colfee,  or  aloes,  or  laxative 
mineral  water  is  employed  to  overcome  the  con- 
stipation incident  upon  a  milk  diet  in  adults. 

The  milk  cure  is  successful  in  some  cases  of 
dyspepsia,  gastric  ulcer,  chronic  intestinal  indi- 
gestion, enteralgia,  chronic  diarrh(ea  and  dysen- 
tery. In  the  treatment  of  ascites  of  hepatic 
origin,  it  has  been  used  since  the  days  of  Hip- 
pocrates, who  refers  to  it.  It  has  also  proved 
eflicacious  in  diabetes,  eczema,  gout,  aneurism, 
and  cardiac  disease. 

MILK  FEVER  (in  Women).  Coincidently 
with  the  appearance  of  milk  in  the  brea.sts  of  a 
mother  who  has  given  birth  to  a  child  three  or 
four  days  previously,  there  is  a  slight  general 
rise  of  temperature,  accompanied  by  an  accel- 
erated pulse,  and  in  some  cases  a  diminution  of 
the  lochial  discharge.  Tlie  breasts  become 
swollen,  hot,  and  rosy,  and  somewhat  sensitive. 
Many  women  in  robust  health  sutTer  no  discom- 
fort :  some  have  no  rise  of  temperature.  No 
treatment  other  than  relief  of  existing  constipa- 
tion is  necessary. 

MILK  FEVER,  Pabturient  Apoplexy,  or 
Parturient  Pare.sis.  A  disease  of  cows,  espe- 
cially good  milkers  of  improved  breeds  and  in 
good  condition  at  time  of  calving.  As  the  most 
important  jiredisposing  causes  of  the  disease 
veterinarians  have  long  recognized  confinement  in 
improperly  ventilated  stables,  higli  temperature, 
electrical  disturbances,  constipation,  mature  age, 
and  calving.  Later  writers  regard  the  cause  as 
ptomain  poisoning  originating  in  the  udder  and 
affecting  the  brain  and  central  nervoi's  system. 
The  di.sease  never  follows  the  first  calving,  and 
rarely  follows  the  second.  One  attack  seems  to 
predispose  toward  anotlier.  It  appears  in  two 
forms,  apoplectic  and  torpid.  In  the  apoplectic 
form  the  cow  suddenly  bec-onu's  dull,  allows  the 
head  to  droop,  and  staggers  in  attempting  to 
walk,  falls,  and  lies  either  on  the  breast-bone, 
with  the  head  turned  around  to  the  right,  and 
resting  on  the  muzzle,  or  stretched  out  on  the 
side.  The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  dilated,  and  the 
head  and  horns  are  hot ;  the  bowels  and  bladder 
soon  become  torpid  or  completely  paralyzed,  and 
fail  to  operate  unless  recovery  takes  place. 
In  the  torpid  form  there  is  no  marked  fever 
and  no  congestion  of  the  head.  The  animal 
slowly  becomes  drowsy  and  weakened,  falls  down, 
and.  unless  relieved,  finally  succumbs.  Insensi- 
bility is  a  pronounced  symptom  in  the  later 
stages  of  both  forms. 

The  ustial  treatment  consists  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  Epsom  salts,  and  doses  of  20  to  30 
drops  of  tincture  of  aconite.  Ice  is  applied 
to  the  head  in  the  apopleetic  form.  After 
the  symptoms  of  fever  and  constipation  abate, 
stinuilants  are  administered  until  the  cow  is  able 
to  stand.  Recently  satisfactory  results  have  been 
obtained  from  a  method  known  as  the  Schmidt 
treatment,  which  consists  in  injecting  an  infusion 
of  ten  grammes  of  potassium  idodide  into  the 
udder.  If  no  improvement  is  noted,  the  dose 
may  be  repeated  after  24  hours.  .\  large  per- 
centage of  cases  recover  from  the  first  dose.  \ 
modification  of  the  method,  which  has  also  given 
good  results,  consists  in  L'iving  hypodermic  in- 
jections of  iodide  of  potash. 


MILKPISH. 


504 


MILK  PRODUCTION. 


MILKFISH.  A  large,  silvciy,  hcrringlike 
fisli  of  llic  gfiiiis  Clianos  and  family  Hiodontid*, 
which  inhabit  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Pacific. 
One  well-known  species  (Chanos  chunos),  from 
two  to  five  feet  long,  is  a  food  fish  of  some  im- 
portance in  the  South  Pacific,  .Japan,  Hawaii, 
and  the  Gulf  of  California.  Foreign  names  for 
it  are  'chani,'  "awa,'  'auged,'  'sabalo,'  etc. 

MILKING  MACHINE.  An  apparatus  de- 
signed to  do  away  witli  hand  labor  in  milking 
cows.  Milking  tubes,  inserted  into  ihe  milk  duets 
within  the  teats,  have  been  tried,  but  found  un- 
satisfactory. Several  forms  of  milking  machines 
have  been  devised  which  milk  a  number  of  cows 
at  the  same  time.  One  of  the  most  successful 
of  these,  the  Thistle,  operates  on  the  principle 
of  a  vacuum  maintained  by  a  hand  or  power  air 
pump.  Pipes  connected  with  a  large  storage  tank 
from  which  the  air  is  e.\hausted  pass  to  the  stalls 
and  terminate  in  cups,  which  fit  over  the  cows' 
teats  so  as  to  make  an  airtight  joint.  A  pulsat- 
ing motion  resembling  hand  milking  or  the  suck- 
ing of  the  calf  is  imijartcd  by  the  vacuum,  alter- 
nating in  pressure  from  5  to  15  pounds  at  ([uite 
rapid  intervals.  Other  forms  of  milking  ma- 
chines operate  on  a  similar  principle.  They  are 
said  to  be  rapid  and  efTective,  but  are  e.xiiensive 
to  install  and  maintain,  and  must  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  or  they  will  soon  liecome  foul  and  con- 
taminate the  milk.  As  yet  milking  machines 
have  come  into  only  very  limited  u.se,  either  in 
.\merica  or   Kurope. 

MILK  LEG.     See  Phlegmasia  Alba  Dolens. 

MILKOWSKI,  mil  kov'skt,  Zyg.mlkt  (1824 
—  I.  \  Polish  novelist,  who  wrote  under  the 
pseudonym  Thcodor  Thomas  .(ez.  He  was  born 
near  Balta.  in  Podolia,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Odessa  Lyceum  and  at  the  University  of  Kiev, 
where  he  made  a  special  study  of  physics  and 
mathematics.  }Je  took  an  active  part  in  the  II im- 
garian  uprising  of  1848  and  then  traveled  in  the 
East.  After  identifying  him.self  with  the  Polish 
insurrection  of  18(i;i  he  was  ol)liged  to  live  abroad, 
and  he  settled  in  (ieneva  in  1877.  Besides  ro- 
mances founded  upon  Slavic  histoiy.  he  wrote 
stories  of  eonleiuporary  life  in  Poland. 

MILK  PRODUCTION.  In  a  well-conducted 
dairy  farm  thi'  following  conditions  should  be 
enforced:  The  stable  or  cow  hou.se  should  be 
roomy,  clean,  dry.  light,  and  well  ventilated, 
for  only  under  such  conditions  can  cows  be 
kept  in  the  best  of  health.  The  animals  them- 
selves should  be  clean  and  healthy,  and  should  be 
w<'ll  fed  and  contented.  There  shouhl  be  an 
abundance  of  pure  water,  to  which  the  cows 
should  have  access  at  least  twice  a  day.  The 
food  should  be  of  good  ipiality.  and  the  grain 
and  coarse  fodder  slumld  lie  free  from  dirt  and 
decay,  and  not  in  a  musty  eon<lition.  All  utensils 
which  come  in  contact  with  milk  should  be  thor- 
oughly washed  and  sterilized  or  scalded  after 
using,  .\fter  the  milk  has  been  drawn  from  the 
cow  it  should  be  taken  to  a  milk  room  which  is 
free  from  all  stable  and  other  odors,  poured 
through  a  fine  strainer,  and  run  over  a  cooling 
aerator  (q.v.),  to  free  it  of  animal  and  stable 
odors  and  cool  it  ipiickly.  The  milk  is  next 
transferred  to  Ihe  shipping  can  and  set  in  cold 
water,  or  bottled  and  stored  in  a  cold  place  until 
needed.  During  transportation  from  the  farm 
fo  the  town  or  city  the  milk  should  he  kept  as 
cool  as  possible.     Refrigerator  cars  are  provided 


by  some  railroad:^  lor  thai  purpose.  Much  of  the 
milk  that  is  brought  to  large  cities  by  rail  is 
from  24  to  30  hours  old  before  it  reaches  the 
consumer.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  exercise 
every  precaution  in  its  handling,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent spoiling,  and  cooling  inuuediately  after 
milking  is  an  important  factor  in  this  connec- 
tion. 

Not  only  has  the  demand  for  clean,  pure  milk 
led  to  an  increased  demand,  but  it  has  led  to  the 
enactment  of  more  rigid  restrictions  and  closer' 
>ui)ervision  of  dairies,  and  by  the  production  at 
some  dairies  of  so-called  sanitary  milk.  Such 
milk  is  produced  under  the  most  sanitary  and 
hygienic  conditions  as  regards  the  food  and  care 
of  the  animals,  the  stables,  the  milking,  and  the 
care  and  handling  of  the  milk.  The  herds  in  these 
dairies  arc  inspected  often  to  determine  their 
freedom  from  disease,  and  not  infrequently  the 
milk  is  "certified'  or  guaranteed  to  contain  a  cer- 
tain fixed  jiercentage  of  fat.  as  ,5  per  cent.,  this 
being  maintained  the  year  round  by  the  addition 
of  cream  when  necessarj'.  Such  sanitary  or  certi- 
fied milk  is  usually  sold  at  an  advanced  price, 
as  the  co.st  of  its  production  is  greater  than  that 
of  ordinary  mark<'t  milk.  The  so-called  modified 
milk  is  a  prepared  product  used  principally  for 
infant  feeding,  and  usually  made  according  to  a 
physician's  prescription.  Many  (ihysicians  pre- 
scribe a  milk  with  a  definite  composition,  usually 
resembling  mother's  milk  as  closely  as  possible, 
but  varying  according  to  the  apparent  needs  of 
the  individual.  Such  prescription  milk  is  gen- 
erally prepared  from  cows'  milk  by  reducing  the 
amount  of  fat,  but  more  particularly  that  of 
proteids,  and  increasing  the  proportion  of  sugar. 
I.ime  water  is  frequently  added  to  reduce  the 
acidity,  ami  at  times  preparations  made  from 
cereals  are  adiled. 

I'or  the  preservation  of  milk  pasteurization  is 
now  extensively  practiced.  Pasteurization  con- 
sists in  heating  the  milk  in  closed  vessels  at  from 
tiO°  to  65°  C.  (140°  to  1.50°  V.)  for  about  half  an 
hour,  and  then  cooling  it  as  quickly  as  po.ssible 
by  cold  water  or  ice.  By  this  means  most  of  the 
organisms  contained  in  it  are  killed,  and  the  milk 
will  keep  much  longer  than  when  it  has  not  been 
so  treated.  Continuous  ]iasteurizers  are  used  in 
many  creameries  and  large  dairies,  and  there  are 
a  vaiicty  of  small  pasteurizers  for  family  u.se. 
Where  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  purity  of 
the  milk  it  is  nniclf  safer  to  pasteurize  that  used 
for  children  at  home.  To  a  certain  extent,  how- 
ever, pasteurization  may  be  used  to  cover  up  the 
effects  of  careless  methods,  and  many  people 
prefer  the  sanitary  milk.  In  sterilizing  milk 
the  liquid  is  heated  to  boiling:  but  this  changes 
the  character  of  the  milk,  making  it  less  suitable 
for  drinking,  and  giving  it  ;i  cooked  taste.  Pas- 
teurization   is   sufi'Lcient   for   lunwehold   purposes. 

Condensed  illLK.  This  is  made  by  evapo- 
rating whole  milk  so  as  to  remove  a  large  jiortion 
of  the  water.  The  milk  is  first  heated  and  then 
introduced  into  vacuum  pans,  where  it  is  boiled 
imt  il  sufficiently  concentrated,  when  it  is  placed 
in  cans  ami  hermetically  sealed.  By  far  the 
greater  portion  is  sweetened,  about  1  V,  pounds  of 
cane  sugar  per  gallon  being  added  during  boiling: 
but  sfune  is  evapor:ited  without  sweetening.  ;»1- 
thougli  this  does  not  keep  as  long  after  the  can 
is  opened.  Plain  condensed  milk  contains  about 
tin  per  cent,  of  water  and  10  t>er  cent,  of  fat. while 
the  sweetened  product  lontains  from  25  to  30  per 


MILK  PRODUCTION. 


505 


MILL. 


cent,  of  water,  about  10  per  cent,  of  fat,  and 
35  to  40  per  cent,  of  sugar.  Evaporated  cream 
and  condensed  cream  are  notliing  more  than  con- 
densed milk,  as  their  composition  shows.  Cream 
or  even  enriched  millc  is  .seldom  condensed.  The 
manufacture  of  condensed  nnlk  has  grown  to 
enormous  proportions,  and  its  use  i.s  widespread 
where  fresh  milk  of  good  quality  cannot  be  ob- 
tained. 

Statistics.  According  to  the  returns  of  the 
census  of  1900,  over  18.000,000  cows  are  kept  in 
the  United  States  for  the  production  of  milk. 
These  produce  annually  nearly  S.000.000,000  gal- 
lons of  milk.  The  creameries  use  the  milk  from 
about  2,500,000  cows  for  butter-making,  and  the 
cheese  factories  tliut  from  about  1,130,000  cows. 
The  total  value  of  the  milk  consumed  as  such  is 
estimated  at  .$277,04.5,100,  and  of  the  cream, 
$4,43.5,444.  There  were  50  condensed-milk  fac- 
tories in  the  United  States  in  1900,  which  used 
421,378,073  pounds  of  milk  and  produced  180,- 
921.787  pounds  of  the  condensed  product,  an  in- 
crease of  nearly  400  per  cent,  over  the  returns 
for  1890.  The  product  was  valued  at  nearly 
$12,000,000.  The  aggregate  value  of  the  dairy 
products  of  the  United  States  is  given  by  the 
Twelfth  Census  as  $599,827,154.  The  annual 
consumption  of  dairy  products  per  capita,  aside 
from  the  milk  consumed  as  such,  is  estimated  as 
follows:  Butter,  19  pounds;  cheese,  3.3  pounds; 
condensed  milk,  2.3  pounds. 

See  also  D.^irying;  Butter;  Creamery; 
Cheese;  Buttermilk;  Whey. 

MILK  SNAKE,,  or  House  Snake.  A  common 
widely  spread  Xorth  American  colubrine  snake, 
classified  as  an  Eastern  variety  (triungida)  of 
the  Southern  king-snake  ( Osceola  doliuta ) .  It 
sometimes  reaches  a  length  of  four  feet,  and  its 
general  color  above  is  yellowish  gray,  with  a 
dorsal  series  of  large  blotches,  normally  55  in 
numljer,  and  separated  bj-  narrow  intervals,  which 
are  dull  chocolate  bordered  with  black.  There 
are  also  a  double  row  of  rounded  spots  along  the 
sides,  and  a  dark  band  from  the  eye  back  to 
the  corner  of  the  mouth.  The  abdomen  is  yel- 
lowi.sh  white,  with  square  black  blotches  alter- 
nating with  those  above  them.  This  subspecies 
is  abundant  in  the  Jliddle  States  and  Southern 


MILK   eSAKE. 

Ontario,  changing  southward  and  west  of  the 
Mississippi  into  other  forms  of  this  far-extended 
and  highly  variable  species.  (See  King-Snake.) 
Everywhere  it  is  an  entirely  harmless  denizen 
of  fields  and  gardens,  and  often  conies  into  barns 
and  out-houses  in  search  of  the  mice  upon  which 
it  principally  feeds,  thereby  deserving  the  pro- 
tection of  farmers.  It  is  swift  and  agile.  Its 
name  'milk  snake'  comes  from  the  frequency 
with  which  it  is  seen  in  dairies  or  places  where 
milk  is  kept.  It  is  believed  to  drink  the  milk, 
and  there  seems  to  be  good  evidence  that  it 
does  so.  Another  popular  belief  is  that  this 
snake  sometimes  sucks  the  milk  from  the  teats 
of  cows,  and  this  belief  seems  to  be  founded 
upon  fact,  although  the  occurrence  is  much  less 
common  than  some  persons  believe. 


MILK  TEST.     See  iliLK;   Dairying. 

MILKWEED.     See  Asclepias. 

MILKWEED  BUTTERFLY.  A  cosmopol- 
itan buttcrlly  \Anusi(i  iilrxijipus )  which  is  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  where  milkweeds 
(Asclepias)  grow.  It  is  a  large  reddish  species, 
with  its  wing-veins  blackened,  and  its  larva  is 
striking  in  color,  being  gra3-ish-wh)te  and  yellow- 
ish, transversely  banded  with  black,  giving  it  a 
zebra-like  appearance.  The  chrysalis  is  delicate 
pale  green  with  bright  golden  spots,  and  hangs 
from  the  leayes  or  stems  of  the  food  plant.  The 
milkweed  butterfly  is  a  famous  species  for  sev- 
eral reasons.  It  is  one  of  the  strongest  flyers 
known  among  the  Lepidoptera ;  specimens  have 
been  taken  on  vessels  many  hundreds  of  miles 
from  the  land,  and  there  is  in  the  United  States 
an  annual  migration  northward  in  the  spring 
from  the  States  bordering  on  the  tiulf  of  Mex- 
ico. (  See  Migration  of  Axi.\ials.  )  These  flights, 
aided  by  the  .south  winds,  may  reach  up  into 
Canada,  the  butterflies  occasionally  alighting 
and  laying  their  eggs  upon  the  milkweeds.  In 
the  autumn  there  is  a  return  migration  south, 
and  the  butterflies  hibernate  only  in  the  Southern 
States,  hidden  away  beneath  the  bark  of  trees 
and  in  other  protected  places. 

Ordinaril}-  the  butterflies  frequent  ojien  ground, 
but  when  they  congregate,  as  at  night  and  in 
cloudy  weather,  they  are  found  resting  on  the 
stems  of  herbaceous  plants,  usuall.y  in  the  open 
spaces  of  forests,  and  in  enormous  numbers. 
They  will  alight  upon  the  lee  side  of  a  tree,  and 
particularly  on  the  lower  branches,  in  such  vast 
numbers  as  almost  to  hide  the  foliage  and  to 
give  their  color  to  the  trees.  If  disturbed,  they 
rise  like  a  flock  of  birds,  but  immediately  settle 
again.  Sometimes  a  tree  will  be  so  festooned 
with  butterflies  that  it  appears,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance, to  be  covered  witli  dead  leaves. 

This  butterfly  is  one  of  the  especially  protected 
species,  and  is  provided  with  scent-scales,  'an- 
droconia,'  which  are  supposed  to  make  the  insect 
distasteful  to  its  natural  enemies.  It  is  the 
commonest  and  most  widespread  representative 
of  the  large  group  of  butterflies  which  are  thu3 
protected,  and  is  mimicked  in  coloration  by  other 
non-protected  species,  e.g.  in  the  United  States 
hv  Basilarchia  disippus.  Consult  Scudder,  The 
Life  of  the  Butterfly  (New  York,  1893).  See 
the  articles  JIimicry;  Viceroy;  and  Butter- 
I'LiE.s  -VND  Moths. 

MILKWORT.  A  plant  common  in  the  north 
temperate  zone.     See  Polyqala. 

MILKY  WAY.     See  Galaxx. 

MILL  (AS.  mt/len,  niyln,  from  Lat.  molina, 
mill,  from  mola.  millstone,  from  iiiolere,  to  grind ; 
connected  with  Eng.  mrttl.  mold).  A  name 
originally  given  to  machinery  for  grinding  grain 
for  food,  or  to  the  factory  where  this  was  done. 
Tlie  term  is  now  applied  in  a  general  way  to 
many  other  kinds  of  manufactories  besides  those 
where  raw  material  is  transformed  by  a  grind- 
ing process,  as  a  saw-mill,  planing-mill.  or  eot- 
tim-mill.  See  Flour:  Rolling-Mii.l:  Grinmxo 
AND  Crushing  M.^chinery. 

MILL,  .Tames  (1773-183(5).  A  British  econo- 
mist and  philosopher.  He  was  the  son  of  a  shoe- 
maker, born  near  Montrose.  Scotland.  .April  6, 
1773.  He  studied  at  the  Universitv  of  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  distingtiished  himself  in  Greek 


HILL. 


506 


ULTLL. 


and  in  moral  and  metaphysical  philosophy.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  17'JS;  but  instead  of 
following  this  career,  he  went  to  London  in 
1802,  as  tutor  to  Sir  John  Stuart's  children, 
and  there  settled  as  a  literary  man.  He  Ijecame 
editor  of  the  Literary  JouriHil  and  wrote  for 
various  periodical.s.  Not  long  after  he  .settled 
in  London  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Jeremy 
Bentham,  who  inllucnced  him  greatlj"  in  his 
views.  In  180C  he  commenced  his  History  of 
British  India,  which  he  carried  on  along  witli 
other  literary  work,  and  puhlislied  in  the  win- 
ter of  1S17-18.  This  important  work,  tliough 
containing  an  attack  upon  the  adniini.stralion 
of  the  East  India  Company,  secured  for  him  in 
1819  the  i)Ost  of  assistant  examiner  of  Indian 
correspondence.  Before  his  death  he  was  ap- 
pointed liead  of  the  examiner's  office,  where  he 
iiad  the  control  of  all  the  departments  of  Indian 
administration — political,  judicial,  and  financial 
— managed  by  the  secret  committee  of  the  court 
of  directors.  He  contributed  many  important 
articles  to  the  EiicycloiXTdiu  liritaiinica.  These 
essays  were  printed  in  a  separate  form,  and  be- 
came widely  known.  In  1821-22  he  published 
his  Elemenls  of  Political  Economy,  a  work  pre- 
pared primarilv  with  a  view  to  the  education 
of  his  eldest  soil,  John  Stuart  Mill.  In  1829  his 
magnum  opus,  the  Analysis  of  the  Human  Mind, 
apjH'ared.  The  work  is  almost  the  Bible  of  as- 
sociationism.  and  deserves  to  be  classed  among 
the  great  English  philosophical  productions.  He 
attempted  to  simplify  associationism  by  recogniz- 
ing only  one  principle  at  work,  that  which  was 
later  called  association  by  contiguity.  (See  As- 
.sociATlON  OF  Ideas.)  This  principle  can  so  fuse 
various  ideas  and  feelings  that  a  result  may  be 
produced  entirely  diU'erent  from  the  original  ele- 
ment. This  has  been  called  "mental  chemistry.' 
Mill  made  great  use  of  mental  chemistry  in  sup- 
port of  the  doctrine  that  morality  is  liased  cm 
utility.  (See  I'tii.itakiamsxi.1  In  this  way  he 
furni.shed  a  psychological  basis  for  Bentham'.s 
ethical  and  legislative  reforms.  He  took  great 
interest  in  political  questions  and  was  a  i)owerful 
advocate  of  an  extended  suffrage.  Much  of  his 
influence  was  due  to  his  strong  personality  and 
great  conversational  powers.  In  later  life  he  en- 
tirely broke  away  from  his  early  religious  views 
and  brought  up  his  son  .Tohn  St\iart  in  utter  reli- 
gious indilVercnce.  lie  took  a  le.-iding  part  in  the 
founding  of  University  College,  London.  He 
died  at  Kensington.  .lune  2.3.  18.30.  See  Auto- 
biof/raphy  of  J.  S.  Mill  (London.  1873)  ;  Bain, 
James  Mill:  A  liioqrupUii  (London,  1882)  : 
Bower,  .fames  Mill  and  Hartlry  ( ib..  1881).  All 
of  these  works^are  cpiite  popul.ir  in  character. 
MILL,  .loiiN  (104.5- 1707).  .\  scholar  of  the 
Church  of  Kngland.  He  was  born  at  Shap, 
Westmoreland;  studied  at  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  was  elected  a  fellnw  in  1070.  He  en- 
tereil  the  ministry,  and  became  distinguished  as 
a  preacher;  became  rector  in  lOSl  nf  the  college 
living  of  Hletchington.  Oxfordshire.  :ind  chap- 
Iain  to  Charles  II.  In  KiS.")  he  was  principal  of 
Saint  Edmund  Hall;  in  1704  he  became  pre- 
bendary of  Canterbury.  The  work  for  which 
he  is  most  distinguished  is  his  new  edition  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  on  which  he  spent  thirty 
years,  and  which  appeared  only  fourtiM'n  days 
before  his  death.  It  was  undertaken  at  the  ad- 
vice and  expense  of  Pr.  Fell,  Bishop  of  Oxford, 
but  after  the  Bishop's  death    (1080)    Mill   con- 


tinued it  at  his  own  expense,  and  repaid  to  the 
executors  what  he  had  received.  The  text  which 
Mill  adopted  is  that  of  Uobert  Stephens  of  1550, 
and  his  work  contains  :JO,000  various  readings 
collected  from  manuscripts,  commentaries,  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers,  etc.  Dr.  Daniel  Whitby  at- 
tacked the  work  in  his  Examen  Variantium  l.rr- 
tionum  Johannis  Millii  (London,  1709)  :  but  Dr. 
Richard  Bentley  approved  the  labors  of  Mill,  and 
Michaclis,  Marsh,  and  other  critical  scholars  ac- 
knowledged the  value  of  the  edition. 

MILL,  John  Stuart  (1800-73).  An  English 
|)hilosopher.  tlie  son  of  James  ilill.  He  was 
born  in  London.  May  20.  1800,  and  was  educated 
at  home  by  bis  f;ithcr.  who.  however,  unwisely 
forced  the  child  l)eyond  his  years.  He  is  said 
to  have  begun  Greek  at  three.  He  was  never 
allowed  to  indulge  in  the  plays  of  childhood. 
In  1 820  he  went  to  France,  where  he  lived 
for  upward  of  a  year,  nuiking  himself  mas- 
ter of  the  French  language,  and  occasionally 
attending  public  lectures  on  science,  but  also, 
now  that  he  was  away  from  his  father,  getting 
some  physical  exercise  in  fencing  and  like  sports. 
This  stay  in  France  gave  him  an  inten.se  appre- 
ciation lor  the  pleasures  of  travel,  and  to  the 
end  of  his  days  he  was  an  ardent  lover  of  moun- 
tain scenery.  But  the  world  of  men  had  also 
its  interest  for  him  while  he  was  abroad,  for 
then  he  laid  the  foundation  of  bis  great  famil- 
iarity with  and  interest  in  the  politics  as  well  as 
the  literature  of  the  French  nation.  On  bis  re- 
turn he  read  law,  history,  and  philosophy,  and  in 
1823  entered  the  India  House  as  a  clerk  in  the 
examiner's  ollice,  where  his  father  was  assistant 
examiner.  For  thirty-three  years  be  was  in  the 
service  of  this  company,  gradually  rising  till 
at  last  he  was  head  of  his  department,  as  his 
father  had  been  before  him.  \\  hen  the  govern- 
ment of  India  was  transferred  to  the  Crown  in 
1858,  he  declined  a  seat  at  the  New  Indian  Coun- 
cil, and  retired  from  otlice  in  October  of  the 
same  year,  on  a  compensating  allow;ince.  At  the 
general  clcctinn  of  l,Stl5  Mill  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Westminster,  and  till  he  lost  his 
seat  at  the  election  of  1808  he  act^d  with  the 
advanced  Radicals,  and  urged  the  extension  of 
suffrage  to  women.  In  1851  he  married  Mrs. 
John  Taylor,  with  whom  he  had  maintained 
quite  unconventional  relations  before  her  first 
husband's  death.  She  die<l  in  1859.  but  Mill's 
devotion  to  her  memory  was  his  religion  till  his 
death,  which  took  jdace  May  8.  1873.  at  Avignon, 
where  he  had  s])ent  the  greater  part  of  the  last 
years  of  his  life. 

Mill  became  an  author  at  a  very  early  age, 
and  may  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  fore- 
most thinkers  of  his  time.  His  first  publica- 
tions consisted  of  articles  in  the  ^yestminstrr 
Review.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  political 
discussions  that  followed  the  revolution  of  1830 
in  France  and  the  reform-bill  movement  in  Eng- 
land; and  from  1835  to  1840  was  editor  and, 
along  with  Sir  W.  Molesworth.  proprietor,  of  the 
Ijondfin  and  Westminster  l!erien\  where  many 
articles  of  his  own  appeared.  His  chief  works 
are:  A  ffystem  of  Loflie,  Ratiocinatire  and  In- 
duelive  (1843);  Principles  nf  Political  Economy 
(1848);  On  lAherty  (lS-'>9);  Discussions  and 
Dissertations  (4  vols.,  1859-74);  Utilitarianism 
(1803)  ;  Comte  and  Posilirism  and  the  E.raniina- 
tinn  of  flir  ^Villiam  Hamilton's  Philosophy 
(1865)  ;  Inaugural  Address  at  the  University  of 


MILL. 


507 


MILLBANK  PRISON. 


Saint  Andreics  (18(17);  Enghind  and  Irehind 
(ISliS);  and  The  tiuhjection  of  Momcn  (18(i!l). 
AI'Ut  liis  death  appeared  liis  Aulobioyrdfjliy 
(1S73)  and  Three  A's.wi/.s  on  I'elitiion  ().S74). 
Jii  pliilosupliy  he  was  an  empirieist,  sensational- 
ist, and  assoeiationalist.  in  etiiios  lie  was  a 
utilitarian,  but  dei)arled  from  the  utilitarianism 
of  Hentham  by  reeognizing  dilTerences  in  quality 
as  .well  as  in  quantity  of  pleasures.  "It  is  (piite 
compatible,"  he  says,  "with  the  principle  of 
utility  to  recognize  the  fact  that  some  kinds 
of  pleasure  are  more  desirable  and  mine  valua- 
ble tlian  others.  It  is  better  to  be  a  human 
being  dissatislicd  tlian  a  pig  satisfu'd  ;  belter  to 
be  Socrates  dissatisfied  than  a  fool  satisfied."  In 
political  theory  ilill  was  a  modified  individualist, 
believing  that  every  man  should  be  allowed 
all  liberty  compatible  with  tlie  liberty  of  his 
fellows.  The  tendency  of  modern  thought  has 
been  so  far  away  from  individualistic  standards 
that  Mill's  renown  has  been  somewhat  ol)seured  ; 
but  liis  inlhience  on  his  own  generation  would 
be  diflieult  to  overestimate.  His  greatest  work, 
however,  was  in  logic,  to  which  he  added  a  fruit- 
ful treatment  of  the  subject  of  induction  (q.v.). 
His  work  in  this  science  was  consideral)lv  im- 
paired by  his  scnsationalistic  empiricism,  but 
when  everything  is  taken  into  account,  it  must 
stand  alongside  that  of  Aristotle  and  of  Hegel. 
His  book  was  for  many  years  the  standard  au- 
thority among  those  who  shared  his  general 
standpoint  in  qviestions  of  philosophy,  though  it 
was  keenly  criticised  from  the  opposite  camp 
by  Whewe'll  and  \V.  (}.  Ward. 

Consult:  Bourne,  TAfe  of  J.  .S'.  Mill  (London, 
1S7;!)  :  Cairnes.  .).  .S'.  Mill  ( ib..  1873)  ;  Courtney, 
Metuphi/sics  of  J.  S.  Mill  ( ib.,  1870);  T.  H. 
Green.  The  Loyic  of  .J.  iS'.  Mill,  in  Green's  ^Yorks, 
vol.  ii.  (ib..  1880)  ;  Gomperz,  ./.  .S'.  Mill  (Vienna, 
1889):  Courtney,  Life  of  J.  8.  Mill  (London. 
188!)):  DouLdas'.  John  tihinrt  Mill,  ti  Hludy  of 
Hix  I'hilosuphii  (ib.,  180.5)  :  id..  The  Ethics  of 
John  Sluuit  Mill  (ib.,  1897);  Watson.  An  Out- 
line of  Philosophy  (Glasgow,  1898);  Stejilien, 
The  Enylish  Vtiliiaridns  (London,  1900)  ;  Albee, 
History  of  Enylish  Vtilitarianism  (ib.,  1902). 
Douglas's  two  works  are  especially  to  be  com- 
mended to  the  reader  who  wishes  to  get  in  com- 
pact form  a  statement  of  Jlill's  doctrines  in  his 
own  words. 

MILLAIS,  mil-la',  Sir  John  Everett  (1829- 
!l(i).  .\n  Knglish  genre,  landscape,  and  portrait 
painter.  He  was  born  at  Stmtliampton,  .June  8, 
1829,  and  was  brought  up  in  the  lsh>  of  .Jersey. 
In  lS:i7  he  received  his  first  instruction  in  art 
from  Bessel,  a  drawing-teacher  at  Southampton. 
Ill  IS.'JS  and  1839  he  studied  at  the  School  of 
Henry  Sass  in  Bloomsbuiy,  and  the  following 
years  at  the  Royal  Academy,  in  which  he 
carried  off  every  prize,  receiving  a  gold 
medal  in  1847.  Tn  1848  he  became  associated 
with  William  Holman  Hunt.  Dante  Gabriel 
Ro.^<etfi.  and  others  in  the  formation  of  the  Pre- 
Raphaelite  Brotherhood  (q.v.).  His  work  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Ruskin.  for  whom  he 
made  some  architectural  designs,  and  whose  por- 
trait he  painted.  In  18.5.5  he  married  Buskin's 
divorced  wife.  He  was  made  associate  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1854  and  member  in 
1803.  From  1800  to'l870  he  was  employed  as 
illustrator,  and  among  other  books  illustrated 
Tennyson's  poems  and  Trollope's  novels.  He  re- 
ceived a  medal  of  honor  at  the  Paris  E.\position 
Vol.  XIII,— 33. 


in  1878  and  was  an  lionorary  niemlier  of  several 
foreign  academies.  He  was  kniglited  in  1S85,  and 
a  few  months  before  his  death,  whicli  occurred  in 
l.niidon.  Aiigu>t  13,  1890,  he  was  made  president 
of  the  Royal  Academy. 

Aside  from  his  landscapes  and  portraits,  his 
subjects  include  Scrijitural,  historical, and  legend- 
ary tliemes,  scenes  from  every-day  life,  and  a  few- 
national  in  character,  such  as  "Xbe  Rescue" 
(1855),  painted  in  honor  of  the  London  firemen. 
From  1847  to  1853  bis  work  is  strongl.v  inlluenced 
by  Pre-Rai>haelite  theories  anil  aroused  much 
criticism.  Works  of  this  period  are:  "Isabella" 
(1849);  "Christ  in  the  House  of  His  Parents" 
(1850);  "Ophelia"  (1852);  "The  Proscribed 
Royalist"  (1853)  ;  "The  Huguenot"  (18.52),  Bir- 
mingham Art  Gallery.  Afti^-  1855  his  work  de- 
veloped greater  individuality  and  breadth.  His 
landscapes  betra.v  the  ardent  nature  lover;  his 
portraits  are  painted  with  sympathetic  fidelity. 
From  1870  on  be  gave  most  of  his  time  to  por- 
trait painting,  his  sitters  including  Gladstone 
(Xational  tiallcry)  ;  Leech,  Lord  Beaconsfield 
and  Wilkie  Collins,  in  the  Xational  Portrait  Gal- 
lery; Carlyle,  .John  Bright,  Irving,  Tennyson,  and 
otliers.  His  landscapes  include:  "Spring" 
(1858);  "Chill  October"  (1871);  "The  Vale 'of 
Rest"  (1878);  "Dew-Drenched  Furze"  (1881), 
Xational  Ciallery  of  British  Art.  Other  import- 
ant pictures  are:  "The  Northwest  Passage" 
(1874)  ;  "Eve  of  Saint  Agnes"  (1803),  National 
Gallery  of  British  Art:  "Efiie  Deans;"  "The 
Black  Brunswicker"  (1800)  ;  "A  Yeoman  of  the 
Guard"  (1877)  ;  the  "Bride  of  Lammermoor,"  in 
the  William  H.  Vanderliilt  collection :  ".Saint 
Stephen"  (1891)  ;  "Speak!  Speak!"  (1891)  :  "A 
Disciple"  ( 1891 ) ,  all  in  the  National  Gallery  of 
British  Art. 

Consult:  Millais'  Life  and  Letters,  by  J.  G. 
ilillais  (London,  1899)  ;  Baldry,  Millais:  His 
Art  and  Influence  (ib.,  1899)  ;  Spielmann,  Millais 
and  His  Works   (ib.,  1898). 

MILLAMANT.  In  Congieve's  Way  of  the 
M'orhl.  a  willful  coquette,  sought  by  Mirabel.  The 
character  is  uiodelcd  on  that  of  Celim&ne  in 
Jloli&re's  Misan thropc. 

MILLAtr,  me'l.V.  or  MILHAU.  The  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  De]iartment  of  Ave.y- 
ron,  France,  74  miles  by  rail  from  Beziers  (^lap: 
France.  .J  7).  Its  chief  building  of  interest  is 
the  Romanesque  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  with  its 
sixteenth  century  tower.  The  town  is  the  centre 
of  a  cattle-raising  and  grape-growing  section  and 
has  a  variety  of  manuf.Tctures,  particularly  of 
kid  gloves.  IMillau  was  tlie  Roman  .Emilianum 
Castrum;  during  the  religious  wars  it  was  a 
stronghold  of  Calvinism,  and  Louis  XITI.  de- 
stroyed its  ancient  castle  and  walls  in  1629. 
Population,  in   1901.   18,701. 

MILLBANK  PEISON.  A  famous  London 
penitentiary  in  Wist  minster,  facing  the  Thames. 
Tt  was  built  in  1812  (finished  in  1821)  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  iihins  of  Howard  and  Bentham. 
It  could  shelter  1100  inmates  and  was  so  con- 
structed that  from  a  central  room  cverv  cell 
could  be  seen.  The  confinement  was  solitary-. 
Those  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  serA-ed  a  term 
here  first.  The  prison  was  closed  in  1890  and 
the  buildings  torn  down  in  1891.  Consult  Grif- 
fifths,  Memorials  of  Millhank  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1894). 


MILL-BOY  OF  THE  SLASHES. 


508 


MILLENNIUM. 


MILL-BOY  OF  THE  SLASHES.  A  popu- 
lar nickiiaiia'  of  Uenry  Clay,  from  a  tract  of 
swampy  land  called  the  ".Slashes'  near  his  birth- 
place ill  ilaiiuver  Count}',  \'a. 

MILL'BURY.  A  tii«n  in  Worcester  County, 
Jlass.,  six  miles  southeast  of  Worcester;  on  the 
Blackstoiic  River,  and  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  and  the  Boston  and  Albany 
railroads  (Jlaji:  Massachusetts,  D  3).  It  has  a 
public  library,  ami  is  extensively  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  edge 
tools,  foundry  and  machine  shop  products,  loom 
harness  and  heddles,  linen  cloth  and  thread, 
hosiery,  and  lumber  ]u-oducts.  From  1743  to 
1813,  when  it  was  incorporated,  ilillbury  was  the 
North  Parish  of  Sutton.  The  Lyceum  Lecture 
System  is  saiii  to  ^liave  originated  here  about 
1820.     Population,  in  1890,  4428;  in  1900,  4460. 

MIL'LEDGE,  .Toiix  ( IT.'iT-lSlS) .  An  Ameri- 
can soldier  aiul  slalesman,  born  in  Savannah,  Ga. 
AVhen  the  Kevolution  began  he  was  one  of  Haber- 
sham's party  which  seized  Wright,  the  royal 
CJovcrnor.  ililledge  escaped  from  Savannah 
■when  it  was  taUcn  by  the  British  in  1778.  and  he 
assisted  in  the  unsuccessful  siege  of  the  town  by 
the  Americans  in  1779.  In  tlie  following  year  be 
was  made  Attorney-CJeneral  of  CJeorgia.  After 
the  war  he  was  frequently  a  member  of  the  State 
Legislature,  and  was  a  Representative  in  Congress 
from  1792  to  1798,  and  again  from  1801  to  1802, 
when  he  resigned  to  become  Governor.  In  1802 
he  was  one  of  the  three  commissioners  who  nego- 
tiated the  cession  of  Cicorgia's  western  territory 
to  the  United  States.  From  180C  to  1809  he  was 
a  United  States  Senator.  Milledge  took  an 
active  part  in  establishing  the  University  of 
Georgia,  and  gave  the  institution  700  acres  of 
land,  upon  which  the  university  and  a  part  of 
Athens  now  stand.  The  town  of  ililledgeville 
was  named  in  his  honor. 

MIL'LEDGEVILLE.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Baldwin  County.  Ga.,  32  miles  northeast 
of  JIaeon ;  on  the  C)conee  River,  at  the  head  of 
navigation,  and  on  the  Central  of  fJeorgia  and 
the  Georgia  railroads  (Jlap:  Georgia,  C  2).  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  CJeorgia  Jlilitary  College  and 
the  Georgia  Normal  and  Industrial  C'ollege  for 
Girls,  and  of  the  Georgia  State  Lunatic  Asylum, 
which  aecominodates  2.")00  patients.  The  "Prison 
Farm.'  three  miles  northwest  of  the  city,  employs 
some  3.i0  State  convicts.  The  city  is  the  centre 
of  a  cotton-growing  section  and  its  industrial  in- 
terests arc  mainly  in  the  preparation  for  market 
of  this  staple.  The  government,  under  a  charter 
of  inOO,  is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  every 
two  years,  ami  a  uniianicral  council,  of  which  the 
mayor  is  a  member,  chosen  on  a  general  ticket. 
Jlillcdgeville,  named  in  honor  of  Gov.  .John  Mil- 
ledge  of  fieorgia,  was  locateil  in  1R03.  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1830.  and  was  the  capital  of 
the  State  froin  1807  to  1867.  Population,  in 
1890.  3322;   in    l!MI(),    1219. 

MILLENARIANS.      See   Mii.i.EXXti  m. 

MILLENARY.  .\  period  of  a  th<iusan<l 
years,  specitically  the  celebration  of  the  one-thou- 
sandth anniver-ary  of  any  event.  The  most  im- 
portant millenary  was  that  commemorating  the 
death  of  .Mfred  the  Clreat.  which  was  held  in 
Winchester.  Kngland,  .September  18-21.  1901. 
which  culminated  in  the  unveiling  of  a  large 
bronze  statue  of  King  Alfred  by  Hamo  Thorny- 


croft.      A   month   later   coiiiiiiemorative  exercises 
were  also  held  in  New  York  City. 

MILLENARY  PETITION  (Lat.  milk- 
iiurius,  containing  a  thousand,  from  milleni,  a 
thousand  eacli,  from  iiiillr,  thousand).  A  peti- 
tion presented  by  Puritan  clergy  to  King  .James 
I.  in  April,  1U03,  when  on  his  way  to  London  to 
take  his  throne.  It  is  so  called  because  it  was 
intended  to  have  1000  signatures,  although  as  a 
matter  of  fact  it  had  only  750.  The  original  of 
the  petition  is  supposed  to  be  lost,  but  Fuller 
gives  it  in  his  Church  llislort/  (Book  x.  27,  ed., 
London,  1837,  vol.  iii.l.  and  it  is  thence  re- 
printed by  Gee  and  llardy,  Uociimeiit.i  Ilhisiralive 
of  EnffUsh  Church  History  ( London,  1896,  pp. 
508-;')ll).  It  sets  forth  in  firm  but  respectful 
language  those  points  connected  with  the  Church 
service  (cross  in  baptism,  baptism  by  women, 
public  reading  of  the  Apocrypbii,  unabridged 
liturgy,  etc.),  the  Church  luiiiistry  (illiterate 
ministers,  non-residency,  clerical  celibacy),  the 
Church  revenue  (commcndams,  ])luralities,  im- 
propri;itions ) ,  and  with  the  Church  discipline 
I  excommunications  for  trilling  causes,  extor- 
tionate fees,  protracted  ecclesiastical  suits,  fre- 
quency of  marriages  witlKuit  banns  asked),  which 
the  Puritan  party  would  se('  removed  or  modilied. 
The  King's  answer  was  the  calling  of  the  Hamp- 
ton Court  Conference  in  .January.  1004.  which 
resulted  in  no  redress,  but  rather  the  confirmation 
of  the  abuses  complained  of. 

MILLENNIUM  (Xeo-Lat..  from  Lat.  mille, 
lhoii>aiiil  -)-  (iiiiiiis,  year).  A  period  of  one 
thousand  years  ineceding  the  final  judgment 
(q.v.)'  during  which,  according  to  a  wi<lely  ac- 
cepted system  of  Christian  eschatology,  the 
Christ  and  his  saints  will  reign  on  the  earth. 
The  division  of  the  world's  course  into  ]icrio(|s 
is  found  among  many  peoples.  Thus  the  Hindus 
divided  the  history  of  the  world  into  hulixis  of 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  years,  and  the  Incas 
made  four  gi-eat  periods.  (See  EsniATOLOcY.) 
A  long  national  existence  and  a  tradition  of  cer- 
tain epoch-making  events  naturally  account  for 
such  a  partition.  The  Persians  counted  twelve 
periods  each  of  one  thousand  years.  It  is  likely 
that  this  division  into  twelve  parts  was  derived 
from  the  Habylonians.  and  ultimately  goes  back 
to  calculations  of  the  sun's  course  through  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac.  It  is  significant  that 
the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
thousand  years  are  attributed  respectively  to 
('ancer,  Leo,  Virgo,  Libra.  Scorpio,  and  Sagit- 
tarius in  liuuilnhinh  34.  The  number  1000  may 
have  a  difTerent  origin,  since  the  great  cosmic  year 
would  demand  a  larger  figuic.  .\ccording  to  the 
Parsi  doctrine,  six  tlioii-and  of  the  twelve  tliiai- 
sand  years  are  occupied  liy  the  history  of  man. 
Zaratliustra  appears  at  the  Ix'ginning  of  the 
fiuirth  and  the  .'saoshyant  will  come  at  the  end  of 
the  last  to  raise  the  dead  ami  to  renew  the  world. 
While  this  doctrine  is  fully  presented  only  in 
late  Pahlavi  writings,  such  as  the  Hviirlnhi/ib  and 
the  Dinkart,  there  are  indications  of  a  iniicli 
higher  age.  as  Mani  (c.200  a.d.)  was  familiar 
with  the  Zoroastrian  doctrine  of  a  cycle  of 
twelve  thousand  years,  ami  Herosiis  (c.300  n.C.) 
seems  to  have  rationalized  the  doctrine  of 
/.mm  akariinii.  boniidhss  time.  and  its 
period.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  the  con- 
ception that  human  history  would  endure  6000 
years  before  the  Messianic  Age  came  into  .Jewish 


MILLENNIUM. 


509 


MILLENNIUM. 


thought  from  a  IVisian  soiiixu.  Tlie  Scriptural 
juslitiiiitiuii  was  found  in  I'salni  xc.  4,  "A  thou- 
sand years  in  thy  sight  are  liut  as  yesterday  when 
it  is  past,"  and  tlie  length  of  tlie  Messianic  Age 
was  inferred  from  an  interpretation  of  Gen.  ii.  2, 
based  on  the  word  of  the  I'salmist,  as  is  seen  by 
utterances  of  rabbis  living  in  the  second  century 
A.n.  {Midnish  TcltilliM  to  Ps.  xc.  and  Yalkut 
Shimeuni  to  Ps.  l.vxii.).  Before  the"  fall  of 
Jerusalem  in  A.n.  70  there  is  no  evidence  tliat 
the  expected  Jewish  world-empire,  whether  witli 
or  without  a  Jlessiah,  was  thought  of  as  being 
of  limited  duration.  That  Israel  would  never 
yield  its  supremacy  to  any  other  nation  was  a 
firm  conviction.  The  Messianic  King  was  prob- 
ably looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  a  dynasty. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  first  century,  however, 
the  conception  of  the  Jlessiah  became  more  tran- 
scendent, and  his  reign  might  be  thouglit  to  last 
"until  the  corruption  of  the  world  should  end,' 
characterized  by  great  prosperity  (Apocribipse  of 
Baiiich  xl.  3;  .xxix.,  Ixxiii.),  or,  more  precisely, 
400  years  to  be  followed  by  seven  days  of  silence, 
tlie  general  resurrection,  and  the  last  judg- 
ment (q.v.)  as  set  forth  in  the  Apocali/pse  of 
Ezra  (vii.  28,  29).  Tlie  first  mention' of  the 
millennium  is  in  the  Slaroiiic  Enoch  (xxxii.  2- 
x.\xiii.  2)  :  but  in  this  book  there  is  no  Messiah. 
A  summary  of  opinions  in  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud (iSanhedrin  97a,  00a)  shows  that  it  was 
comparatively  seldom  that  a  .Jewish  teacher  esti- 
mated at  a  thousand  vears  the  length  of  Yahweh's 
reign.  40,  70,  3(i5,  400.  000,  2000,  and  7000  j'ears 
being  suggested  l\y  different  teachers. 

In  the  New  Testament  the  doctrine  of  a  mil- 
lennium is  clearly  taught  in  Rev.  xx.  After  the 
returned  Messiah  has  conquered  the  beast.  Satan 
is  cast  into  the  abyss  in  chains  for  1000  years, 
the  martyrs  are  raised  from  the  dead  and  reign 
with  Christ  as  kings  and  priests  during  the  mil- 
lennium. .\t  the  end  of  tlie  millennium  the  powers 
of  evil  are  let  loose  again  for  a  short  time,  where- 
upon follow  the  resurrection  of  the  rest  of  the 
dead,  the  last  judgment,  the  destruction  of  death 
and  Hades,  whicli  is  the  second  death,  and  the 
new  heavens  and  tlie  new  earth.  Critical  exegesis 
agrees  with  the  Chiliasts  of  the  Early  Church 
and  the  present  pre-niillenarians  that  the  author 
of  this  ]iassage  no  doubt  believed  that  Jesus 
would  return  upon  the  clouds  before  the  mil- 
lennium to  reign  with  some  of  His  saints  for  a 
thousand  years  in  visible  form.  It  cannot  be 
proven,  however,  that  other  writers  in  the  New 
Testament  cherished  this  view,  or  that  they  all 
held  the  same  opinion  concerning  the  world's 
future.  The  Gnostics  rejected  this  doctrine  and 
their  opposition  was  continued  by  such  teachers 
of  the  .Vlexandrian  School  as  Clement  and  Origen. 
On  the  other  hand.  lren;pus  informs  us  (.IfZr. 
Hncr..  V.  3.3)  that  Papias.  Bishop  of  Hieropolis, 
had  recorded  as  a  saying  of  .Tesus  a  reniark.able 
description  of  the  fertility  of  the  vine  in  the 
millennium;  the  epistle  attributed  to  Barnabas 
describes  the  millenniuni  as  a  period  of  rest  fol- 
lowing six  thousand  years  of  work  to  be  ushered 
in  by  the  return  of  Christ  (xv.  5)  :  and  .Justin 
Martyr  likewise  expressed  his  belief  in  the  pre- 
niillennial  coming  of  Christ  and  the  thousand 
years  of  His  reign  in  .Jerusalem  (Apnl.  .52:  c. 
Trjiph.  4.5,  49,  113).  Iremeus,  Tertullian.  and 
Hippnlvtus  were  also  Chiliasts.  An  ardent  ex- 
pectation of  the  millennial  kingdom  characterized 
the  Montanists.  who  looked  for  its  establishment 


at  Pepuza  in  Phiygia.  The  reaction  against 
Montanism  led  to  a  more  general  rejection  of  tlie 
doctrine  of  a  millennium.  Dionysius  of  Alex- 
andria attacked  the  very  foundation  of  this  doc- 
trine in  denying  the  .Johannine  authorship  of 
Revelation.  .Such  doubts  did  not  disturb  the 
Western  Church,  and  men  like  Conimodian  and 
Lactantius  were  Chiliasts.  Only  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Jerome  and  especially  Augustine, 
whose  C'ivitas  Dei  identified  the  Church  with  the 
kingdom  of  Ci(jd  and  the  millennium  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church,  did  Latin  Christianity  com- 
mit itself  to  an  eschatological  programme  ex- 
cluding the  pre-millennial  advent,  the  tirst  resui'- 
rection,  and  the  visible  reign  im  earth.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  earnest  and  spiritually  minded 
men,  grie\-cd  at  the  many  abuses  that  spread  in 
the  Church,  could  not  but  look  for  Divine  chas- 
tisement. \Miile  there  does  not  seem  to  be  sulTi- 
cient  foundation  for  the  current  statement  that 
the  end  of  the  world  was  generally  expected 
about  the  year  1000  .\.D.,  there  are  many  indica- 
tions of  the  anxiety  that  at  sundiy  times  tilled 
pious  hearts  as  w'ell  as  guilty  consciences.  The 
great  hymn  Dies  irw,  dies  ilia  reveals  both  a 
fearful  looking  forward  to  the  impending  judg- 
ment and  the  part  that  the  Sib.ylliue  Oracles  and 
similar  works  plaj'ed  in  creating  this  mood.  Mil- 
lenarian  views  were  held  by  men  like  Joachim 
of  Floris  and  Occam  ami  by  numerous  religious 
bodies.  In  the  Reformation  era  the  hope  of  a 
speed}'  establishment  of  the  Messianic  kingdom 
was  especially  cherished  by  many  of  the  Baptists. 
They  were  led  to  it  by  their  doctrine  of  the  inner 
light  and  the  continuance  of  prophecy,  by  their 
sympathy  with  the  ojipressed,  and  by  their  dis- 
approval of  the  union  of  Church  and  State. 
Looking  for  the  establishment  of  the  truth  and 
the  righting  of  social  wrongs  to  God  alone,  and 
expecting  a  direct  revelation  from  Him,  some 
naturally  were  led  astray  by  their  impulses  un- 
der pressure  of  circumstances.  But  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  millennial  kingdom  by  .John  of 
Leyden  ( q.v. )  at  iliinster  was  an  error  regretted 
and  condemned  by  the  great  majority  of  Baptists. 
The  Fifth  Monarchy  men  of  Cronnvell's  time 
looked  upon  the  millennium  as  having  actually 
begun  with  the  overthrow  of  the  royal  f#mily  in 
England.  Many  English  mystics  looked  forward 
to  the  second  advent  in  the  year  10G6,  and  their 
faith  found  a  curious  reflection  even  in  .Tudaisiii. 
(See  Messiah.)  Chiliastic  views  were  embraced 
by  Comenius,  who  translated  into  Latin  a  number 
of  recent  prophecies  as  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
.Turieu.  Spener,  and  other  pietists.  Swedenborg 
held  that  the  millennial  dispensation  liegau  in 
1757.  Bongel  calculated  that  the  millennium  would 
commence  in  1830:  Miller  expected  it  in  1843; 
Clianning  in  1807:  Baxter  in  1881.  While  some 
pre-millennians  devote  much  attention  to  pro- 
phetic chronology,  assuming  a  double  fulfillment 
of  the  predictions  in  Daniel  and  Revelation, 
others  refrain  from  all  attemjits  at  fixing  (he 
date,  but  are  obliged  by  the  natural  inter|ireta- 
tion  of  Rev.  xx..  with  their  view  of  biblical  in- 
fallibility, to  allirm  the  visible  coming  of  Christ 
before  the  millennium,  .\niong  the  latter  there 
are  many  learned  theologians  of  recent  times. 
The  opinion  that  this  visible  coming  of  Christ 
will  occur  after  a  long  period  of  universal  prev- 
alence of  Christianity  supposed  to  be  vaguely  in- 
dicated by  the  thousand  years  is  more  widely 
accepted,   but    it    is    further   removed   from   the 


MILLENNIUM. 


510 


MILLER. 


conceptions  of  eaily  Christianity  and  cannot 
readily  find  tlic  Scriptural  support  that  it  de- 
mands. The  distinction  between  prc-millenuian- 
ism  and  post-millennianism  is  rapidly  losing  its 
significance,  as  modern  theology  has  a  tendency 
to  look  upon  the  primitive  Christian  expectation 
of  the  return  of  Jesus  as  an  illusion,  historically 
necessary,  but  not  of  jiermauent  worth  ;  to  consider 
the  absolute  Aictory  of  one  system  of  religious 
faith  and  practice  less  desirable  than  the  ascend- 
ency of  what  is  morally  most  excellent  in  all 
creeds  an<l  cults :  and  to  cx])ect  a  gradual  im- 
provement of  the  social  conditions  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  human  race  to  be  wrought  by  actu- 
ally operating  forces. 

15iBU0GR.\i'HT.  Consult :  Calixtus,  De  Chilias- 
mo  cum  Antii/uo  liiin  Pridem  ^'enato  (Helnistcdt, 
1692)  ;  Corrodi,  Kritixche  Geschichte  des  Chilias- 
mus  (Zurich,  17S1);  Drummond,  The  Jewish 
Messiah  (],ondon,  1S77);  Stanton,  The  Jeinsh 
and  Christian  Messiah  (Edinburgh,'  1886); 
Charles,  ^1  Critical  His.tory  of  tlic  Doctrine  of 
ike  Future  Life  (London,  1899)  ;  Suderblom,  La 
■vie  future  iluns  le  niazdaisme  (Paris,  lllOl); 
Weber,  Jiidische  Theotogie  aiif  G-ruml  des  Talmud 
(Leipzig,  1897)  ;  Otto,  in  Zcitschrift  fiir  wissen- 
schaftlichc  Theoloffie  (Leipzig.  1S77)  ;  Schultz.  in 
Jahrbiicher  fiir  deutsche  Theoloyie  (Gotha, 
18G0)  ;  !Mede,  Claris  Apocalyptica  (London, 
1627)  ;  Jurieu,  L'accompUsscment  des  prophdties 
(Rotterdam,  lOSCi);  Comcnius,  Lux  in  Tenebris 
(Rotterdam,  16.37);  Xewton,  Dissertations  on 
the  Frophceies  (London.  17.5.5);  Elliott,  Horw 
Apocalyptical  (London,  1862)  :  Hofmann,  ll'eis- 
sayunff  and  Erfiillung  ( Niirdlingen,  1841-44)  ; 
Auberlen,  Daniel  und  die  Offcnhurung  Johunnis 
(."id  ed.,  Basel,  1874)  ;  Lutl^ardt,  Lehre  von  den 
letxlen  Dingen  (Leipzig,  1870)  ;  Bonar,  Prophet- 
ical Landmarks  (London.  18.59)  ;  Seiss,  The  Last 
Times  (2d  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1878)  :  Guinness, 
The  Approaching  End  of  the  Age  (London.  1879- 
80)  ;  Salmond.  Christian  Doctrine  of  Immortal- 
ity (^A  ed..  Ediidnirgh,  18971;  Terry,  liihlical 
Apocalyptics  ( Xi'W  York.  1898);  Schiirer,  His- 
tory of  the  Jcn^ish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Eng.  trans..  Edinburgh.  1886-90).  See 
E.scn.\TOLoc;y;  .T(i)r.ME>'T, Final;  Rksi'brection. 

MIL'LEPORE  (from  Lat.  mille,  thousand  + 
■jiorus.  j)a»agc.  jiorc).  A  coral-fnrniing  liydroid, 
of  the  order  Hydrocorallina,  so  named  from  the 
numerous  minute  jjores  or  calicles  dotting  its 
surface,  which  are  arranged  in  irregular  circular 
groups.  As  the  single  animal  is  microscopic, 
and  as  it  grows  in  conijiound  coral-like  masses 
on  reefs  in  tropical  seas,  it  was  at  first  con- 
founded with  the  corals,  but  was  eliminated  from 
the  corals  first  by  L.  Agassiz  and  afterwards 
by  Moseley.  The  animal  is  not  a  coral-polyp, 
lieing  allied  rather  to  Hydra,  and  especially  to 
llydraclinia  and  f'lava.  comm<ni  on  northern 
coasts.  The  coral-stocks  form  irregular  branching 
masses,  several  inches  high,  and  sometimes  a  foot 
or  more  broad.  The  mass  of  (he  coral  incrusta- 
tion consist-,  of  fibres  (canals  or  tubes)  traversed 
in  all  directions  liy  tortuous  spaces  forming  reg- 
ular brancblns  systems,  like  a  tree,  in  which 
Millcpora  dilVcrs  from  the  coral-stocks  (coralla). 
The  animals  are  of  two  kinds.  Those  inhaliiting 
the  central  cup  or  pore  are  short  thick  zoiiids. 
(See  Polymorphism.)  These  are  (he  'feelers' — 
they  take  in  (he  food.  The  zoiiids  in  the  smaller, 
outer   pores   of   the   circle   are   the   reproductive 


zor.ids.  That  Jlillcpora  is  a  true  hydroid  is 
jiroved  by  tlie  coral-stock  being  at  the  base  pro- 
vided with  canals  by  which  the  several  zoiiids  are 
kept  in  union  witli  one  another  by  the  form  of 
the  zoiiids  themselves,  by  the  absence  of  all  trace 
of  mesenteries  (which  ciiaracterize  coral  polyps), 
and  by  the  presence  of  thread-cells    (see  Xema- 


MII.LEPOIIE. 

Animal  of  MlUeponi  nodosa,  a,  nutritive  zoiiid ;  h,  rt-- 
productive  zooid  ;  c.  lasso-cell ;  it,  the  same  coiled  np  in  its 
cell ;  e,  a  third  form,     (.ill  highly  magiiifled.) 

TOCVST)  of  the  form  pectiliar  to  hydroids.  Fi- 
nally, the  position  of  JIille])ora  as  a  hydroid  has 
been  satisfactorily  settled  by  the  discovery,  by 
Duerdcn  in  1899.  in  .Jamaica,  of  frceswiniming 
female  meduste.  (See  Hyorozoa.)  Gur  Floridian 
and  West  Indian  species  is  Millrpora  utoicornis. 
Consult  articles  by  L.  Agassiz.  .Vloseley,  Duerden 
(Xaturc.  Decenibe'r  28,  1899.  p.  213.  and  Novem- 
ber 29,   1900.  p.   112). 

MIL'LER,  Alfueh  J.^cob  (1810-74).  An 
American  portrait,  figure,  and  landscape  painter, 
born  in  l!a!tim(n-c.  He  studieil  under  Thomas 
Sully,  and  in  Paris  and  Italy.  He  made  several 
sketches  when  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  1837 
with  Sir  William  Urummond  Stewart,  which  are 
of  value.  The  originals  are  in  Murthlcy  Castle, 
and  there  are  rc]dicas  in  water  color  in  the 
Walters  collection  in  Baltimore.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent  principally  in  Baltimore, 
where  he  painted  many  portraits.  He  also 
copied  the  old  liiasters  with  some  success. 

MILLER,  Charles  Hexry  (1842—).  An 
American  painter,  born  in  Xew  York  City.  He 
first  studied  to  be  a  physician,,  but  his  love  of  art 
made  him  give  np  this  profession,  and  after 
studying  in  Yienna.  Berlin,  and  other  cities  he 
went  to  Munich  in  1867  and  became  a  pupil  of 
Lier,  and  a  student  in  the  Royal  Bavarian  Acad- 
emy. Afterwards  he  went  to  live  in  Ni'W  York 
City,  where  he  was  made  an  .\eadcmician  in  1S7.5 
and  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Society  of 
American  Artists.  His  landsia])es  are  generally 
taken  from  Long  Island  scenery:  among  these  may 
be  mentioned  "Sunset,  East  Hampton"  (1878). 
Other  fine  works  are  "Old  Oaks  at  Crecdmoor." 
and  "High  Bri<lge.  New  York."  He  wrote  The 
Philosophy  of  Art  in  America  (188.5)  under  the 
pen  name  of  Carl  de  Muldor. 

MILLER.  CiNTixxATfs  Heine,  better  known 
as  .loAijiiN  Miller  (1841  — ).  An  .\meriean  au- 
thor, born  in  the  Wabash  nistricf.  Indiana.  \o- 
vember  10.  1841.  In  18.54  his  parents  took  him 
to  Oregon.     Later  he  became  a   miner   in   Cali- 


MILLER. 


511 


MILLER. 


fomia.  He  was  a  volunteer  in  Walker's  Nica- 
ragua expedition  of  1855.  From  1855  until  ISUO 
lie"  lived  among  the  Indians  of  the  I'aeilie  Coast. 
He  studied  law  for  a  while,  then  edited  a  Demo- 
cratic pajK-r  at  Eugene  City,  Ore.,  which  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  authorities  for  disunion  senti- 
ments. In  1803  he  began  to  practice  law  and  was 
a  district  judge  in  Oregon  from  18GG  to  1870. 
After  visiting  the  Eastern  States  Miller  went  to 
England,  where,  in  the  following  year,  he  pub- 
lished his  Soiiys  of  the  Sierras,  which  made  him 
a  temporary  'lion'  in  London  society,  although 
the  same  poems  had  fallen  flat  in  tlie  United 
States.  He  afterwards  settled  in  New  York,  but 
he  left  that  city  in  order  to  do  journalistic  work 
in  Washington.  D.  C,  and  in  Oakland,  Cal. 
(1887).  settling  at  last  in  Oakland.  Among 
his  works  in  verse  are:  Songs  of  the  Sun- 
land  (1873);  Songs  of  Italy  (1878);  Songs 
of  the  .1/rjican  Seas  (1887);  in  prose:  The 
Danites  in  the  Sierras  (a  novel,  1881)  ;  .'/.9,  or 
the  Cold  Seekers  of  the  SieiTas  (1884).  Mil- 
ler's play.  The  Danites,  taken  from  his  novel,  had 
considerable  success,  and  his  poetry  has  received 
some  favorable  notice,  more  on  account  of  its 
genuinely  romantic  content  and  its  brilliant  if 
crude  color,  tlian  on  account  of  its  artistic  excel- 
lence. A  collective  edition  of  his  verses  appeared 
in  18(17.  The  name  'Joaquin'  was  taken  from 
.Toatpiin  Murietta.  a  Mexican  bandit,  of  whom 
Miller  wrote  a  defense. 

MILLER,  Edward  (17G0-1812).  An  Ameri- 
can physician,  born  in  Dover,  Del.  He  graduated 
at  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsvlvania  in  1784.  and  in  1797,  associated 
with  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Mitchell  and  Dr.  Elihu  H. 
Smith,  he  founded  the  Medical  Rejiository,  the 
first  American  journal  of  medicine.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  iiii'dieine  in  Xew  York,  and  enjoyed  a  liigh 
reputation  both  in  this  country  and  abroad.  His 
writings  were  published  in  New  York  in  1814. 

MILLER,  Ferdinand  vox  (1813-87).  A  Ger- 
man liriinzcfounder.  born  at  Fiirstenfeldbruck. 
He  studied  at  the  Munich  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
and  learned  his  trade  under  his  uncle,  Stigl- 
mayer, and  in  Paris  with  Soyer.  His  reputation 
was  won  by  his  eastings  from  the  designs  of 
Schwanthaler,  and  especially  by  his  large  and 
monumental  works.  His  best  known  work  in 
America  is  the  bronze  door  at  the  Capitol  in 
Washington.  Of  his  sons,  Ferdinand  (1842 — ) 
and  Ludwig  (1850 — )  were  bronze-foundors,  and 
Fritz  I  1.S40 — )  was  a  professor  in  the  Polj-tech- 
nie  School  at  Munich. 

MILLER,  Hrcn  (1802-.56).  A  Scottish  geolo- 
gist and  man  of  letters,  born  in  Cromarty.  Octo- 
ber 10,  1802.  He  was  descended  from  a  family 
of  sailors,  and  when  he  was  only  five  years  of  age 
lost  his  father  by  a  storm  at  sea.  In  conseqtienee 
he  was  brought  up  chiefly  under  the  care  of  two 
uncles.  He  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  Eng- 
lish at  the  Cromarty  Grammar  School  and  read 
much.  From  his  seventeenth  to  his  thirty-second 
year  he  workcil  as  a  common  stonemason,  and 
from  1834  to  1840  was  an  accountant  in  the  Cro- 
marty branch  of  the  Commercial  Bank.  In  1829 
he  published  a  volume  entitled  Poems  Written  in 
the  Leisure  Hours  of  a  Jo}trnei/matt  Mas/in.  He 
also  made  researches  in  Scottish  antiquities,  con- 
tributed to  -Tohn  M.  Wilson's  Tales  of  the  Borders 
(1834),  and  wrote  Scenes  and  hegetids  of  the 
Vorth  of  Scotland    (1835).     But   from   his  ap- 


prenticeship as  a  stonemason,  his  studies  were 
mainly  directed  toward  geological  formations. 
In  1840  he  went  to  Edinburgh  as  editor  of  tlie 
Witness,  a  newspaper  started  in  the  interests  of 
the  non-intrusion  party  in  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land, and  in  the  course  of  the  same  year  pub- 
lished in  its  colunuis  a  scries  of  geological  ar- 
ticles, which  were  afterwards  collected  under 
the  title  of  The  Old  Red  Sandstone,  or  \e«> 
Walhs  ill  an  Old  Field  (1841).  The.se  articles 
contained  a  minute  account  of  the  author's  dis- 
covery of  fossils  in  a  formation  believed,  until 
then,  to  be  destitute  of  them,  and  were  written 
in  a  style  which  was  a  harmonious  combination 
of  strength,  beauty,  and  polish.  His  editorial 
labors  during  the  heat  of  tlie  disruption  struggle 
were  immense,  and  so  seriously  injured  his  health 
that  for  the  larger  part  of  1845-40  he  had  to 
give  up  all  literary  activity.  He  then  resumed 
his  pen  as  editor  of  the  Witness,  which,  from 
1845,  when  he  became,  with  Robert  Fairby,  its 
joint  owner,  ceased  to  represent  the  Free  Church. 
After  ten  years  of  hard,  earnest,  fagging  toil,  his 
brain  gave  way,  and  in  a  fit  of  insanity  he  killed 
himself  on  the  night  of  December  2,  1856.  Miller's 
services  to  science  were  undoubtedly  great.  His 
observation  was  keen  and  exact,  his  speculations 
most  valualile.  He  was  the  first  to  make  geology 
known  to  the  general  reader.  He  was  not  less 
distinguished  as  a  man  than  as  a  savant.  His 
principal  works,  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
are:  First  Impressions  of  England  and  Its  Peo- 
ple (1846),  containing  many  fine  specimens  of 
English  descriptive  prose;  Footprints  of  the 
Creator,  or  the  Asterolepis  of  Stromness  (1847) 
designed  as  a  reply  to  the  Vestiges  of  the  yatural 
History  of  Creation:  My  Schools  and  Schoolmas- 
ters, or  the  Story  of  My  Education  (1852)  ;  and 
Testimony  of  the  RocLs  (1857),  an  attempt  to 
reconcile  the  geologv'  of  the  Pentateuch  with  that 
of  nature.  Consult  Bayne.  Life  and  Letters  of 
Hugh  Miller  (London  and  Boston,  Mass.,  1871). 

MILLER,  James  (1776-1851).  An  American 
soldier  and  politician,  born  in  P^terboro,  N. 
H.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  entered 
the  army  as  major  and  took  part  in  the  frontier 
warfare,  where  he  displayed  great  gallantry.  In 
1812  he  was  brevetted  colonel  for  gallantry  in 
the  engagement  at  Brownstown.  where  he  com- 
manded, and  in  1814  took  part  in  the  Canadian 
invasion  in  command  of  the  Twenty-first  In- 
fantry. In  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and  Lundy's 
Lane  he  did  material  service,  the  latter  contest 
being  virtually  decided  by  his  gallant  charge  on  a 
British  battery.  For  these  services  a  gold  medal 
was  presented  to  him  by  Congress  and  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  From 
1819  to  1825  he  was  Governor  of  Arkansas,  then 
a  Territory;  and  from  that  time  until  1849  was 
Collector  of  the  Port  of  Salem,  Mass. 

MILLER,  .JoHANN  Martin  (17.50-1814).  A 
German  poet,  member  of  the  'Giittingcr  Bund.' 
He  was  born  at  Ulni,  studied  theology  at  Giit- 
tingen  and  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Voss, 
the  idyllist  and  translator  of  Homer,  and  of 
HJilty.'the  lyri«t.  He  contributed  to  the  Giit- 
tingen  Ahnanach  poems  which  liecamc  very  popu- 
lar, especially  "Was  frag'  ich  viel  nach  Geld  und 
Gut."  But  he  is  better  known  for  Siegu-nrt.  eine 
Klostergeschichte  (1776),  a  sentimental  romance 
of  the  Wertherian  type,  largely  autobiographic 
and  verv  didactic.     His  other  fiction   includes: 


MILLEB.  512 

Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  dcr  Ziirtlichkeit  (1776)  ; 
Biicfucchsel  dreier  I'reundc  (1776-77)  ;  and  Ge- 
schichte Karh  vqii  Burghcim  und  Emiliens  ion 
liosenau  (177S-79).  A  tollected  edition  of  Mil- 
ler's poems  appeared  in  1783,  and  an  autobiog- 
raphy in  1S03.  Consult  Kraeger,  Johann  Martin 
Millir  (Bremen,  1893). 

MILLER,  .loiix  Fbaxklin  (1831-8G).  A  sol- 
dier and  politician,  born  in  South  Bend,  Ind.  He 
graduated  at  tlie  Xew  York  State  Law  School 
in  1852,  and  was  elected  to  the  Indiana  Senate  in 
18(i0,  but  resigned  in  order  to  enter  the  army 
on  the  outbreak  of  tlie  Civil  War.  He  was 
made  colonel  of  the  Twenty-ninth  Indiana 
\'olunteers.  and  fought  in  many  of  the  most  im- 
purtaut  battles  in  the  West.  For  gallantry  at 
the  battle  of  Stone  River  he  was  made  a  briga- 
dier-general of  vciluuteers.  At  Liberty  Gap  he 
was  severely  wounded,  but  lie  commanded  a  divi- 
sion at  Xashville,  and  was  soon  afterwards  bre- 
vctted  major-general  of  volunteers.  Soon  after 
the  war  he  removed  to  San  Francisco,  and  was 
for  four  years  Collector  of  the  Port.  He  then 
entered  business,  and  was  one  of  the  originators 
and  also  president  of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Fur 
Company.  He  took  an  active  part  in  politics, 
was  several  times  a  Presidential  elector  on  the 
Republican  ticket,  in  1879  assisted  in  framing  a 
new  State  constitution,  and  in  1881  was  elected 
United  States  Senator. 

lUTLLEK,   .To;=EPH,   commonly  known   as   Joe 
^Miller  (  1084-1738).  An  English  comedian.  With 
.slight   interruption  he   was  connected  with    Drury 
Lane  from  1714  to  liis  death.  Great  favorites  with 
the  town  were  liis  Teague  in  Sir  Robert  Howard's 
Committee  and  Sir  Joseph  Wittol  in  Congreve's 
Old  Bachelor.     He  was  also  popular  in  a  score 
of  other  roles.     So  ignorant  that  he  was  unable 
to  rend,  he  married  that  he  might  have  some  one 
to   read   his   parts   to   liim.      Though   he    had    no 
great   reputation  as  a  wit  olT  the  stage,  yet  the 
year  after  liis  death  ajipeared  a  small  volume  of 
jests  ascribed  to  him  under  the  title  Joe  Miller's 
Je^sts.      This    pamjililet    of    72    pages,    contain- 
ing   247     jests,     was     compiled     bv     a     certain 
.John  Mottiey  for  the  publisher,  T.  Read.   Why  it 
was  fathered  upon  a  ])oor  and  illiterate  actor  is 
not  clear:  perhaps  by  mere  accident.     The  jests 
are  taken  in  part  from  earlier  collections  and  in 
part   from  current  witticisms  that  had  not  pre- 
viously found  their  way  into  print.     Only  three 
are  related  of  Miller  himself.     As  a  whole,  they 
are  flat ;   their  only  piiiuancy  is  in  their  coar.se- 
ness.     But  they  were  exceedingly  popular,  as  is 
shown  bv  the  numerous  editions  that  immediatc- 
Iv  followed    (Ist,  2d.  3d.   1739:   4th.   1740;   5th. 
n42:    Cth.    1743:    7th.    1744:    8th,    1745).     The 
original  number  of  jests,  which  had  increased  to 
587    in   the   edition   of    174.5,   continued   to   grow, 
until  by  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 
had  reached  l.')4fi.     Consult  the>  facsimile  reprint 
of  the  first  editions  by  Bellars   (London.  1801)  : 
and  ITazlitt.  Studies  in  Jocular  Literature  (Lon- 
don.  1890), 

MILLER,  .TosEPii  Xei,so\  (1836—).  An 
American  naval  ofTicer,  born  in  Ohio.  Entering 
the  na\y  in  1851,  he  became  commander  in  1870. 
captain  in  1881.  commodore  in  1894,  and  rear- 
admiral  in  1897.  .As  executive  ofTioer  on  board  the 
ironclad  Passaic  he  was  present  at  the  attack 
upon  Fort  Sumter  in  1863,  and  for  bravery  in 
this   and    the    action    against    Fort    Fisher    was 


MILLER. 


highly  commended.  He  represented  the  Na\-y  De- 
partment at  the  Queen's  Jubilee  in  1897,  in  1898 
raised  the  llag  of  the  United  States  over  Hawaii, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish-American  War 
organized  the  Pacific  naval  reserves.  In  Xovem- 
bcr,  1898,  he  was  placed  on  the  retired  list. 

MILLER,  Lewis  (1829-99).  An  American 
philanthropist  and  inventor,  born  at  Grecntown, 
Ohio.  He  invented  several  im])ortant  agricul- 
tural machines,  which  brought  him  a  large  for- 
tune. In  1873  he  suggested  to  Bishop  John  H. 
Vincent  the  plan  of  the  Chautaucpia  Assembly, 
and  became  president  of  the  Assembly  after  its 
foundation  the  next  year.  He  gave  largely  to 
the  support  of  the  Assembly  and  to  other  enter- 
prises. 

MILLER,  Orest  Feiwrovitch  (1834-89).  A 
Russian  writer,  born  in  Reval.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Saint  Petersburg  (1851-55), 
and  was  professor  of  early  Russian  literature 
there  until  1888.  His  lectures  on  Russian  Litera- 
ture After  Gogol  were  published  in  1874  (3d  ed. 
1887),  and  his  Slav  World  and  Europe  in  1877. 
Though  a  prominent  Slavophil,  he  was  less  rad- 
ical than  some  writers,  as  is  shown  by  his  book 
on  the  Slav  question  (1865).  He  also  wrote 
works  on  Lomonosofi'  and  Peter  the  Great  in  the 
following  year,  but  became  most  widely  known 
through  his  work  on  the  national  mj-thology,  en- 
titled Ilia  iluroniets  i  Bogartyrsvo  Kievskoa 
(1870). 

MILLER,  Patrick  (1731-1815).  A  Scottish 
inventor,  who  is  asserted  by  some  first  to  have 
invented  the  steamboat.  He  was  born  in  Glas- 
gow, became  a  banker,  and  having  accumulated 
a  considerable  property,  interested  himself  in 
maritime  inventions.  In  1785  he  bought  the 
estate  Dalswinton  in  Dumfriesshire,  and  there 
conducted  some  experiments  with  a  steamlioat  of 
his  construction  which  was  pro|)elled  by  a  Sym- 
ington (q.v.)  engine.  In  1787  he  published  a 
descri|ition  of  one  of  his  vessels  under  the  title, 
The  Elcration,  Section,  Plan,  and  Vicus  of  a 
Triple  Vessel  irith  Wheels,  etc.  Consult  Miller, 
.1  Letter  to  Bennet  Wo(Mleroft  I'indicating  the 
Right  of  Patrick  Miller  to  he  Called  the  First  In- 
ventor of  Practical  Steam  A'avigatio)i  (London, 
1862). 

MILLER,  Samfel  Freeman  (1816-90).  An 
American  jurist.  He  was  born  in  Richmond,  Ky., 
and  removed  in  1850  to  Iowa,  where  he  became 
cons|)icuous  as  a  jurist.  In  1862  he  was  ap- 
pointed an  Associate  .Justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  by  President  Lincoln.  His  de- 
cisions gave  him  a  national  reputation,  and  he 
was  especially  noted  for  his  opjiosition  to  the 
encroachments  of  railroad  corporations.  In  1877 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission, 
and  in  1S87  was  the  orator  of  the  Centennial 
Constitution  celebration  held  at   Philadelphia. 

MILLER,  Warner  (1838—).  An  American 
politician  and  manufacturer,  born  at  Hannibal, 
Oswego  Countv.  X.  Y..  graduated  at  Union  Col- 
lege in  1860,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  enlisted  in  the  Fifth  Xew  York  Cavalry  and 
was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant.  After  leaving  the 
army  he  became  a  paper  manufacturer  at  Herki- 
mer! X.  Y.  In  1872  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to 
the  Xational  Republican  Convention,  and  served 
as  a  Republican  in  the  Xew  York  legislature  in 
1874-75,  and  in  the  Forty-sixth  and  Forty-sevenUl 


MILLEB. 


513 


MILLER'S  TALE. 


Congies-ses  (IS'HSl).  He  was  elected  to  the 
L'nited  !Slates  Senate  in  phue  of  Thomas  L'.  Piatt, 
who  resigned  in  ISSl  and  served  until  1887.  In 
18S8  he  was  the  unsuccessful  Kepubliean  candi- 
date fi)r  t;oveinor  of  New  York. 

MILLER,  WlLLl.vit  (1782-184!)).  Founder 
.i|  tlie  religious  .seel  called  'Jlillerites"  or  '.Second 
Adventists.'  He  was  born  in  I'ittslicld,  Alaas., 
but  wlien  he  was  four  years  old  his  parents  re- 
moved to  Low  Hampton,  N.  V.,  which  continued 
to  be  his  home  during  most  of  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  served  as  a  captain  in  the  American 
Army  during  the  War  of  1812.  but  soon  after  its 
close  liecame  deeply  interested  in  religion  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  (he  Uible.  As  early 
as  1818  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  Christ's 
second  aiivent  had  been  prophesied  for  the  J'ear 
184.'t.  and  during  the  succeeding  years  becanu'  the 
author  of  a  creed  founded  on  this  basis.  In  183.'! 
he  was  licenseil  to  preach  by  the  Baptist  Churcli 
in  Hampton  and  Whitehall,  and  in  the  same  year 
issued  a  pamphlet  entitled  Evidence  from  (S'cii'p- 
tiirc  mid  Historic  of  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ 
aboiil  the  Year  /.S'/.f;  and  of  His  Personal  Reign 
of  One  TItousand  Years  (1833).  Soon  afterwards 
he  began  to  lecture  on  the  same  subject  to  large 
audiences  in  the  New-  lOngland  and  Middle  St;ites. 
As  the  year  1843  drew  near  his  followers  awaited 
the  second  coming  with  intense  excitement.  When 
the  year  ended  he  wrote  to  them  confessing  his 
error  and  acknowledging  his  disappointment. 
Later  he  set  October  2'2,  1844.  Kven  after  this 
second  failure  many  of  his  disciples  remained 
faithful  to  him  and  continued  so  till  the  day  of 
his  death.  Consult  White,  t<Ketches  of  the  Chris- 
li(in  Life  and  I'uhlic  Labors  of  William  Miller 
(Hatlle  Creek,  1875). 

MILLER.  W1LI.IAM  Allen  (1817-701.  An 
English  chemist,  born  at  Ipswich.  He  studied 
medicine  at  King's  College.  London,  and  then 
went  to  Germany,  where,  in  184(i.  he  entered 
Liebig's  laborat(UV.  After  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  became  demonstrator  of  chemistry  at 
King's  College,  and  in  1845  was  promoted  to  the 
])rofessorship.  He  contributed  several  interesting 
|)apers  on  physical  clicmistry,  and  wrote  Ele- 
ments of  Chemist m  Theoretical  and  Practical 
(lS,5.'-)-,-)7). 

MILLER,  William  Hallowes  (1801-80).  An 
Engli^li  iiiineralogist.  He  was  born  at  ^'elin<lre, 
near  Llandovery,  and  was  educated  at  Saint 
.John's  College.  Cambridge,  where,  after  graduat- 
ing in  1821).  he  became  fellow  and  tutor.  In  1832 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mineralogy',  ami  in 
1838  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Koyal  Society, 
in  1838  appeared  his  famous  syslem  of  crystal- 
logra|ihy.  the  most  consistent  and  adaptable  yet 
devised.  From  1843  to  1854  he  was  engaged  as 
member  of  a  Covernment  commission  in  replacing 
the  stanihu'd  of  weights  and  measures,  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  lire.  In  1870  be  served  on  the 
Commission  Internationale  du  Mi'^tre,  and  from 
lS5('i  to  1873  was  foreign  secretary  of  the  Hoyal 
Society.  He  contributed  frequently  to  the  scien- 
titic  press,  and  published  several  text-bonks  on 
hydrodynamics  and   hydrostatics, 

MILLER,  William  Henry  Harrison  (1S40 
—  1.  An  .\merican  lawyer.  .-Mtorney-General  of 
the  United  States  in  1880-03.  He  was  born  in 
.Vugusta.  Oneida  Countv.  N.  Y..  and  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College.  Clinton.  N.  Y..  in  1801.  He 
removed  in  that  same  year  to  Ohio,  taught  school 


at  Mauinee  for  six  months,  and  then  enlisted  as  a 
private  in  the  Fighlyfourth  Ohio  \'idunteers,  a 
three-months  regiment.  W  hen  his  term  of  enlist- 
ment was  completed,  be  read  law  for  some  time 
at  Toledo,  and  in  1803  settled  in  I'eru,  Ind.,  as 
superintendent  of  schools.  There  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  In  1800  he  removed 
to  Fort  Wayne,  where  he  practiced  his  profession 
until  1874.  when,  having  established  his  reputa- 
tion, he  went  to  Indianaixdis  to  become  the  law 
partner  of  Benjamin  Harrison  (q.v.).  Their 
association  lasted  until  the  death  of  the  latter, 
e<intinning  throughout  Harrison's  administration 
as  rresiilcnl,  during  which  period  Miller  served 
as  Attorney  (ieneral  of  the  United  States. 

MILLERAND,  nu'rriix'.  Alexa.ndke  ( 1859 
— ).  A  French  Socialist,  born  in  Paris,  where  he 
was  educated  at  the  Lycee  Vanves  and  the  Lycge 
Henri  H'.,  and  studied  law  in  the  university.  He 
began  to  practice  in  Paris  in  1881,  was  counsel  to 
the  striking  miners  of  Montceau-les-Mines  in 
1882,  and  was  elected  to  the  municipal  council  in 
1884  and  in  1885,  as  a  Radical  Socialist,  to  the 
Clianiber  of  Deputies.  To  this  ollice  be  was 
elected  again  and  again,  first  in  1880.  when  lie 
carried  on  a  vigorous  anti-Houlangist  cam])aign. 
In  the  same  year  he  became  proprietor  of  Im 
I'ou',  whicli  he  made  his  personal  organ.  In  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  Millerand  urged  many  re- 
forms, esi)ecially  industrial,  and  came  into  promi- 
nence as  editor-in-chief  of  the  Petite  Ri'-pithliqnt: 
(until  1800)  and  as  an  impassioned  orator.  In 
1899,  as  leader  of  the  Parliamentary  or  Oppor- 
tunist Socialists,  he  was  made  Minister  of  Com- 
merce in  the  Waldcck-Rousseau  Cabinet,  and  in 
this  ollice  |)rocnred.  in  October,  the  pas.sage  of  an 
industrial  bill  assuring  workmen  one  day's  rest 
a  week,  only  a  certain  ])ereentage  of  foreign  labor, 
a  set  rate,  and  a  fixed  day;  in  1900  jiasscd  a  law 
making  ten  hours  the  maxinmm  day  for  women 
and  children;  and  in  general  made  many  attempts 
to  insure  workingmen  against  loss  and  to  |)rociire 
the  adoption  of  compulsory  arbitration.  In  1902. 
just  before  the  Cabinet  went  out  of  oOiee.  a  bill 
was  passed  making  eight  hours  the  maximum  day 
for  French  miners.  Consult  La\'v,  Uamxra  do 
Millerand    (Paris.  1902). 

MILT^ERITE  (named  in  honor  of  W.  H. 
JMiller).  .\  native  nickel  sulphide  that  crystal- 
lizes in  the  hexagonal  system,  has  a  metallic 
lustre,  and  is  of  a  yellowish  color.  It  occurs 
usually  in  capillary  crystals  in  cavities  with 
crystals  of  jjther  minerals,  especially  in  Bohemia, 
in  Saxony,  and  in  Cornwall.  England;  in  the 
l'nited  States  it  is  found  at  Antwer)).  \.  V.;  in 
l.aniaster  County,  Pa.;  and  espwially  in  geodes 
in  limestone  near  Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  and  .Milwau- 
kee. Wis.  Millerite  has  been  made  artilicially  in 
groU])s  of  needle-like  crystals. 

MIL'LERSBURG.  A  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Holmes  County.  Ohio.  SO  miles  south  of 
Cli'velaiid  ;  on  Killbuek  Creek  and  on  the  Cleve- 
land. Akron  and  Columbus  Railroad  I  Map: 
Ohio.  (!  4).  It  has  manufactures  of  foundry  and 
machine-shop  products,  tlour,  brick,  lumber,  etc. 
There  are  dejiosits  of  coal  and  iron  ore  in  the 
vicinity.  Populirtion,  in  1890,  10'23:  in  1900, 
1908. 

MILLER'S  TALE.  The.  One  of  Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Tales.  It  is  the  familiar  story  of  an 
old  husband  de<'eived  by  a  young  wife.  In  this 
case  the  husband  is  a  rich  old  simpleton,  n  car- 


MILLER'S  TALE. 


514 


MILLET. 


penter  of  Oxford.  The  source  is  unknown,  but 
is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  rude  jesting  stories 
of  the  time. 

MILLER'S  THUMB  (so  called  from  the 
sluipe  of  the  lieadj ,  ur  KivEB  Bullhead.  A 
small,  spiny-rayed  fish  {Vollus  gobio)  common 
in  the  streams  of  England  and  Northern  Europe 
and  Asia.  It  rarely  reaches  five  inches  in  length. 
It  is  brown  above,  varying  in  intensity,  as  in 
many  fishes,  with  the  color  of  the  bottom,  and 
white  beneath.  Its  disproportionately  large,  flat- 
tened head  compared  to  its  body,  and  the  entire 
absence  of  scales,  give  it  an  ugly  appearance. 
The  flesh  is  reddish  w^hcn  boiled,  is  said  to  be 
of  excellent  flavor,  and  is  much  sought  after  in 
some  countries.  In  the  United  States  a  related 
species  {Coitus  icialops)  is  sometimes  called 
'miller's  thumb.'  It  occurs  in  all  clear  streams  of 
the  Xorthcrn  and  Middle  States.  These  fishes 
live  on  small  organisms  and  on  fish-eggs,  and  are 
considered  a  destructive  pest  by  fish  culturists, 
especially  in  res])ect  to  trout-eggs.  The  English 
fish  is  a  favorite  among  anglers. 

MILLET  (Fr.  millet,  diminutive  of  mil.  OF. 
mil,  mcil,  It.  miglio,  from  Lat.  milium,  millet). 
A  name  applied  to  certain  cereal  and  forage 
grasses  of  several  distinct  genera  and  species. 
!\Iillp1s  are  extensively  used  as  forage  crops  in 
many  countries  and  it  has  been  estimated  that 
they  furnish  food  for  about  one-third  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  globe.  Williams  states  that  "be- 
tween 33.000.000  and  40.000,000  acres  of  millets 


roxTAU.  .MILLET  (Sotiiriu  itallcn). 

are  grown  annually  in  India,  and  Japan  alone 
uses  about  .3.').000.000  busliels  of  seed  each  year 
for  human  food."  In  the  United  States  the  culti- 
vated varieties  of  millet  may  t)e  divided  into 
three  groups,  namely  foxtail  millets,  barnyard 
millets,  and  broom-corn  millets.  Tlie  foxtail  mil- 
lets, |)erha|)S  the  most  important  group,  are  of 
very  ancient  cultivation.  They  are  believed  by 
some  writers  to  have  been  included  in  the  order 
of  Chinnong.  ii.c.  2700.  re(|uiring  certain  plants 
to  be  sown  each  year  by  tlie  Emperor  of  China  in 
n  public  ceremony.  De  Candolle  considers  this 
kind  of  millet  a  native  of  China.  .Japan,  and  the 
Indian  .Vrchipetajro.  The  most  common  varieties 
of  this  groHj)  all  belong  to  one  species,  Setaria 


italica,  and  are  grown  in  North  America,  Europe, 
India,  China,  Japan,  and  North  Africa.  The 
barnyard  millets  include  the  cultivated  varieties 
of  the  widely  distributed  species  Panicum  Cru.s- 
galli,  or  barnyard  grass,  and  also  the  varieties 
belonging  to  other  species  of  the  genus  Panicum, 
especially  Panicum  colonum  and  Panicum  tru- 
mentaceum.  The  varieties  derived  from  Panicum 
Crus-galli  are  considered  tlie  true  barnyard  mil- 
lets, and  among  them  a  variety  of  Japanese  barn- 
yard millet  and  the  'Ankee'  grass  of  the  South- 
western United  States  are  the  most  important. 
Shama  or  Sanwa  millet,  or  jungle  rice  (  Panicum 
colonum),  a  tropical  plant,  closelj'  allied  to  true 
barnyard  grass,  is  a  valual)le  food  and  forage 
plant  in  many  tropical  and  subtropical  regions 
and  extensively  grown  in  Southern  and  Eastern 
Asia,  but  little  in  the  United  States.  The  third 
group,  or  broom-corn  millets,  eompri.ses  the  varie- 
ties of  Panicum  niiliaceunL  This  species,  univer- 
sally known  to  agriculture,  has  been  in  cultiva- 
tion in  Europe 'since  prehistoric  times  and  is  still 
the  common  millet  of  the  Old  World.  Its  origin 
is  very  uncertain,  but  it  is  probably  a  native  of 
the  warmer  regions  of  Asia.  The  classification  of 
varieties  of  this  species  is  based  mainly  upon 
the  color  of  the  ripe  seed — yellow,  white,  and  red. 
The  term  Indian  or  African  millet  is  often  loosely 
applied  to  certain  of  the  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums, such  as  durra,  Kafir  corn,  and  pearl  millet 
{ I'cnnisetum  typhoidrum) ,  which  last  is  also 
called  Egj'ptian  or  cat-tail  millet. 

Millets  are  not  well  adapted  to  heavy  clay  or 
wet  soils,  but  succeed  best  on  fertile  friable 
loams.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  is  the  same 
as  for  other  grass  crops.  In  the  United  States 
the  seed  is  usually  sown  late  in  the  spring  to 
prevent  the  harvest  of  the  millet  from  interfering 
with  the  harvest  of  the  cereals.  The  seed  is 
tisually  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  one-half 
bushel  to  the  acre.  It  is,  however,  often  drilled. 
For  hay,  millet  is  usually  harvested  with  a 
mower  when  the  crop  has  just  finished  heading, 
and  for  the  seed  with  a  reaper  like  cereals  a  little 
before  it  is  fully  ripe.  If  harvested  when  fully 
ripe  there  is  usually  a  heavy  loss  of  seed  in 
handling.  Where  the  self-binder  is  used  in  har- 
vest in;;  this  crop,  the  sheaves  are  bomid  loosely 
and  put  u])  in  shocks  to  cure.  T"he  yield  of  cured 
hay  per  acre  ranges  from  four  to  six  tons  and 
the  yield  of  .seed  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels.  This 
crop  is  practicall.v  free  from  attacks  of  insects 
and  plant  diseases. 

Feeding  Value.  Millet  is  valuable  principally 
as  hay  and  as  a  soiling  crop.  It  is  also  useful 
for  silage.  The  ripened  seeds  are  seldom  fed  to 
stock,  but  are  much  used  as  food  for  poultrv  and 
birds.  If  used  as  stock  food  they  should  be 
crushed  or  ground.  The  seed  of  broom-corn  mil- 
let has  found  more  favor  in  the  United  States  as  a 
cattle  feed  than  that  of  other  varieties.  Cerman 
millet  cut  when  the  heaiN  are  well  filled  but  the 
seeds  still  soft  has  the  following  percentage  com- 
position: Water,  71.7;  protein.  2.7;  fat.  0..t: 
nitrogen-free  extract.  14. .3;  crude  filire.  9..3 ;  and 
ash.  1..5.  German  millet  hay:  Water.  7.7:  pro- 
tein, 7. .5;  fat.  2.1;  nitrogen-free  extract,  4fl.O; 
crude  fibre.  27.7:  and  ash,  (i.O.  Other  millets 
fresh  and  cured  resemble  in  composition  the 
examples  quoted  more  or  less  closely.  The  aver- 
age percentage  composition  of  millet  seed  fol- 
lows:    Water,  14.0;  protein.  ll.S;  fat.  4.0;  nitro- 


MILLET. 


513 


MILLET. 


gen-free  extract,  57.4 ;  tiiulo  fibre,  9.5 ;  and  ash, 
3.3.  In  tile  ease  of  bariivanl  luillet  hay  o'A 
j)er  cwt.,  of  the  protein  (i3.7  per  ewt.,  of 
the  nitrogen-free  extract  51.0  per  cwt.,  and 
of  tlie  crude  fibre  Gl.C  per  cwt.  was  on 
the  average  found  to  be  digestible.  Millet  hay 
is  a  useful  coar.se  fodder  for  cows,  but  not  more 
than  si.\  or  eight  pounds  sliould  be  fed  daily. 
When  fed  to  lambs  care  should  be  exercised,  as 
millet  hay  causes  scours  unless  fed  in  -small  quan- 
tities. It  has  been  observed  that  when  horses 
were  fed  millet  hay  exclusively  as  coarse  fodder, 
painful  condiliuns  called  'millet  disease'  were  in- 
duced. It  is  believed  that  the  trouble  may  be 
avoided  by  using  this  liay  in  limited  quantities, 
and  not  continuously.  It  is  also  possible  that 
millet  grown  in  some  regions  is  harmless,  while 
that  grown  in  others  is  harmful.  The  plant  has 
been  used  for  farm  animals  since  very  early  times, 
and  generally  speaking  has  proved  a  satisfactory 
feeding  stulT.     See  Colored  Plate  of  Cereals. 

Consult  United  fStutes  Depnrtment  of  Agricul- 
ture Year  Booh  for  1898  and  Farmer's  Bulletin 
101. 

MILLET,  inil'hV,  Aime  (18in-01).  A  French 
sculptor  and  painter.  He  was  born  in  Paris, 
September  27,  1819.  He  received  his  first  in- 
struction in  painting  from  his  father,  and  in 
1842  exhibited  three  pictures  in  the  Salon.  He 
studied  sculpture  with  David  d'Angers,  but  after 
1852  gave  up  painting  entirely.  For  his  work 
in  sculpture  he  won  first-class  medals  at  the  ex- 
]K)sitions  of  1857  and  1807,  and  a  gold  medal 
at  the  c.xjjosition  of  1889.  His  most  ambitious 
work  was  the  erection  for  Xapoleon  III.  in  1805 
of  a  colossal  copjier  statue  of  Vereingetorix,  at 
Alise-.Sainte-Keine.  His  statues  adorn  several 
public  buildings  in  Paris,  among  them  an 
"Apollo"  in  bronze  at  the  New  Opera.  His 
mythological  statues  and  gi-oups  include  "Bac- 
chante" (1885):  "Narcissus;"  "Ariadne"  and 
"Cassandra  Under  the  Protection  of  Pallas,"  both 
in  the  Luxembourg.  Among  his  portrait  statues 
arc  those  of  Denis  Papin  at  Blois,  Chateaubriand 
at  Saint  Malo,  Gay-Lussae  at  Limoges,  and  Edgar 
Guinet  at  Bourg.  He  executed  many  portrait 
busts  and  statues  in  marble  and  bronze.  His 
art  is  realistic  in  character,  but  theatrical  in 
pose.  He  died  in  Paris.  .January  13.  1891.  Con- 
sult Dumcsnil,  Aim6  Millet  (Pari.s,  1891). 

MIL'LET,  Francis  Davis  (1840—).  An 
American  genre  painter,  war  correspondent,  and 
author.  He  was  born  at  ilattapoisett.  Mass., 
November  3.  1840.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
College  and  took  part  in  the  Civil  War  as  a 
drnnmier  and  assistant  surgeon.  He  was  a  pupil 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Antwerp. 
1871-72,  and  also  studied  in  France  and  Italy,  at 
the  same  time  writing  illustrated  articles  for 
American  periodicals.  During  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  (1877-78)  he  was  engaged  by  the  New  York 
Herald  and  London  Daili/  Xetrs  as  war  corre- 
spondent, attached  to  General  Skobelefl's  staff. 
He  was  director  of  the  decorations  of  the  World's 
Fair  at  Chicago,  where  he  also  received  a  medal. 
The  year  1898  saw  him  in  the  Philippines  as  the 
correspondent  of  the  London  Times  and  Harper's 

ir.'c/,-/.,/. 

Millet  made  his  home  in  the  village  of  Broad- 
way. Worcestershire,  England.  He  is  best  known 
as  a  painter  of  genre  subjects  of  England  in  the 
eighteenth    century    and    of    classic    Rome    and 


Greece,  in  which  cuslume  and  interiors  are 
studied  with  nuich  detail,  showing  the  inlluence 
of  the  Dutch  school.  His  chief  pauitings  include 
the  decorations  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston :  "At 
the  Inn,"  L'nion  League  Club,  New  York  City; 
"A  Cosy  Corner,"  Metropolitan  Museum;  "Be- 
tween Two  Fires,"  National  Gallery  of  British 
-Vrt,  London.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
American  Artists  (1880),  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Design  ( 1885) ,  an<l  the  Institute  of  Paint- 
ers in  Oil  Colors,  London ;  received  a  second 
medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889;  and 
holds  several  military  orders.  His  literary  works 
include  a  translation  of  Tolstoi's  ticbuHtopol 
(1889);  Capillary  Crime  and  Other  Stories 
(1892);   The  Damihe   (1898). 

MILLET,  miria',  .Jean  Fbajt^ois  (1814-75). 
A  French  genre  and  landscape  painter  of  the  Bar- 
bison  group.  He  was  born  at  Gruehy,  near  Gre- 
ville  (JIanche),  October  4,  1814,  and  was  the 
eldest  son  and  second  child  of  a  peasant.  Jlis 
father,  who  exercised  a  great  influence  upon  JMil- 
let's  life  and  character,  was  a  man  of  refined 
and  deeply  religious  nature,  and  of  musical 
tastes,  being  cantor  in  the  village  church.  As  a 
boy.  Millet  w-as  fond  of  books,  and  under  the 
tuition  of  the  village  priest  learned  to  read,  but 
spent  his  early  j-ears  on  the  farm,  trying,  during 
hours  of  rest,  to  draw  the  familiar  scenery 
and  life  about  him.  His  father  took  him  to  the 
neighboring  town  of  Cherbourg,  where  he  studied 
under  Mouchel.  a  pupil  of  the  school  of  David, 
and  Langlois.  In  1837,  aided  by  a  small  gift  of 
money  from  the  council-general  of  the  depart- 
ment and  by  a  small  pension  granted  by  the  town 
council  of  Cherbourg,  Millet  went  to  Paris.  He 
entered  the  studio  of  Delaroche,  but,  unable  to 
endure  his  master's  conventional  methods,  and 
constrained  by  poverty,  he  soon  withdrew,  ^\'ith 
Marolle,  a  friend,  he  opened  a  little  studio,  giving 
his  evenings  to  study  and  his  days  to  painting 
cheap  portraits  and  pastel  imitations  of  Boucher 
and  Watteau.  He  won  some  recognition  with  a 
portrait  in  the  Salon  of  1840,  but  soon  returned 
to  Normandy,  where  he  married  ( 1841 ) .  There 
he  supported  himself  by  painting  sign-boards,  and 
also  produced  "Sailors  Mending  a  Sail"  and 
other  genre  works.  In  1842  he  returned  to  Paris, 
and  in  1844  attracted  the  favorable  attention  of 
artists  by  his  "Milkwoman"  and  "liiding  Lesson." 
On  the  death  of  his  wife  he  returned  to  Nor- 
mandy, but  remarried  and  came  again  to  Paris 
in  1845.  His  "Saint  .Jerome,"  contributed  to  the 
Salon  of  that  year,  was  rejected,  and  Millet 
painted  over  it  "ffidipus  L^nbound,"  a  picture  in 
the  classical  style.  "The  Golden  Age,"  "Tlie 
Bird  Nesters,"  "The  Bathers,"  and  other  works 
followed,  and  in  1848  "The  Jews  in  Babylon"  and 
"The  Winnower,"  the  last  obtaining  a'  real  suc- 
cess. 

Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  of 
1848  he  abandoned  Paris  for  the  village  of  Barbi- 
son,  which  he  made  his  permanent  home.  Here 
the  'Norman  peasant,'  as  he  called  himself, 
was  surrounded  by  scenes  he  loved,  and  witli  the 
subjection  of  color  to  sentiment  he  gave  up  the 
mythological  and  the  nude,  confining  himself  to 
rustic  art.  "The  Sower"  (1850)  was  followed 
by  "Man  Spreading  Manure"  (1S52);  "The 
Reapers"  (1853):  "A  Peasant  Grafting  a  Tree" 
(1855):  "The  Gleaners"  (1857,  Louvre),  one 
of  his  very  best  works;  "Tlie  Angelus"   (1859); 


MILLET. 


516 


MILLIGAN. 


*'Death  and  the  Wood-Cutter;"  "Feedin-;  ITor 
Bird"  (La  becquee,  ISUO),  in  tlie  Lille  Jluscuni; 
and  others,  all  produced  while  he  was  hampered 
by  illness  and  debts.  In  IStiO  he  bound  himself  by 
contract  to  give  all  his  work  for  three  years  for 
lOOU  francs  a  month,  but  the  contract  was  dis- 
solved in  six  months.  To  this  period  bclonj;  "The 
Sheep  Shearing"  (1800);  "Woman  Feeding 
Child;"  "The  Sheep  Shearer:"  "Waiting"  (all 
in  1861)  ;  "Potato  Planters"  (1SG2)  ;  "The  Wool 
Carder"  (1803);  and  "The  Man  with  the  Hoe" 
(1863).  F>om  1800  his  re|)utation  was  regarded 
as  established,  and  after  1863  he  no  longer  suf- 
fered want.  In  186-1  he  exhibited  "The  Shepherd- 
ess" and  "Pea.sants  Bringing  Home  a  Calf;"  in 
1865  he  produced  some  decorative  work.  At  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1867  he  received  a  medal  of 
the  first  class,  and  in  1868  the  ribbon  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  Driven  from  Harbison  by  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  Millet  repaired  to  Cher- 
bourg and  did  not  return  until  late  in  1871.  He 
was  deeply  allected  by  the  death,  in  1867,  of  his 
friend  Kousseau,  with  wliom.  of  all  others,  he 
was  most  intimate.  Although  the  state  of  his 
health,  which  had  been  failing  for  some  time, 
curtailed  the  hours  of  work,  he  continued  to  paint 
until  December,  1874,  when  fever  set  in  and  he 
died  on  January  20,  1875. 

He  was  one  of  the  artists  selected  bv'  the  Gov- 
ernment to  decorate  the  Pantheon,  but  did  not 
lire  to  complete  the  commission.  A  niimber  ot 
important  works  have  been  acquired  bj-  .Ameri- 
cans, among  which  are:  "The  Sower"  and  the 
"Water  Carrier"  (Vanderbilt  Collection,  New 
York);  "The  Grafter"  (William  Rockefeller); 
"The  Turkey-Keeper"  (C.  A.  Dana.  Xew  York)  ; 
"The  Buckwheat  Threshers"  and  the  "Planters" 
(Quincy  Shaw  Collection,  Boston)  :  "The  Churn- 
er"  ( F.  L.  Ames,  Boston)  ;  "Potato  Harvest"  and 
"Breaking  the  Flax"  (Walters  Collection.  Balti- 
more). Millefs  paintings  began  to  increase  in 
value  before  his  death,  but  his  family,  being  left 
in  straitened  circumstances,  was  pensioned  by 
the  Government,  His  principal  pictures  have 
been  etched  and  engraved.  It  was  the  master's 
custom  to  j)aint  from  memory,  without  using 
models,  and  lo  this  is  i)artially  due  the  simplicity 
and  breadth  with  which  he  treated  his  subjects. 

Equally  famous  with  Millet's  paintings  are 
many  of  his  drawings,  such  as  his  own  portrait 
(1848)  :  "Woman  Feeding  Chickens;"  "Shepherd 
with  Flock;"  "The  Xew-Born  Lamb;"  "Laun- 
dresses on  the  Shore;"  "First  Steps."  His 
pastels,  too,  are  equally  prized;  good  examples 
are  the  "Vine  Dresser  Resting"  and  "Woman 
Churning."  All  show  a  good  draughtsman,  with 
a  fine  feeling  for  form.  His  color  is  sad  in  tone, 
pray  and  brown  usually  |)revailing:  and  he 
achieved  harmony  by  a  masterly  treatment  of 
light  and  atmosphere.  The  landscape  background 
and  the  animals  of  his  paintings  are  the  eq\ials 
of  those  done  by  the  greatest  specialists  in  these 
branches.  Among  the  best  of  his  pure  land- 
scapes are  "Church  of  (Jreville."  "Spring,"  and 
"Winter,"  the  first  two  in  the  l.nuvre.  He  was 
also  an  etcher  of  great  power,  as  is  evident  from 
hi^  thirteen  original  plates  of  subjects  of  |)easnnt 
life,  as  well  ns  from  a  number  of  others  after 
his  paintings.  IHs  designs  for  woodcuts,  gener- 
ally carried  out  by  his  two  brothers,  show  great 
originality,  being  executed  in  bold,  coar.sc  out- 
lines, more  like  tho.se  of  the  old  German  masters 
than   nineteenth   centurj-   etchings.     Monuments 


to  Millet  have  been  erected  in  Cherbourg  and 
Gruchy,  and  a  bronze  plaque  attaclied  to  a  rock 
at  the  entrance  to  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau  is 
dedicated  to  him  and  Rousseau. 

BiULlouR.\PHY.  The  best  and  most  complete 
work  on  Millet  is  by  his  friend  Sensier,  La  vie  et 
rix'uvrc  de  Jean  Francois  Millet  (Paris,  1881; 
abridged  English  translation,  Boston,  1896). 
See  also  Picdagnel.  ,]can  Frant;ois  Millet:  souve- 
nirs de  Barbisun  (Paris,  1876)  ;  Naegely,  J.  F. 
Millet  and  Irustic  Art  (London,  1808)  ;  the 
biographies  by  Yriarte  (Paris,  1885);  Emile 
ilichel  in  Les  artistes  celebres;  Eaton,  in  Van 
Dyke,  Modern  French  Masters  ( New  York, 
1800):  Couturier,  Millet  et  Corot  (Saint  Quen- 
tin,  1876)  ;  Gensel,  Millet  und  Rousseau  (Biele- 
feld, 1902). 

MILLI,  me'le,  GlANNlNA  (1827-88).  An  Ital- 
ian poet.  She  w'as  born  at  Teramo,  and  when 
but  a  child  of  five  years  is  said  to  have  composed 
verses.  When  seventeen  or  eighteen  years  of  age 
she  became  a  pupil  of  the  poet  Regalili,  the  great- 
est of  Italian  improvisatores,  and  soon  developed 
considerable  power  in  improvising  popular  and 
amatory  verses,  iledals  of  gold  and  silver  were 
awarded  her.  and  after  her  trips  through  the 
principal  Italian  cities  (1857-60)  a  pension  was 
bestow-ed  upon  her.  She  was  appointed  inspector 
of  elementary  schools  for  girls  and  superintend- 
ent of  the  normal  school  for  young  women  in 
Rome.  Her  poems  were  published  in  two  volumes 
in  1862-63. 

MIL'LIGAN,  Ex  Parte.  The  title  of  an  im- 
portant decision  rendered  by  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  in  1866,  growing  out 
of  the  events  of  the  Civil  War.  The  jireci.se 
question  raised  was  whether  a  citizen  domiciled 
in  a  State  where  peace  prevails,  but  which  is 
adjacent  to  the  theatre  of  war,  may  be  de- 
prived of  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  and  be 
subjected  to  trial  before  a  military  commission 
composed  of  army  officers.  The  case  grew  out 
of  the  arrest  of  one  Milligan.  a  citizen  of  Indiana, 
by  a  United  States  military  ollicer  in  1864  on 
cliarges  of  conspiracy,  disloyal  practices,  inciting 
insurrection,  and  giving  aid  and  I'omfort  to  the 
enemy.  He  was  tried  before  a  military  eonunis- 
sion  at  Indianajiolis,  was  found  guilty,  and  was 
sentenced  to  be  hanged.  His  counsel  thereupon 
tiled  in  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  United  States 
a  petition  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  denying 
the  jnrisiliction  of  the  military  conmiission,  on 
the  ground  that  the  civil  courts  in  Indiana  were 
open  and  unobstructed  in  the  performance  ot 
their  duties,  that  a  United  States  grand  jury 
which  was  then  in  session  faih-d  to  find  a  bill  of 
indictment,  that  tlie  |i1:iintiir  was  a  civilian  in 
no  way  connected  with  the  military  service,  and 
that  he  was  not  a  resident  of  a  rebel  State.  The 
case  was  finally  carried  to  the  Supreme  Court  ot 
the  United  States,  where  it  was  held  that  a  mili- 
tary commission  organized  during  the  war  in  a 
State  not  invaded  or  in  rebellion,  and  where  the 
Federal  courts  were  open  and  unobstructed,  had 
no  jurisdiction  to  try.  convict,  or  sentence  for  a 
criminal  olTense  a  citizen  who  was  neither  a  resi- 
dent of  a  State  in  rebellion  nor  a  prisoner  of  war. 
nor  a  person  in  the  military  or  naval  service,  and 
that  (^ongress  had  no  power  to  confer  such 
authority  on  it.  This  opinion  was  rendered  by 
a  bare  majority  of  the  court,  a  vigorous  dissent- 
ing   opinion    being    delivered    by    Chief    .Justice 


I 
I- 


MILLIGAN. 


517 


MILLS. 


Chase,  in  which  three  other  justices  concurred. 
The  decision  is  given  in  Walluce's  Reports, 
vol.  iv.     See  M]I.tt,\ry  Law;  Makti.vl  Law. 

MILLIGAN,  William  (1821-9.3).  A  minis- 
ter of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  born 
ill  Edinburgh.  He  was  educated  at  the  L'liiver- 
sity  of  Saint  Andrews  (IS-SO).  lie  stood  by  the 
•Ai'ild  Kirk'  at  the  disruiition  (184,3).  and  was 
ordained  minister  to  the  Parish  of  Cameron,  Eife, 
I  lie  following  year.  He  studied  in  (Jermaiiy  from 
1S45  to  1846*,  and  was  placed  at  Kileonquhar 
from  1850  until  1860,  when  he  was  asked  to 
occupy  the  newly  created  chair  of  biblical  criti- 
cism in  Aberdeen  University.  He  assisted  in 
llie  revision  of  the  New  Testament  in  1870,  and 
published  works  on  the  Uiijlur  Educalion  of 
^\'omcn  (1878);  The  Reaurreclion  of  Our  Lord 
(1S81)  ;  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  (1883)  ; 
Hiiird  Leelures  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John 
(188t))  ;  Elijah  (1887)  :  The  Resiirreetion  of  the 
Dead  (1890)  :  and  Aims  of  the  Scottish  Church 
Soeietii  (1892)  ;  besides  a  notable  article  for  the 
EiHi/clopcFdia  Britannica  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  (1879).  He  was  sent  to  the  United 
States  Presbyterian  General  Assembly  (1872)  as 
a  delegate  from  the  corresponding  body  in  Scot- 
land. 

MILLIN",  me'laN',  Aubin  Lotns  (1759-1818). 
A  French  archseologist,  born  in  Paris.  His  fir.st 
literary  attempts  were  translations  from  the  Ger- 
man and  English,  which  were  published  in  the 
MHanges  de  litteratiire  etrangere  (178.'5-86).  His 
protest  against  the  excesses  of  the  Revolution 
made  it  necessary  for  him  to  fly  from  Paris,  and 
lie  was  imprisoned  for  a  year  in  Saint  Lazare  on 
his  return.  In  1795  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
cabinet  of  antiques  and  medals  in  the  National 
Library,  was  instrumental  in  the  creation  of  a 
chair  of  antiquities,  and  the  same  year  under- 
took the  direction  of  the  Mayaziii  Encijetoi>cdiiiue. 
Jluch  of  his  voluminous  writing  on  his  special 
subject  appeared  in  this  periodical,  which,  in 
1817.  became  the  Annates  Encyclopediques,  and  he 
publisbed  also  Antiques  nationales  (1790-98)  ; 
Introduction  a  I'ctude  des  medailles  (1790): 
Monuments  antiques  inedits  (1802-04);  Diction- 
nuire  des  beaux-arts  (1806)  ;  and  flistoire  metal- 
lique  de  la  Revolution  fr<ini;aisc  (1S0(!),  His 
travels  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  France  in 
search  of  antiques  provided  material  for  Voyage 
dans  les  d/partements  du  midi  de  la.  France 
(1807-11);  Peintures  de  l^ases  antiques  (1808- 
10;  new  ed.  1891)  ;  and  Voyage  en  Savoie,  au 
t'ii'iiiont.   <l,mx   Ir   Milniidis    (1816-17). 

MILLING  MACHINE.  See  JIetal-Work- 
ixi;  Machinery. 

MIL'LIPEDE.  A  myriapod  of  the  order  Chi- 
lognatha  (or  Diplopoda)  having  a  dorsally  convex 
body  composed  of  many  segments,  all  of  which, 
except  the  first  four,  bear  each  two  pairs  of  legs; 
and  lacking  inaxillipes.     See  Centipede;  Mykia- 

PODA. 

MIL'LIS,  John  (1858—).  An  American  offi- 
cer of  engineers,  bom  at  Wheatland.  Mich.  He 
graduated,  with  first  rank,  from  the  United 
States  ililitary  Aeademv  in  1881,  and  served  at 
\'\illet's  Point.  N.  Y.  (1881-83),  and  on  light- 
house duty,  especiallv  in  experiments  with  elec- 
tric lighting  (1*583-90).  IMillis  was  charged  with 
the  preparation  of  the  lighting  of  the  Bartholdi 
Statue  in  New  York  Harbor.  From  1890  to 
1894   he  managed   Federal   improvements  in  the 


Mississippi  levees  and  New  Orleans  harbor;  then 
for  four  years  was  chief  engineer  of  the  Light- 
house Boaril;  and  in  1900  was  delegate  to  elec- 
trical, physical,  and  navigation  congresses  in 
Paris  during  the  Exposition,  and  was  sent  to 
Egypt  to  report  on  the  Assuan  dam.  After  his 
return  to  .\merica  lie  was  ordered  to  Seattle  to 
construct  fortilications  in  Puget  Sound  and  tiov- 
ernment  improvements  in  \Vashington,  Idaho, 
and  ilontana.  He  was  promoted  to  be  major  of 
engineers  in   1900. 

MILLOCKEK,  mil'le-ker,  Karl  (1842-99). 
An  Austrian  composer  of  light  opera.  He  was 
born  in  Vienna  and  received  his  musical  education 
in  the  Conservatory  of  that  city.  In  1864  he 
was  appointed  kapellmeister  at  the  Gratz  Theatre 
and  from  1869  to  18S3  occiqiied  a  similar  posi- 
tion at  the  Theater  an  der  Wien  in  Vienna.  His 
music  is  marked  by  its  spontaneous  melodiousness 
and  sprightly  instrumentation.  The  principal  pub- 
lished works  include:  Der  todte  Gust  and  Die 
heiden  Binder  (1865)  ;  Diana.  (1867)  ;  Die  Frau- 
eninsel  (1878);  Der  Regimentstamhour  (1869); 
Drei  Paar  Schuhe  (1870)  ;  Die  Musik  des  Teufels 
(1870);  Das  veru-unschcne  Schloss  (1878); 
A  pa  June,  der  Waxscrmann  (1880);  Die  Jung- 
fraii  von  Belleville  (1881);  Der  Bettelstudcnt 
(1881);  Gasparone  (1884);  Der  Viceadniirul 
(1886)  ;  Die  siehen  Schwahen  (1887)  ;  Der  arme 
Jonathan  (1890);  Das  Sonntagskind  (1892); 
Der  Probekuss  (1895)  ;  and  Das  Nordlicht 
(1897). 

MILTliOM.  A  town  in  Cumberland,  England, 
nine  miles  northwest  of  Barrow.  It  is  situated 
on  the  west  coast  of  Duddon  Sands,  and  has 
a  shallow  tidal  harbor  (Jlap:  England,  C  2). 
The  most  productive  mines  of  red  hematite  ore 
in  England  are  worked  in  the  vicinity,  and  it 
has  numerous  blast  furnaces.  Municipal  enter- 
prise is  particularly  active.  The  town  owns  its 
markets,  water  and  gas  works,  and  maintains  a 
library,  technical  schools,  recreation  grounds,  and 
isolation  hospital.  Population,  in  1891,  8900; 
in  1901,  10,400. 

MILLO  MAIZE.  A  cereal  grain.  See  Sor- 
ghum,  paragraph   yon-Saccharine. 

MILL  ON  THE  FLOSS,  The.  A  novel  by 
fJeorge  Flliot  (18001.  It  is  the  story  of  English 
working  jieople.  The  heroine.  Maggie  Tulliver, 
daughter  of  the  miller,  is  a  girl  of  rich,  pas- 
sionate nature,  restless  and  unhappy  in  her 
narrow  life.  Thwarted  in  her  first  love  for 
Philip,  she  becomes  infatuated  with  Stephen 
Guest,  and  is  about  to  elope  with  him.  Her 
imprudence  is  followed  by  niisoiy,  and  she  and 
her  brother  Tom  are  drowned  in  the  flood  of 
the  river  Floss.  Tlie  gloom  of  the  story  is 
relieved  by  touches  of  homely  humor. 

MILLS,  Albert  Leopold  ( 1854— ) .  An 
American  soldier,  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
graduated  at  the  United  States  ^Military 
Academy  in  1879,  was  appointed  second  lieuten- 
ant of  the  First  Cavalry,  was  stationed  at  Fort 
Walla  Walla,  Washington  Territory  (1879-82), 
and  engaged  in  frontier  duty  elsewhere.  He  saw- 
active  sei-vice  against  the  Crows  in  1887  and 
against  the  Sioux  in  1890.  He  was  professor 
of  military  science  and  tactics  at  the  State 
Academy.  Charleston,  S.  C,  for  a  year  (1886- 
87).  held  an  appointment  at  the  United  States 
Infantry  and  Cavalry  School.  Fort  Leavenworth, 
Kansas!  from  1894  until   1898,  and  in  the  Span- 


MILLS. 


518 


MILLS. 


ish-American  War  participated  in  tlie  Santiago 
campaign  as  captain  and  assistant  adjutant  ;,'cn- 
eral  of  volunteers.  In  Au<;ust,  1S!)8,  lie  was 
made  superintendent  of  tlu;  United  States  ilili- 
tarj'  Academy,  West  Point,  with  the  rank  and 
pay  of  colonel,  and  in  October  of  the  same  year 
was  promoted  to  the  regimental  rank  of  captain. 

MILLS,  Charles  Kars.n'ek  (1845—).  An 
American  neurologist,  born  in  Philadelphia  and 
educated  at  the  Central  High  School  and 'the 
medical  department  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. He  began  to  practice  in  18G9;  was 
professor  of  physics  in  Wagner  Institute  (1870- 
73)  and  lecturer  on  electric  therapy  and  neu- 
rology in  the  Philadelpliia  School  of  Anatomy 
and  Surgery.  He  lu^Id  a  like  position  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  (1877-87)  and  then 
became  professor  of  the  same  subjects.  He  at- 
tained a  high  reputation  as  an  alienist  both  in 
practice  and  in  legal  cases.  He  wrote  several 
monographs  on  mental  and  nervous  strain,  and 
edited  a  valuable  Treatise  on  the  yervous  i^ystem 
and  Its  Diseases. 

MILLS,  Clarke  (181,5-83).  An  American 
sculptor,  bom  in  Onondaga  County,  N.  Y., 
December  1,  181.5.  In  his  youth  he  followed 
the  trade  of  a  plasterer,  at  the  same  time 
modeling  ideal  heads  in  clay.  In  184(i  he  com- 
pleted a  bust  of  .John  C.  Calhoun,  which  was 
purchased  by  the  city  of  Charleston  for  the 
City  Hall.  In  1848  he  furnished  a  design  for 
an  eipiestrian  statue  of  General  .Jackson,  to  be 
placed  in  Lafayette  Square.  Washington.  There 
being  no  bronze  foundry  for  such  work  in  the 
United  States.  Jlills  erected  in  Washington  an 
experimental  foundry,  where  in  1852  he  sucee«>ded 
in  prcKlucing  a  perfect  cast.  It  was  formally 
accepted  .January  8.  1853 — the  anniversarv-  of  the 
battle  of  Xew  Orleans.  He  was  next  engaged 
on  the  colossal  eqiiestrian  statue  of  Washington, 
which  was  formally  unveiled  February  22.  18(50. 
Mills's  last  work  was  tlie  casting  of  the  colossal 
statue  of  Liberty  (1863),  modeled  by  Crawford, 
which  crowns  the  dome  of  tlie  Capitol  at  Wash- 
ington. In  the  light  of  contemporary'  sculptors, 
the  works  of  Mills  seem  inferior,  but  tliey  mark 
a  stepping-stone  in  the  advance  of  -American  art. 
He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C  .January  12.  1883. 

MILLS,  Da\td  (1831—).  A  Canadian  states- 
man. Iioni  in  Orford.  Kent  County.  Ontario,  lie 
graduated  in  law  from  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan in  1855.  After  teaching  for  a  time,  he  was 
school  superintendent  for  Kent  County  tintil 
18G5.  and  Liberal  member  for  Bothwell.  Ont..  in 
the  Dominion  Parliament  from  1807  until  1806, 
when  he  was  raised  to  the  Senate.  He  was  Jlin- 
ister  of  the  Interior  (187(!-78)  and  Minister  of 
.Justice  (18n7-inoi).  He  i)raeticed  law  in  Lon- 
don. Ont..  edited  the  fumulu  Dnilii  Adirrtisrr 
in  that  city  (1882-87).  and  liesiiles  magazine 
articles  published  The  Eitfilish  in  Africii  (1000). 
From  1SS7  to  1000  he  was  professor  of  interna- 
tional and  constitutional  law  in  Toronto  TTni- 
versity.  and  he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Couil'in  loni. 

MILLS.  Lawrence  HETWOBTn  (1837—).  An 
English  Orientalist.  He  was  born  in  Xew  York 
City  and  graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City 
of  Xew  York  in  1857.  He  then  studied  for 
orders  at  the  Fairfax  County  Episcopal  Seminary 
near  .Alexandria.  Va.,  and  was  ordained  in  1801. 
after  which  he  held  a  charge  in  Brooklyn  until 


1867.  Retiring  from  the  ministry,  he  went  to 
Europe  in  1872,  where  he  devoted  himself  first 
to  a  study  of  Gnosticism  and  then  to  the  .A vesta, 
which  was  to  prove  his  life-work.  In  1887  he 
went  to  Oxford  at  the  request  of  Max  Miiller, 
and  in  1898  he  was  made  professor  of  Zend 
philologj'  there  for  five  years,  an  appointment 
which  was  renewed  in  1903.  The  researches  of 
Mills  have  been  devoted  chietly  to  the  older 
portion  of  the  Avesta  texts,  the  Gathas  ( q.v. ) , 
\ihich  he  studied  exhaustively,  adhering  in  the 
main  to  the  system  of  the  traditional  school  of 
interpretation.  He  also  publislied  many  con- 
tributions on  the  early  phases  of  Zoroastrianism 
(see  the  article  Avesta),  and  nuist  Ixi  reganled 
as  one  of  the  foremost  of  Iranian  schohirs. 
Among  his  works  the  most  important  are:  "Zend 
Avesta,  part  iii.,"  in  Jliiller,  .Vocrcd  Books  of  the 
East,  vol.  x.xxi.  (Oxford,  1887);  Htudy  of  the 
Five Zarulhushtrian  { Zoroast riati)  Guthdsi  1894)  ; 
Gdlhus  of  Zarathushira  (Zoroaster)  iti  Metre 
and  Ithiilhiii  (WOO);  Dietiunarij  of  the  (Jtilhic 
Langtuuje  of  the  Zcnd-Aiesta  (1902);  and  Zo- 
roaster, I'hilo,  and  Israel   (1003). 

MILLS,  RonERT  (1781-18.55).  An  American 
engineer  and  architect.  He  was  born  in  Charles- 
ton. S.  C.  and  studied  tuider  Benjamin  H. 
Latrohe.  He  erected  several  custom-houses  and 
marine  hospitjils.  and  in  1820  was  appointed 
State  architect  and  engineer  of  South  Carolina. 
In  1837  President  Jackson  made  him  the  archi- 
tect of  the  General  Government.  L'nder  this  and 
the  next  Administration,  Mills  designed  and  had 
charge  of  the  erection  of  the  Treasury  Buihling, 
the  General  PostOlTice.  the  Patent  0"nice  Build- 
ing, and  the  Xational  Washington  Monument. 

MILLS,  Roger  Or ABLES  (18.32—).  An  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  politician,  born  in  Todd  Comity, 
Ky.  He  removed  to  Palestine,  Tex.,  in  1S40, 
studied  law.  and  was  admittid  to  the  bar  when 
only  twenty  years  of  age.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Texas  House  of  Representatives  in  1850.  but  en- 
tered the  military  service  of  the  Confederacy  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  and  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  Arkansas  Post  (.January  11,  1803), 
Chickamauga  (September  19-20.  1863),  where 
he  conunanded  a  brigade.  Xew  Hope  Church 
(May  27.  1S64).  and  Atlanta  (July  22,  1864). 
In  1873  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  where  he 
continued  as  a  member  of  the  House  until  1802, 
when  he  was  chosen  to  lill  an  unexpired  term  in 
the  Senate,  and  the  next  >ear  was  reelected  for 
the  full  term.  In  1884-88  he  was  chairman  of 
the  House  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  in 
which  capacity  he  drafted  the  'Mills  Bill'  for  the 
regulation  of  the  tariff.  This  measure  was  de- 
feated in  the  Senate. 

MILLS,  Samiel  .John  (1783-1818).  An 
American  missionary.  He  was  born  at  Torring- 
ford.  Conn..  .April  21.  1783.  and  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1800.  While  in  college  he 
formed  an  association  among  students  who  were 
considering  the  question  of  entering  upon  for- 
eign missionary  work.  After  spending  a  short 
time  in  the  study  of  theologA-  at  Xew  Haven, 
he  entered  .Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1810.  With  .ludson.  Hall.  Xewell.  and  Xott  he 
united  in  a  memorial  to  the  (Jeneral  Association 
of  Massachusetts  (Congregational),  which  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  the  .\merican  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1812,  and  spent  two 


MILLS. 


519 


MILMAN. 


j-ears  in  mission  work  in  the  Soutiiern  and 
Western  States.  He  suggested  the  formation 
of  a  national  Bible  society,  which  resulted  in 
the  organization  of  the  American  Bible  Society. 
To  him  was  due  the  formation  of  the  United 
Foreign  Mission  Society.  Through  his  exertions 
in  conjunction  with  T>i:  Fiiiley,  the  American 
Colonization  Society  was  formed  in  1817,  and  ' 
he  was  appointed  with  Dr.  Burgess  to  visit  Eng- 
land in  behalf  of  the  society,  and  to  explore 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  for  a  suitable  site  for 
a  colony  of  colored  jicople  from  America.  He 
sailed  in  November,  1817,  and  arrived  on  the 
coast  March  12th.  He  embarked  for  the  United 
States,  May  22,  1818,  and  died  at  sea  June  10th. 
He  is  called  the  'father  of  foreign  missions  in 
America.'  Consult  the  memoir  by  Spring  (New 
York.  18.i4). 

MILLS,  Seb.\stian  Bach  (1838-98).  An 
Anglo-American  piano  virtuoso  and  teacher,  born 
at  Cirencester,  in  England.  He  was  trained  by 
his  father  and  inider  Potter  and  Sterndale  Ben- 
nett, and  was  regarded  as  the  most  precocious 
child  musician  in  Great  Britain.  He  completed 
his  musical  education  under  Moseheles.  Plaidy, 
and  the  other  distinguished  teachers  of  the 
Leipzig  Conservatory,  After  leaving  Loij)zig  he 
studied  for  a  period  under  Liszt,  who  held  him 
in  higli  estimation.  He  returned  for  a  little' 
while  to  England,  where  he  held  the  appointment 
of  organist  at  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  at 
Shellicld  (1855).  Three  years  later  he  returned 
to  Germany,  and  played  at  a  Gewandhaus  con- 
cert (December  2,  1858).  The  following  year  he 
appeared  in  New  York  under  the  auspices  of  the 
riiilliarmonic  Society,  and  thereafter  made  his 
home  in  this  country.  He  was  very  successful  as 
a  teacher,  and  was  as  popular  in  Germany  as  in 
the  United  States  as  a  concert  pianist.  His 
compositions  are  few  and  comparatively  unim- 
portant.    He  died  at  Wiesbaden. 

MILLS  COLLEGE  AND  SEMINARY.  An 
educational  institution  for  young  women  at 
Seminary  Park.  Alameda  County,  Cal..  founded 
in  1871  as  Mills  Seminary  and  chartered  as  a 
college  in  1885.  It  comprises  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment leading  to  the  degree  of  A.B..  and  a  business 
dei)artment,  ofl'ering  courses  in  bookkeeping, 
stenography,  and  type-\vriting.  In  in02  the  stti- 
dents  numbered  200  and  the  instructors  35.  The 
endowment  of  the  college  is  $150,000,  and  the 
value  of  the  looperty  $400,000. 

MILL  SPRINGS,  Battle  of.  A  battle  fought 
at  Mill  Springs,  Ky..  about  10  miles  west  of 
Somerset,  on  January  19,  1862,  between  a  Federal 
force  of  about  4000  men  under  General  George  H. 
Thomas  and  an  approximately  equal  Coirfederate 
force  under  General  George  I?.  Crittenden.  The 
Confederates  attacked  with  great  energy,  Init  were 
finally  driven  in  some  confusion  froni  the  field. 
The  engagement  is  also  sometimes  called  the 
battle  of  Fishing  Creek,  and  the  battle  of  Logan's 
Cross  Roads.  On  the  battleground  a  national 
cemetery  was  subsequently  established,  where  718 
soldiers  lie  tniried.  352  knt)wn  and  ."iOG  unknown. 

MILLSTONE.  A  wheel  or  circular  mass  of 
rock  used  in  grinding  wheat  and  other  grains. 
For  good  millstones  the  rock  must  be  tough, 
hard,  and  possess  a  cellular  structure  so  as  to 
maintain  a  rough  grinding  stirface.  Several 
varieties  of  rocks  have  been  found  to  possess 
these  qualities  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and 


have  been  extensively  employed  for  millstones. 
In  the  United  States  the  rock  most  commonly 
used  is  a  coarse  granular  sandstone,  which  is 
obtained  in  Ulster  County,  N.  V.,  in  Lancaster 
County,  Pa.,  and  in  .Montgomery  County.  Va. 
The  celebrated  French  l)uhrstones  consist  of  a 
cellular  chert  occurring  in  the  Tertiary  of  the 
Paris  basin.  The  German  millstones  are  largely 
quarried  from  a  sheet  of  basaltic  lava  found  near 
Cologne.  The  foreign  stone  is  imported  into  the 
United  States  in  small  pieces  and  is  then  built 
up  into  wheels,  while  the  domestic  stone  is 
quarried  and  dressed  to  form  a  solid  wheel.  The 
introduction  of  the  loller  process  for  the  manti- 
facture  of  Hour  has  ctirtailed  the  use  of  mill- 
stones to  a  great  extent.  In  1901  the  production 
of  millstones  in  the  United  States  was  valued  at 
$57,179.    See  Abrasives. 

MILLSTONE  GRIT.  A  hard  siliceous  con- 
glomerate with  quartz  pebbles.  Its  geological 
position  is  at  the  base  of  the  middle  Carboni- 
ferotis  age.  The  beds  along  the  Appalachian 
range  in  Pennsylvania  are  very  coarse  and  are 
over  1200  feet  thick.  The  rock  here  is  a  light- 
colored  siliceous  conglomerate  known  as  the 
Pottsville  Conglomerate,  interstratified  with  some 
sandstone  and  thin  lieds  of  carbonaceous  shells. 
The  formation  is  represented  also  in  New  York 
and  as  far  south  as  Alabama.  See  Carboniferous 
System. 

MILL'VALE.  A  borough  in  Allegheny 
County,  Pa,,  on  the  Allegheny  River,  opposite 
Pitt.sburg,  and  on  tlie  Pennsylvania,  the  Pitts- 
burg and  Western,  and  the  Buffalo,  Rochester 
and  Pittsbtirg  railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania, 
B  3).  It  has  important  iron  manufactures, 
foundries,  saw  works,  stone  works,  lumber  mills, 
brew-eries.  etc.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
btirgess.  elected  every  three  years,  and  a  borough 
council.  The  water-works  and  electric  light  plant 
are  owned  bv  the  munieipalitv.  Population,  in 
1890,  3809:  in  1900,  0736, 

MILL'VILLE.  A  city  in  Cumberland 
County.  N.  J.,  40  miles  south  of  Philadelphia: 
on  the  JIattrice  River,  at  the  head  of  deep-water 
navigation,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
(Map:  New  Jersey,  B  5).  It  has  city  and  high- 
school  libraries,  and  a  fine  high-school  building, 
also  a  large  jniblic  park  at  Union  Lake,  a  beau- 
tiful sheet  of  water,  three  miles  long  and  one 
and  a  half  in  width,  in  the  noi-thern  part  of  the 
city.  Millville  is  essentially  a  manufacturing 
centre,  having  extensive  glass  fai^tories,  iron 
foundries,  cotton  mills,  and  bleach  and  dye  works. 
Under  a  revised  charter  of  1873,  the  government 
is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  every  three  years, 
and  a  common  council,  the  thirteen  members  of 
which  are  all,  except  one,  elected  by  wards. 
Millville  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1801 
and  was  chartered  as  a  citv  in  18C6.  Population, 
in  1890.  10,002;   in  litOO,   10,.583, 

MIL'MAN,  Henry  Hart  (1791-1868),  An 
English  poet  and  ecclesiastical  historian.  He 
was  the  youngest  son  of  Sir  F^rancis  ililman. 
physician  to  George  III.,  and  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, Fel)ruary  10,  1791.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  afterwards  at  Brasenose  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  obtained  the  Newdigate  Prize  with 
an  English  poem  on  the  Apollo  Belvidere  in 
1812  and  graduated  B,A.  in  1814.  He  published 
Fazio,  n  Tnir/edy,  which  was  successfully  brought 
upon  the  stage  at  Covent  Garden  in  1815;  took 


MILMAN. 


520 


MILNE-EDWARDS. 


orders  in  1817,  and  in  1818  was  appointed  Vicar 
of  Saint  Mary's,  Kcadinj;.  In  181S  appeared  liis 
Satiiljr,  Lord  of  the  liriyht  City,  an  llcioic  I'ocm, 
which  was  followed  in  1820  hy  the  lull  of  Jeru- 
salem, a  dramatic  poem  with  some  fine  sacred 
Ij'rics  interspersed.  In  1821  ililman  was  chosen 
professor  of  poetrj-  at  Oxford,  and  held  the 
position  for  ten  years.  He  published  three  other 
dramatic  poems,  I'he  Martyr  of  Aniioch  and 
Belshazzar,  both  in  1822,  and  Anne  lioleyn.  in 
1826.  His  Bampton  Lectures  on  The  Chariicler 
and  Conduet  of  the  Apostles  Considered  as  an 
Evidence  of  Christianity  appeared  in  1827,  and 
his  History  of  the  Jews  (3  vols.)  in  18;iO.  The 
last  of  these  works  did  not  bear  the  author's 
name.  Its  weak  point  was  a  want  of  adequate 
learning,  especially  in  the  department  of  biblical 
criticism.  A  new  edition,  greatly  improved  and 
more  critical,  was  pulilished  in  18G3,  and  another, 
with  further  improvements,  in  1807.  He  became 
a  canon  of  Westminster  and  rector  of  Saint  Mar- 
garet's, Westminster.  London,  in  18;i;),  and  the 
same  year  he  published  certain  translations  of 
Sanskrit  poetry.  In  1840  appeared  a  collected 
edition  of  his  Poetical  Works,  containing  some 
other  pieces  besides  those  already  mentioned. 
The  same  year  witnessed  the  publication  of  his 
History  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth  of  Christ 
to  the  Abolition  of  Payanism  in  the  Roman  Em- 
pire (3  vols.).  In  184!)  he  was  made  Dean  of 
Saint  Paul's,  and  discharged  the  duties  of  the 
office  in  such  a  manner  as  to  win  tlie  title  of 
'the  Great  Dean.'  In  I8.'54-.')6  he  published  his 
masterpiece.  History  of  Latin  Christianity,  In- 
cluding that  of  the  Popes  to  the  Pontificate  of 
Nicholas  V.  (6  vols.).  Milman  edited  Gibbon 
(1838)  and  an  edition  of  Horace  (1849),  and 
pu1)lished  translations  of  the  Agamemnon  and 
liaeehw  (1865).  He  contributed  extensively  to 
the  Quarterly  Reriew.  He  died  in  Sunninghill, 
near  Ascot,  September  24.  I8G8.  A  posthumous 
work  contains  his  Annals  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral (1868),  and  another  Essays  on  Saint  Paul, 
Savonarola,  Erasmus,  cte.  (1870).  His  historical 
works  were  republished  in  15  volumes  (1866- 
67).  Consult  his  hiogi-aphv  by  A.  Milman  (Lon- 
don, inoo). 

MIL'MORE,  Martin  (1844-83).  An  Ameri- 
can -iiilpnir.  He  was  Imrn  at  Sligo,  Ireland, 
September  14,  1844,  and  in  1851  was  takea  to 
Boston.  His  first  instruction  was  in  wood-carv- 
ing, but  in  1860  he  began  his  studies  in  sculpture 
with  Thomas  Ball  in  Boston.  His  first  work  to 
receive  notice  was  his  ide.al  altorelicf  "Phos- 
phor" (1863).  In  the  same  year  he  executed 
the  statuette'  "Devotion,"  and  also  an  ideal  child 
statue  and  cabinet  busts  of  Longfellow  and 
Charles  Sumner.  In  1864  he  was  commissioned 
to  execute  statues  of  Ceres,  Flora,  and  Pomona 
for  the  Boston  Horticultural  Hall.  One  of  his 
most  effective  pieces  is  his  soldiers'  monuinent 
for  Forest  Hills  CenieteTy.  Hoxbury  (1867), 
which  ranks  high  among  .American  works  of  art 
for  its  conception  and  execution.  The  Soldiers' 
and  Sailors'  Monument  on  Boston  (\)mmon.  un- 
veiled in  1877.  is  his  greatest  and  most  elaborate 
work.  While  preparing  designs  for  this  work 
he  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  made  busts  of 
Popf  Pius  IX.,  Wendell  Phillips,  and  Baljjh 
Waldo  Kmerson.  He  died  in  Boston  Highlands, 
Mass..  .Inly  21.  188.'!.  .\nionc  other  works  are 
his  life-size  bust  of  CHiarles  Sumner.  Metropoli- 
tan Museum,  Xew  York  City;  a  statue  of  General 


Thayer,  West  Point,  X.  Y. ;  busts  of  General 
Grant,  Lincoln,  Daniel  Webster,  and  others;  war 
moiuimeuts  at  Keene,  X.  H..  Erie,  Pa.,  end 
Charlestown  and  Fitchburg,  Mass.  With  his 
brotlier  he  executed  the  great  granite  Sphinx  in 
Mnuiit    Auburn   Cemetery,   Cambridge,   Mass. 

MILNE,  miln,  John  (1850—).  An  English 
mining  engineer  and  geologist,  born  in  Liverpool. 
He  was  educated  at  King's  t'ollege  and  tlie  Koyal 
.School  of  Mines  in  London,  and  subsequently 
went  to  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  where  he 
worked  as  a  mining  engineer.  Later  he  was  the 
geologist  of  Dr.  Beke's  expedition  into  North- 
western Arabia,  and  was  then  for  twenty  years 
in  the  service  of  the  .Japanese  (iovernnicnt. 
During  those  years  he  established  the  Seismic 
Survey  of  .Japan,  which  comprises  968  stations. 
In  the  course  of  his  investigations  he  traveled 
over  a  great  part  of  the  world,  visiting  the 
United  States,  Russia,  Siberia.  Mongolia.  Korea, 
China,  the  Kuriles,  the  Philippines,  Borneo,  and 
.Vustralasia,  and  finally  devoted  himself  to  the 
establishment  of  a  seismic  survey  of  the  world. 
He  invented  seismographs  and  instruments  to 
record  vibrations  on  railways,  and  published 
important  works  on  seismology  and  geology, 
including  Earthquakes  (  1883)  ;  Seismology 
(1888);  The  Miner's  Handbook  (1894):  and 
Crystallography. 

MILNE  -  EDWARDS,  miln  -  ed'wards,  /V. 
pron.  mel'ni'i'dwUr',  .Xi.riioNSK  (1835-1900).  A 
French  zoiilogist,  son  of  Henri  Milne-Edwards, 
born  in  Paris.  After  holding  the  position  of 
professor  of  zoology,  he  svicceeded  his  father  as 
director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  His 
work  on  fossil  Crustacea  appeared  in  1865:  an 
extensive  and  valuable  treatise  on  the  fossil  l)irds 
of  France  was  published  in  1802-72.  He  also 
described  the  extinct  birds  of  tlie  Mascarene 
Islands  and  of  Madagascar.  He  worked  Iimg 
and  patiently  on  the  Crustacea,  publishing  el::lp  i- 
rate  reports  on  the  deep-sea  forms,  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  E.  L.  Bouvier.  His  work  on  the 
anatomy  of  Limulus  polyphrmus  ( 1872)  was  per- 
haps his  most  important  contribution  to  science. 
He  also  promoted  dee])-sea  explorations  and 
studied  the  gcograpliical  distribution  of  birds. 

MILNE-EDWARDS,  Henri  (1800-85).  ,\ 
i'ri'n 'h  naturalist.  b<un  at  Bruges.  October  23. 
1800:  his  father  was  an  Englishman.  He  studied 
medicine  in  Paris,  Init  after  taking  his  degree  in 
1823  he  abandoneil  medicine  for  natural  historv-. 
He  was  first  appointed  professor  of  natural 
history  at  the  Lycee  Henri  IV.  He  was  ap 
pointed  in  1841  to  the  chair  of  entomology  at  tlic 
.lardin  des  Plantes.  and  afterwards  was  professor 
of  zoillogy  and  physiology  in  the  Faculty  of  the 
Sciences.  He  was  author  of  Histoire  nal\irrU<- 
des  eruslact's  (1834-41):  IJlcments  de  zooloii" 
(1834-37):  Obserrntions  sur  les  ascidies  rom- 
pnsfies  (1841)  ;  Lemons  sur  la  physiologic  et  I'ana- 
toinic  comparfc  dr  I'homme  el  des  nnimaux 
(1857-83).  He  also  revised  Jind  completed  the 
.second  edition  of  Lamarck's  Histoire  nalurrlle 
des  aninuiu.r  suns  rertf^hres  (1836-45).  He  finally 
became  the  dean  of  the  Faculty  of  the  Mnscum 
at  the  .Tardin  des  Plantes.  Milne-Edwards  pro- 
duced ehiborate  and  carefully  illustrated  works 
on  the  anatomy  of  worms,  crustaceans,  and 
timicates.  In  his  great  work  on  corals  he  was 
assisted  by  Haiine.  He  will  be  rememliered  for 
establishing    the    doctrine    of    the    physiological 


MILNE-EDWARDS. 


521 


MILO. 


division  of  labor.    His  goiieral  work  on  Crustacea 
is  still  a  valuable  and  standard  work. 

MILTJEB,  Sir  Alfred  ( 1854—) .  An  English 
colonial  Cuvernor,  born  at  Bonn,  Germany.  IIo 
studied  at  King's  College,  London,  and  at  lialliol 
College,  ().\ford,  where  he  graduated  with  a  lirst 
cla.ss  in  classics.  For  a  short  time  he  was  fellow 
of  New  College,  Oxford,  then  studied  law,  and 
from  1882  to  1885  devoted  himself  to  journalism. 
His  service  as  private  secretary  to  G.  J.  (after- 
wards Lord)  Gosehen,  Chancellor  of  the  Exehe(|- 
uer(  1887-89) ,  began  his  public  career.  He  (iroved 
an  able  Under-Secretary  for  Finance  in  Egypt 
(1889-92),  and  wrote  Eiujliind  in  lUlUpt  (1892). 
After  five  years  as  chairman  of  tlic  Inland  Rev- 
enue Board.  Milner  was  appointed  High  Conunis- 
sioner  of  South  Africa  and  (Jovernor  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  He  held  the  former  post  through 
the  difficult  period  preceding  the  second  Boer 
War,  as  well  as  afterwards;  was  made  a  K.C.B. 
in  1895,  and  created  a  baron  in  1901  and  a  vis- 
count in  1902.  and  in  1901  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  River  Colonies. 

MILNER,  John  (1752-1826).  An  English 
Roman  Catholic  scholar.  He  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, Otober  14,  1752;  was  ordained  priest  in 
1777:  settled  at  Winchester  in  1779,  and  became 
titular  Bishop  of  Castabala  in  1803.  In  1804  he 
moved  to  Wolverhampton  and  entered  into  the 
agitation  which  finally  led  to  the  removal  of 
the  right  of  veto  on  appointment  of  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  as  part  of  Peel's  Catholic  Relief 
Act  passed  in  1829.  His  firmness  and  courage 
in  the  controversy  won  him  the  sobriquet  'Tlie 
English  Athanasius.'  He  died  at  Wolverhamp- 
ton, April  19,  1820.  His  permanent  fame  rests 
upon  his  Antiquities  of  Winchester  (2  vols., 
1798-1801 ;  3d  ed.  with  memoir  by  Husenbeth, 
1839)  ;  Treatise  oh  the  Ecclesiastical  Architec- 
ture of  England  Duriny  the  Middle  Af/cs  (1811; 
3  ed.  1835)  ;  The  End  of  Religious  Controversy 
(1818).  Consult  his  Life  bv  Husenbeth  (Dublin, 
1802). 

MILNER,  ,JoHx  (1752-1826).  An  English 
ecclesiastical  historian.  He  was  born  at  Leeds, 
in  Yorkshire.  He  studied  at  Catharine  Hall, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in 
1766,  and  afterwards  became  head-master  of  the 
grammar  school  at  Hull.  In  1768  he  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  at  Holy  Trinity  or  High  Church, 
Hull,  and  later  became  also  vicar  at  North  Fer- 
rihy.  near  Hull.  He  belonged  to  the  Evangelical 
School  and  was  not  popular  with  certain  of  his 
parishioners.  Milner's  principal  w-ork  is  his  His- 
tory  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  of  which  he  lived 
to  complete  three  volumes,  reaching  to  the  thir- 
teenth century  (1794-97)  ;  vols.  iv.  and  v.  (1803- 
09)  were  edited  from  his  MSS.  by  his  brother, 
Dr.  Isaac  ^lilner.  dean  of  Carlisle,  who  also  pub- 
lished a  complete  edition  of  his  brother's  works 
in  eight  volumes  ( ISIO) .  The  principles  on  which 
the  History  of  the  Church  of  Christ  is  written 
are  of  the  narrowest  kind  of  Evangelicalism;  the 
scholarship  is  poor,  the  literary  merit  still 
poorer,  and  the  critical  insight  poorest  of  all. 
A  greatly  improved  edition  by  Grantham  ap- 
peared in  1847.  A  life  of  Milner  by  his  brother 
Isaac  is  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  of  Milner's 
Practical  Sermons  (3d  ed.,  London,  1804-23,  3 
vols. ). 

MILNER-GIBSON,    TnoiiA.s.      See    Gibson, 

TUOMA.S  JI11.NER-. 


MILNES,  miln'z.  Ricn.vRn  Moxcktox,  Barorr 
Houghton  (1809-85).  An  Knglisli  poet  and  poli- 
tician, .son  of  Robert  I\>nd)crton  ^lilnes,  of  Frys- 
ton  Hall,  near  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  born  in 
]>ondon,  June  19,  1809.  He  was  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  a  member 
of  the  famous  society  called  the  'Apostles,'  which 
included  Hallam  and  Tennyson.  Soon  after  re- 
ceiving the  degree  of  JI.A.  (1831)  he  traveled 
in  Germany  and  Italy  and  visited  Greece.  He 
returned  to  London  in  1835.  In  1837  he  entered 
Parliament  for  Pontefract,  which  he  continued 
to  represent  till  1863.  when  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Houghton.  In  politics  he 
was  at  first  a  Conservative,  but  on  Peel's  con- 
\'ersion  to  free  trade  he  became  an  Independent 
Liberal.  He  was  an  advocate  of  public  education 
and  religious  equality;  labored  for  copyright 
laws  and  the  establishment  of  reformatories  for 
juvenile  oflfenders;  and  took  a  decided  stand  on 
the  side  of  Itah'  against  Austria.  A  friend  of 
literaiy  men,  he  secured  a  pension  for  Tennyson, 
helped  Hood,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognize 
the  merits  of  Swinburne.  Throughout  life  he 
was  an  extensive  traveler.  In  1842-43  he  visited 
the  East,  and  in  1875  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  He  died  at  Vichy,  August  II,  1885. 
Among  Lord  Houghton's  works  are;  Memorials 
of  a  Tour  in  Some  Parts  of  Greece,  Chiefly 
Poetical  (1834)  ;  Poems  of  Many  Years  (1838)  ; 
Poems  Legendary  and  Historical  (1844);  and 
Palm  Leaves  (1844).  He  contributed  to  the 
magazines,  published  several  speeches  and  pam- 
phlets, and  edited  The  Life,  Letters,  and  Literary 
Remains  of  Keats  (1848).  Consult  his  interest- 
ing Monographs,  Personal  and  Social  (London, 
1873)  ;  Collected  Poetical  Works  (ib..  1870)  ;  the 
character  of  Vavasour  in  Disraeli's  Tancrcd :  and 
Reid,  Life,  Letters,  and  Friendship  of  11.  M. 
Milnes  (London.  1890). 

MI'LO.      An    island    in    the    Cyelades.      See 

ilELOS. 

MILO  (Lat..  from  Gk.  m\iov,  Milon)  of  Cro- 
ton.  in  -Magna  Graecia.  A  Greek  athlete  famous 
for  his  great  strength,  who  lived,  according  to 
Herodotus,  about  B.C.  520.  He  won  tiie  prize  as 
wrestler  in  six  Olympian,  seven  Pythian,  ten 
Isthmian,  and  nine  Nemean  games.  Among  other 
displays  of  his  strength,  he  is  said  to  have  on 
one  occasion  carried  a  live  ox  upon  his  shoulders 
through  the  stadium  of  Olympia.  and  afterwards 
to  have  eaten  the  whole  of  it  in  one  day;  and  on 
another  to  have  u|)held  the  pillars  of  a  house 
in  which  Pythagoras  and  his  scholars  were  as- 
sembled, so  as  to  give  them  time  to  make  their 
escape  when  the  house  was  falling.  He  lost  his 
life  through  too  great  confidence  in  his  own 
strength,  when  he  was  getting  old,  in  attempting 
to  split  up  a  tree,  which  closed  upon  liis  hands, 
and  held  him  fast  until  he  was  devoured  by 
wtdves. 

MILO,  Titus  Annii's  Papiants  (b.c.  95-48). 
A  Roman  politician.  He  was  born  at  Lanuvium. 
and  belonged  to  a  distinguished  family.  Few  de- 
tails of  his  life  are  known  till  his  election  as 
tribune  of  the  people  in  n.c.  57.  He  was  then  a 
partisan  of  Pompey.and  attempted  to  bring  about 
the  recall  of  Cicero  from  exile.  This  measure  was 
bitterly  opposed  by  Clodius.  who.  as  tribune  of 
the  people,  had  been  instrumental  in  passing  the 
law  condcnming  Cicero  to  exile.  Milo  attempted 
to  have  Clodius  condemned  as  a  violator  of  the 


MILO. 


522 


MILTIADES. 


piiblic  poaoe,  but  the  proceedings  were  quashed. 
Both  ililo  and  Clodius  now  liircd  a  body-guard  of 
gladialors.  and  armed  collisions  between  their 
retainers  Ijeeanie  almost  every-day  oeeiirrences. 
About  this  time  Jlilo  married  Sulla's  daughter, 
Fausta,  for  her  fortune.  In  T)!!  Clodius  was  elected 
eurule  a'dile.  and  accused  ililo  of  lieing  a  violator 
of  the  public  peace  by  keeping  a  force  of  armed 
retainers.  Pompey  conducted  the  defense  of  Milo, 
but  no  decision  was  ever  reached.  In  53  Milo 
offered  liimself  as  a  candidate  for  the  consulship. 
Clodius  opposicd  the  candidature  of  Milo,  who 
was  defended  in  the  Senate  by  Cicero  in  a  speech 
of  which  some  fragments  are  still  extant.  On 
January  20th  of  the  next  year  Milo  was  on  his 
way  to  Lanuvium  from  Rome,  accompanied  bj' 
his  band  of  gladiators.  Clodius.  also  with  an 
armed  eomjiany,  met  him  near  liovillw.  Milo  and 
Clodius  passed  each  other  without  trouble;  but 
some  of  Milo's  followers  picked  a  quarrel  with 
the  slaves  of  Clodivis.  who  attempted  to  interpose, 
and  was  stabbed  in  the  shoulder  by  one  of  Jlilo's 
men.  Clodius  was  taken  to  a  tavern  in  Bovilhr, 
but  was  dragged  out  by  the  slaves  of  Jlilo  and 
put  to  death.  The  eiu'pse  of  Clodius  was  placed 
on  the  rostra  of  the  Korum  in  Home  and  a  mob 
set  lire  to  the  Senate  house.  These  acts  of 
popular  violence  created  a  reaction  in  favor  of 
jlilo,  who  ventured  to  return  to  Rome.  Jlilo  was 
tried  for  the  nuirder  of  Clodius.  and  though 
defended  by  Cicero,  he  was  condemned  to  exile, 
and  wont  to  Marseilles.  In  bis  absence  he  was 
tried  and  condemned  on  charges  of  violence,  of 
bribery,  and  conspiracy.  In  48  he  went  back  to 
Italy,  witlumt  permission,  to  Join  Jlareus  Ca>lius, 
an  expelled  Senator,  who  was  attempting  to  ex- 
cite a  rebellion  in  South  Italy,  and  he  was  killed 
before  a  fort  near  Thurii.   See  Cl.ODiis  Pulcuer. 

MILORADOVITCH,  mf'16-r:i'd6-vlch,  Mik- 
hail. Cciunt  (177(MS2.i).  A  Russian  general, 
born  in  Saint  Petersburg.  After  active  service 
in  the  war  with  Turkey  and  in  that  with  Poland, 
he  <lislinguishcd  himself  iindcr  Suvaroff  in  the 
campaign  of  the  Austro- Russian  army  against 
the  French  in  Italy  (1709)  and  made  the  famous 
passage  of  the  Alps  by  way  of  the  Saint  Gothard 
Pass  into  Switzerland.  In  180r>  he  was  a  division 
commander  at  Austerlilz,  and  in  1812  he  fought 
at  Roroilino.  In  ISl.'i  he  ])layed  a  prominent  part 
at  Liitzen.  He  was  made  Governor  of  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1819,  but  six  years  afterwards,  as 
he  strove  to  quell  the  Decembrist  rising,  he  was 
shot  dead. 

TiULOSH,  ine'lflsh.  OnRENOViTCli  (1780-1860). 
.V  Prince  of  Servia,  born  in  Dobrinia.  He  was 
the  S(m  of  a  peasant,  and  spent  his  youth  and 
early  manhood  as  a  swineherd  in  the  service  of 
his  rich  half-brother,  who  was  a  leader  in  the 
revolt  of  1804.  Milosh  was  his  lieutenant  and 
his  successor,  took  his  half-brother's  patronymic 
in  place  of  his  own,  Todoroviteli.  and  became  a 
leader  in  (he  opposition  against  Karageorge. 
After  the  latter  fled  into  .\ustria.  Milosh  stood 
his  grotind  against  the  Turks  for  a  time,  then 
surrendered,  and  was  made  commandant  or 
'knez'  of  Rndnik.  In  1815.  what  with  brave 
fighting  and  clever  diplomacy,  he  practically 
made  Servia  independent.  Two  years  afterwards 
he  was  named  hereditary  and  supreme  Prince  of 
Sorvia.  a  title  conferred  in  1822  by  the  National 
Assembly,  and  by  the  Porte  in  IS.IO.  Several  re- 
volts came  to  nothing,  but  in  18.'?9  he  was  forced 


to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son,  Milan.  In  1858 
he  was  recalled  to  power  by  the  National  Assem- 
bly. He  was  a  man  of  no  education,  but,  ener- 
getic, headstrong,  and  rather  cruel  as  he  was,  he 
deserved  the  title  of  "Father  of  His  Country,'  as 
he  gave  Servia  a  place  in  European  politics. 

MTLREIS,  mil-res'  or  MILBEA,  mU-r6' 
(Port.,  from  mil,  thousand  +  rein.  pi.  of  real, 
tuiall  coin).  A  Portuguese  silver  coin  and 
money  of  account,  containing  1000  reis.  It  is 
valued  at  $1,075  American.  The  coin  is  common- 
ly known  in  Portugal  as  the  coruii,  or  'crown,' 
and  since  April  24,  1835,  has  been  the  unit  of  the 
money  system  in  that  country.  It  is  used  in 
Brazil,  where  it  is  worth  about  55  United  States 
cents.  The  half-eoroa,  or  balf-niilrci.  of  500  reis, 
is  also  usi'd  in  both  countries. 

MIL 'ROY,  RonERT  HrsTox  (1810-90).  An 
American  soldier,  born  in  Washington  County, 
Ind.  lie  graduated  at  N(U-wieh  University, 
Xorthfield,  Vt..  in  1843,  and  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can War  as  captain  of  Indiana  volunteers.  While 
studying  law  he  served  as  a  menilier  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention  in  1S49-.50.  and  in 
1851  was  made  judge  of  the  Eighth  .Tudieial  Dis- 
trict of  Indiana.  M,  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  made  captain,  eohmel,  and  finally 
brigadier-general  in  18C1.  In  1802  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  a  major-general  after  his  service  in 
West  Virginia.  At  Winchester.  Va..  he  opposed 
for  three  days  a  large  ])art  of  Lee's  army,  then  en 
route  for  the  invasion  of  Pennsylvania,  and  lost 
heavily.  Though  be  claimed  that  this  detention  of 
Lee  was  of  great  advantage  to  (general  Meade,  en- 
abling him  to  light  at  Gettysburg  instead  of 
farther  north,  an  investigation  was  ordered  into 
his  conduct.  The  charges,  however,  were  dis- 
missed. His  conuuands  afterwards  were  less  im- 
portant, but  wliile  in  charge  of  the  defenses  of 
the  Xasliville  and  Chattanooga  Railroiid  his  eon- 
duct  was  again  investigated,  and  he  resigned 
from  the  army.  In  IStiS  he  was  trustee  of  the 
\\'abash  and  Erie  Canal,  was  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs  in  Washingtim  Territory  from  1868 
to  1874.  and  was  Indian  agent  from  1875  to  1885. 

MILTI'ADES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mi\th£S7,s). 
.\  famous  Athenian  general,  son  of  Cimon.  He 
became  "tyrant'  of  the  Chersonesns  after  his 
brother  Stesagoras.  and  accompanied  Darivis 
Hystaspis  in  his  expedition  against  the  .Scyth- 
ians, about  n.f.  508.  He  was  one  of  those  who 
were  left  by  Darius  in  charge  of  tlie  bridge 
over  the  Daniibe,  and,  when  Darius  failed  to 
appear  at  the  exi)ected  time,  he  advised  that  the 
bridge  be  destroyed  and  Darius  left  to  his  fate. 
.\fterwards  he  took  Lemnos  from  (he  Persians, 
but,  when  the  Persian  lleet  came  near  the  Cher- 
sonesns, fled  to  Athens.  Being  chosen  one  of 
the  ten  generals  of  the  year  B.C.  490,  he  defeated 
the  Persians  in  that  year  in  the  great  battle  nf 
]\[ara(bon.  La(er  he  was  intrusted  with  a  (leet 
of  seventy  ships  by  the  .Athenians,  with  which 
he  proceeded  against  Paros  for  the  pnr|i(ise  of 
avenging  a  private  giiulge.  The  expedition  hav- 
ing failed,  he  was.  on  his  return  to  .\thens.  con- 
denuied  (o  pay  a  fine  of  fifty  talents.  Being  un- 
able (o  do  this,  he  was  (brown  into  prison,  where 
he  died  of  an  injury  received  at  Paros. 

MILTIADES,  less  correctly  called  Mei- 
cuiATiKS.  Pupe  311-314.  He  was  born  in  .\fricn, 
and  his  pontificate  covers  the  eventful  period  of 
Constantine's   conversion.      Under   him   a   synod 


MILTIADES. 


523 


MILTON. 


■was  held  in  Rome  in  313,  and  a  decision  was 
rendered  against  tlie  Donatists  (q.v. ). 

MIL'TITZ,  Karl  vox  (c.14<10-152'J)  .  A  Uer- 
nian  eiclesiastic  of  the  Roman  t^atholic  Cliurch, 
the  son  of  a.  Saxon  noble.  He  was  canon  ut 
JUainz,  Treves,  and  Meissen  before  he  became 
Papal  notary  in  1515.  Three  years  afterwards  he 
was  sent  by  Pope  Leo  X.  to  Saxony  on  the  mis- 
sion to  confer  with  Martin  Luther  and  his  protec- 
tor, the  Elector  Frederick  the  Wise,  in  the  matter 
of  indulgences.  An  able  and  politic  advocate  for  a 
compromise,  Jliltitz  so  far  succeeded  that  Luther 
promised  future  submission,  if  not  recantation; 
but  though  later  meetings  took  place  between  the 
two  at  Altenburg.  Liebenwerda,  and  Lichtenbcrg, 
tlie  hope  of  reconciliation  was  definitely  aban- 
doned on  the  arrival  of  a  denunciatory  Papal 
bull.  Miltitz  was  charged  also  with  an  investiga- 
tion into  the  conduct  of  Tetzel,  whom  he  con- 
demned absolutely.  According  to  some  authori- 
ties, the  delegate  was  accidentally  drowned  while 
on  his  way  to  Rome. 

MIL'TON.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Santa  Rosa  County,  Fla.,  20  miles  northeast  of 
Pensacola  :  at  the  head  of  Blackwater  l!ay.  and 
on  the  Louisville  and  Xashville  Railroad  (Map: 
Florida,  A  1 ) .  It  is  in  the  lumbering  section  of 
the  .'-itate.  and  has  ship-building  interests  and  a 
flourishing  trade.  There  is  a  public  library 
(Santa  Ros.a  Academy)  with  .5000  volumes. 
Population,  in  1890,  14.55;  in  1900,  1204. 

MILTON.  A  town,  including  the  villages  of 
Blue  Hill,  Fast  Jlilton,  Lower  Mills,  and  Mat- 
tapan,  in  Norfolk  County,  Mass.,  seven  miles 
soutli  of  Boston:  on  the  Neponset  River  and  on 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Rail- 
road (Map:  Massachusetts,  E  3).  It  is  an 
attractive  residential  suburb  of  Boston.  :ind  h.as 
a  public  library.  Milton  Academy.  Leopold  Morse 
Home,  and  tlie  ililton  Convalescent  Home.  Tlie 
crest  of  the  highest  hill  of  the  Blue  Hills  is  the 
site  of  an  observatory  and  a  station  of  the  United 
Stales  Meteorological  Bureau.  A  fine  view  is 
afforded.  The  town  has  a  trade  in  garden  stuff 
and  ice,  and  there  are  granite  quarries,  paper 
mills,  chocolate  and  cracker  factories,  rubber 
cement  works,  etc.  The  government  is  admin- 
istered bv  town  meetings.  Population,  in  1890. 
4278;  in  1900.  G578.  Settled  in  1037.  Milton  was 
a  part  of  Dorchester  until,  in  1GG2,  it  was  incor- 
porated as  a  separate  township.  It  was  the  home 
for  many  years  of  .Jonathan  Belcher,  a  coloni.al 
Governor  of  both  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey, 
and  of  Tliomas  Hutchinson,  the  historian  and 
colonial  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  Consult 
Tcele  (editor).  History  of  lliltoti,  3lass.  (Milton, 
18S7). 

MILTON.  A  borough  in  Norlhiimberland 
County.  Pa..  07  miles  north  of  Harrisburg:  on 
the  Susciuehanna  River,  on  the  Pennsylvania 
Canal,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Phila- 
delphia and  Reading  railroads  (Jlap:  Pennsyl- 
vania. E  2).  Its  extensive  manufacturing  plants 
include  car  and  wood-working  machinery  works; 
rolling,  flour,  knitting,  planing,  and  saw  mills; 
washer,  nut,  and  bolt  works:  and  liamboo  furni- 
ture, nail,  fly  net.  and  paper  box  factories.  The 
borough  has  a  public  park  with  picturesque 
scenery:  and  a  fine  bridge  spans  the  Susquehanna 
at  tills  point.  Settled  in  1770.  Milton  was  incor- 
porated first  in  1817.  It  is  governed,  under  a 
revised  charter  of  1890,  by  a  chief  burgess, 
Vol.  XIII.— 34. 


elected  every  three  veais,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil.    Population,  in  1890,  5317;  in  1900.  0175. 

MILTON,  .loii.N-  (1008-74).  An  English  poet. 
He  was  born  in  Bre<id  Street,  London,  December 
9,  1008.  His  father,  also  named  John  Milton,  be- 
longed to  a  Roman  Catholic  family  of  yeomen  liv- 
ing in  O.xfordshire.  Th<^  elder  John  Milton  was 
converted  to  Protestantism  while  a  student  at  Ox- 
ford, and  as  a  result  was  promptly  disinherited 
by  his  father,  Richard  ililton.  The  poet's  father 
settled  in  London,  where  be  prospered  as  a  scrive- 
ner. The  younger  .John  Milton  received  instruc- 
tion from  his  fatlicr  in  music;  was  taught  by  ^ 
a  private  tutor;  and  was  sent  to  Saint  Paul's 
School  (about  1G20),  whore  he  learned  Latin, 
Greek,  French,  Italian,  and  some  Hebrew,  and 
read  English  literature.  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene 
and  Sylvester's  translation  of  Du  Bartas,  which 
came  into  his  hands  at  this  time,  exerted  much 
infiuence  on  the  formation  of  his  style.  In  Feb- 
ruary. 1G25,  he  proceeded  to  Christ's  College, 
Camliridge.  He  was  of  less  than  the  middle 
height,  yet  well  made,  with  light  brown  or 
auburn  hair.  In  bearing  he  was  courteous  and 
stately,  though  sometimes  sarcastic.  Owing  to 
a  misunderstanding  with  his  first  tutor,  he  was 
rusticated  for  a  short  time  in  1G26,  but  he  re- 
turned and  completed  the  course,  gradtrntinu  B..\. 
in  1629  and  M.A.  in  1032.  From  childhood 
Milton  had  been  destined  for  the  Church,  but 
the  policy  of  Laud  led  him  first  to  postpone 
taking  orders  and  then  to_  abandon  all  thought 
of  it.  He  retired  to  his  father's  estate  at  Hor- 
ton,  Buckinghamshire,  wdiere  he  passed  nearly 
six  years  (1632-38)  in  reading  the  classics  and 
writing  at  intervals  his  choicest  poems.  Believ- 
ing that  he  had  it  in  him  to  write  sometliing 
that  would  live,  he  set  out  for  Italy  in  April, 
IG38,  wishing  to  fit  himself  still  more  for  his 
future  work.  Probably  at  Bologna,  which  he 
visited  in  1639,  ililton  wrote  in  excellent  Italian 
five  sonnets  and  a  canzone  wherein  he  expresses 
love  for  a  beautiful  lady  of  Bologna.  For  some 
time  he  stayed  in  Florence,  where  he  visited  in 
prison  the  blind  Cialileo.  Thence  he  went  on  to 
Rome  and  Naples.  As  he  was  about  to  pass 
over  to  Sicily  and  from  there  to  Greece,  news 
reached  him  of  'the  civil  commotions  in  England.' 
He  turned  homeward,  reaching  England  toward 
the  end  of  July,  1G39.  He  took  a  house  in 
Aldersgate  Street.  London,  where  he  received  as 
pupils  two  nephews,  children  of  an  elder  sister, 
and  occupied  his  leisure  with  plans  for  future 
poems.  From  these  pursuits  he  was  drawn  into 
ecclesiastical  controversies,  writing  pamphlet 
after  pamphlet.  In  .June.  1643,  he  married,  after 
a  brief  courtship.  Mary  Powell,  then  only  seven- 
teen years  old,  the  daughter  of  an  Oxfordshire 
squire  and  Royalist.  After  a  month  the  bride 
returned  to  her  father's  house.  In  the  summer 
of  1G45  they  were  reconciled,  and  he  moved  to 
the  Barbican,  a  more  commodious  house  for  the 
increasing  number  of  his  pupils.  She  died  in 
1652.  after  bearins  four  children,  of  whom  the 
one  son  died  in  infancv.  .V  fortnight  after  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.(.Tanuary  .30.  1049).  Alil- 
ton  issued  a  memorable  defense  of  the  deed,  and 
this  led  to  other  pamphlets  which  gave  him 
European  fame  as  controversialist.  On  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Commonwealth  Jlilton  was 
appointed  Latin  secretary  to  the  Council  of  State 
(March  15.  1649).  For'this  office,  involving  the 
duty  of  turning  into  Latin  all  foreign  dispatches, 


MILTON. 


524 


MILTON. 


he  was  eiiunenlly  fittiil.  In  IG^fl  lie  lost  liia 
eyesi^'ht,  alieaily  loiij;  iiii])aiied.  but  with  the  aid 
of  assistants — one  of  wlioni  was  Andrew  Maivell 
— he  ])erfoiined  the  duties  of  his  post  till  the 
abdication  of  Richard  Cromwell  (1G59).  In  the 
meantime  (Xovcmher,  Hi'id)  he  had  married  a 
Catharine  Woodcock,  who  died  in  t'ebruary.  1658. 
She  was  honored  by  one  of  Milton's  most  beauti- 
ful sonnets  (xxiii.).  The  Restoration  put  an 
end  to  his  active  career.  In  lOtil  he  settled  in 
Jewin  Street,  Aldersgate,  fr<mi  which  he  removed 
two  years  later  to  a  house  in  Artillery  Walk, 
Bunhill  Fields,  his  last  residence.  Here  he  ful- 
filled the  literary  task  he  had  long  ago  planned 
and  since  begun.  To  the  annoyance  of  his  daugh- 
ters, he  married  a  third  wife,  thirty  years  his 
junior,  named  Elizabeth  Minshull.  His  relations 
with  these  daughters  were  most  unhappy. 
Brought  up  in  ignorance,  they  revolted  from  the 
service  that  lie  demanded  of  them — reading  to 
him  l.atin.  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  which  of  cour.se 
they  could  not  understand.  Toward  the  end  Mil- 
ton stood  aloof  frcmi  religious  sects  and  never 
went  to  religious  services.  He  died  November  8, 
1674,  and  was  buried  in  Saint  Giles's,  Cripple- 
gate. 

Milton's  literary  career  is  clearly  divided  by 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  and  by  the  Res- 
toration into  three  periods:  (1)  162t)-40;  (2) 
1040-00;    (.•!)    1000-74. 

First  Period.  Milton  began  writing  English 
and  Latin  ver.se  while  a  schoolboy.  Tlie  earliest 
extant  specimens  of  these  exercises  are  para- 
phrases of  the  114th  and  l.SOth  Psalms,  compo.sed 
at  the  age  of  fifteen.  Other  early  poems  are 
a  group  of  graceful  Latin  elegies  and  sylvjB 
(1626-29);  Ore  the  Death  of  a  Fair  Infant 
(1626)  ;  .4*  a  Vacation  Exercise  (1628)  ;  Hymn 
on  the  Xntivilii  (102!));  .1/  u  Nolcnin  Music 
(16.30);  On  Shakespeare ;  and  sonnets  To  the 
Xit/hlinfiale  and  On  Arririnf/  at  the  A^c  of 
Tirentif-lhrcc.  The  Latin  verses  are  undoulitedly 
the  best  ever  written  by  an  Englishman,  and 
the  last  five  of  the  English  poems  display  high 
poetical  genius.  While  at  Horton.  Milton  com- 
posed four  absolutely  ))erfcct  poems:  the  two 
descriptive  lyrics,  I/Allegro  and  II  Penseroso 
(16.34)  ;  Comas,  a  inasque  performed  at  Ludlow 
Castle  on  Michaelmas  night,  1634,  in  honor  of 
Lord  Uridgcwater's  appointment  to  the  warden- 
ship  of  the  Welsh  marches;  and  I.iieida.t.  a  pas- 
toral elegy  in  memory  of  his  college  friend  Ed- 
ward King,  drowned  on  his  passage  to  Ireland 
(.\ugust  10.  l(i.37).  Of  these  poenis,  which  by 
themselves  would  place  Milton  among  the  great 
names  in  English  literature,  (mly  a  few  had  been 
published.  The  lines  on  Shakespeare  appeared  in 
the  .seeontl  folio  of  the  dramatist's  works  ( 10.32)  ; 
Henry  Lawes,  who  composed  the  music  for 
t'omiis.  published  the  mascpie  anonymously  (Lon- 
don. 10.37).  and  l.iiridas  formed  one  in  a  collec- 
tion of  memorial  poems  (Cambridge,  10.38).  To 
this  period  belong  six  sonnets  in  Italian  and 
Milton's  two  finest  Latin  poems:  Mnnsiis 
(1038).  addressed  to  the  Marquis  of  Manso.  the 
friend  of  Tasso.  who  in  his  old  age  hospitably 
received  Milton  at  Naples;  and  l'.pila)ih\um  Da- 
munis,  an  eleg\-  on  the  death  of  his  college  friend 
Charles  Dindati. 

Second  Period.  For  full  eighteen  years  Milton 
w;is  distracted  from  poetry  by  domestic  per- 
plexities and  the  revolutions  in  Church  and 
State.     The    separation    from    his    wife    led    to 


pamphlets  on  divorce,  ol  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  The  Doctrine  and  Disci/iline  of 
Divorce  (August  1,  1043).  and  The  Tetraehordoti 
(1645).  Against  episcopacy  he  launched,  in 
1041-42,  five  tracts,  of  which  the  best  known  is 
The  Reason  of  Church  (iovernment  Ai/ainst 
I'relaty.  In  1044  appeared  the  valuable  letter 
Of  Education  and  a  noble  plea  for  the  freedom  of 
the  press  under  the  title  Areo]ia()ilica.  The  execu- 
tion of  Charles  I.  and  the  estalilisliment  of  the 
Commonwealth  were  defended  against  Continental 
criticism  in  TIte  Tenure  of  Kinys  and  Maqistrales 
(1049),  Eikonoktasles  (1649),  Pro  Populo  An- 
glieano  Defensio,  and  sequels.  These  tracts,  vehe- 
ment and  often  scurrilous  in  style,  contain  auto- 
biographical passages  of  interest.  Throughout 
this  period  Alilton  wrote  almost  no  verse.  He 
composed,  however,  at  intervals  his  magnificent 
sonnets,  as  On  His  Blindness.  To  Fairfax,  To 
CronureU.  and  The  Mas.sacre  in  Pirdnioitl ;  and 
in  1045  appeared  a  volume  of  collected  poems  in 
English  and  Latin.  Besides  this  he  wrote  some 
Greek  and  Latin  verse  and  made  a  few  transla- 
tions. In  1902  there  appeared  a  valuable  work 
called  Xora  Solyma:  the  Ideal  City  of  Zion  :  or 
Jerusalem  Rer/ained :  translated  from  the  lyatin 
by  the  Rev.  Walter  Begley.  and  by  him  attributed 
to  .lohn  -Milton.  This  romance  w:is  ])ul)Iished  in 
London  (  1048  l  with  the  title  Xortr  Solyina'  Libri 
Sex.  Whether  or  not  the  work  belongs  to  Milton, 
it  undoubtedly  shows  strongly  many  of  his  char- 
acteristics in  thought  and  style.  The  romance  is 
written  in  pro.se  and  in  verse,  and  is  wholly  in 
Latin.  It  shows  advanced  theories  on  education, 
it  considers  love  philosophically,  and  dctils  with 
the  philosophy  of  religion,  with  conversion,  sal- 
vation, the  brotherhood  of  man,  with  almsgiving, 
self-cimtrol.  angels,  the  fall  of  man.  and  man's 
eternal  fate.  It  contains  some  250  hexameters 
of  a  projected  epic  on  the  Armada,  and  there 
runs  through  it  a  vein  of  adventures  with  tales 
of  outlaws,  robbers,  sea-rovers,  and  fighting  on 
sea.  There  is  an  account  of  a  man  possessed  by 
the  devil,  and  an  allegory  of  Philomela's  King- 
dom of  Pleasure. 

Third  Period.  The  great  epic  that  ^lilton  now 
composed  is  the  spiritual  summary  of  his  life  of 
lost  ideals.  .\s  early  as  his  return  from  Italy, 
he  had  meditated  the  proiluction  of  some  great 
poem.  By  1042  his  mind  was  turning  toward 
a  mystery  play  on  the  loss  of  para<lise.  Wlien 
he  resumed  the  subject  in  1658.  it  took  the  form 
of  an  epic.  Paradise  Lost,  in  ten  books,  com- 
pleted by  1065.  perhaps  even  by  166.3.  was  first 
published  on  August  10,  1667.  After  several 
reprints  with  slight  changes,  it  was  enlarged 
to  twelve  books  (1674).  For  this  poem,  of 
which  1300  copies  were  sold  in  eighteen  miinths, 
Milton  received  from  his  ])id)lisher  in  all  £10. 
At  the  suggestion  of  Thomas  Ellwood.  a  Quaker 
friend  of  the  poet,  Alilton  wrote  Paradise  Re- 
gained, which  was  published  with  Samson  .Syo- 
nislcs,  an  intense  lyrical  drama,  in  ItiTl.  Once 
Milton  was  known  mainly  as  the  author  of  Parn- 
di.se  Lost.  Since  the  romantic  revival,  this  epic 
has  been  unfavorably  compared  with  the  so- 
called  minor  poems.  The  fascinating  imagina- 
tive stjite  in  whi<'h  the  early  lyrics  were  con- 
ceived certainly  departed  from  Milton  dnrinj; 
till'  civil  confiict.  But  as  years  went  on.  his 
imagination  became  invested  with  sublimity. 
Had  Paradise  Lost  been  written  in  1642.  it  would 
have  been  a  perfect  mystery  play,  as  Comtis  is  a 


^  «  V.N  :  \V.\c    ^v\i^'.  ■^^Kg 


fiiujtniitmc  D'^n^  Algernon Qmut  c/^  IIerword  d^ PEncr^^i-  ^r 


JOHN    MILTON 
FROM   AN   ENGRAVING   BY   GEORGE  VERTUE 


MILTON. 


525 


MILWAUKEE. 


perfect  iiuiscmc.  Delayi'il  tweiit}'  odd  years  it 
became  a  .sonorous  epic,  wliicli,  though  barren  in 
places,  abounds  in  the  nol)N'st  i'>n<;lish  poetry. 
BIBI.IOOR.VPIIY.  For  liis  hioufrapliy,  consult: 
Phillips's  memoir  in  his  Letters  of  Slate  {  1CU4)  ; 
Masson,  Life  of  John  Milton,  Xar rated  in  Connec- 
tion with  the  I'olitienl,  Eeclesiastical,  and  Lit- 
eriiry  Lfislorji  of  His  Time  (G  vols,  and  index, 
London,  1S51I-04).  an  exhaustive  work;  Patti- 
son  in  the  "Knglish  Men  of  Letters  Series"  (\e\v 
York,  1S80)  :  (Jarnett  in  the  "Great  Writers 
Scries"  (London,  1890);  and  JIasterman  and 
Mullinger.  The  Age  of  Milton  (ib.,  1897).  For 
works,  consult:  Prose  Works,  ed.  by  Saint  John, 
Bohn's  Library  (.5  vols.,  London,  1848-53)  ;  Po- 
etieal  Worlcs  ed.  by  Masson  (Cabinet  edition, 
3  vols.,  ib..  1890;  Globe  ed.,  1  vol.,  ib..  1S77, 
often  reprinted)  ;  Poetical  Works  after  the 
Oriflinal  Texts,  i.e.  reprints,  ed.  by  Beeching 
(Oxford.  1900)  ;  and  Facsimile  of  Milton's  Minor 
Poems,  from  manuscripts  in  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  ed.  by  Wright  (Cambridge,  1899). 
For  estimate,  consult:  essavs  bv  Dr.  Johnson 
(London.  1779).  Macaulav  '( ib..'  1840) .  Lowell 
(ib.,  1845),  and  .1  Short  Studi/.  by  Trent  (New 
York.  1899)  :  Corson,  An  Introduction  to  Works, 
containing  the  prose  autobiographical  pieces 
(ib..  1899)  :  and  the  notable  Studi/.  bv  Raleigh 
(London  and  New  York.  1900).  '  Tlie  student 
will  find  of  much  value:  Osgood,  The  Classical 
Mi/tholofiji  of  Milton's  Enrilish  Poems  (New 
York.  1900)  :  and  Lock  wood.  Lexicon  to  the 
Poetical  Works  of  John  Milton  (ib.,  1902).  A 
contemporaiy  biography  of  Milton,  discovered 
in  1S89  in  a  volume  of  Anthony  Wood's  papers 
in  the  Bodleian  Lil)rary  at  Oxford,  was  edited 
and  published  bv  E.  B.  Parsons  in  1903.  under 
the  title,  "The  Earliest  Life  of  Milton,"  in  the 
Colorado  Coller/c  Studies  (Colorado  Springs, 
March,    lOO."!). 

MILTON  COLLEGE.  A  coeducational  insti- 
tution at  Jlilton.  Wis.,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Seventh  Day  l!a]itists.  It  was  organized  as  Du 
Lac  Academy  in  1844.  renamed  Milton  Academy 
in  1848,  and  incorporated  as  Milton  College  in 
1867.  It  has  collegiate  and  academic  depart- 
ments and  a  school  of  music.  In  1902  it  had  13 
instructors  and  100  students,  of  whom  30  at- 
tended the  collegiate  courses.  Its  property  was 
valued  at  .$125,000.  the  buildings  and  groiuids  at 
.WS.OOO.  and  the  efpiipment  at  $10,000.  The  en- 
dowment was  $84,000,  and  the  income  about  .$12.- 
000.  The  library  contained  6580  volumes  and 
2000  pamphlets. 

MIL'VIAN  BRIDGE.  An  ancient  bridge 
over  the  Tiber  at  Rome,  built  in  B.C.  100  by 
Marcus  .Emilius  Scaurus.  At  this  bridge,  in 
B.C.  63,  Cicero  caused  the  arrest  of  the  ambassa- 
dors of  the  Allobrogi.  who  were  conspiring  with 
Catiline,  and  Maxentius  was  drowned  there  after 
his  defeat  by  Constantine  in  A.n.  312.  On  the 
foundations  of  the  ancient  bridge  stands  the  mod- 
ern P.mte  Mcdle. 

MIL'WAU'KEE.  Tlic  largest  city  in  Wiscon- 
sin, a  port  of  entry,  and  the  county-seat  of  Mil- 
waukee County.  It  is  situated  on  the  western 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  motith  of  the  Mil- 
waukee River.  85  miles  north  of  Chicago  and  83 
miles  east  of  the  State  capital.  Madison  (Map: 
Wisconsin.  F  5) . 

The  city  occupies  an  area  of  about  22  square 
miles,  divided  by  the  Milwaukee  River  and  its 


affluents,  the  Menominee  and  Kinnickinnic,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of  the  Northwest. 
It  has  an  elevation  of  from  600  to  700  feet  above 
sea  level,  rising  from  80  to  125  feet  above  Lake 
Jlichigan,  and  reaching  its  greatest  height  in 
Kilbourn  Park,  which  affords  a  fine  view.  The 
business  quarter  is  near  the  Milwaukee  River, 
while  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  residence 
sections  lie  to  the  west  and  east,  and  are  charac- 
terized by  handsomely  sliadcd  avenues  and  de- 
tached houses.  The  accessibility  of  popular  health 
and  pleasure  resorts  and  the  beauty  of  its 
subui-bs  add  to  the  attractions  of  Jlilwaukee. 
Among  these  suburbs  is  the  city  of  Wauwatosa — 
the  seat  of  the  State  Fair  Grounds  and  of  a 
group  of  county  institutions:  almshouse,  hospi- 
tal, hospital  for  the  insane,  chronic  insane  asy- 
lum, and  a  children's  home.  Jlilwaukee  is  laid 
out  in  broad  streets,  310  miles  of  which  are 
paved  out  of  a  total  street  mileage  of  520.  The 
famous  cream-colored  Milwaukee  brick,  which  is 
largely  used  in  the  construction  of  the  buildings, 
lends  a  distinctive  architectural  appearance  to 
the  city.  The  rivers  are  spanned  by  a  number 
of  bridges,  and  there  are  three  viaducts,  one  of 
which,  over  the  Menominee  Valley,  is  nearly  a 
mile  long. 

BuiLnixcs  AND  Institutions.  Among  the  most 
prominent  buildings  are  the  city  hall,  occupying 
a  triangular  block  and  commanding  from  its 
tower  a  good  view  of  the  city;  the  county  court- 
house of  brown  sandstone ;  the  LTnited  States 
Government  building,  a  massive  granite  struc- 
ture, erected  at  a  co.st  of  .$1,750,000;  and  the 
])ublic  library  and  museum.  The  library  has 
120.000  volumes  and  maintains  a  number  of 
branches  in  various  parts  of  the  city.  The  Lay- 
ton  Art  Gallerj'  is  located  in  a  fine  building  and 
possesses  a  vahialile  collection.  In  the  Industrial 
Exposition  Building  annual  exhibitions  are  held. 
The  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Athenicum,  Light- 
house, Squadron  Armory,  Saint  Paul's  Church 
(Protestant  Episcopal),  Church  of  Gesu  (Roman 
Catholic),  and  the  Wells  Building,  the  Herman 
Building,  and  the  Germania,  Pabst,  and  Jlitehell 
buildings  also  are  notcw-orthy  structures.  A 
mile  west  of  the  city  limits  is  a  National  Soldiers' 
Home,  accommodating  2400  inmates  and  sur- 
rounded by  400  acres  of  well-kept  grounds. 

Milwaukee  is  the  seat  of  Concordia  College 
(Lutheran)  and  Marquette  College  (Roman 
Catholic),  both  opened  in  1881,  and  of  Milwaukee 
Downer  College  for  women,  opened  in  1895.  hav- 
ing been  established  on  the  foundation  of  the 
Milwaukee  Female  College,  which  was  organized 
in  1849.  There  are  also  a  State  Normal  School 
and  two  medical  colleges,  besides  a  large  ninnber 
of  public  and  parochial  schools.  The  Johnston 
Emergency  Hospital,  the  Milwaukee  General  Hos- 
pital, the  United  States  Marine  Hospital,  and  the 
State  Industrial  Home  for  Girls  are  among  a 
large  number  of  charitable  institutions  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  Owing  to  the  large  population  of 
German  birth  and  descent.  Turner  and  nnisical 
societies  play  an  unusually  important  part  in  the 
club  and  society  life  of  the  city.  Jfilwaukee  ig 
the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  and  of 
a  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop. 

Parks.  The  public  park  system  comprises 
about  500  acres.  It  includes  Lake  Park  (124 
acres)  on  the  lake,  laid  out  with  fine  drives  and 
bicycle  paths;  Washington  Park  (148  acres) 
with  an  island-studded  lake,  a  dense  growth  of 


MILWAUKEE. 


526 


lYlILWATJKEE. 


timber,  picnic  and  alliletic  grounds,  and  a  deer 
preserve;  Kiversido,  Slicrman.  HunihoUU.  Mitch- 
ell, and  Kosciusko  parks;  and  .Juneau  Park  on 
the  lake  front.  The  last  comnicniorates,  by  its 
name  and  a  monument,  the  founder  of  the  city; 
it  has  also  a  statue  of  Leif  Ericson.  Statues  of 
Washington  and  Hergli.  and  a  Soldiers"  Jlonu- 
Dient  are  in  other  sections  of  the  city.  The  city 
water  tower,  near  Lake  Park,  marks  the  North 
Point  Pumping  Station.  There  are  also  several 
parks,  from  1  to  'M  acres  in  area,  in  various 
parts  of  the  city.  These  smaller  resorts  are 
owned  by  the  wards  in  which  they  are  situated. 
Forest  Home  Cemetery  is  worthy  of  mention  as 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  L'nited  States. 

Commerce  and  Industry.  Milwaukee  is  fa- 
vorably located  with  reference  to  extensive  re- 
sources of  farm,  mine,  and  forest.  It  enjoys 
the  advantages  of  water  transportation  afforded 
by  the  Great  Lakes,  in  addition  to  excellent  rail- 
road facilities.  Among  the  railways  that  enter 
tlie  city  are  the  Chicago.  Milwaukee  and  Saint 
Paul,  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Wis- 
consin Central,  and  the  Pere  Marquette.  The 
city  has  become  important  both  as  a  collecting 
and  a  distributing  centre,  and  is  noted  also  for  its 
manufacturing  enter])rises.  Its  wholesale  trade 
exceeds  IJ.'JOO.OOO.OOO  annually.  There  is  an  ex- 
cellent harbor  protected  by  a  breakwater.  In  the 
shipments  eastward  there  is  competition  between 
the  lake  system  of  transportation  and  the  rail- 
roads, while  a  considerable  traffic  crosses  Lake 
^lichigan  and  finishes  its  transit  east  by  rail. 
In  the  lake  commerce  the  shipments  far  exceed 
the  receipts.  The  principal  commodity  received 
from  the  East  is  coal,  which  reaches  ililwaukee 
by  way  of  the  lakes.  Milwaukee's  foreign  trade, 
which  consists  chiefly  of  imports,  is  compara- 
tivelj-  inconsiderable.  The  following  table  shows 
the  receipts  and  shipments  of  some  of  the  princi- 
pal articles  for  the  year  1900: 


Receipts 

Shipments 

Flour 

BarrelH 

3,012,625 

3.7(iS.6!i8 

Wlir>nt 

Bushels 

9.fi31,3«0 

2,]Gfi.4Sl 

<"orn 

•' 

.i.TWI.lOO 

4.9.-.R.H0 

Oat« 

«* 

K,.'ini;.ioo 

7,902.204 

Barley 

'* 

lo.OKl.lOO 

8.34S,776 

It.v 

*' 

1.165.150 

79:),39S 

Lumber 

Feet 

194,229.000 

19.934.000 

Coal. 

Tons 

1,807.493 

674.472 

With  respect  to  corn  and  oats,  the  city  is 
primarily  a  distributing  rather  than  a  consum- 
ing centre.  It  will  1h>  noted,  however,  that  there 
is  a  marked  difTerence  between  the  receipts  and 
the  shi])nients  of  barley  and  wheat.  Milwatikee 
being  a  large  consumer  of  these  products  in  the 
milling  and  brewing  industries.  IJarley  is  used 
principally  in  the  manufacture  of  beer,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  notable  industries  of  the 
city.  Xo  other  .American  city  enjoys  so  high 
a  reputation  for  its  beer.  The  value  of  the 
malt  liquors  produced  in  the  census  vear  1000 
was  .*i:i,S!l!l.;tnO.  and  of  malt  .^i..!  17.870.  The 
output  of  the  flour  and  grist  mills  in  the  same 
year  was  valued  at  .'i!ri..'i.")7,0S.'?.  The  most  impor- 
tant industry,  and  one  that  is  develcqiing  rapidly, 
is  the  maiuifaeture  of  foundri"  and  machine-shop 
products,  the  value  of  which  in  1000  was  .*14,- 
40.1.302.  Other  large  induslries  are  taiming.  cur- 
r>'ing.  and  finishing  of  leather,  the  value  of  that 
product  in  1000  being  .«I0.2f.7.a.'?.i.  and  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel   products  which  were 


valued  at  .$7,210,213.  Slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing, and  the  mauufacture  of  clothing,  lum- 
ber, and  plauing-mill  products,  boots  and  shoes, 
and  agricultural  implements  also  are  important. 
Tlie  value  of  all  m.anufactured  products  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1000  "vvas  $123.78(;.449. 
Statistics  compiled  by  local  atithorities  show  an 
immense  increase  in  the  output  for  1901  and 
1902,  over  that  returned  by  the  census.  The 
gain  in  the  production  of  iron,  steel,  and  ma- 
chinery has  been  especially  noteworthy. 

GovERXMENT.  Milwaukee  is  governed  by  a 
mayor  and  a  board  of  aldermen,  consisting  of  46 
luembers — two  from  each  ward.  Other  elective 
oflicers  are  the  treasurer,  comptroller,  attorney, 
justices  of  the  peace,  and  constables.  The  term 
of  all  ollicers,  except  the  city  attorney,  who  serves 
four  years,  is  two  years.  The  various  administra- 
tive boards  and  heads  of  departments — the  board 
of  public  works,  commissioner  of  health,  chief  of 
tire  department,  and  chief  of  police^are  ap- 
pointed by  the  mayor  with  the  approval  of  the 
board  of  aldermen.  The  board  of  school  direc- 
tors is  chosen  by  four  school  board  commission- 
ers, appointed  by  the  mayor,  not  more  than  two 
of  whom  can  be  of  one  political  party.  The 
mayor  also  appoints  the  commissioners  of  the 
public  debt.  The  mayor,  city  clerk,  ta.x  commis- 
sioner, and  ward  assessors  constitute  a  board  of 
review  for  correction  of  assessment  rolls.  The 
civil  service  system  is  tinder  the  supervision  of  a 
board  of  civil  service  commissioners.  The  lionded 
debt  of  Milwaukee  in  1002  was  .$7. 1.52. 7 ")U.  and 
the  floating  debt  .$137,010,  making  a  total  debt  of 
$7,280,760.  The  legal  borrowing  limit  is  5  jier 
cent,  of  the  average  assessed  valuation  for  five 
years.  The  legal  basis  of  assessment  is  the  full 
value  of  both  personal  and  real  property,  but  in 
practice  the  basis  is  about  70  per  cent.  The  as- 
sessed valuation  of  real  and  personal  propertv  in 
1902  was  $171,881,304.  The  tax  rate  was  2.33 
per  cent.  The  actual  income  of  the  city,  .includ- 
ing proceeds  from  the  sale  of  bonds,  was  $.>.li7."i.- 
000.  The  expenditures  for  maintenance  and  > 
eration,  including  cost  of  new  buildings,  ii  ., 
were  $5,350,000:  the  main  items  being  .$777,516 
for  schools,  $349,351  for  the  police  department, 
.$458,891  for  the  fire  department.  $280,054  for 
interest  on  debt,  and  $100,022  for  the  water- 
works. Milwaukee  owns  and  o])erates  its  water- 
works, which  were  bviilt  in  1872.  The  system 
has  cost  $5,008,443  and  now  includes  360  miles 
of  mains. 

Popi'i.ATlox.  Milwatikee  ranks  fifth  among  the 
Lake  cities  and  fourteenth  in  the  United  Static. 
The  population  bv  decades  has  been  as  follows: 
1840.  1712:  18.50.  20.061:  18(!0,  45.240:  1870, 
71,440;  1880.  115,587;  1890.  204.468;  1900.  28.5,- 
315.  There  is  a  large  foreigii-liorn  population, 
amounting  in  1900  to  102.047.  of  whom  03.9.52 
were  Germans.     The  negroes  numbered  only  862. 

Hlstory.  Probably  as  early  as  1790.  .lean 
Baptist  Mirandeau.an  emigrant  from  France,  set- 
tled within  the  present  limits  of  Milwaukee, 
where  a  Potawatami  village  of  this  name  was 
then  situated.  Here  he  lived  continuously  until 
his  death  in  1819.  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time 
being  the  only  white  man  in  the  vicinity.  In  1818 
Solomon  .Tuneau  came  hither  and  established  a 
trading  station,  but  a  town  was  not  laid  out 
until  1S35.  In  1830  there  was  a  big  'boom.'  and 
settlers  came  in  considerable  numbers ;  but  in 
the  following  year  a  reaction  set  in  and  retarded 


MILAVAUKEE 

AND 

VICINITY 


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'milw.m-KEE*  Ipaaaa 
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COPYRIGHT,   1905,   BY  DODO.  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 


MILWAUKEE. 


527 


MIMICRY. 


the  growth  of  the  village  for  several  years.  In 
1847,  with  a  population  of  12,000,  .Milwaukee 
was  chartered  as  a  city,  and  Juneau  was  elected 
the  first  mayor. 

Consult:  " Wheeler,  Chronicler  of  Milwaukee 
(Milwaukee.  1S61);  Buck,  Pioneer  Uislory  of 
Milwaukee  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1S7G-S4),  the  third  vol- 
ume of  which  is  entitled  Milwaukee  Under  the 
Charter. 

MILYUTIN,  mil-yoo'tin,  Dmitri,  Count 
(ISIG — ).  A  Russian' general  and  military  re- 
former. He  was  born  in  ^Moscow;  entered  the 
aniiy  in  his  youth,  and  was  appointed  ehief  of 
stair  in  the  Caucasus  in  IS.ifi.  In  18G2,  after  sub- 
mitting his  programme  for  a  reform  of  the  Rus- 
sian army,  he  was  made  ilinister  of  War,  re- 
maining in  office  for  a  score  of  years.  In  1898 
he  was  made  field-marshal.  Milyutin  wrote  on 
the  campaign  of  1839  in  Nortliern  Daghestan 
(18.5G!,  and  on  SuvarofT's  campaign  of  1799 
against   France    (1856). 

MILYTJTIN,  XiKOLAi  (1818-72).  A  Russian 
statesman,  lirother  of  Count  Dmitri.  Before 
he  was  twenty  he  entered  the  employ  of  the 
Department  of  Interior;  in  Alexander  II. 's  re- 
forms he  took  a  prominent  part,  especially  in  the 
reorganization  of  credit,  in  the  introduction  of 
provincial  institutions  centring  on  the  iinV,  in 
the  emancipation  of  the  serfs,  and  in  agrarian 
eonnnissions  in  Lithuania  in  1863  and  in  Poland 
in  1864.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  for  Poland 
from  1866  to  1868,  and  attempted  to  break 
down  the  power  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
in  that  jirovince.  Jlilyutin  wrote  on  Russian 
military  statistics.  Consult  Leroy-Beaulieu,  Vn 
hn-iuiiir' d'rtiit  russe  (Paris,  1884)". 

MIMAMSA,  nie-mam'sa  (Skt.  mlmai'nsu,  in- 
vestigation, discussion).  Tlie  collective  name 
of  two  of  the  six  orthodox  systems  of  Hindu  phi- 
losophy. The  two  Mimanisa  divisions  are:  first, 
the  Fiirva-mlmttmsa,  'Prior  Inquiry'  or  Karma- 
mimuiiisa.  'Inquiry  concerning  Works';  the  sec- 
ond is  rftarfi-mlmari^sO,  'Later  Inquiry'  or  Brah- 
niamimOmsa,  'Inquiry  concerning  tlic  Suin'cmo 
Spirit,'  or  more  commonly  simply  VCildnta 
(q.v.).  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  two  systems 
comprised  under  the  name  ^limamsa  have  little 
in  connnon,  though  both  are  theistic  in  nature 
and  both  arose  about  the  beginning  of  our  era. 
The  former  deals  chieily  with  the  Vedie  ritual 
and  its  significance,  the  latter  with  specula- 
tions as  to  the  nature  of  the  Supreme  Spirit. 

The  reputed  foimder  of  the  system  is  .Jaimini, 
and  the  principles  are  embodied  in  a  series  of 
Sfitrax.  or  aphorisms,  in  twelve  books,  discussing 
the  siicred  ceremonies  of  the  Veda  and  the  merit 
a<>cniing  from  their  proper  performance.  The 
oldest  extant  commentary  on  this  obscure  work 
is  the  lihushi/a  of  Sabara-Svamin,  whose  date  is 
placed  long  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  This  com- 
position in  turn  was  critically  annotated,  about 
A.D,  700,  by  the  great  Jlimamsa  authority,  Ku- 
niarila. 

The  Mimamsa  system  has  been  one  to  which 
less  attention  has  been  given  by  Kuropcan  schol- 
ars than  to  any  of  the  others.  One  of  the  ear- 
liest treatises  on  the  subject  was  an  essay  on  the 
Jlimamsa  by  Colebrooke  in  1826,  reprinted  in 
his  Miscellaneoits  Essays  (London.  1873).  Con- 
sult: Garbe.  Philosophy  of  Ancient  India  (Chi- 
cago. 1897):  :Max  iliiller.  The  Six  fti/strms  of 
Ancient  Indian  Philosophy    (New  York,   1899)  ; 


Cowell  and  Gough,  The  Saria-Dariana-Samgraha 
of  Madhava  Aclmrya    (Loudon,  1894). 

MIME  (Lat.  mimus,  from  Gk.  /xf^s,  mimos, 
imitator,  actor,  sort  of  drama,  from  ixi/t-eio-Oai, 
minicisthai,  to  mimic) .  A  species  of  popular  com- 
edy among  the  ancients,  in  wliieh  scenes  of  com- 
mon life  were  represented  with  imitative  gestures 
and  dancing,  and  with  jocose?  dialogue  more  or  ' 
less  freely  improvised.  It  was  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  Sophi-on  of  Syracuse,  who  wrote  in 
the  Doric-Greek  dialect.  j\Iimes  were  a  favorite 
amusement  of  convivial  parties,  the  guests  them- 
selves being  connnonly  the  ])crformcrs.  Among 
the  Romans,  the  mime  early  appeared,  though 
in  a  somewhat  difl'erent  character,  and  shared 
popular  favor  along  with  the  primitive  Latin 
Saiurw  and  Atellan  farces.  Although  abounding 
in  rough  ridicule  and  often  indecent,  yet  in  the 
hands  of  such  writers  as  Labcrius  and  Puldilius 
Syrus  the  mime  included  much  homely  wisdom 
in  the  shape  of  familiar  saws  and  juoverbial 
lines  which  hate  survived  the  pieces  that  con- 
tained them.  In  the  theatres,  mimes  came  to 
be  used  later  as  afteri)ieces.  The  actors,  them- 
selves called  mimes  {minii),  appeared  in  front 
of  the  stage,  without  buskins -or  masks,  but  char- 
acteristically attired  in  patch-work  cloaks  (cen- 
tunculi) ,  as  were  the  harlequins  (q.v.)  of  a  later 
day.  Under  the  Empire,  however,  they  were 
largely  superseded  in  popular  liking  by  the 
pantomimes  (q.v.).  Consult:  Teuffel  and 
Schwabe,  History  of  Roman  Literature  (Eng. 
trans.,  London,  .  1900)  ;  Friedliindcr,  Sittenrje- 
schichte  Roms,  vol.  ii.  (Leipzig.  1S90)  ;  Patin, 
Etudes  stir  la  poesie  latine  (Paris,  1875)  ;  Gry- 
sar,  Dcr  rijuiisclie  Mimus    (Vienna,   1854). 

MIM'EOGRAPH.      See  Copying   IMachixes. 
MIMESIS.     See  Orthoge.xpiiv,  Fiouees  of. 

MIMICRY  (from  minuc,  from  Lat.  mimicu-s, 
from  Ok.  iii/iiKd^,  mimikos,  relating  to  mimes, 
from  m'imoq,  7?H'niOS,  mime).  A  form  of  protective 
resemblance  by  which  one  species  so  closely 
resembles  another  in  external  form  and  color- 
ing as  to  be  mistaken  for  it.  although  the  two 
may  not  be  really  allied  and  often  belong  to  dis- 
tinct families  or  orders.  As  early  as  1746  Rosei 
von  Rosenhof  in  his  Insekten-BelustiguMjen  drew 
attention  to  the  resemblance  which  geometric 
caterpillars,  and  also  certain  moths  when  in  re- 
pose, present  to  dry  twigs,  and  thus  conceal 
themselves:  and  afterwards  Erasmus  Darwin, 
first  in  his  The  Lives  of  the  Plants,  and  after- 
wards in  his  Zoonomia  (1794),  sketched  out  the 
subject  of  protective  mimcry. 

Bates's  Theory  of  JIimicry.  These  facts  re- 
ceived little  attention,  however,  until  1862.  when 
Bates  proposed  a  general  theory  to  account  for 
them.  He  found  during  many  years'  residence  in 
Brazil  strikingly  colored  butterflies  belonging  to 
the  brilliantly  colored  family  Ileliconidic.  and 
associated  with  them  and  indistinguishable,  ex- 
cept on  close  examination,  certain  butterflies  be- 
longing to  the  structurally  very  difl'erent  family 
of  Pierida>:  also  certain  swallow-tail  butterflies 
and  day-flying  moths.  None  of  the  mimicking 
insects  were  as  abundant  as  the  Heliconid:r  they 
resembled.  The  Heliconidie  have  an  oftensive 
taste  and  odor,  in  consequence  of  which  they  are 
imnnme  from  attacks  by  insectivorous  animals; 
thev  fly  deliberately,  and  they  make  no  attempt  at 
concealment    although    their    bright,    distinctive 


MIMICRY.  528 

colors  permit  them  to  be  recognized  and  avoided, 
as  obnoxious.  If  any  other  butterflies  in  the 
same  region  were  to  become  indistinguishable 
from  the  Heliconida;  tliey  would  profit  by  a  cor- 


MIMICRY. 


MIMICKY   IN   IN8KCTS. 

a.  A  li'iit-likc  uraxxt'opP''''  iPI'yl- 
lium  sitTifoliurn) :  h,  a  iiiantiB  (a 
cantliopMl  whU'li  U'etlH  on  inst'cts 
foiinii  aiiionff  (Ir.v  Icavt's.  atid  ia 
beiiellUHl  by  re[*f  inblilifj  Ihem. 


MIMICBV   IN   BUTTEKFLfes. 

a,  Metbona  psiiJii  (Heliconidse),-    ^,  Lrptalis  orlse  (Pie- 
lidie). 

responding  iniiiiunity  from  attack.     The  theory 
assumes   that   some"  of  the   PieridiS  happened   at 
the   start   to   resemble   the    primitive   HelieoiiidiP 
and  received  a  partial  immunity  as  a  result:  that 
such    PieridiE   alone    survived    and    produced    de- 
scendants of  like 
character ;        and 
that    a    selection 
of  the  most  heli- 
c  11  n  i  d-1  i  k  e  of 
tlicse        followed, 
r.y     a     continua- 
tion (if  this  proc- 
ess    the     pierids 
and      the      other 
Ij  e  ))  i  d  o  ])  t  c  r  a 
gained    their 
present    close    re- 
semblance to   the 
Heliconidae.     The 
theory  is  a  broad 
one,  an<l  accounts 
for  cases  of  mim- 
icry in  other  groups  of  Lepidoptera  as  well  as  in 
otlier  orders  of  animals.    It  is  not  necessaiy.  how- 
ever, to  go  to  South  America  for  examples  of  mim- 
icry.    In  North  America,  as  well  as  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  occurs  the  genus  Danais,  which  is  also  a 
protected  form.     Our  common  American  species 
Aiwsid  iilcj-ippua  is   closely   mimicked   by  Unsil- 
archin    disiiiinix,    a    buttcrllv    of    rather    remote 
alhnities.    Three  genera  of  Danaidic  in  trojiical 
Asia.   Kuphra.  Danais.  and  Hestia.  are  verv  dif- 
ferent, but  are  all  protected.     In  each  genus  cer- 
tain species  are  mimicked  with  extraordinary  nc- 
curai'.v  by  sju'cics  of  the  genus  Papilio. 

Hut  mimii'ry  is  not  conlini'd  to  the  Lepidoptera. 
Especially  widl  protected  wasps  and  bees  have 
many  imitators,  and  there  are  cases  of  mimicry 
even  in  vertebrates. 

JIuLLER'.s  TiiKORY  Of  MiMlCBY.  In  1870  Fritz 
oHiiUer.  as  the  result  of  many  years'  obsenat  ion  in 
Southern  Hra/.il,  proposed  a  mudification  of  and 
addition  to  the  foregoing  ex))lanation  of  Rates. 
Bates  himself,  when  first  describing  the  cases 
ho  observed,  bad  suggested  that  they  might  he 
due  to  some  forms  of  parallel  variation  depend- 
ent on  climatic  influences,  and  Wallace    {Island 


Life.  p.  2.>5)  adduced  other  cases  of  coincident  lo- 
cal niodilications  of  color,  which  did  not  appear 
to  be  cx]dicablc  by  any  form  of  mimicry,  iliiller's 
theory  is  founded  on  the  assum]>tion  that  insect- 
eating  birds  only  learn  when  young  and  by  ex- 
perience to  distinguish  the  edible  from  the 
inedible  butterflies,  and  in  doing  so  necessarily 
sacrifice  a  certain  number  of  distasteful  butter- 
flies. "  Now,"  says  Miiller.  "if  two  distasteful 
species  are  sufficiently  alike  to  be  mistaken  for 
one  another,  the  experience  aciiuired  at  the  ex- 
pense of  one  of  them  will  likewise  benefit  the 
other:  both  species  together  will  only  have  to 
contribute  the  same  number  of  victims  which 
each  of  them  would  have  to  furnish  if  they  were 
ditl'crent.  If  both  species  are  equally  connnon, 
then  both  will  derive  the  same  benefit  from  their 
resemblance — each  will  save  half  the  number  of 
victims  which  it  has  to  furnish  to  the  inexjieri- 
cnce  of  its  foes.  But  if  one  species  is  commoner 
than  the  other,  then  the  benefit  is  \incqually  di- 
vided, and  the  proportional  advantage  for  each 
of  the  two  species  which  arises  from  their  re- 
.semblance  is  a»  the  Sfjunre  of  their  relative  num- 
bers." Wallace,  who  fully  accepts  Miiller's 
theory,  in  his  statement  of  the  theory  {Par- 
uinism,  p.  2.5.3)  adds:  "But  if  the  two  species  are 
very  une(pial  in  numbers,  the  benefit  will  be 
comparatively  slight  for  the  more  aliundant  spe- 
cies, but  very  great  for  the  rare  one.  To  the  ' 
latter  it  ma.v  make  all  the  difTerence  between 
safety  and  destruction." 

The  facts  of  mimicry  are  very  remarkable:  as 
to  causes  there  is  milch  ditlerenee  of  opinion. 
The  theory  of  Bates  is  acceiited  by  many — also 
that  of  Jliiller.  Others,  like  Eimer.  Klwcs.  and 
Piepers,  deny  that  the  mimicry  is  due  to  natural 
selection,  but  rather  to  definitely  directed  evolu- 
tion, the  result  of  "outward  influences  such  as 
climate,  nutriment,  etc..  acting  on  a  given  con- 
stitution." Others,  rejecting  the  Miillerian  theory, 
accept  Bates's  facts,  but  ascribe  more  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  local  environment,  such  as  the 
action  of  light,  heat,  dryness  or  moisture,  etc., 
yet  allowing  that  in  the  end  natural  selection 
may  act  as  a  preservative  agent. 

The  objections  to  the  Miillerian  theory  are 
the  following:  Neither  Bates  nor  Wallace 
himself,  though  each  lived  for  several  years 
and  collected  Imttcrfiies  in  the  American  tropics, 
ever  actually  saw  a  bird  chase  and  devour  a  but- 
terfly, although  insectivorinis  birds  are  said  by 
them  to  be  abundant  in  Brazil  and  the  Kastcrii 
Archipelago.  Piepers.  Pryor.  Skertchley.  and 
other  tropical  naturalists  of  long  and  intelligent 
experience  agree  that  very  rarelv  has  any  bird 
been  seen  even  to  chase  a  butterfly:  while  .Tudd 
concludes  from  an  examinatiim  of  stomachs  of 
insectivorous  birds  that  none  of  the  .-Vmerican 
birds  feeds  upon  butterflies  "during  any  mcmth 
of  the  year  to  the  extent  nf  one-tenth  of  1  per 
cent,  of  its  food."  Ornitli(d(igi-<ts  confirm  this 
abstinence  from  eating  biitfcrllies.  Frnm  these 
and  numerous  other  cases  it  ajipcars  that  butter- 
flies enjo.v  a  peculiar  innnunity  from  the  attacks 
of  birds. 

It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  if  i-^  dillicult  to 
tell  which  is  the  model  and  which  the  mimic.  On 
the  Solomon  Islands  a  dark  brown  Eu]ihea  and 
a  llaiiais.  both  inedible,  were  a<'Companied  by  a 
llypnlininas  butterfly,  also  inedible,  all  three 
genera  being  avoided  by  birds  both  in  the  larva 
and  imago  stages.     The  fact,  says  Packard,  that 


MIMICRY. 


529 


MINMANS. 


the  mimickers  belong  to  more  primitive  groups 
than  the  models,  and  that  they  are  as  a  rule  rare, 
and  apparently  on  tlie  verge  of  extinetion,  indi- 
cates that  they  are  tlie  relies  of  an  earlier  geo- 
logical period,  and  having  been  exposed  to  the 
same  liieal  and  modifying  changes  in  the  environ- 
ment as  the  models,  have  thus  been  preserved. 
Most  of  the  eases  of  mimicry  are  really  eases  of 
convergence  produced  by  similar  conditions  of 
life.  Moreover,  the  ground  colors  of  butterllies 
are  restricted  in  range  to  reds,  shades  of  brown, 
yellow,  white,  and  more  rarely  l)lue  and  green. 
Al.so  the  patterns  are  limited;  nature  has  re- 
peated them  over  and  over  again.  It  is  no  won- 
der that  there  should  l>e  ai)parent  cases  of 
mimicry,  in  regions  so  similar  as  the  hot  and 
damp  forest-covered  plains  of  Brazil,  or  the  up- 
land hot  plains  of  Southern  Africa,  and  the  deep 
forests  of  the  East  Indies. 

As  authorities  difl'er  so  greatly  in  their  inter- 
pretations of  the  facts,  the  subject  ma}'  be  con- 
sidered an  open  one.  That  the  bad-tasting  but- 
terflies are  not  eaten  by  birds  any  more  than 
hairy  and  liad-tasting  caterpillars,  is  an  acknowl- 
edged fact;  that  the  edible  species  mimicking 
and  Hying  with  tliem  are  in  very  rare  cases  de- 
voured by  birds,  may  be  allowed,  but  its  impor- 
tance as  a  factor  in  evolution  has  been  in  some 
ipiaiters  unduh'  magnified.  For  other  cases  of 
mimicry,  see  Pigment;  Protective  Coloration 
.\Nn  Resemblance. 

BinLioGRApnY.  Bates,  "Insect  Fauna  of  the 
Amazon  Valley,"  in  Transactions  of  the  Linnean 
Hociety,  vol.  xxiii.  (London,  1862)  ;  Wallace,  Dar- 
n-inism  (London,  1891);  Wallace,  Tropical  Na- 
ture (London.  1.891)  ;  F.  Miiller.  "Ituna  and  Thy- 
ridia :  A  Remarkable  Ca.se  of  Mimicry  in  But- 
terHies,"  in  Kosmos,  May,  1879  (trans,  by  Jlel- 
dola  in  Transactions  of  the  Entomolofiicnl  Societ;/ 
of  Lonrlon,  1879,  p.  20)  ;  "Mimicry  in  Butterflies 
Explained  by  Xatural  Selection,"  in  American 
Xaturalist,  vol.  x.  (Salem,  1876)  ;  R.  Trimen. 
"On  some  Remarkable  ilimetic  Analogies  Among 
African  Butterflies."  in  Transactions  of  the  Lin- 
nean .S'ociV/.!/.  vol.  xxvi.  (London,  1807)  ;  Mar- 
shall and  Poulton,  "'Bionomics  of  South  African 
Insects,"  in  Transactions  of  the  Entoniotof/ical 
Societii  (I^ondon,  1902)  ;  Poulton,  Colors  of  Ani- 
in<ils  (London,  1890)  ;  Beddard.  Animal  Colora- 
tion  (New  York,  1895). 

MIMIK,  me'mir.  A  water  giant  of  Norse 
mythology,  who  dwelt  beneath  the  world-ash 
Yggdrasil  and  guarded  a  spring,  considered  the 
soiirce  of  memory  and  wisdom  and  called  ^liniir's 
well.  Odin  in  liis  wanderings  asked  for  a  drink 
from  the  well  and  was  obliged  in  exchange  to 
give  one  of  his  eyes,  the  moon,  which  Mimir 
sank  deep  in  the  spring. 

MIMNER'MTJS  (Lat.,  from  Ok.  Mf^^PMos) 
OF  Colophon'  (or  Smyrna).  A  Oreek  poet,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventh  century. 
His  book  Xanno  was  so  named  from  a  flute- 
player  whom  he  had  loved  in  vain;  it  is  a  col- 
lection of  elegies  that  were  models  for  later  poets 
in  sustained  calmness  and  tender  sentimentality 
as  opposed  to  the  political  elegiac  verse  previous- 
ly in  vogue.  !Mimnermus  is  credited  with  having 
brought  the  elegv'  back  to  its  original  design  of 
expressing  personal  grief,  and  his  musical  tem- 
perament found  it  a  fitting  medium. 

MIMS;  Fort.    See  Fort  Mims,  Massacre  of. 


MIN,  men.  An  Egyptian  deity,  the  local  god 
of  Panopolis  or  Akhniim  (ipv.)  and  of  Koptos 
(((.v.).  He  was  the  god  of  agriculture,  typifying 
the  generative  forces  of  nature,  and  annual  har- 
vest festivals  were  held  in  his  honor.  He  is  gen- 
erally repje-sentcd  as  an  ithyphallic  human  figure 
wearing  a  headdress  of  two  enormous  feathers, 
and  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  flail.  Behind 
him  is  a  shrine  with  trees  upon  it  or  near  it. 
His  sacred  animal  was  the  ram.  In  later  times 
he  was  often  identified  with  Ammon-RC.  The 
Greeks  identified  him  with  their  god  Pan.  Con- 
sult: Wiedenuiim,  Hcliyion  of  the  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians (New  York,  1897)  ;  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient 
Egypt    (London,   1894). 

MI'NA,  or  MNA  (Lat.  mina,  from  Gk.  /ij-a, 
tnna.  measure  of  weight,  sum  of  money,  from 
Heb.  mdneh,  weight,  from  mdnah,  to  divide, 
measure  out).  A  Greek  weight  and  sum  of 
money,  equal  to  100  drachmas  (q.v.),  and  the 
sixtieth  part  of  a  talent.  The  value  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  talent  used.  The  Attic  mina  was 
x\'orth  about  $18.  It  was  used  for  purposes  of 
account,  and  was  never  minted  as  a  coin. 

MINA,  me'na,  Francisco  Javier  (1789- 
1817).  A  Spanish  soldier.  He  was  born  at  Otan 
in  Navarre,  took  part  with  his  uncle  in  the 
guerrilla  warfare  of  1808-09  against  the  French, 
but  was  taken  prisoner  in  1810,  and  detained 
four  years  at  Vincennes.  In  1814  he  was  in 
arms  against  Ferdinand  VII.,  but  was  forced  to 
flee  to  France.  Thence  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  interested  himself  in  the  cause  of  the  Mexican 
jiatriots,  and  with  tlie  aid  of  some  prominent 
Englishmen  organized  an  expedition  and  sailed 
for  America.  In  the  United  States  he  received 
sympathy  and  substantial  support,  and  took  200 
volunteers  with  him,  arriving  at  Galveston  in 
November.  1816.  Soon  afterwards,  crossing  over 
to  New  Orleans,  he  obtained  more  assistance,  and 
after  being  reinforced  by  100  Americans  at  Gal- 
veston, landed'  at  Soto  ilarina.  Province  of 
Tamaulipas,  April,  1817.  At  the  head  of  300 
men  he  defeated  Generals  Armiuan  and  Or- 
donez, and  took  the  towns  of  Leon  and  Guana- 
juato with  the  fortress  of  Sombrero.  Deserted 
by  most  of  his  followers,  he  was  surprised  on 
October  17th  by  an  overwhelming  force,  taken 
to  Mexico  and  shot,  November  11,  1817. 

MINA  BIRD.     See  Myna  Bird. 

MINJE'ANS.  A  Yemenite  people  who  played 
an  ini|i(irtaiit  part  in  the  early  history  of  Arabia. 
The  native  name  was  Ma'in:  hence  the  Greek 
Mtirarot  (U-  Miraioi.  It  is  possible  that  the  name 
was  originally  MaTui.  which  has  been  identified 
by  some  scholars  with  Magi'in,  a  country  south- 
east of  Babylonia,  referred  to  as  early  as  the  in- 
scriptions of  Naram  Sin  of  Agade  in  the  fourth 
millennium  B.C.  and  Gudea  of  Lagash  e.3000  B.C. 
But  the  identification  is  do\ibtful.  There  is  good 
reason  for  supposing  that  the  Jlina-ans  are 
mentioned  in  .Judges  x.  12:  in  I.  Chron.  iv.  41,  in 
connection  with  the  Amalekites  against  whom 
the  tribe  of  Simeon  made  a  raid  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah  :  in  II.  Chron.  xx.  1  among  the  enemies 
of  .Tehoshaphat :  in  TL  Chron.  xxvi.  7  in  con- 
nection with  Philistines  and  Arabs  in  the  days 
of  Uzziah :  and  in  .Tob  ii.  11,  where  the  Greek 
rendering  suggests  that  Zophar  was  a  Minivan. 
While  there  are  many  references  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  to  Kedar.  Nebayoth.  Aribi.  and 
Sheba,  (q.v.),  there  is  no  mention  of  a  kingdom 


MINJEANS. 


530 


MINJEANS. 


of  JIa'in.  Among  classical  writers,  Eratosthenes 
(e.27o-195  B.u.),  Agatliarcliides  (c.120  B.C.), 
Strabo  (died  c.:i4  A.u.),  i'liiiy  (a.d.  23-70),  the 
I'criidus  Maris  Eiythnn  (C.5G-57  a.d.),  and 
Ptolemy  (second  century  a.d.),  speak  of  the  iliu- 
aans  as  one  of  many  peoples  in  Southwest  Arabia, 
but  have  no  knowledge  concerning  the  earlier  his- 
tory of  this  nation.  The  fact  that  tlierc  was  an 
extensive  and  flourishing  Mina-an  kingdom  in 
Arabia  is  known  only  through  the  native  inscrip- 
tions. These  have  been  secured  chiclly  throiigli  the 
personal  efforts  of  IIale\-y,  Doughty,  Eutiiig,  and 
tila.scr.  JIany  of  these  inscriptions  still  r<'main 
unpublished.  Most  of  them  are  very  brief  and 
are  readily  interpreted,  but  a  few  of  the  longer 
ones  present  considerable  difficult}'.  As  to  the 
period  from  which  these  inscriptions  come  there 
was  practical  unanimity  among  scholars  until 
1889.  It  seemed  impossible  that  they  could  be 
older  than  the  carlist  Salwean  inscriptions  (see 
Sab.eans),  and  it  was  supposed  that  the  Jlin- 
aeau  and  Sal):i'an  kingdoms  flourished  side  by 
side.  Such  eminent  .scholars  as  D.  H.  Miillcr, 
ilordtmann,  Hartmann,  and  Eduard  Meyer  still 
adhere  to  this  view,  granting  that  some  may  be 
as  old  as  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  but  maintaining 
that  the  bulk  of  them  were  written  nearer  the 
era  that  begins  in  B.C.  115.  They  point  out  that 
while  the  earlier  inscriptions  of  the  Sabsean 
officials  known  as  miikiirrib  are  written  boustro- 
phednn,  there  is  no  Minncan  inscription  tlius 
running  both  ways;  that  in  the  famous  inscrip- 
tion. ITalcvy  5.3.\.  there  seems  to  be  a  reference 
to  the  Mcdes  which  woiild  place  it  in  the  sixth 
ccnluiT;  -that  Eratosthenes  apparently  knows  of 
Minaan  kings  reigning  at  Kama,  and  that  the 
name  Ptolemy  occurs  in  a  Minoean  inscription 
on  an  Egyptian  sarcophagus.  Glascr,  however, 
in  18S9,  presented  strong  reasons  for  believing 
that  the  Miuican  kingdom  ])rcccded  the  Salxean: 
and  Hommel,  Winckler,  Schmidt,  Dcrenbourg, 
Margoliouth,  and  Weber  have  .advanced  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  his  position.  The  silence  of  the 
Sabiean  inscriptions  concerning  a  Mina;an  king- 
dom would  be  verv'  strange,  if  these  nations  were 
for  a  long  time  powerful  rivals;  and  the  casual 
references  to  Sheba  in  Mina'an  inscriptions  do 
not  seem  to  harmonize  with  the  position  of  this 
power  in  the  centuries  preceding  B.C.  11.5.  Tliat 
the  Assyrians  make  no  mention  of  Ma'tit.  while 
they  are  frequently  occuiiicd  with  Sheba,  ap- 
parently in<licates  the  decline  of  the  former  and 
the  rising  im|iortance  of  the  latter.  In  its  most 
flourishing  period  the  Minsean  kingdom  extended 
far  to  the  north,  as  is  evident  not  only  from 
the  inscriptions  foiuid  at  Kl-dela,  Init  also  from 
the  mention  of  the  Ma'inu  Muzran  in  Halevy 
5.'}5.  So  extensive  a  kingdom  with  its  centre  in 
the  South  Arabian  .Tauf.  where  its  great  cities 
Ma'in.  Karnawu.  and  Vatbil  were,  can  scarcely 
have  existed  side  by  side  with  a  strong  Saba?an 
kingdom  with  the  neighboring  ilarib  for  its 
cajiital.  A  long  inscri|)tion  found  at  Sirwah, 
nn fortunately  not  yet  publislied.  according  to 
rom)ietent  testimony,  descrilws  the  destruction 
of  the  Mina-an  kingdom  by  a  Sabn-an  makrib 
about  B.C.  .5.50.  Sargon's  (ii.c.  721-70.5)  contem- 
porary Itamar  is  not  yet  designated  as  king. 
As  Miiller  has  clearly  proved  that  the  mtiknrrib 
preceded  the  kings  of  Shelm.  the  inference  seems 
necessary  that  the  Minaau  kingdom  flourished 
before  the  SabiFan  muknrrib  period  and  fell 
before   the   rise  of  the   Sab.xan   kingdom.     Tlie 


Mimean  system  of  writing  shows  in  many  re- 
spects a  closer  allinity  to  the  earlier  rather  Hum 
the  later  Sab;can  script;  and  tbe  oldest  Sabiean 
inscriptions  indicate  a  long  period  of  develop- 
ment of  the  South  Arabian  system  of  writing. 
Hence  the  fact  that  the  earliest  Sabaean  in- 
scriptions are  written  boustrophedon  does  not 
show  that  this  script  has  been  recently 
introduced.  A  comparison  of  the  language 
clearly  manifests  the  higher  age  of  the  Mi- 
na^an  wliicli  has  preserved  the  s  in  the  causa- 
tive and  in  the  pronominal  sulli.xes  against 
the  /t  in  the  Sabaean.  The  idenlilication  of  the 
iladbay  as  Jle<les  is  extremely  doubtful.  That 
the  Minaans  continued  to  exist  as  a  people  long 
after  their  power  in  Arabia  had  passed  to  others 
is  evident  from  the  Greek  writers.  Whether 
Eratosthenes  drew  upon  older  sources  accessible 
to  him  in  Alexandria,  was  imperfectly  informed, 
or  actually  knew  of  petty  kings  reigning  in 
Karn.a  in  his  day,  no  scholar  would  seriously 
maintain  tliat  the  power  rcllected  in  the  ilina-an 
inscri]]tions  could  have  been  exercised  from 
Kama  in  the  third  century  B.C.  If  the  sarcoph- 
agus inscription  is  really  Miniuan  rather  than 
Hadramautian  and  Talmilli  is  Plolemy,  its  con- 
tent shows  not  more  clearly  the  survival  of 
ancient  forms,  along  with  some  very  late  ones, 
among  the  Jlinieans  of  the  period  than  the  ab- 
sence of  any  important  ilinawn  kingdom  at  that 
time.  It  therefore  seems  exceedingly  pr(jl)able 
that  tlie  twenty-si.x  kinj's  of  Ma'in  known  from 
the  inscriptions  reigned  before  there  was  any 
Saba^an  king  in  Marib.  As  it  is  scarcely  credi- 
ble that  diance  should  have  given  us  the  name 
of  all  iliniean  kings  or  that  the  twenty-six 
names  represent  an  unbroken  succession,  it  would 
1)8  hazardous  to  infer  that  the  earliest  of  them 
cannot  ha\e  reigned  more  than  four  or  five  cen- 
turies before  the  last.  There  may  have  been 
more  than  one  dynasty.  As  among  the  Saba-ans, 
so  in  tbe  kingdom  of  Ma'in  each  year  seems  to 
have  been  named  after  two  mukarrib  or  high 
officials,  like  the  liiiimi  in  Assyria,  the  archons 
in  Athens,  the  ephors  in  Sparta,  or  the  consuls 
in  Rome.  The  absolute  age  of  the  Mimcan  king- 
dom cannot  be  determined.  The  early  occurrence 
of  numerous  place-names  in  Southern  Syria  and 
Xorthwestem  Arabia  which  seem  to  have  been 
transferred  from  Yemen,  the  raids  of  Minirans 
upon  Palestine  in  the  period  of  the  Judges,  and 
the  essentially  YeUK'nile  character  of  the  traili- 
tions  brought  liy  elans  afterwards  forming  a  part 
of  the  people  of  Israel,  from  the  North  Araliian 
Muzri  (see  Plagies  op  EfiYPT)  to  Canaan,  ren- 
der it-probable  that  kings  of  Mn'in  extendeil  their 
power  to  the  borders  of  Palestine  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century  B.C.  The  Mina-ans  were  to  a 
large  extent  a  settled  people  living  in  cities,  cul- 
tivating the  soil,  worshiping  in  sanctuaries. 
Their  chief  gods  were  a  male  deity.  Athtar  (see 
IsiiiAl!).  the  solar  goddess  Shamsi.  Wadd.  and 
Ankarih.  They  had  priests  and  priestesses,  hiero- 
dulcs  and  sacred  prostitutes,  a  .sacrificial  cult, 
and  many  rules  of  tjihoo.  A  deeper  religious 
sense  is  apparent  than  in  the  period  of  skepticism 
and  syncretism  preceding  Mohanuued. 

The  language  of  the  Mina-ans  is  only  dia- 
lectically  difTerent  from  the  Kntabanian,  Ilailra- 
mautian,  and  Sabiean,  and  is  closely  akin  to  the 
iUliiupIc  and  tbe  classical  Arabic.  As  to  the 
origin  of  tlie  .system  of  writing  used  by  the 
South  Arabian  peoples,  it  is  supposed  by  Halgvy 


MIN^ANS. 


531 


MINARET. 


and  Lidzbarski  to  liave  lioen  formed  from  ilie 
l*ha?niciaii  alphabet  by  a  modification  of  certain 
signs  to  denote  kindred  sounds  and  l)y  changes 
rendering  the  signs  generally  symmetrical.  There 
is  indeed  good  reason  to  suppose  that  many  new 
signs  were  added  in  Arabia  by  slight  changes  in 
those  already  existing,  and  that  the  characters 
were  given  a  squarer  form.  But  there  are  some 
letters  that  are  so  different  from  those  of  the 
Phoenician  alphabet  as  to  raise  the  question 
whether  other  extraneous  influences  may  not  have 
been  at  work.  Wliatever  the  relations  o'f  the 
various  Egypto-Liliyan,  Jlyeeiuean,  and  Anato- 
lian alphabets,  the  contact  of  tlic  Jlina'ans  with 
Egj'pt  and  the  Philistine  eo.-i.st  makes  it  probable 
that  it  was  in  the  nm-thwcst  rather  than  on  the 
Persian  Gulf  that  this  alphabet  grew  up.  A 
tablet  found  at  Lachish  shows  that  not  only 
eimeiform  signs,  but  also  the  Mycenaean  signary 
was  to  some  extent  used  in  the  Philistine  cities  in 
the  fourteenth  century  B.C.  Signs  liave  l)een 
foimd  on  Egyptian  potterj-  that  can  scarcely 
have  originated  in  the  hieroglyphs  that  gave  rise 
to  the  hieratic  script.  It  may  have  been  from 
Gaza  that  the  ilina'ans  broiight  the  prototype 
signs  of  their  alphabet.  As  our  oldest  inscrip- 
tions in  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  dating  from  the 
ninth  century,  show  that  this  system  of  writing 
must  have  been  long  in  use,  so  our  earliest 
Mina'an  inscriptions  indicate  that  the  South 
Arabian  alphabet  already  had  a  long  and  as  yet 
quite  obscure  history  of  develojnncnt. 

BiiiLlOGEAPllY.  Osiander,  "Zur  himjarisehen 
Altertumskunde,"  in  Zcitschrift  der  deutschen 
morffenUindischen  Gesellschaft,  vol.  xix.  (Leip- 
zig, 1865)  ;  Hale^y,  Etudes  sabce^incs  (Paris, 
1875)  ;  D.  H.  Jlilller,  Die  Burgen  und  Schlbsser 
Hiid-Arabiens,  i.,  ii.  (Vienna,  1879-81)  ;  id.,  Epi- 
(jraphische  Denkmiilcr  atis  Arabien  (Vienna, 
1889);  id.,  SiUl-arabische  AUerthiimcr  (Vienna, 
1899);  Eduard  Glaser,  ^kizze  dcr  Oeschichte 
Arabieiis  (ilunich,  1889)  ;  id.,  Oeschichte  und 
tlcofimpltie  Arabiens  (i.,  ib.,  1889;  ii.,  Berlin, 
1890)  ;  id..  Die  Abessi/nii^  in  Arabien  und  Afrika 
(Munich,  1895)  ;  Hommel,  Aufsdtze  und  Abhand- 
hingeti,  i.-ii.  (ib.,  1892-1901);  id.,  Siidnrabische 
Chrestomatie  (ib.,  1893)  ;  id.,  Alti/iruelitische 
Ueherlieferung  (ib.,  1897)  :  N.  Schmidt,  in  He- 
braica,  vol.  x.  (Chicago,  1894)  :  Winckler,  Gc- 
schichte  Israels  (Leipzig,  1895)  ;  id,,  Muzri, 
Meluliha,  Main,  i.-ii.  (Berlin,  1898)  ;  IMordtmann, 
Britriige  sur  miniiischen  Epigraphik  (Weimar, 
189(i)  ;  Hartmann,  in  Zeitachrift  fiir  Assyrio- 
logic,  vol.  X.  (ib.,  1895)  ;  H.  Derenbourg,  Nou- 
renu  memoire  siir  Vepitaphe  min^en  (Paris, 
1895)  ;  Margoliouth,  "Arabia,"  in  the  Hastings 
Bible  Dictionary  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Lidzbarski, 
in  Ephemeris  fiir  semitische  Epigraphik  (Giessen, 
1902)  ;  Otto  Weber,  Studien  zur  siidarabischcn 
Altertumskunde  (Berlin,  1901);  id.,  Eine  neue 
miniiisehe  Inschrift  (ib.,  1901)  ;  Corpus  Inserip- 
tionum  Semitiearum,  part  iv..  Inscriptiones 
IJiinjnritica'  et  Sahww   (Paris,  1889  seq.). 

MINAEFF,  me-na'ef,  DMniii  (1835-89),  A 
Kussiau  poet,  born  at  Simbirsk,  lie  was  edu- 
cated in  a  military  school,  and,  after  brief  serv- 
ice as  secretary  in  the  Department  of  the  In- 
terior, from  which  he  resigned  in  1857,  devoted 
him.self  to  literature.  His  most  im])ortant  work 
was  as  a  translator  of  parts  of  Dante's  Inferno, 
and  of  some  of  the  works  of  Victor  Hugo,  and, 
among  EnglLsh  poets,  of  Shelley,  Byron,  and 
Marlowe,      His    original    works    include   poetry, 


especially   satire,    and    a    comedy   which   won  a 
prize  from  the  Saint  Petersburg  Academy. 

MIN'AHAS'SAS.  The  natives  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  ,\linaliassa  in  Xorthorn  Celebes,  called  by 
some  autliorilics  Alfuros.  A  mixture  of  types 
certainly  exists.  Semi-Papuan  somatic  features 
have  been  detected  an\ong  some  of  the  less  civi- 
lized triJjes,  while  in  many  of  the  villages  the 
ifalay  tyjio  of  CelelK-s  prevails.  In  this  prov- 
ince, ])arlicul!irly  in  the  Tondano  district,  the 
so-called  'Indonesian'  type  is  to  be  seen,  and 
infiltrations  from  Borneo  and  the  Philii)pines  are 
suspected.  The  Malayan  language  proper  has  in 
recent  years  made  considerable  inroad  upon  the 
native  dialects.  Among  the  Minahassas  women 
arc  on  an  equal  footing  with  men,  although  from 
Mohammedan  intliicnces  some  modifications  have 
been  made  upon  the  ancient  monogamy  of  this 
people.  The  best  account  of  the  !^iinahassas  in 
English  is  in  Iliekson,  A  Naturalist  in  Sorth 
Celebes    (London,   1SS9I, 

MINAMOTO  YOSHITSTJNE,  mC'na-mu'to 
yo'she-tsoo'na  (1158-1189),  A  Japanese  chief- 
tain, Japanese  history  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  a,d.  is  concerned  with  the 
struggles  of  the  Taira  and  the  Minamoto  clans. 
In  1159  Yoshitomo,  the  head  of  the  Minamoto, 
was  killed  and  his  elan  defeated.  His  three  sous 
escaped,  and  after  years  of  adventure  defeated 
the  Taira  finally  in  1185.  Yoshitsune,  the  young- 
est of  the  three,  was  the  lieutenant  of  his  elder 
brother  Yoritomo,  and  the  most  efiicient  warrior 
in  his  army.  Yoshitsune  was  in  command  when 
the  last  battle  was  fought,  but  his  success  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  of  his  brother,  who  sought 
his  death.  Escaping  with  eleven  comrades,  Yo- 
shitsune was  pursued,  and  committed  suicide  in 
1189.  His  history,  with  its  adventures,  triumphs, 
and  tragic  end,  is  the  favorite  theme  of  romance, 
poetry,  and  drama.  In  one  form  of  the  story  the 
liero  escaped  with  his  life,  and  found  refuge 
among  the  Aino  in  Yezo,  where  he  is  still  wor- 
shiped as  a  god.  Another  legend  represents  him 
as  going  to  the  continent  of  Asia  and  identifies 
him  with  Genghis  Khan. 

MIN'ARET.  The  tower  of  a  mosque  (q.v.), 
corresponding  to  the  bell-tower  or  campanile  of 
Christian  churches,  and  so  called  ('light-tower') 
because  on  feast  days  it  was  illuminated  at  night. 
The  Mohammedan  call  to  ]5rayer  is  not  by  bell, 
but  by  the  voice  of  the  olTieial  termed  nuiezzin 
who  at  stated  times  (five  times  daily)  mounts 
to  the  suunnit  of  the  minaret  and  summons  the 
people  from  its  upper  balcony  with  the  pre- 
scribed formula.  Each  mosque  has  one  or  more 
minarets.  The  normal  number  for  the  largest 
DJami  mosques  is  four,  one  at  each  angle  of  the 
inclosure.  Some  have  as  many  as  six,  e.g.  the 
Ahmed  mosque  at  Constantinople.  The  mosque 
at  Mecca  has  the  exceptional  number  of  seven. 

The  usual  type  is  a  slender  polygonal  and 
cylindrical  structure  of  stone  or  brick,  often 
rising  from  a  square  base  and  consisting  of  sev- 
eral stories  marked  by  balconies,  either  pro- 
jecting on  stalactite  .sujjports,  or  with  a  receding 
story  above ;  it  is  crowned  by  a  pinnacle  or  small 
dome.  The  smnmit  is  reached  by  a  winding  inner 
stairway;  only  the  old  stone  minaret  of  TuUni 
at  Cairo  has  an  external  winding  staircase. 

The  earliest  mosques  had  no  minarets.  They 
were  first  built  during  the  seventh  century,  the 
Khalif  Omar  being  said  to  have  erected  two  at 


MINARET. 


532 


MINCH. 


Kufa  and  Mudina.  Those  earlier  than  t^e  twelfth 
t-eiitury  were  usually  heavy  sijuare  structures  of 
stuccoed  brick  or  stone  without  much  ornament. 
This  type  is  preserved  at  the  mosque  of  Sidi 
Okba  at  Kairwan  in  Tunis.  Amonj;  the  finest 
;.MOups  of  tlu'  middle  period  is  that  of  Cairo — 
the  mosques  of  Ihn  Tulun,  Hassan,  Barkuk, 
Kalaun,  Bordei,  and  Kait  Bey.  The  Tulun 
mosque  had  a  stone  minaret  in  the  centre  of  one 
of  the  sides  on  a  square  plan  [jassing  first  to  a 
cylindrical  and  tlien  to  an  octagonal  shape.  The 
Hassan  mosque  has  two  minarets;  that  of  Kait 
Bey  only  one. 

The   minarets   of    Kgypt,   Spain.   Syria,    India, 
Persia,  and  Turkey  btiilt  between  the  thirteenth 
and    sixteenth    centuries    are    among    the    most 
original   and   graceful    works   of   Eastern   archi- 
tecture.    The  t;iralda  at  Seville  shows  that  the 
Sjjanish  moors  maintained  the  early  square  type 
with  added  delicacy  and  richness;  generally  the 
circular   and   octagonal    types   prevail.      The   old 
heavy  simplicity  has  been  replaced  by  a  wealth  of 
surface    decoration    in    relief    and    color    and    by 
great    slenderness.       St-alactite    corbels     support 
the   balconies,   arabesques   and   colonnettes  break 
up   the   surfaces,   and   glazed   tiles,   especially   in 
Persia,  add  a  brilliant  coloring.     Damascus  and 
Bagdad    presei-ve    some    of    their    mediirval    ex- 
amples.   The  minarets  of  .\hmedabad  rival  those 
of  Cairo:   those  of   Delhi  and  Agra   are   liardly 
less    interesting.      Those   of    the    Constiintinople 
mosques,    such    as    Saint    Sophia,    Ahmed,    etc., 
are  exceedingly  graceful.     Sometimes  the  colleges 
or   madrasah    had   minarets   of   similar   style   to 
those    of    the    mosques,    as    in    that    of    Sultan 
Husein  at  Ispahan,  where  the  towers  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  great  mosque  of  Ispahan,     The 
height  varies  exceedinglv :  among  the  highest  are 
Giralda    (formerly  2.30 'feet,  now  308  feet),  Ka- 
laun  I  103  feet  I,  and  Hassan  (280  feet)   at  Cairo, 
and    the    Kiitub    .Minar    near    Delhi     1242    feet). 
Consult  the  bil)liography  of  Moii.\mmeuan  Abt. 
MINAS,      ine'niish.     more     properly     Bfxlo 
HoKi/uXTE,  bel'16  o'rt-zon'tft.     The  ca])ital  of  the 
State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil.     It  is  situated  on 
a  jdateau  00  miles  northwest  of  the  late  capital, 
Oiiro   Preto    (q.v.).     Though   founded   as   late  as 
1,'^!I4.  it  has  now  grown  into  a  large  and  nourish- 
ing city  of  30.000  inhaliitants.  with  broad  streets, 
public  gardens,  fine  public  buildings,  and  olViciai 
residences.     It  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and  has 
an  excellent  supply  of  pure  spring  water.     It  is 
connected    bv    a    branch    line    with    the    Central 
P>:iilniad   of'tlie  State. 

HINAS,  me'nas.  Capital  of  the  department  of 
the  same  name  in  I'ruguay.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  .55  miles  nortlicast  of  .Montevideo,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail  (^lap:  l'r\iguay. 
(i  10).  It  is  surrounded  by  well-cultivated  grain- 
producing  lands,  anil  there  are  quarries  of  marble 
and  granite  in  the  neighborhood.  Population, 
about    .'iOltO 

MINAS  DE  BIO  TINTO,  me'nas  d.^  re'6 
(."•n'to.  .\n  important  mining  town  in  Southern 
Spain,  in  the  Province  of  lluelva.  situated  among 
the  mountains,  32  miles  northeast  of  the  city  of 
Hnelvn  (Map:  Spain,  B  4).  The  surrounding 
countrj-  contains  almost  inexhaustible  ilcposits 
of  copper  ore.  which  were  exploited  by  the  an- 
cient Phienicians.  In  1873  the  mines  were  taken 
over  by  a  London  company,  and  the  methods 
of  obtaining  the  ore  revolutionized.     The  mines 


now  employ  10,000  workers:  in  1900  the  quan- 
tity of  ore  produced  amounted  to  1,894,000  tons, 
from  which  21,120  tons  of  pure  copper  were 
derived.  The  town,  which  in  184;')  had  a  popu- 
lation of  only  80(1,  luuubered  in  1900,  9956. 

MINAS    GEBAES,    me'nash    zhi\rlsh'.      An 
eastern    State    of    Brazil,   bounded    by    Bahia   on 
the  north.   Espirito   Santo  on   the   east,   Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Silo  Paulo  on  the  south,  and  Goyaz 
on  the  west     (Map:  Brazil,  H  7) .    Area,  221,890 
square    miles.      The    Strife    lies    wholly    in    the 
Brazilian  Plateau,  with  an  .average  elevation  of 
2000    feet,    and    is    traversed    by    a    numl)cr    of 
mountain  ranges,  which,  altlunigh  the  highest  in 
iirazil,    are    not    very    prominent,    owing   to    the 
general    elevation    of    the    surrounding    countiy. 
The    inincipal    ranges    are   the    Serra   da    Mant.i- 
qucira  along  the  southern  frontier,  and  the  Serra 
do  Espinhaco,  running  north  and  scnith  through 
the   centre   of    the   State,      At   their   junction    is 
-Mount    Itatiaia,  about   9000   feet   high   and   the 
highest    point    in    Brazil.      Only    the    mountain 
ranges    and   the    river    valleys    are    forested;    be- 
tween  them   are   extensive    steppes    covered   only 
with  grass  and  scanty  shrubbery,     ilinas  Geraes 
is    watered    by    numerous    rivers,    including    the 
Sao    Francisco     (with    its    numerous    tributaries 
which  take  in  the  larger  portion  of  the  State), 
the   headstreams   of   the    Paraml,   and   the   Doce. 
Of   these   only   the    Sao    Francisco    is   navigable, 
but  it  does  not  atlord  direct  communication  with 
the  Atlantic  owing  to  its  numerous  rapids.     The 
climate  dilTers  according  to  the  formation  of  the 
surface.      It   is   very   hot   in   the   thickly   wooded 
valleys,  but  moderate  and  not  unlicalthful  in  the 
more   elevated   portions,   where    the    temperature 
may    even    reach    the    freezing    point   during   the 
night.      In    fonner   years   the  chief   economic   in- 
terest of  Minas  Geraes  was  centred  in   its  gold 
and  diamond  mines.    At  present,  however,  mining 
is  in  a  state  of  decline.     Iron  ore  is   found  in 
great  quantities ;  and  gold  is  still  mined  to  some 
extent,    but    the    diamond    mines    are    well-nigh 
abandoned.     The  chief   industries  are   in  connec- 
tion    with    agricultiire    and     stock-raising,    the 
leading    agricultur;il    i)rochu'ts    being    coffee,    su- 
gar,   corn,    beans,    and    potatoes.      Stock-mising 
is   carried    on    extensively,    and    cheese    is    pro- 
duced   in    large    quantities.      The    chief    man- 
ufactures   are    those    of    cotton,    textiles,    and 
cigars.      Railway    lines    traverse    the    southern 
portion    of   the  "State    and    are    connected    with 
the    Rio   de    Janeiro    lines,      Minas    Geraes    had 
a  population  of  3,184.099  in   1S90.     The  inhabit- 
ants are  largely  of  nnxed  origin,  and  the  number 
of   aborigines    is   still    considerable:    negroes    are 
also  numerous.     Minas  (ieraes  was  settled  at  the 
end   of  the  sixteenth   century,   immigrants  being 
atlra<'tcd  there  by  the  gold  and  diamond  deposits 
of   the    region.      It    was    se|>:U!ited    from    Rio    de 
Janeiro   in    1709   and   several   tinu^s   rose   in   re- 
volt   against    the    central    goverinnent.       Up    to 
1894  the  capital  was  Ouro  Preto   (q.v.).  but  the 
seat    of  government   was   then   removed   to   Bcllo 
Ilorizonte  or  ^linas   (q.v,). 

MINBXT,  min1)no.  A  division  of  Upper  Burma 
comprising  the  districts  of  Minbu.  .Magwe,  Pa- 
kokku.  an<l  Tliavetmvo,  -Vrea,  17,170  s(iuare 
miles:  population,  in  1891.  990,873;  in  1901, 
1.077,078.     Capital.  Minbu. 

MINCH.  The  channel  which  separates  the 
island  of  Lewes  in  the  Hebrides  from  the  north- 


MINCH. 


533 


MINDANAO. 


west  of  Scotland  (Jlaji:  Scotland,  CI).  Its 
shores  are  exceedingly  irregular,  and  its  average 
width  is  ahout  30  miles.  It  connects  with  the 
.Sea  of  the  Hebrides  to  the  south  by  the  Little 
ilineh,  which  is  about  15  miles  wide,  and  which 
separates  the  island  of  Skye  from  tliat  of  North 
list  and  the  neighboring  islands  in  the  outer 
llebrides. 

MINCIO,  men'cho.  A  left  affluent  of  the 
River  Po,  Italy,  which  it  joins  near  Governalo, 
ten  miles  southeast  of  Mantvia,  after  a  south- 
eastern course  of  about  120  miles.  Its  source 
is  at  Pescheria,  where  it  flows  from  Lake  Garda. 
It  is  the  ancient  Mincius,  and  during  the  Austro- 
Italian  wars  was  an  ini])ortant  strategical  base, 
several  battles  being  fought  along  its  banks. 

MINCKWITZ,  mink'vlts,  .Johanne.s  (1812- 
85).  A  German  poet  and  classical  scholar,  born 
at  Liickersdorf.  He  was  educated  at  Leipzig,  was 
appointed  professor  there  in  1861,  and  in  1883 
remoxed  to  Heidelberg.  He  first  gained  fame  by 
liis  translations  into  German  of  llonier,  .Eschy- 
lus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  Aristophanes,  Pin- 
dar, and  Lucian.  He  also  wrote  Vorschule 
zum  Homer  (1803).  In  the  field  of  German 
criticism,  Minckwitz  wrote  Platen  ah  Mensch 
iiiul  Dkhter  (1830)  and  Lchen  I'laleiis  (1838), 
and  edited  Platen's  posthumous  papers  (1852)  ; 
and  he  also  published:  Lchrhuch  dcr  deutschen 
Versh-uitst  (1844):  a  play.  Dcr  Prin^cnrauh 
( 18351 )  :  and  a  volume  of  popular  poems  (1847). 
MINCOPIES.  The  native  inhaliitants  of  the 
Andaman  Islands.  They  are  in  genei-a!  of  very  low 
stature,  averaging  1.40  meters,  and  are  sub- 
brachyce])halic  with  an  index  of  82.6.  They  have 
a  very  low  grade  of  civilization,  living  in  huts 
called  'ehongs,'  which  consist  merely  of  a  roof  on 
four  stakes,  and  going  naked.  They  live  by  hunt- 
ing and  use  a  peculiar  bow  in  the  sha]ie  of  an 
S,  which  presents  a  curious  analogue  to  certain 
Eskimo  bows  and  also  to  the  bows  of  some  Bantu 
tribes  in  East  Africa.  Consult  Man,  "Aborigines 
of  the  Andaman  Islands."  in  the  Journril  of  thi' 
Aiitliropoloqiral  InstUiite.  vol.  xi.  (London, 
1882)  :  Deniker,  Races  of  Man  (ib..  1901).  See 
Aniiai[.\>;s. 

MIND  (AS.  gemi/nd,  Icel.  minni,  Goth,  ffum- 
iiiids.  memory,  from  AS.  munan,  Icel.  muna, 
Giith.  (/amiinan,  to  remember:  ultimately  connect- 
ed with  Lat.  mens,  Gk.  /iims,  meiws,  mind,  Skt. 
man.  to  think).  The  collective  term  for  the 
subject-matter  of  psychology  (q.v.).  The  com- 
mon-sense view  of  mind  makes  it  a  mind-sub- 
stance, a  sjuritual  agent,  a  real,  simple,  and 
unitary  being,  sharply  opposed  to  material  sub- 
stance as  'thought'  is  opposed  to  'extension,'  yet 
interacting  with  the  physical  universe  under 
-some  form  of  the  causal  law.  This  conception 
of  mind  has  its  root  in  primitive  reflection  upon 
the  phenomena  of  sleep,  dreams,  trance,  and 
death.  It  received  philosophical  treatment  at 
the  hands  of  the  scholastic  psychologists;  and.  in 
its  current  form,  is  practically  a  legacy  from 
Descartes.  It  is  doubtless  kept  alive  by  its 
emotional  value;  it  satisfies  human  aspiratiims. 
and  accords  well  with  the  natural  anthropocentric 
notion  of  the  world  at  large.  It  is  still  held  In- 
some  psychologists:  I.add  openly  accepts  it,  and 
James,  while  rejecting  it  for  his  psycholog;\-,  yet 
admits  that,  for  his  personal  tliinking,  it  appears 
'"the  line  of  least  logical  resistance."  Neverthe- 
less, such  a  view  of  mind   is  whollv  foreign  to 


tlie  spirit  and  to  tlie  renuirements  of  modern 
psychologj'.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  uusupport<;d 
by  psychological  evidence.  Had  there  been  the 
same  emotional  temptation  to  reject  minds  as 
there  has  been  to  posit  them,  we  may  be  sure 
that  the  arguments  ordinarily  urged  in  their 
favor  would  have  received  but  scant  attention. 
Secondly,  the  assumption  of  a  real  mind  is  super- 
fluous. "The  subslantialist  view  of  the  soul," 
says  James,  "is  at  all  events  needless  for  ex- 
pressing the  actual  subjective  phenomena  of 
consciousness  as  they  ap|)ear:"  "the  substantial 
soul  explains  nothing  and  guarantees  nothing." 

In  so  far,  then,  as  this  tlieory  of  mind  is  con- 
cerned, modern  psychology  is  what  Lange,  the 
historian  of  materialism.  luimed  it:  a  psychology 
without  a  mind,  a  I'syeliologic  ohne  Seele.  Even 
the  few  writers  wlio  still  cling  to  the  substan- 
tialist  view  make  no  use  of  the  assumption  in 
their  actual  presentation  of  psychological  facts 
and  laws;  it  is  only  in  their  concluding  remarks, 
at  the  point  of  transition  from  |)sychology  proper 
to  metaphysics,  that  mind,  the  "unit  being,'  is 
introduced.  At  the  same  time,  it  would  be  en- 
tirely erroneous  to  apply  Lange's  phrase,  with- 
out qualification,  to  mental  science.  A  psychol- 
ogy without  some  sort  of  mind  would  be  impos- 
sible. The  new  psychology  keeps  the  term  mind, 
but  defines  it  as  the  sum-total  of  an  individual's 
mental  experience.  Just  as  a  'plant'  is  the 
organized  whole  of  root,  stem,  leaves,  and 
flowers,  and  not  something  above  and  behind 
these  'parts,'  so  is  mind  the  organized  whole  of 
our  mental  processes  (q.v.),  the  interwoven 
totality  of  thoughts,  feelings,  desires,  volitions, 
etc.,  and  not  something  above  and  behind  these 
'manifestations'  of  mentality. 

BiisLiOGBAPiiY.  .lames.  Principles  of  Psi/chol- 
o<iy,  vol.  i.  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Ebbinghaus, 
(irund:sHrie  der  Psychologic,  vol.  i.  (Leipzig, 
1897);  \Vundt,  Outlines  of  Psycliolof/i/  (trans,, 
ib.,  1898)  ;  Titchener,  OiUii'ne  of  Psycholofiy  d^ew 
York.  1899)  ;  Kuelpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology 
(trans.,  ib.,  1895)  ;  id..  Introduction  to  Philos- 
ojihy  (trans.,  ib..  1897)  :  Ladd.  Elements  of 
Physiological  Psychology  (ib..  1889);  id..  Phi- 
losojiliy  of  Mind  (ib.,  1895).  See  Body  and 
ilixD;   Consciousness;   Elements,  Conscious. 

MIND;  mint.  Gottfried  (1768-1814).  A 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Bern.  He  was  educated 
at  Pestalozzi's  charity  school,  and  studied  imder 
Freudenberger.  Naturally  eccentric,  and  subject 
to  a  deformity,  he  studiously  avoided  society. 
He  was  fond  of  cats,  his  pictures  of  which  are  his 
most  characteristic  works.  He  was  also  suc- 
cessful in  the  delineation  of  bears.  Although  he 
died  poor,  some  of  his  pittures  have  since  been 
sold  at  very  high  rates,  and  have  been  frequently 
lithographed.  Consult  \Yiedemann,  Der  Katzen- 
raffael    (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1SS7). 

MINDANAO,  mfn'da-nii'o.  The  .second  in 
importance  and,  according  to  tlie  latest  official 
estimate,  the  first  in  size  of  the  Philippine 
Islands.  It  is  the  soulhemmost  of  the  large 
islands  of  the  archipelago,  between  latitude  5° 
21'  and  9°  50'  N.,  and  between  longitude  121°  53' 
and  126"  28'  E..  al>out  220  miles  northeast  of 
Borneo  and  270  miles  north  of  Celelies  (!Map: 
Philippine  Islands.  .1  12).  It  is  boundeil  on  the 
north  by  the  channels  and  seas  separating  it 
from  the  islands  of  Leyte,  Bohol.  Cebi'i,  and 
Negros,   the   narrowest  of   these   channels   being 


MINDANAO. 


534 


MINDEN. 


the  Strait  of  Suriyao,  7  miles  wide,  separating 
the  nortlieastem  extremity  of  the  island  from 
Leyte.  On  the  cast  Mindanao  is  bounded  by  the 
Pacilic  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Celebes  Sea, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Sulu  Sea. 

Ake.\.  ajxd  Co'FlGUEATiON.  As  Mindanao  has 
never  licen  thoroughly  surveyed,  its  area  can  only 
be  given  approximately.  It  has  been  estimated 
as  low  as  30,237  square  miles,  including  its 
dependent  islands.  The  official  estimate  of  1902, 
however,  irives  as  the  area  of  the  mainland,  45,559 
square  miles,  which  is  larger  than  that  for  Luzon 
(q.v. ),  and  of  the  204  dcijcndent  islanils,  1102 
square  miles,  making  a  total  of  40,721,  which, 
even  excluding  the  <le|X'ndent  islands,  is  larger 
than  that  of  the  St-iite  of  Pennsylvania.  Min- 
danao, like  Luzon,  is  very  irregular  in  outline. 
It  consists  of  a  main  body  about  300  miles  long 
from  north  to  south  and  150  miles  broad,  with 
a  long,  irregular  peninsula  stretching  iu  a  semi- 
circle for  180  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  west- 
ern coast,  where  it  is  connected  by  an  istlmius 
between  the  Bay  of  Iligan  on  the  north,  and  the 
Bay  of  Illana  on  the  south.  Tliere  are  numerous 
other  large  and  small  bays  on  all  sides  of  the 
island,  among  which  the  large  and  deep  Bay  of 
Dflvao  indenting  the  south  coast  is  one  of  the 
finest  and  largest  of  the  archijx-lago.  Of  the 
dependent  islands  the  principal  (with  their  areas 
in  square  miles)  are  the  following:  Camiguin 
(65)  off  the  north  coast.  Dinagat  (258)  and 
Siargao  (17G)  on  the  northeast,  Samal  (178)  in 
the  Bay  of  Dilvao,  Balut  (42)  and  Sarangani 
(25)  to  the  southeast,  Olutanga  (30)  soutli  of 
the  western  peninsula,  and  Basilan  (304)  form- 
ing with  about  50  small  islets  a  separate  province 
at  the  extreme  southwestern  end. 

TopoGR.U'HT.  The  coa.sts  as  a  rule  consist  of 
sandy  beaches  interrujited  by  numerous  rocky 
headlands.  Almost  everywhere  the  forest-cov- 
ered mountains  approach  close  to  the  shores,  and 
the  interior  is  in  general  very  mountainous,  con- 
taining the  highest  peaks  in  the  Philippines,  such 
as  Mount  Malindang.  8007  feet  high,  in  the 
northwestern  part,  and  the  volcano  of  Apo.  10,312 
feet,  w-est  of  Dfivao  Ba.v.  The  mountain  system 
consists  of  a  number  of  irregular,  broken,  and 
roughly  parallel  chains  traversing  the  island 
from  north  to  south,  and  inclosing  lietwccn  them 
large  and  fertile  river  valleys.  The  configuration 
of  the  mountains  in  many  places  bears  evidence 
of  having  been  influenced  and  even  originated  by 
volcanic  action.  There  are  several  active  and  a 
numlMT  of  extinct  volcanoes,  while  plains  of  vol- 
canic matter  as  well  as  sulphur  an<l  hot  springs 
occur,  and  the  island  is  subject  to  frcqtient  and 
violent  earthquakes.  .  Vciy  little,  however,  is 
known  of  the  geologj-  of  Mindanao. 

HvnROtiRAriiv.  The  two  princinal  river  sys- 
tems lie  on  either  side  of  the  central  mountain 
range,  both  of  them  riuming  almost  the  entire 
length  of  the  island.  On  the  east  is  the  .\gusan, 
running  northward  into  the  Bay  of  Butrtan;  on 
the  west  is  the  llio  Grande  de  Mindori>.  runnmg 
south,  then  west  into  the  Bay  of  Illana,  and 
rivaling  in  size  the  f'agayfin  of  Luzon,  Both  of 
these  systems  include  several  large  lakes.  Owing 
to  the  proximity  of  the  mountains  to  the  coasts, 
most  of  the  remaining  rivers  of  Mindanao  are 
short  and  torrential. 

Climate,  Being  situated  at  the  southern  end 
of  the  archipelago,  within  10°  of  the  equator, 
and  being  less  exposed  to  cooling  winds  than  the 


northern  islands,  Mindanao  has  a  hot  and  humid 
climate.  The  warm  and  moisture-laden  south 
winds  are  particularlv  enervating,  though  the 
land  breezes  from  the  mountains  are  cool  and 
refreshing.  The  climate  is  more  equable  than 
that  of  Luzon,  and  the  island  is  seldom  touched 
by  the  tjphoons,  which  rage  only  among  the 
northern  islands.  The  rainfall  is  ver.v  heavy, 
often  exceeding  100  inches,  and  reaching  some- 
times 140  inches  in  a  .vear.  Several  parts  of  the 
island  are  subject  to  destructive  inundations. 

Fi.oi!A  and  l'.\uxi  (for  general  descri]>tion  see 
Pllli.ll'i'l.NEs ) ,  The  vegetation  of  -Mindanao, 
even  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  arcliijK'lago, 
is  remarkably  luxuriant.  Almost  the  wliole  is- 
land is  covered  with  forests  so  interwoven  with 
eancs  and  vines  as  to  form  in  man.y  places  an 
impenetrable  jimgle.  The  flora  partakes  of  the 
character  of  that  of  Celebes  and  the  Moluccas; 
cinnamon,  nutmeg,  and  other  spices,  and  betel- 
nuts  grow  wild,  and  the  forests  aboiuid  in  the 
most  valuable  building  timber  and  cabinet  woods. 

The  animal  life  is  c(iuall.v  abundant  and  varied, 
including,  besides  the  species  common  to  all  the 
islands,  many  species  peculiar  to  Mindanao. 
Monkeys  are  very  numerous,  and  es])eciall.v  char- 
acteristic is  the  white  monke.v  {Macacus  Philip- 
pinen.iis).  Reptiles,  including  venomous  snakes, 
abound,  and  the  rivers  are  infested  with  croco- 
diles. Consult:  MimlaiHio,  -tu  histnria  y  gcof/rnfia 
(Madrid,  1894)  ;  Gonzalez  Parrado,  Mcmoria 
acerca  dc  Mindanao  (Manila,  1S93).  See  Phil- 
ippine Islands, 

MIND  CURE.  See  nYPNOTLSM;  Mesmer- 
ism ;    SrCGESTIOX. 

MIN'DELEFF,  Cosmos  (1863—),  An  Amer- 
ican archaologist,  of  Russian  parentage.  From 
1SS2,  when  liewas  attached  to  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Ethnology-,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  aboriginal  habitations  of  N'cw  Mexi- 
co and  .\rizona.  He  became  specially  skilled  in 
the  modeling  of  these,  and  wrote  articles  upon 
"The  Influence  of  Geographic  Environment"  {Ritl- 
letin  of  the  American  Geographical  .SoWr/i/. 
xxix,,  1897).  and  a  scries  upon  "Pueblo  Arts  and 
Sciences"  (Scientific  American.  1898).  He  and 
his  brother.  A'ictor  MindelcfT,  prepared  the  first 
exhaustive  report  on  Pueblo  architecture,  and 
Cosmos  made  plans  (1891)  for  the  restoration 
of  tlu'  Casa  Grande  clilV  dwellings  in  .\rizona. 

MIN'DEN.  An  ancient  town  in  the  Province 
of  \Vest]ihalia.  Prussia,  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  navigable  \\eser.  39  n)iles  bv  rail  west- 
southwest  of  Hanover  (Map:  Prussia.  C  2),  It 
is  an  old-fashioned  town  with  modern  siiburbs 
laid  out  on  the  site  of  the  fortifications  demol- 
ished in  1873.  Its  pulilic  buildings  ineluilc  the 
thirteenth  centurv  cathedral,  a  fine  early  Gothic 
structure  with  valuable  works  of  art  in  its  treas- 
ury: the  town  hall;  the  government  buildings; 
and  the  gymnasium,  having  an  aula  dcccirated 
with  fine  paintings.  Minden  manufactures  ci- 
gars, glassware,  chemicals,  chicor.v.  iron  prod- 
ucts, etc.  The  trade  is  quite  active.  Minden 
is  sup])osed  to  be  of  Roman  origin.  Charlemagne 
made  it  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  which  was  con- 
verted into  a  secular  principality  in  1048.  and 
united  with  Brandenburg.  Population,  in  1890, 
20,223:  in   1900.  24,327,  chiefly  Protestants. 

MINDEN.  A  city  and  the  county-.seat  of 
Kearney  Count.v,  Neb,,  128  miles  west  bv  south 
of    Lincoln;    on    the    Chicago,    Burlington    and 


MINDEN. 


535 


MINER. 


Quincy  Railroad  (ilap:  Nebraska,  F  3).  It  is 
the  ctntre  of  a  farming  and  stuck-raising  dis- 
trict, and  has  some  manufactures.  There  is  a 
public  school  library  of  3000  volumes.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,   1380;    in  1900,  1238. 

MINDORO,  m«n-do'r6.  One  of  the  Pliilip- 
j)ino  l.slands,  among  which  it  ranks  seventh  in 
size.  It  is  situated  south  of  the  main  body  of 
I-uzon,  from  whicli  it  is  separated  by  a  sea 
cliannel,  7^^  miles  wide  (Map:  Philippine  Isl- 
ands. F  7).  Its  extreme  length  from  northwest 
to  southeast  is  110  miles,  and  its  greatest  width 
is  38  miles.  The  area  of  the  mainland  is  4010, 
and  of  the  26  dependent  islands  68  square  miles, 
making  a  total  of  4108  square  miles.  The  island 
has  an  oval  shape  with  no  large  indentations, 
though  there  are  a  number  of  small  bays  and 
several  almost  land-locked  harbors.  The  coasts, 
though  generallj'  having  deep  water  close  to 
shore,  are  lined,  especially  along  the  west  side, 
with  submarine  reefs.  Jlindoro  is,  next  to  Min- 
danao, the  most  elevated  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands. The  whole  interior  forms  a  mountainous 
plateau,  reaching  in  Mount  llalcon  the  height 
of  8860  fret.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  island, 
from  the  mountain  summits  to  high-water  mark, 
is  covered  with  unbroken  virgin  forests,  though 
in  the  narrow  strip  of  lowland  along  the  west- 
ern coast  there  are  some  prairie  and  marshy 
regions.  The  rivers  are  all  short  and  simple 
streams  running  down  from  the  edge  of  the 
plateau  on  all  sides,  there  being  no  large  river- 
system.  The  climate  is  more  variable  tlian  that 
prevailing  in  the  southern  islands,  and  Mindoro 
is  especially  exposed  to  the  monsoons.  The 
jiroximit^v  of  the  forests  to  the  coast  towns  ren- 
ders these  unhealthful  and  subject  to  inter- 
mittent and  typhoid  fevers. 

In  spite  of  the  fertility  and  natural  wealth 
of  the  island,  its  economic  conditions  are  in  a 
veiy  backward  state.  A  very  small  portion  of  it 
is  cultivated,  and  the  yield  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts is  scarcely  enough  for  home  consumption. 
The  cultivation  of  sugar,  cotton,  and  hemp  is 
increasing,  and  a  little  of  the  latter  is  exported. 
The  mineral  wealth  is  believed  to  be  considerable, 
hut  only  the  coal-beds  and  sulphur  springs  have 
begun  to  be  exploited.  The  principal  exports  are 
forest  products,  such  as  timber  and  pitch,  and  the 
forests  also  are  the  basis  of  the  principal  indus- 
tries— wood-cutting  and  rattan-splitting.  Com- 
munication is  almost  exclusively  carried  on  in 
coasting  vessels,  the  interior  being  a  rough  and 
pathless  wilderness. 

Tlic  population  of  Mindoro  was  estimated  in 
1901  at  100.000.  including  some  .30.000  savages 
inhabiting  the  interior.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Malayans,  with  a  few  Visayans,  and  the 
languages  spoken  are  Visayan,  Manguiano,  and 
Tagalog.  By  the  act  of  the  Philippine  Com- 
mission of  June  23.  1902.  Mindoro  was  incor- 
porated in  the  Province  of  Jfarinduque,  with  the 
capital  at  BOac,  situated  on  the  island  of  Marin- 
duque  ( q.v. ) .     See  Phtlippine  Lsland.s. 

MIND-READING.  See  Muscle-Reading  ; 
Tei.kp.vtiiy. 

MIND-STUFF  THEORY.  A  metaphysical 
tlicnrv  whic-li  explains  tlie  relation  of  matter 
and  mind  l)v  afhrniing  their  identity  under  the 
form  of  atoms  of  mind-stulT.  These  atoms  are  of 
a  nature  between  physical  atoms  and  psychical 
monads,  representing  an  indivisible  element,  as 


the  former,  but  being  qualitatively  rather  than 
quantitatively  determined,  as  the  latter.  Mind 
and  matter,  according  to  this  theory,  are  but 
forms  of  composition  of  the  atoms  of  mind-stuff; 
only  under  the  most  rarely  favorable  conditions 
does  this  cora|)osition  result  in  intelligence,  as  in 
the  higher  animals,  but  at  the  same  time  no  mat- 
ter is  to  be  conceived  as  'dead*  matter,  since  it  is 
built  up  of  elements  whose  essential  character  is 
psychical.  The  theory  was  propounded  by  \V.  K. 
Clifford,  in  Mind   (old  series),  vol.  iii. 

MINE,  Schmamne.    See  Tokpedo. 

MINE  GAS.  An  explosive  gas  encountered 
in  coal  mines,  also  known  as  fire-damp.  It  con- 
sists principally  of  marsh  gas  (CH,),  which  is 
the  combustible  element,  but  it  contains  also 
small  proportions  of  nitrogen  and  carbon  dio.xide. 
Owing  to  its  light  siK.'cilic  gravity — about  one- 
half  that  of  air — -it  is  always  found  in  the  upper 
portions  of  the  workings.  The  explosive  quali- 
ties are  first  shown  when  the  gas  is  mixed  with 
from  four  to  five  volumes  of  air ;  when  free  from 
air  it  will  not  take  fire.  The  danger  resulting 
from  the  ])resence  of  this  gas  in  coal  mines  has 
largely  been  removed,  in  recent  years,  by  the 
use  of  the  safety  lamp  (q.v.)  and  by  improved 
methods  of  ventilation.     See  Co-\L. 

MINED,  me-na'i'i.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Catania,  Sicily,  27  miles  southwest  of  Catania 
(Map:  Italy,  J  10).  It  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Menae,  founiled  by  Ducetius,  4.59  B.C., 
and  captured  bj'  the  Saracens  in  840.  In  the  vi- 
cinity is  the  famous  Lago  dc'  Palici,  the  Laciis 
PaUcornm  of  volcanic  origin.  Population,  in 
1901,  of  commune,  9828. 

MirifER,  Ai-oNzo  Ames  ( 1814-95) .  A  Univer- 
salist  minister.  He  was  born  at  Lempster,  N. 
H.  He  received  an  academical  education,  and 
after  teaching  for  several  years  was  ordained  to 
the  Universalist  ministry  in  1839,  and  served 
as  pastor  to  churches  in  Methuen,  Lowell,  and 
Boston,  !Mass.  He  was  president  of  Tufts  Col- 
lege, j\Iedford,  Mass..  from  1862  to  IS74.  when 
he  returned  to  his  former  pastorate  of  the  Second 
Universalist  Chtirch,  Boston.  He  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  Board  of  Overseers  of  Harvard 
University  in  1803:  was  a  member  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  of  Massachusetts  from  1809, 
serving  twenty-four  years,  and  chairman  of  the 
Board  of  Visitors  to  the  State  Normal  School 
from  1873;  was  for  twenty-one  years  president 
of  the  Massachusetts  State  Temperance  Alliance, 
and  was  the  Prohiliition  candidate  for  Governor 
in  1878.  He  was  the  original  projector  of  the 
Universalist  Pid)lishing  House  in  Boston,  and 
was  prominent  in  the  ^anti-slavery  agitation. 
He  edited  the  journal.  The  Slur  of  Bethlihcm, 
contributed  to  periodicals,  and  published  Bihle 
Exercises  (1854)  :  Olil  Forts  Taken  (1878)  :  and 
Doetrines  of  Univcrsalism.  His  Life  has  Ijeen 
published  by  Emerson    (Boston.   1896). 

MINER,  €harij:.s  (1780-1865).  An  Ameri- 
can author,  bom  at  Norwich,  Conn.  When  nine- 
teen years  old  he  removed  with  his  family  to 
the  Wyoming  Valley  in  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
became  interested  in  various  newspapers.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1825  till  1829. 
The  most  important  of  his  publications  is  a 
nislorii  of  Wi/ominfi  (1845).  which  contains  a 
description  of  the  Wyoming  massacre  given  by 
eve-witnesses. 


MINERAL  ACID. 


536 


MINERALOGY. 


MINERAL  ACID  (in  .Modiuinc).  An  acid 
not  of  auimal  or  vegetable  origin.  The  ordinary 
uiinoral  acids  are  sulphuric  (oil  of  vitriol), 
nitric  (aqmi  fortis),  hydrochloric  (muriatic), 
uitrohydrochloric,  and  phosphoric.  In  their 
medicinal  action  they  have  many  properties  in 
common. 

The  strong  acids  are  cscharotic,  abstracting 
the  waters  of  the  tissues,  combining  with  the 
albumin  and  other  bases,  and  destroying  the 
protoplasm.  They  are  very  diirusible.  .Sulphuric 
and  phosphoric  acid  have  a  strong  affinity  for 
-  water,  completely  decomjiosing  tissues  to  which 
they  are  applied;  they  are  therefore  powerfully 
escharotic.  Sulphuric  acid  makes  a  black  eschar, 
while  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acid  turn  the  tis- 
sues yellow. 

These  acids  diluted  produce  a  peculiar  taste 
in  tlic  mouth  and  a  sensation  of  roughness  on 
the  teeth.  They  stimulate  tlic  (low  of  saliva 
from  the  parotid  and  submaxillary  glands.  They 
promote  the  alkaline  secretions  of  the  intestines 
and  of  glandular  organs  (bile,  etc.),  but  check 
the  secretions  of  acid  fluids,  as  the  gastric  juice. 
Given  before  meals,  in  small  do.ses,  they  relieve 
undue  acidity  of  the  stomach  by  checking  the 
production  of  the  acid  gastric  juice.  At  first 
they  aid  digestion,  being  helpful  to  the  action 
of  pepsin,  but  if  continued  they  impair  digestion 
by  lessening  the  production  of  tlie  gastric  juice. 
They  check  fermentation  and  constipate  the 
bowels,  except  nitric  acid,  which  relaxes  them. 
They  are  all  astringent  to  the  tissues,  hydro- 
chloric being  the  weakest  and  sulphuric  the 
strongest  in  this  respect. 

Antidotes  for  poisoning  by  these  acids  are: 
alkalies,  such  as  bicarbonate  of  soda,  lime  water, 
or  plaster  from  a  wall  mixed  with  water  to 
neutralize  the  acid;  oil,  all)umin.  and  milk  to 
protect  the  nuicous  membranes.  For  stimulants, 
opii'.m  and  anunonia  (intravenously)  may  be 
used  to  counteract  the  resulting  depression  of  tlie 
vital   powers. 

-Ml  these  mineral  aeids,  if  well  diluted,  are 
useful  in  fevers,  especially  in  typhoid.  Hydro- 
chloric is  here  preferable.  Nitric  is  the  acid  gen- 
erally preferred  as  a  caustic,  its  action  being 
elfcctual  and  superlicial ;  it  may  be  applied  un- 
diluted to  i)hagedenic  ulcers  and  sloughs,  warty 
growths,  an<l  indolent  .sores.  Dilute  nitric  and 
nitrohydrochloric  acids  are  used  internally  in 
oxaluria  and  lith.-emia.  intermittent  and  remit- 
tent fevers. and  aphonia  of  sin'jers.  and  in  chronic 
hepatic  disorders  due  to  malaria.  Sulphuric 
acid,  dilute,  is  appropriate  in  cases  of  hemor- 
rhage, diarrha>a,  colliiiuative  sweating,  and  as  a 
pro|)hylactic  against  Iiad-poisonin<_';  it  is  used 
also  as  an  acid  drink  in  fevers  and  before  meals 
in  acidity  of  the  stomaih.  Phosphoric  acid  is 
considered  of  special  value  in  tissue  waste,  and 
it  is  thought  to  diminish  the  growth  of  osseous 
tumors,  and  to  dissolve  phosphatie  deposits.  All 
these  acids  act  injuriously  on  the  teeth,  by  at- 
tackins;  the  enamel.  They  should  always  be  ad- 
ministered largely  diluted,  taken  through  a 
straw  or  glass  tul)e;  and  the  mouth  should  be 
thoriiu;,'bly  rinsed  at  once  with  an  alkaline  wash. 
See   XlTRIC   ACMl;    IIyI>I!0(I1I.()UI('    .\(II), 

MINERAL  COLORS.  .\  term  applied  to  a 
number  of  inor^'anic  Mibstances  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paints.  The  principal  mineral  colors 
inehule  the  following:  iiliilr  Innl.  consisting 
chiefly  of  lead  earbonatc;   zinc  white,  or  oxide 


of  zinc;  antimony  iihilc,  or  oxide  of  antimony; 
fixed  white,  or  barium  sulphate;  minerul  irltite, 
or  calcium  sulphate;  chiiia  clay,  or  aluminum 
silicate;  whiting,  or  calcium  carbonate;  native 
or  artificial  yellow  ochres,  i.e.  earths  colored  by 
iron  oxide;  mussicut,  or  oxiile  of  lead;  siron- 
tiun  yellow,  or  chromate  of  strontium;  the  chro- 
mates  of  cadmium,  mercury,  and  barium;  min- 
eral yellow,  or  o.xychloride  of  lead;  Xaples  yel- 
low, or  antimonate  of  lead;  orpimeni,  or  sulphide 
of  arsenic;  rouge,  or  red  oxide  of  iron;  vermilion 
and  cinnabar,  or  sulphide  of  mercury ;  Derby  red, 
or  basic  cliromate  of  lead;  minium  ("red  lead'), 
or  lead  ortho-plumbate;  realgar,  or  red  sulphide 
of  arsenic;  lirtinswick  green,  or  oxychloride  of 
copper;  Sclierle's  green,  or  copiier  ar.senite; 
tiehwf  infurt  green,  a  mixture  of  copper  acetate 
and  .Silieele's  green;  cobalt  green,  or  cobalt  and 
zinc  oxide;  umber,  or  baown  silicate  of  iron  and 
manganese;  native  or  artificial  brown  ochres, 
i.e.  earths  colored  by  iron  oxide;  Berlin  blue, 
or  ferrocyanide  or  iron;  Thenard's  blue,  or  alu- 
minate  of  cobalt;  ultramarine  blue,  a  compound 
of  aluminum,  sodium,  silicon,  oxygen,  and  sul- 
phur; etc.  The  principal  mineral  colors  are  de- 
scribed in  special  articles  or  in  connection  with 
the  metals  or  acids  combined  in  them.  See  also 
P.MNTS;  Painters'  Colohs. 

MINERAL  DEPOSITS.     See  Ore  Deposits  ; 

and  the  articles  on  the  ilitl'erent  ores  and  min- 
erals. 

MINERALOGY  (by  haplology  for  *mincral- 
oltiijy,  from  mineral,  l)F.  mineral.  Fr.  mineral, 
from  ML.  minerall,  ore,  from  minera.  mineria, 
minaria,  mine,  from  minerurius.  pertaining  to 
mines,  from  minare,  to  mine,  lead  here  and  there, 
l.at.  to  drive,  from  minari.  to  threaten,  from 
miner,  threats,  from  minerc,  to  jut  out  +  -Xo7la, 
-logia,  account,  fnmi  \eyeiv,  legein,  to  say). 
The  science  of  those  natural  substances  known 
as  minerals  which,  together  or  separately,  form 
the  material  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  also,  as 
far  as  our  knowledge  extends,  that  of  other  celes- 
tial bodies.  A  mineral  is  a  substance  of  definite 
chemical  composition  which  has  been  directly 
prod\iced  by  the  prix'csses  of  inorganic  nature.  It 
must  be  honuigeneous  even  when  submitted  to 
minute  microscopic  examination,  and  must  pos- 
sess a  definite  composition  capable  of  being  ex- 
pressed by  a  chemical  formtila.  Laboratory  and 
furnace  products,  or  such  substances  as  shells  ami 
bones  of  animals,  cannot  be  included  in  the  range 
of  mineralogy.  It  is  the  function  of  the  mineralo- 
gist to  investigate  the  form,  properties,  and  com- 
position of  minerals:  their  genesis;  their  rela- 
tions to  one  ancither,  and  to  the  accompanying 
rocks;  the  places  where  they  arc  found;  and  the 
geological  conditions  under  which  they  are  formed, 
.V  knowledge  of  mineralogy  is  of  importance  to 
the  geologist  in  his  study  of  the  rock  formations, 
to  the  mining  engineer  in  his  search  for  metal- 
producing  minerals,  and  to  the  metallurgist  in 
the  extraction  of  metals  from  minerals.  Many 
of  (he  useful  arts  are  directly  dependent  for  their 
raw  materials  upon  minerals,  while  some  mineral 
species  oi'cur  in  such  brilliancy  and  beauty  of 
color  as  to  be  highly  jiri/ed  as  gems. 

TiiK  TtitANTiTES  OF  MiXKRAi.ofiY.  The  general 
subject  of  mineralogc  may  be  divided  into  fotir 
sections:  (1)  Crystalhigraphy.  which  includes 
the  description  of  crystals,  their  character,  clas- 
sification,  the    mathematical    relations    of    their 


MINERALOGY 


1.  Normal   crystal  form  developed   equally  in   all  dlrec-  4.   Network    of    molecules    formed    on    the    lines    of 

*'Ons.  crystallizing   forces   shown   in   3. 

2.  Same  crystal  form   as  1,  distorted.  5.   Further    development    of  network    shown    In    4  to 

3.  Crystal     molecule     showing    an    arrangement  of   at-  explain    cleavage. 

tractive  and   repellent  forces.  6.  Twin  crystal  formed  by  two  interpenetrated  cubes. 


MINERALOGY. 


537 


MINERALOGY. 


faces  and  the  methods  ol  expressing  them  graphi- 
cally and  symbolically.  (See  CRYSTALLOdUArHY.) 
(2)  Phi/sical  mineralorjii,  which  descril)es  the 
physical  characters  of  minerals  and  deals  with 
the  properties  related  to  their  molecular  struc- 
ture. (3)  Chemical  miitri/ilogy,  which  has  for 
its  object  the  determination  of  the  chemical  com- 
position of  each  mineral  si)ecics  and  the  relation 
in  composition  between  species  in  the  same  chemi- 
cal group.  (4)  Descriptire  miiieralo(!if,  which 
includes  the  detailed  description  of  each  mineral 
species  with  respect  to  its  form,  structure,  physi- 
cal properties,  chemical  composition,  and  geo- 
graphical and  geological  occurrence.  The  <livision 
of  physical  mineralogj*  is  replete  with  interest- 
ing problems  of  cohesion,  optics,  heat,  and  elec- 
tricity, and  suggests  to  the  investigator  along 
physical  lines  many  fields  for  research.  The 
problems  connected  with  chemical  mineralogy, 
while  covering  a  narrower  and  less  varied  field 
than  those  of  physical  mineralogj'.  are  none  the 
less  replete  with  interest.  To  the  chemist  work- 
ing in  the  field  of  mineralogy'  belongs  the  ta.sk  of 
determining  the  part  played  by  the  various  ele- 
ments which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
hundreds  of  mineral  species,  many  of  which  are 
rare  and  exceedingly  complex  in  composition:  the 
phenomena  of  isomorphism  and  dimorphism,  and 
the  chemical  alteration  of  mineral  species  under 
the  action  of  natural  agencies,  which  is  known 
as  pseudomorphism. 

Crystallography.  With  very  few  exceptions 
(mercury  and  water),  minerals  are  limited  to 
solid  substances:  that  is,  they  are  solid  at  the 
present  temperature  of  the  earth.  In  discussing 
their  formation  and  character,  we  must,  how- 
ever, revert  to  the  period  when  the  mineral  con- 
stituents of  the  earth  existed  in  a  fiuid  or  semi- 
fluid state.  When  a  homogeneous  substance 
passes  from  a  fluid  to  a  solid  condition,  its  par- 
ticles mutually  attract  each  other  along  certain 
definite  lines  and  a  solid  is  built  up  which  shows 
a  definite  structural  relation  between  all  its  in- 
tegral parts,  which  relation  finds  expression  in 
its  outward  form.  Such  a  solid,  formed  from  a 
nucleus  by  the  piling  up  of  accretions  from  with- 
out, is  known  as  a  crystal  and  is  characterized 
by  a  regular  polyhedral  form,  bounded  by  more 
or  less  smooth  surfaces.  A  crystal  is  then  the 
normal  form  of  a  mineral  which  has  solidified 
under  ideal  conditions  and.  should  its  formation 
be  uninterrupted  by  external  agencies,  its  ap- 
pearance would  be  that  of  a  symmetrical  geomet- 
ric solid  with  smooth  faces  and  sharp  edges  and 
angles.  Such  are  the  ideal  representations, 
which  serve  to  illustrate  the  crystallization  of 
mineral  species  and  which  are  to  be  found  in  all 
text-books  on  the  subject.  But  inasmuch  as  the 
ideal  conditions  mentioned  above  are  of  compara- 
tively rare  occurrence,  it  is  far  more  ccmimon  to 
find  minerals  in  more  or  less  distorted  forms. 
(Sec  Figs.  1  and  2.)  Large  and  well-formed  crys- 
tals are,  in  general,  produced  by  a  slow  process 
of  crystallization,  whereas  a  rapid  cnoling  or 
concentration  of  a  mineralizing  solution  tends  to 
form  aggregates  often  resembling  the  forms  of 
animate  nature;  such  are  the  frost  patterns 
which  form  on  window  panes,  the  coral-like 
forms  of  calcium  carbonate  to  be  found  in  some 
caves,  and  many  other  imitative  forms  described 
in  the  terminology  of  mineralosr.  \Miere  indi- 
vidual crystals  are  entirely  lacking,  the  mineral 
is  said  to  be  massive,  although  its  structure  a.s 


determined  by  optical  and  other  methods  may  be 
distinctly  crystalline. 

Regarding  the  nature  of  the  crystalline  units 
of  accretion,  there  is  at  present  very  little 
knowledge.  They  are  without'  doubt  extremely 
minute  and  may  possibly  consist  of  a  number  of 
chemical  molecules.  Wliatever  may  be  the  size 
or  sha|)e  of  the  crystal  units  or  crystal  mole- 
cules, it  is  sufficient  for  tlie  purpose  of  discussion 
to  regard  them  as  points.  A  fuller  discussion  of 
this  subject  will  be  found  under  (ue.misthy. 
The  crystal  molecules  of  any  chemical  substance 
crystallizing  under  given  conditions  are  believed 
to  be  identical  in  size  and  shape.  They  are  never 
in  contact  with  each  other,  but  are  held  in  equi- 
librium by  attractive  and  repellent  forces  acting 
along  lines  which  difl'er  for  each  type  of  crystal 
molecule.  A  crystal  molecule  having  these  lines 
of  crystallizing  force  at  right  angles,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  3,  would  attract  like  molecules,  which  woubl 
arrange  themselves  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The 
theoretical  grouping  of  molecules  lias  been  dis- 
cussed by  Sohncke,  Fedorow,  Schijntlies,  and  Bar- 
low, who  have  developed  230  possible  groupings. 
These,  however,  divide  themselves  into  32  dis- 
tinct groups  identical  with  the  32  groups  men- 
tioned under  C'RYsrALLOGRAPiiY. 

If  we  assume  the  molecules  of  a  substance  to 
be  grouped  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  it  will  be  readily 
seen  that  the  lines  of  minimum  cohesion  will  be 
aa  and  bb  rather  than  iiitii,  because  the  former 
planes  are  further  separated  from  the  next 
adjacent  parallel  plane.  This  explains  in  a  meas- 
ure the  fact  that  crystallized  substances  often 
tend  to  break  or  cleave  parallel  to  a  primary 
crystallographic  face.  Assuming  a  crystal  mole- 
cule of  any  given  mineral  to  be  held  in  equi- 
librium by  forces  acting  in  definite  directions,  it 
will  be  readily  seen  that  the  crystal  built  up 
from  accretions  of  such  molecules  will,  of  neces- 
sity, present  faces  which  are  symmetrically  dis- 
posed with  respect  to  those  lines  of  crystallizing 
force.  Thus  we  have  as  a  fundamental  law  of 
crystallization  the  principle  that  a  mineral  can 
only  crystallize  in  forms  whose  symnaetry  is 
referable  to  one  of  the  32  groups  mentioned  in 
the  foregoing  paragraph.  This  is  known  as  the 
law  of  symmetry.  The  number  of  planes  possible 
from  the  grouping  together  of  crystal  molecules 
of  a  substance  is  invariably  greater  than  the 
number  occurring  on  any  given  crystal :  and  modi- 
fying planes  are  common,  often  running  to  great 
complexity,  and  under  unusual  conditions  pre- 
dominating over  the  commoner  types.  Hence  we 
frequently  find  great  variety  of  form  in  crystals 
of  the  same  sul)stance,  as  is  the  case  with  the  min- 
eral ealcite  (q.v. ).  It  should,  however,  be  noted 
that  crystals  of  a  mineral  from  a  certain  locality, 
which  arc  presumably  formed  under  the  same 
conditions,  show  a  marked  similarity  of  type  and 
are  readily  distinguishable  from  those  of  the 
same  mineral  from  a  difTerent  locality.  This 
variation  in  type,  which  is  known  as  crystal  habit, 
is  particularly  noticeable  in  large  and  widely  dis- 
tributed s|)ecies.  Certain  mineral  species  exhibit 
a  tendency  to  join  two  crystals  or  two  halves  of 
the  same  crystal  in  such  a  manner  that  some 
crystallographic  plane  or  axis  is  common  to 
both.  This  juxtaposition,  which  is  ordinarily 
distinguished  by  reentering  angles,  is  known  as 
lii-inni-nfl.     See  Fis;.  0. 

Tt  will  be  readily  seen  from  the  above  that  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  occurring  crystal  forma 


MINEKALOGY. 


538 


MINEKALOGY. 


is  of  primary  inii)ortaiioe  in  tlio  investigation  of 
any  niiuoral  species.  The  iilenlilieation  of  the 
faces  of  the  crystal,  which  is  often  attended  witli 
considiiable  diHiculty,  is  accomplished  by  meas- 
uring the  interfaeial  angles  by  means  of  an  in- 
strument called  a  goniometer  {q.v. )  and  compar- 
ing these  with  the  calculated  relations  obtained 
from  simple  mathematical  formulas  based  on 
spherical  trigonometry.  The  optical  properties  of 
minerals  as  well  as  their  presence  and  relations 
in  rocks  are  determined  by  means  of  the  petro- 
graphic  microscope.  (See  Mit'RO.scoPK.)  I'"or 
exhaustive  study  along  the  line  of  physical  char- 
acters, elaborate  and  accurate  apparatus  is  re- 
quired, while  a  well-cc|uipped  chemi<'al  lalmratory 
is  almost  indispensable  to  the  mineralogical  in- 
vestigator. 

:Mixeb.\ls  and  Kocks.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant phases  of  mineralogical  study,  and  one 
which  is  replete  with  interest  to  the  geologist,  is 
the  relation  of  minerals  to  rocks.  The  division 
known  as  the  crystalline  rocks,  in  particular, 
presents  a  wide  and  varied  series  of  rock-forming 
minerals.  These  may  be  classed  as  essential  and 
accessory  constituents  according  as  they  give  char- 
acter in  the  rock  in  which  they  occur  or  are 
present  only  in  insignificant  proportions.  Quartz, 
the  feldspars,  the  micas,  hornblende,  augite, 
enstatite,  hypersthene,  chrysolite,  garnet,  leucite, 
serpentine,  caleite,  and  dolomite  arc  essential 
constituents  of  many  crystalline  rocks,  while 
such  minerals  as  gypsum,  salt,  limonite,  hematite, 
sidcrite,  kaolin,  magnetite,  and  apatite  often  oc- 
cur in  such  extensive  deposits  as  to  constitute 
rock  masses.  Among  the  accessory  rock-forming 
minerals  way  be  mentioned  graphite,  corundum, 
vesuvianite,  chiastolite,  cyanite,  tourmaline,  zir- 
con, titanite,  etc.  Many  geologists  have  made  use 
of  the  mineralogical  character  of  rocks  as  a  basis 
of  classification.  i)artieularly  in  the  case  of  the 
igneous  rocks,  niul.  though  open  to  some  objection 
from  the  standpoint  of  geological  inquiry,  the 
system  as  applied  to  crystalline  rocks  has  much 
to  connnend  it, 

iliNERAL  Chemistry.  Comparatively  few  ele- 
ments exist  in  nature  uncombined :  the  great 
majority  of  minerals  occur  as  salts  of  relatively 
few  mineral  acids.  Minerals  crystallizing  from 
a  mineralizing  lluid.  whether  it  be  a  solution  or 
a  fusion,  combine  the  clcTiients  existing  in  that 
fluid  in  strict  accordance  wilh  the  laws  of  chem- 
istry. The  resulting  minerals  may.  however,  be 
somewhat  modified  by  the  presence  of  elements 
foreign  to  their  ty|)ical  fornuilas.  as  in  the  case 
of  tlie  emerald  variety  of  beryl,  which  owes  its 
brilliant  green  color  to  the  presence  of  a  small 
amount  of  chromium  not  re|>rcsented  in  the  nor- 
mal ccniiposition  of  beryl.  .Again,  certain  ele- 
ments closely  related  in  chemical  character  fre- 
quently re|)lace  one  another  in  mineral  eomposi- 
tiiin.  the  relative  proportions  varying  between 
limits  anil  giving  rise  to  a  group  of  closely  re- 
lated ecimpoimds.  Such  is  the  eolumbite-tanta- 
lite  group,  which  presents  all  the  gradations  from 
normal  columbite  (l'VNb.O„)  to  normal  tantalite 
(FeTa-0„).  Minerals  closely  related  in  compo- 
sition often  exhibit  a  striking  similarity  in  crys- 
tal form.  WTien  such  isomorphons  compounds 
are  present  in  the  same  magma  they  are  not 
separable  in  the  process  of  crystallizntion.  but 
tend  to  produce  a  mineral  intermediate  In  com- 
position: as  when  the  isomorphous  carbonates 
dolomite   and   siderite   grade   into   the   interme- 


diate compound  ankcrile.  An  extremely  inter- 
esting group  is  that  of  the  trielinic  feldspars  or 
plagioclases  which  are  regarded  as  isomorphous 
mixtures  of  the  molecules  of  the  two  isomorphous 
species  albitc  and  anorthite.  Mineralogy  atl'ords 
several  examples  of  mineral  species  identical  in 
chemical  composition,  but  crystallizing  in  forms 
which  are  essentially  different.  This  condition, 
which  is  known  as  dimorphism,  is  represented 
by  the  two  calcium  carbonates  calcitc  and  arago- 
nite  and  by  the  two  iron  disulphides  pyrite  and 
marcasite.  Titanium 'dioxide,  which  is  trimor- 
phous,  occurs  as  rutile.  octahedritc,  and  brookite, 
CussiFic.VTioN  OF  Minerals.  The  most  logi- 
cal and  convenient  scheme  of  classification  of 
minerals  is  that  which  is  adopted  by  Dana  in  his 
System  of  Mineralogy  and  which  is  now,  with 
slight  moditlciitions,  universally  used.  By  this 
method  mineral  s])ecics  of  similar  composition 
are  jilaced  together  in  classes  which  are  subdi- 
vided into  divisions.  These  in  turn  are  split  up 
as  far  as  possible  into  isomorphous  groups.  The 
principal  classes  are: 

( 1 )  Native  elements. 

(2)  Sulphides — Sulphides,  selenides,  telluridcs, 
arsenides,  and  antimonides. 

(3)  Sulpho-salts — Sulpharsenidcs,  sulphanti- 
monides.  and  sutphobismuthitcs. 

(4)  Haloids — Chlorides,  bromides,  iodides, 
and  fluorides. 

(5)  Oxides. 

(U)  O.xygen  Salts — Carbonates,  silicates,  and 
titanates;  niobates  and  tantalates:  phosphates, 
etc.;  borates  and  uranates;  sulphates,  etc.;  tung- 
states,  molybdates, 

(7)  Salts  of  the  organic  acids, 

(8)  Hydrocarbons. 

Uses  of  Minerals.  By  far  the  most  important 
of  the  uses  to  which  minerals  are  put  is  that  of 
producing  metals  from  those  of  them  which  con- 
tain metal  constituents  in  suflicicnt  quantity  to 
render  their  mining  profitable.  The  discussion 
of  the  distribution  and  mode  of  occurrence  of 
metallic  ores  involves  many  questions  of  a  purely 
technical  nature  and  belongs  essentially  to  the 
province  of  ore  deposits  (q.v.).  \  few  metals 
such  as  gold,  platiniun,  copper,  arsenic,  and  to 
some  extent  silver,  antimony,  bismuth,  and  mer- 
cury are  found  native,  that  is.  uncombined  with 
other  elements.  The  majority  of  the  metallic 
ores,  however,  occur  as  sulphides,  oxiiles.  or  car- 
bonates of  the  various  metals,  or  more  rarely  as 
arsenides,  telhiridcs.  chlorides,  or  silicates.  Asso- 
ciation of  metallic  minerals  in  more  or  less  inti- 
mate mi.xtures  often  gives  rise  to  highly  complex 
ores.  Many  ores  which  are  essentially  com- 
pounds of  the  base  metals  contain  gold  and  silver 
in  appreciable  amounts  and  are  profitably  mined 
for  the  latter  metals,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
argentiferous  galena  of  Colorado,  Jlontana,  and 
Utah. 

The  non-metallic  minerals,  although  of  less 
importance  commereially  than  the  metallic  ores, 
are  none  the  less  of  great  and  incre:ising  value  in 
the  arts.  These  are  grou|ied.  with  reference  to 
their  application,  into:  (1)  Substances  used  for 
chemical  purposes,  embracing  the  minerals  cm- 
ployed  in  the  manufacture  of  acids,  chemicals, 
soda,  alum,  plaster  of  Paris,  etc.  (2)  Ceramic 
materials  >ised  in  making  pottery,  bricks,  tilinsr, 
paving  blocks,  terra-cotta.  porcelain,  and  glas.s. 
(.3)  Refractory  materials,  used  in  the  manu- 
fncture  of  fire-proofing,  linings  of  furnaces,  cruci- 


MINERALOGY. 


539 


MINERALOGY. 


bles,  and  ashostns  talnii's.  (4)  Abrasives,  em- 
bracing diauioniU.  einciy,  garnet,  and  imartz 
sanil.  (.5)  tirapliie  materials,  embracing  elialk, 
graphite,  pencil  stone,  lithograpliie  limestone, 
etc.  (G)  Pigments,  iueluding  minerals  ground 
for  paints,  and  paint  adulterants.  (")  Fer- 
tilizers, represented  by  the  lime  phosphates^ 
marls,  and  land  plaster.  (S)  Mineral  fuels,  in- 
cluding coal.  |)etroleum,  and  natural  gas.  The 
use  of  certain  minerals  for  gems  is  probably  of 
\ery  ancient  origin.  The  extreme  hardness  of  the 
diamond,  sapphire,  ruliv.  emerald,  chrysobcryl. 
and  otlicr  ]ireci(jus  stones  protects  them  from 
iiij\irv  and  renders  them  cajiable  of  being  highly 
)iolished. 

Synthetic  Miner.\logy.  Almost  all  of  the 
important  minerals  have  been  successfully  l)ro- 
dneed  artificially,  and  much  light  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  formation  of  natural  minerals  in  this 
way.  The  methods  applied  to  this  line  of  re- 
search involve  in  the  majority  of  cases  a  fusion 
at  a  high  heat  for  ,a  long  period.  In  a  number 
of  instances  artificial  minerals  have  been  acci- 
dentally produced  in  the  ccnirse  of  various  metal- 
lurgical operations,  and  the  interiors  of  retorts 
and  furnaces  often  furnish  interesting  examples 
of  this  phase  of  mineral  genesis.  In  point  of 
economic  imiiortance  these  experiments,  though 
interesting,  have  not  as  yet  achieved  a  marked 
degree  of  success  in  the  production  of  gems,  and 
although  both  the  ruby  and  the  diamond  have 
been  made  in  this  way,  the  crystals  in  every  case 
have  been  comparatively  small. 

ANALV.SIS  OF  Jli.N'ERALS.  The  determination 
of  minerals  is  largely  a  question  of  experience 
gained  by  the  stud}-  of  large  and  varied  collec- 
tions of  specimens.  The  eye  becomes  trained  by 
practice  to  recognize  crystallizations  even  in  dis- 
torted and  imperfectly  exposed  forms,  to  asso- 
ciate certain  colors,  lustre,  and  structure  with 
definite  species,  and  to  associate  certain  min- 
erals with  certain  rock  matrix.  Several  phys- 
ical properties  are  of  considerable  aid  in 
identifying  questionable  specimens,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  color  of  the  powdered  mineral  as 
shown  by  rubbing  it  on  unglazed  porcelain,  the 
approximate  relative  hardness  as  determined  by 
scratching  the  specimen  with  a  knife  point,  and 
the  relative  weight  as  roughly  determined  by 
weighing  the  specimen  in  the  hand.  These  rough 
determinations  which  are  of  particular  value  as 
field  methods  may  be  supplemented,  with  the 
addition  of  some  siniide  and  portable  apparatus, 
by  determinations  of  s(dubility  and  fusibility.  A 
more  detailed  examination  of  the  composition  of 
a  mineral  involves  recourse  to  the  blowpipe 
analysis.  Some  idea  of  the  results  obtained  by 
this  foiin  of  analysis  will  be  gained  by  an  exami- 
nation of  the  accompanying  plate,  which  shows 
the  reactions  obtained  from  some  of  the  fusible 
metals  by  heating  their  compounds  with  suitable 
(luxes  on  charcoal  and  plaster  supports.  The 
coatings  of  iodides  arc  produced  by  using  a  flux 
composed  of  two  parts  sidphur  and  one  part  each 
of  potassium  bisul])hatc  and  potassic  iodide.  Re- 
actions for  iron,  copper,  manganese,  nickel,  co- 
balt, chromium,  and  otlier  metals  are  obtained  by 
dissolving  small  portions  of  their  compounds  in 
hot  beads  of  borax  or  microcosmic  salt  and  sub- 
jecting the  resulting  fusion  to  the  oxidizing  and 
reducing  action  of  the  blowpipe  flame.  The  color 
imparted  to  the  blowpipe  flame  serves  as  a  test 
for  compounds  of  calcium,  strontium,  lithium. 
Vol,  Xlll.— a5. 


barium,  sodium,  and  other  elenu'nts.  These  tests 
as  well  as  others  of  similar  nature  merely  an- 
nounce the  jjrescnce  or  abseiu'e  of  an  element ; 
the  relative  amcmnt  when  required  must  be  deter- 
mined by  a  systematic  quantitative  analysis. 

Ili.sTOHY.  Although  a  few  mineral  species  were 
known  to  philosophers  at  an  early  date  in  the 
world's  history,  it  was  not  until  the  dcvelojiment 
of  chemistry  from  alchemy  in  the  sixteentli  cen- 
tury that  savants  approached  the  subject  of 
mineralogical  knowledge  in  the  true  spirit  of 
scientific  investigation.  As  a  natural  outcome 
of  the  comparatively  advanced  state  of  mathe- 
nuitical  knowledge  at  the  period  of  this  scientific 
awakening,  the  subject  of  crystallization  early 
developed  a  marked  imjiortance.  In  178.3  De- 
lisle,  with  the  aid  of  a  primitive  fomi  of  goni- 
ometer, measured  tlie  interfacial  angles  of  a  num- 
ber of  crystals  and  established  the  law  of  con- 
stancy of  interfacial  angles.  The  Abbt>  Haiiy 
about  the  same  time  developed  a  theory  corre- 
lating the  internal  structure  of  crj'stals  with 
tlieir  outwai'd  form.  He  practically  formulated 
the  law  of  rational  indices  which  constitutes  the 
corner-stone  of  crystallography.  Haiiy  was  fol- 
lowed by  liausmann  with  his  application  of 
spherical  trigonometry  in  180.3,  Weiss  with  a 
development  along  purely  mathematical  lines  in 
1814,  ilohs  with  a  division  of  crystals  into  six 
systems  in  18"22,  Xaumann  in  1823,  and  W,  H. 
Miller  in  1839.  In  recent  years  the  science  has 
made  vast  strides,  and  new  methods  and  lines 
of  research  are  being  constantly  developed.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  science  of  mineralogy  is  con- 
stantly enriched  by  the  discovery  of  new  species, 
v.'hile  mining  and  quarrying  operations  are  con- 
tinually bringing  to  light  new  and  interesting 
crystalline  forms  and  varieties  of  well-known 
minerals. 

Research  in  physical  mineralogy  is  being  ex- 
tended, notably  in  Germany,  along  a  nundjer  of 
lines,  and  from  time  to  time  valuable  additions 
are  made  to  our  store  of  knowledge  by  careful 
and  exhaustive  studies  of  the  optical,  thermal, 
and  electrical  properties  of  certain  mineral  spe- 
cies. A  method  by  which  the  symmetry  of  crys- 
tallized minerals  may  be  investigated  has  been 
developed  by  Baumhauer.  Beck,  and  others.  This 
method  depends  upon  the  development  of  minute 
angular  cavities  upon  crystal  faces  by  means  of 
the  interrupted  action  of  some  dissolving  medium. 
The  symmetry  of  these  pits,  which  are  known  as 
etch  figures,  conforms  to  the  crystallograjihic 
symmetry  of  the  mineral  experimented  upon.  Of 
a  similar  nature  in  their  bearing  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  crystal  structure  are  the  percussion  fig- 
ures and  solution  planes  which  have  been  made 
objects  of  special   study  by  several  authors. 

Tlie  artificial  formation  of  minerals  opens 
another  line  of  research  upon  which  much  valu- 
able work  has  been  done  by  I)aid)ree,  Fouque. 
Michel  Le-\-y,  Fricdel,  Bourgeois,  Mevmier,  and 
others. 

BiBLiOGR.\PHY.  Among  valuable  works  on  gen- 
eral mineralogy-  may  bo  mentioned:  Bauerman, 
Trxt-Book  of  Dcscriptire  Mineralogy  (London, 
18S4)  :  .1.  D.  Dana.  .S'v«'cm  nf  MinVraloqn  (fith 
ed..  New  York.  1802)  ;'  E.  S.  Dana,  Texi-Bool;  of 
Miiirralofiif  (New  York,  1808)  ;  Des  Cloizeaux, 
}fnni(cl  de  min/rnlogic,  with  atlas  (vol.  i.,  Paris. 
1802:  vol.  ii..  parti.,  1874)  :  Tschermak,  Lehr- 
huch  der  Minernlofiic  (Vienna.  1885).  Of  a 
rather  more  elementarv  nature  but  of  consider- 


MINERALOGY. 


540 


MINERAL   WATERS. 


able  value  to  the  student  of  mineralogy  are: 
Moses  and  Parsons,  Miiwralogy,  Crystalloyraphy, 
tiiul  liloicpipe  Analysis  (New  York,  I'.tOO)  :  K.  S. 
Dana,  Minerals  and  Hoiv  to  Htudy  Them  (1895). 

In  addition  to  the  above  the  following  works 
are  especially  devoted  to  crystallography  and 
physical  niineralogj- :  Jlallard,  Traite  rf«  crystal- 
loyrapliie  gvomHrique  et  physique  (Paris,  vol.  i., 
1879:  vol.  ii.,  1884);  Story-Maskelyne,  Crystal- 
loyraphy:  The  Morphology  of  Crystals  (London, 
1895)  ;  Williams,  Elemrnls  of  Crystallography 
(Xew  York,  1891);  Groth,  Physikalische  Krys- 
lallographie  (Leipzig,  1894-95)  ;  Liebisch,  Geo- 
nielrischc  Krystallographie  (ib.,  1881);  id., 
Physikalische  Krystallographie  (ib.,  1891): 
Moses.  Charaeter  of  Crystals   (Xew  York,  1899). 

Valuable  text-books  on  determinative  niineral- 
ogj'  are:  Brush,  Dctcrminatice  Mineralogy  and 
Bloiepipe  Analysis  (ed.  by  Penfield,  New  Y'ork, 
189G)  ;  Endlich,  Manual  of  Qualilatire  Bloic-pipe 
Analysis  (New  York,  1892). 

Of  value  in  the  study  of  minerals  in  rock 
sections  are:  Rosenbusch,  Mikroskopische  Physio- 
graphic der  petrographisch  u-ichtigcn  Mincralicn 
"(Stuttgart,  1873;"  .3d  ed.  1892),  translated  and 
abridged  by  Iddings  (New  Y'ork.  18881  ;  Luquer, 
Minerals  in  Rock  Sections   (New  Y'ork,   1898). 

The  following  works  are  useful  for  reference  on 
subjects  connected  with  economic  mineralogy: 
Dewey,  Preliminary  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the 
Systematic  Collections  in  Economic  Geology  and 
Metallurgy  in  the  Vnited  States  Xational  Mu- 
seum (Bulletin  42,  United  States  National  Mu- 
seum, Washington.  1891)  ;  ilerrill.  Guide  to  the 
Study  of  the  Collections  in  the  Sertion  of  Applied 
Geologji :  The  Xon-Metallic  Minerals  (Inited 
States  National  Mus<>um.  Washington,  1901): 
Rothwell  and  Strutliers,  The  Mineral  Industry 
(New  York,  annually,  1892  et  seq.). 

In  addition  to  these  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  volumes  on  Mineral  Resources  of  the  Cnited 
States,  publislied  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey   I  Washingliin.  1  s>(2  et  seq. ) . 

MINERAL  PAINTS.  A  term  api)lied  to 
mineral  substances  which  are  mined,  ground,  and 
sometimes  purified  for  use  as  pigment.s.  It  in- 
cludes a  variety  of  natural  materials  as  well  as 
some  artificial  products.  The  essential  character- 
istics of  mineral  paints  are  permanence  of  color 
and  sutlicient  adhesion  when  applied  to  a  surface 
to  prevent  scaling  and  to  keep  out  moisture. 
.\mong  the  important  substjinces  includeil  under 
the  heading  of  mineral  paint.s  are  ochre,  sienna, 
and  umher.  These  are  elays  wliich  owe  their 
color  largely  to  limonite,  although  sienna  and 
umber  are  colored  in  addition  by  manganese. 
Ochre  occurs  at  a  number  of  localities  in  the 
I'nited  States,  the  larger  supply  being  obtained 
from  Pennsylvania  and  Oeorgia.  It  is  iisually 
ground,  washed  to  remove  sand,  and  screened 
before  shipment.  Umber  and  sienna  arc  found 
in  but  small  quantities  in  the  I'nited  States,  and 
the  chief  supply  of  them  is  obtaineil  from  abroad. 
Slate  and  .<i/i<j/<-  are  ground  for  paint,  the  former 
being  the  refuse  from  slate  quarries.  The  colors 
obtained  from  them  are  usually  red.  green,  blue, 
yellow,  and  brown.  Harile,  or  harytes  as  it  is 
called  cdumiercially.  is  used  as  a  substitute  for 
or  an  ailulterant  of  white  lead  in  the  manufacture 
of  while  pigments;  for  this  purpose  it  must  be 
fre«-  from  iron,  and  therefore  its  preparation  for 
market  consists  not  only  in  grinding,  but  in  some 


cases  maj'  include  treatment  with  sulphuric 
acid  to  remove  the  stains.  The  main  supply  of 
barite  is  obtained  from  Missouri.  North  C'aioiina, 
Virginia,  and  Tennessee.  It  is  cheaper  than 
white  lead,  and  does  not  turn  yellow  on  exposure 
to  the  air.  Metallic  paint  is  a  term  applied  to 
certain  materials  obtained  by  the  grinding  of 
hematite  ores.  The  color  of  the  paint  is  often 
changed  or  improved  by  previous  roasting;  the 
iron  ore  most  frequently  employed  is  that  known 
as  the  Clinton  ore,  occurring  in  the  Clinton  divi- 
sion of  the  Silurian  system  of  rocks.  Metallic 
paint  is  mined  in  several  States,  notably  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  and  Tennessee; 
it  is  frequently  employed  for  coloring  mortars. 
Graphite  and  graphitic  shale  are  used  for  mak- 
ing black  paint,  and  have  been  found  specially 
desirable  for  the  coating  of  metallic  surfaces. 
The  main  supply  for  this  purpose  is  obtained 
from  Ceylon,  although  small  quantities  are  mined 
in  the  United  States. 

-Vrtificial  Mixeral  Paints.  Under  this  head- 
ing are  included  Venetian  red  and  Indian  red, 
which  are  pigments  obtained  by  roasting  iron 
sulphate  or  cop[)eras;  white  lead,  produced  by 
tlie  action  of  acetic  acid  on  metallic  lead;  red 
lead,  formed  by  roasting  of  litharge;  litharge, 
the  reddish,  partially  roasted  protoxide  of  lead; 
orange  mineral,  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  white 
lead  on  the  hearth  of  a  reverberatory  furnace; 
and  zinc  white,  or  zinc  oxide,  which  is  produced 
by  the   roasting  of   zinc  ores. 

The  production  of  mineral  paints  in  1901 
amounted  to  232.347  short  tons,  valued  at  .$18,- 
417,008,  while  the  imports  were  valued  at  .$667,- 
094.  Consult:  .Jones,  Testing  and  Valuation  of 
Raw  Materials  Used  in  Paint  and  Color  Manu- 
facture (London,  1900).  For  statistics  of  pro- 
duction, consult  Mineral  Resources,  issued  by 
United  States  Geological  Survey  (Washington, 
annually) . 

MINERAL  TALLOW,  or  Hatcuettite.  A 
yellowish-white,  soft,  flexible  mineral  wax  or 
tallow  that  melts  at  46°  or  47°  C,  and  consists 
of  about  86  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  14  per  cent, 
of  hydrogen.  It  is  found  in  the  coal  measures 
in  (.;lamorganshire,  Wales;  Argyleshire.  Scot- 
land ;  and  Mor.avia,  Austria.     See  Ozocerite. 

MINERAL  WATERS.  The  term  usually 
applied  to  spring  waters  which  have  a  variable 
quantity  of  solid  substances  in  s<dution.  and  on 
this  account  may  exert  effects  on  the  human 
body  dill'erent  from  those  of  ordinary  water. 
Mineral  waters  have  been  used  as  remedial  agents 
from  a  very  early  period.  The  oldest  Greek 
physicians  had  great  faith  in  their  curative 
]iower.  and  the  temples  erected  to  .E-sculapius 
were  usually  close  to  mineral  springs.  We  arc 
indebted  to  the  Romans  for  the  discovery  not 
only  of  the  thermal  springs  in  Italy,  but  also 
of  some  of  the  most  important  springs  in  other 
parts  of  Europe,  as  thosp  of  .\i\-la-Chapelle, 
Baden-Baden.  Bath,  and  Spa  in  Belgium.  In  the 
United  States  mineral  springs  have  also  attract- 
eil  attention  since  an  early  period.  .\t  Saratoga 
Springs,  for  example,  the  High  Rock  Spring  was 
known  to  the  white  people  as  early  as  1767, 
and  the  .American  aborigines  seem  to  have 
l)een  acquainted  with  its  important  properties 
even  before  that  date.  In  West  Virginia  and 
Virginia  seven  springs  were  already  noted  in 
1831,  and  of  these  the  Bath  mineral  spring,  now 


MINERALOGY 


INCRUSTATIONS  ON 
PLASTER  OF  PARIS   SUPPORT 


INCRUSTATIONS  ON  CHARCOAL  SUPPORT 


LEAD   IODIDE 


LEAD    IODIDE 


BISMUTH    IODIDE 


BISMUTH    IODIDE 


ANTIMONY   IODIDE 


ZINCOXIDE  IGNITED  WITH  COBALT    NITRATE 


MERCURY  IODIDE 


TIN  OXIDE  IGNITED  WITH  COBALT    NITRATE 


COPVWICMT,  IBOa.  B»  OOOD    MtAO  t  COMP»Nl 


IIUS  BIEN  *  CO    l.'TM    S 


BLOWPIPE  REACTIONS   FOR  THE    FUSIBLE    METALS 


MINERAL   WATERS. 


541 


MINERAL   WATERS. 


known  as  the  P)t'rki'ley  Spiiiig.  was  visited  as 
earl}'  as  1777,  while  llie  White  .Sulphur  Springs 
were  utilized  in  177S.  The  therapeutic  action 
of  mineral  waters  or  spas,  as  tliey  are  fre- 
quently termed,  depends  largely  on  their  chemical 
composition  and  their  temperature,  although  a 
variety  of  other  circumstances,  such  as  situation, 
elevation,  climate,  mean  temperature,  and  above 
all  the  regular  habits  of  the  patient,  have  no 
doubt  an  important  bearing  on  the  success  of  the 
treatment. 

Origin.  The  origin  of  mineral  waters  is  often 
looked  u])on  with  much  curiosity,  and  yet  there 
is  nothing  unnatural  about  it.  Tlie  rain  water 
falling'  on  the  surface  soaks  down  through  the 
'soil  into  the  rocks  and  may  slowlj'  filter  through 
them  to  a  considerable  depth,  coming  out  to  the 
surface  at  a  lower  level  in  the  form  of  a  spring; 
or  again  the  water  may  reach  sufficient  depths 
to  be  subjected  to  great  pressure  or  even  heat, 
and  coming  to  a  fissure  or  being  struck  by  an 
artesian-well  boring,  it  will  tend  to  escape  to 
the  surface  through  such  an  outlet.  Many  min- 
eral springs  are  found  along  lines  of  faulting, 
since  fault  fissures  afl'ord  a  means  of  escape.  The 
dissolved  mineral  substances  no  doubt  are  ob- 
tained from  the  rocks  through  which  the  water 
has  flowed.  In  some  cases  the  waters  in  seeping 
through  one  type  of  rock  may  take  up  certain 
acids  which  later  react  on  basic  elements  con- 
tained in  other  rocks,  thus  producing  salts.  Most 
waters  contain  some  carbonic  acid,  which  greatly 
increases  their  solvent  powers  in  the  presence  of 
lime,  magnesia,  and  iron;  while  if  tile  waters 
are  alkaline  they  may  take  up  substances  which 
are  ordinarily  rather  insoluble,  such  as  silica. 
The  attacking  power  of  the  water  may  be  still 
further  increased  if  it  is  hot.  There  seems  to 
be  some  relation  between  hot  springs  and  the 
geological  structure  of  a  region,  as  thermal 
springs  are  more  abundant  in  areas  where  the 
rocks  have  been  highly  faulted  or  where  there  has 
been  volcanic  activity  in  comparatively  recent 
geological  times.  Mineral  springs  commonly  con- 
tain more  dissolved  material  in  regions  of  sedi- 
mentary rock  formation  than  in  igneous  or  meta- 
morphic  areas. 

Temper.\ture.  Springs  are  commonly  charac- 
terized as  thermal  when  they  have  a  temperature 
of  over  70°  F.  If  the  temperature  is  between  70° 
and  flS"  they  are  called  tepid,  wliile  all  exceeding 
the  latter  limit  are  included  under  hot  springs. 
The  following  examples  will  serve  to  show  the 
degrees  of  temperature  found  in  different  thermal 
springs:  Sweet  Springs.  W.  Va.,  74°  F. ;  Warm 
Springs,  French  Broad  River,  Tenn.,  95° ; 
Washita,  Ark.,  140°  to  156°;  San  Bernardino 
Hot  Springs,  Cal..  108°  to  172°;  Las  Vegas, 
N.  M.,  110°  to  140°:  Sulphur  Springs,  Aix-les- 
Bains,  France,  108° :  Kaiserquelle,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  Prussia,  1.31°;  Karlsbad  (Sprudel), 
Bohemia.  162°. 

Flow  of  Springs.  The  amount  of  water  which 
a  mineral  spring  may  discharge  is  quite  variable; 
thus  500  springs  in  Central  France,  which  were 
tested,  yielded  2.628.000  gallons  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  the  famous  Orange  Spring  in  Florida 
is  said  to  discharge  5.000.000  gallons  per  hour. 
The  discharge  per  hour  of  some  of  the  principal 
American  springs  is  as  follows:  Champion 
Springs,  Saratoga,  2500  gallons;  Roanoke  Red 
Sulphur  Springs,  Va..  1278  gallons;  Warm  Sul- 
phiir   Springs,   Bath.  Va.,   350,000  gallons;   Hot 


Springs,  Ark.,  20,100  gallons;  Olen  Springs,  Wau- 
kesha, Wis.,  45,000  gallons;  Horcb,  Waukesha, 
Wis.,  1500  gallons. 

Classification.  A  classification  of  mineral 
waters  may  be  geographic,  geologic,  therapeutic, 
or  chemical.  The  following  scheme  of  classifica- 
tion is  one  adopted  by  A.  C.  Peale,  a  noted  au- 
thority on  the  subject  of  miiu'ral  waters,  and 
more  especially  those  of  the  United  States: 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   MINEUAL   WATERS. 

Alkaliue 
Alkaline-saline 


Saline 


(  Sulphated 
I  .Muriated 
(  Sulphated 
I  Muriated 
I  Sulphated 
^  Muriated    . 
/  Siliceous     ] 


Sulphated 
Muriated 


Springs  included  in  the  above  groups  may  be 
either  thermal  or  non-thermal,  and  they  may  be 
either  free  from  gas  or  contain  carbonic  acid  gas 
( carbonated  springs ) ,  sulphureted  hydrogen 
(sulphureted) ,  nitrogen  gas  (azotized),  and 
carbureted  hydrogen  (carbureted).  The  allca- 
line  waters  include  all  those  containing  alkaline 
carbonates,  such  as  carbonates  of  alkalies,  alka- 
line earths,  alkaline  metals,  or  iron.  About  one- 
half  of  the  alkaline  springs  of  the  United  States 
are  calcic  alkaline,  that  is,  containing  calcium 
carbon.ates  or  bicarbonates  as  the  predominant 
ingredient.  The  water  of  the  Hot  Springs  of 
Virginia  is  a  hot,  carbonated,  calcic  alkaline 
water.  The  alkaUnc-saliiie  waters  include  tho.se 
containing  combinations  of  alkaline  carbonates 
with  sulphides  (sulphated)  or  chlorides  (muri- 
ated), there  being  in  the  United  States  one-third 
as  many  as  of  the  saline  waters.  In  the  saline 
waters  sulphides  and  chlorides  predominate;  in 
the  United  States  there  are  about  one-third  more 
springs  of  this  class  than  of  the  alkaline  spring;. 
Springs  which  are  classified  as  purgative  or 
aperient  will  fall  in  the  subclass  of  sulphated 
salines.  The  salines  may  be  sodie  sulphated  or 
muriated,  or  calcic  sulphated  or  muriated;  the 
sodic  muriated  constitute  about  88  per  cent, 
of  the  muriated  .saline  waters  of  the  United 
States.  The  acid  class  includes  all  waters  con- 
taining free  acid,  whether  silicic,  sulphuric,  or 
hydrochloric.  In  addition  to  having  free  acid  a 
spring  may  also  contain  salts  of  the  acid. 

Geographical  Dlstribution.  There  are  at  the 
present  time  between  eight  and  ten  thousand 
mineral  springs  in  the  United  States,  and  of  this 
number  659  were  listed  as  commercial  producers 
in  1901.  Most  of  the  mineral  springs  of  com- 
mercial value  are  found  in  the  Eastern  United 
States  and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley;  west  of  the 
101st  meridian  they  are  largely  confined  to  the 
Pacific  Coast.  No  hot  springs  are  known  in  the 
New  England  States.  In  JIaine  the  springs  are 
slightly  alkaline-saline  and  chalybeated,  with  a 
few  of  carbonic  character.  Their  temperature 
ranges  from  40°  to  40°  F.  ChalylN'ated  springs 
are  abundant  in  Massachusetts.  Many  of  the 
springs  of  the  New  England  States  are  utilized 
for  commercial  purjioscs.  but  among  the  Eastern 
States  as  a  whole  New  York  stands  at  the  hcail 
of  the  list  of  producers.  The  springs  at  Sara- 
toga have  an  international  reputation,  and  com- 
pare favorably  with  any  of  the  foreign  spas,  the 
waters  from  the  Congress,  Empire,  Columbia, 
High  Roek,  Ilathorn,  and  Geyser  springs  being 
extcnsivelv   used  throughout   the  United  States. 


MINERAL   WATERS. 


5i2 


MINERS. 


These  waters  are  ellettual  in  diseases  of  the  liver, 
.sjUeen,  and  -skin,  in  neuralgia,  and  rheumatic  and 
dyspeptic  troubles.  Farther  south  in  the  Ap- 
palaeliians  are  the  celebrated  Hot  Springs 
of  Virginia,  including  the  Berkeley  Springs  and 
the  White  Sulphur  Springs.  The  waters  of  the 
former  are  used  chielly  for  certain  forms  of  dys- 
pepsia, diseases  of  the  liver  and  bowels,  while 
those  of  the  latter  are  of  special  value  in  the 
treatment  of  chronic  diseases,  gout,  rheumatism. 


from  France,  and  tlie  Karl>liad  Sprudel  waters 
arc  fc.xtensivcly  ini])ortcil  into  the  United  Slates. 

Prodlction.  The  production  of  mineral  waters 
in  the  United  States  in  1001  amounted  to  55,771,- 
188  gallons,  valued  at  .$7,58(i,!)02.  The  imports 
in  the  same  year  amounted  to  2,567,323  gallons, 
valued  at  $744,392. 

Chemical  A.nalyses.  The  following  table 
shows  the  important  constituents  of  some  of  the 
American  mineral  waters: 


AXALTSES   OF   .\MER1CAX    MlNER.VL   W.VTERS 


CHEMICAL  CO.NSTITCE.NTS 


Sodium  carbonate 

Sodiutii  bicarbonate 

S'xliuni  j^ulphate 

Calriuni  carbonate 

Maciif.'^ium  carliouate 

Culfiuui  bicarbonate 

Ma^ncHiuni  bicarbonate.. 

Lit  ilium  bicarlionate 

Iron  Iticarbonate 

Magnesium  stilpliate 

Pota.>«8ium  sulphate 

.Soil lu in  ehloritie 

Potassium  cliioride 

Pota-^siuni  bromide 

Siidiuni  l>romide 

Sodium  iodide 

Silica 

Calcium  sulphate 


^^  1 

111' 

Ml 

m 

1      1 
1  11 
1    1 

Hcil  Sulphur 
Spring,  Sharon 
Springs,  N.  Y. 
Alkallne-sallne, 
sulphureted 

1  il 

It  II 

(trains 
*er  gallon 

Grains 
per  gallon 

Grains 
per  gallon 

6.22 

i'.'sg 

1.72 
14.53 

Grains 
per  gallon 

J3.17 
12.66 

2.17 

.38 
2.54 

Grains 
per  gallon 

".'49 

12.93 
.69 

18.96 
".■33 

.45 
96.64 

Parts 

per  1000 

6.00 

16.'27 
11.41 

Trace 
27.34 

2.51 

Grains 
per  gallon 

10.77 

8.75 

1.26 
.54 

143.40 

121.76 

4.76 

41.32 
29.34 

17.02 
12.39 

.34 

3.00 
2.15 

.04 

.99 

.46 

400.44 

S.Oo 

166.81 

1.67 

4.67 
.53 

1.16 

8.56 
.14 
.84 

.74 

etc  The  general  character  of  the  springs  of 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia  is  saline;  sulphu- 
reted waters  are  the  most  numerous,  but  alkaline 
and  chalybeate  and  acid  springs  also  occur.  The 
saline  springs  are  found  in  excess  of  all  others 
in  the  South  Central  States,  and  thermal  springs 
are  few.  In  this  region  the  States  of  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  ami  Arkansas  are  the  chief  producers 
of  mineral  waters.  The  Hot  Springs  of  Arkansas 
are  among  the  most  important  thermal  springs 
found  in  the  entire  country,  and  of  value  for  dis- 
eases of  the  blood.  The  Texas  springs  are  peculiar 
from  the  fact  that  many  of  them  show  free  sul- 
phuric acid.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  lime- 
stone formations  in  the  North  Central  States, 
calcic  springs  are  quite  numerous,  and  in  Wis- 
consin those  of  Watikesha  are  widely  known.  In 
the  Cordilleran  region  the  most  noted  occurrence 
of  hot  springs  is  that  of  the  Yellowstone  Park, 
but  they  are  not  used  for  medicinal  purposes.  In 
New  Mexico  the  Las  Vegas  Hot  Springs  arc 
often  visited,  and  in  Washington  the  Medical 
Lake  is  the  source  of  one  of  the  best  known  min- 
eral waters  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Foreign  Watkr.s.  A  number  of  foreign  min- 
eral waters  are  importeil  into  the  United  States 
and  find  a  considerable  sale.  Chief  among  these 
is  the  .ApoUinaris  water  which  comes  from  Ahr- 
weiler,  Cermany.  and  which  is  largely  used  as  a 
table  water,  and  in  eases  of  nervous  irritation 
attendeil  with  dyspepsia.  The  Friedriili<hall 
bitterwater.  from  the  Friedrichshall  Springs, 
near  Hildenburg,  Cermnny.  is  largely  \ised  for 
tmbitual  constipation,  as  is  the  Hunyadi-.fanos 
water  from  Budapest.  Hungary,  wliich  is  n 
remedy  also  for  congestive  and  gouty  disorders. 
The  kissingcn  waters  from   Bavaria,  the  Vichy 


Bibliography.  Bailey,  "Mineral  Waters  of 
Kansas,"  in  /va/ivso-s  dcological  ^tirccy,  vol.  vii. 
(Topeka.  1902)  :  Branner,  "Mineral  Waters  of 
Arkansas,"  in  Arkatisas  (Icolof/ical  Survey  Re- 
port (Little  Rock,  1801)  ;  Crook,  iliiwrol  Waters 
(if  the  Vitilcd  States  and  Their  Therai>eutic  Uses 
(Philadelphia,  1899);  De  Launay,  Itecherche, 
eaptage  et  anifnagement  des  sources  fhermo- 
niincrales,  origine  des  caux  mimh-ales.  g^ologie, 
proprieties  physiques  et  ehimiques  (Paris,  1809)  ; 
Peale,  "Natural  Mineral  Waters  of  the  United 
States,"  in  United  Stales  Geological  Survey.  19th 
Annual  Report  (Washington,  1898);  Peale, 
"Lists  and  .\nalyses  of  the  Mineral  Springs  of 
the  United  States,"  in  United  States  Geological 
Surrey,  liulletiii  Vo.  32  (Washington,  1886); 
Schweitzer.  "A  Report  on  the  Mineral  Waters 
of  Missouri,"  in  Missouri  Geological  Survey,  vol. 
iii.  (.TetTcr.son  City,  1802).  P'or  statistics  of  pro- 
dncti(m,  se<>  Mineral  Resources,  issued  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  (Washington, 
anntmlly).  See  Bottling  and  Bottling  Ma- 
ui ixkuv. 

MINERS,  Western  Feperation  of.  .\  cen- 
tralized association  of  persons  working  in  and 
around  mines,  mills,  and  smelters,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  abolishing  the  truck  system,  child  labor, 
the  use  of  private  detectives  in  labor  disputes, 
'government  by  injunction,'  the  importation  of 
laborers  under  contract,  and  of  imjiroving  gen- 
erally conditions  of  employment  with  respect  to 
wages  and  the  hours  of  labor.  The  odieers  of  the 
association  consist  of  a  president,  vice-president, 
secretarv-treasurer.  and  an  exeotitive  board  com- 
posed of  these  olTicers  and  one  organizer  from 
each  of  the  six  districts  into  which  the  territory 


MINERS. 


543 


MINERVA. 


covert'd  by  the  Federation  is  divided.  The  execu- 
tive board  acts  as  a  board  of  conciliation  and 
arbitration  (which  are  strongly  recommended 
by  the  Federation),  may  levy  assessments  in  case 
of  emergency,  must  apjjrove  every  strike  and 
joint  contract  entered  into  by  local  unions,  and 
l)et\vecn  the  annual  conventions  has  full  power 
to  direct  the  workings  of  the  Federation.  The 
Western  Federation  of  Miners  ollicially  indorses 
socialism  and  advocates  participation  of  labor 
organizations  in  politics  with  the  view  of  se- 
curing to  the  working  classes  the  ownership 
and  operation  of  the  means  of  production. 
It  was  founded  Alay  15,  180.3,  largely  as 
an  outcome  of  the  notorious  Ca?ur  d'Al&ne 
strike  of  1802.  In  April,  1800,  it  again  liccame 
involved  in  the  Canir  d'Al&ne  strike  of  that  year 
and  in  the  later  period  of  the  strike  contnjlled 
and  directed  it.  During  this  eontlict  .=everal  per- 
Mins  were  killed,  martial  law  was  declared,  and 
certain  county  ofliccrs  were  impeached  for  failure 
to  perform  their  duties  in  suppressing  violence. 
A  large  number  of  miners  were  arrested  by  the 
temporary  authorities  and  im])risoned  in  a  stock- 
ade known  as  the  'bull  pen.'  Persons  desirous  of 
securing  work  in  the  mines  at  that  time  were 
forced  to  obtain  a  permit,  which  was  issued  only 
after  the  applicant  had  signed  a  statement  deny- 
ing tlint  he  iiad  participated  in  the  riot  of  April 
•JOth,  declaring  his  belief  that  it  was  incited  and 
perpetrated  by  the  miners'  unions,  expressing 
disa])proval  of  the  riot,  renouncing  membership 
in  the  miners' -union,  and  pledging  himself  there- 
after to  obey  tlie  law.  There  are  at  present  189 
unions  affiliated  with  the  Western  Federation, 
tlie  aggregate  memliership  of  which  is  officially 
I'^tiniated  at  .iO.OOO  persons,  residing  almost  ex- 
clusively in  Canada  and  the  States  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  It  is  affiliated  with  the  Amer- 
ican Labor  Union.  The  official  organ  is  the 
Miiirrs'  Mogri:inc,  published  monthly  at  Den- 
ver, Col. 

MI'NERSVILLE.  A  borough  in  Schuylkill 
County,  Pa.,  four  miles  west  of  Pottsville,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  an  electric  road;  on  the 
west  branch  of  the  Schuylkill  River,  and  on  the 
Lehigh  Valley,  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading, 
and  a  branch  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroads 
(Map:  Pennsylvania,  E  3).  It  is  in  the  anthra- 
cite region,  and  has  extensive  coal-mining  inter- 
ests, besides  several  factories.  Population,  in 
1800.  .3504:   in   1900,  4815. 

MINEE'VA  (Old  Lat.  Mcnerva,  from  root  in 
)»r».«.  Skt.  ni'in-,  Gk.  p^Kos.  mritos,  strength). 
A  Rnnuin  goddess  identified  with  the  Greek 
.\THEX.\.  Though  the  two  divinities  have  some 
resemblance,  it  will  be  best  to  treat  them  sepa- 
rately. 

Greek.  Athena  was  a  vmiversally  worshiped 
Hellenic  divinity,  and  there  is  no  satisfactory 
evidence  of  a  foreign  origin  for  her  cult.  In  the 
earliest  literature,  we  find  Athena  already  a 
f>dly  developed  personality,  the  favorite  daugh- 
ter of  Zeus,  wielder  at  times  of  his  srgis,  and 
but  little  inferior  to  him  in  power.  In  general 
the  goddess  was  warlike.  ITence  she  was  wor- 
shiped in  the  citadel  of  many  towns,  and  her 
sacred  images,  the  Palladia,  which  were  often 
said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  were  kept  with 
great  care,  for  their  possession  made  the  town 
impregnable.  She  is  not,  however,  connected  with 
the  mere  lust  of  battle,  but  with  military  wisdom 


and  patient  .strategj-  as  well  as  with  heroic 
prowess  in  actual  eontlict.  Wisdom  is,  in  fact, 
so  prominent  in  the  conception  that  later  she  be- 
came the  patron  of  learning.  Kven  in  early 
times  she  is  Krgane,  the  goddess  of  crafts,  espe- 
cially the  peculiarly  feminine  occupations  of  spin- 
ning and  weaving,  which  ma_v  have  arisen  from 
the  custom  of  weaving  for  the  statue  of  the  god- 
dess a  peplus  or  mantle.  Athena  was  also  the 
goddess  of  smiths,  and  oven  of  agriculture,  so 
that  at  Athens  the  smiths  and  potters  celebrated 
the  Chalkeia,  as  a  joint  festival  of  llcphiestus 
and  Athena.  As  a  battle  goddess,  she  was  wor- 
shiped at  Athens  as  Athene  Xike,  bearing  the 
spear  and  shield,  and  wearing  the  a'gis,  which  is 
commonly  adorned  with  the  Gorgon's  liead,  of 
petrifying  jjower.  She  also  carries  the  spindle  as 
Ergane,  and  a  pomegranate  as  Nike.  Sacred  to 
her  were  also  the  snake  and  the  owl,  and  especial- 
ly the  olive,  w-hich  she  was  said  to  have  given  to 
Athens,  her  favorite  city.  In  the  Greek  belief 
she  was  the  pure  virgin,  but  there  are  plain 
traces  that  this  was  not  original. 

Athens  is  for  us  the  great  centre  of  Athena 
worship,  and  here  there  were  two  ancient  shrines, 
the  Palladium  in  the  lower  town,  the  seat  of  an 
ancient  court  for  the  trial  of  involuntary  homi- 
cide, and  the  Acropolis,  where  were  the  house  of 
Erechtheus  and  the  shrine  of  the  Polias.  Here 
was  an  ancient  temple,  burned  by  the  Persians, 
but  possibly  rebuilt  at  least  in  part.  Close  to 
its  site  was  built,  near  the  end  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, the  somewhat  complicated  Erechtheum 
(q.v.),  and  earlier  (n.c.  4.37)  the  Acropolis  was 
crowned  by  the  magnificent  Parthenon  (q.v.), 
containing  the  gold-ivory  statue  of  the  goddess  by 
Phidias.  In  her  honor  were  celebrated  the 
PanathenEca,  and  other  smaller  festivals,  at  some 
of  which  m3-stic  rites  were  prominent.  According 
to  the  common  legend  she  was  born  from  the  head 
of  Zeus,  who  produced  her  by  his  own  power. 
Other  versions  told  how  Zeus  had  swallowed 
Metis  (Wisdom)  when  pregnant  by  him  of 
Athena.  In  the  fullness  of  time  Hephaestus  or 
Prometheus  or  Hermes,  to  relieve  the  pains  in 
the  head  of  Zeus,  sjjlit  it  with  an  axe,  whereupon 
the  goddess  leaped  forth  full-armed — a  scene  fre- 
quent in  the  earlier  vases.  The  nature  of  Athena 
is  still  a  matter  of  dispute,  but  there  is  much  in 
favor  of  the  view  that  she  is  a  goddess  of  the 
lightning. 

RoM.\N.  Minerva  seems  to  be  an  old  Italian 
goddess,  whose  worship  was  also  common  in 
Etruria,  but  who  was  not  originally  one  of  the 
leading  Roman  divinities,  for  her  name  is  absent 
from  the  oldest  religious  calendars.  When  the 
worship  was  introduced  is  not  known,  but  it  was 
certainly  early,  for  Minerva  is  one  of  the  Capi- 
toline  triad,  and  had  also  an  ancient  temple  on 
the  Aventine,  which  was  the  religious  centre 
for  the  guilds  of  craftsmen,  as  whose  patron  the 
goddess  appears.  The  festival  of  this  temple 
was  celebrated  on  starch  10th,  the  fifth  day  after 
the  Ides  (whence  the  name  Quinquatrus) ,  and 
seems  to  have  formed  originally  i)nrt  of  a  festi- 
val of  Mars.  It  was  chiefly  celebrated  by  the 
guilds,  including  physicians  (whence  was  wor- 
shiped a  Minerva  Medica),  and  was  of  a  dis- 
tinctly iiojiular  character.  On  the  Capitol  Mi- 
nerva appears  in  her  Greek  aspect  as  protector 
of  the  city,  but  this  and  her  worship  as  a  goddess 
of  battle  or  victory  seem  due  entirely  to  foreign 
influence.    In  the  later  Republic  and  the  Empire, 


MINERVA. 


544 


MINES  AND  MINING. 


the   Greek    conception    of    Athena    almost    com- 
pletely supplanteil  the  earlier  Italian  belief. 

MINERVA  MED'ICA,  Temi-i.e  ok.  The  name 
erroneously  j,Mven  in  the  seventeenth  century  to 
tlie  ruins  of  a  decajronal  nymphieum  on  the  Esqui- 
line  in  Konie,  formerly  helonying  to  the  Lieinian 
Uardens.  The  name  was  wronjily  based  on  that 
of  the  famous  statue  of  Minerva  in  the  Vatican 
Jluseum,  which  was  not  found  cm  the  Ksquiline, 
but  near  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Mi- 
nerva. The  title  niedica  also  rests  on  a  miscon- 
ception, as  the  serpent  at  the  foot  of  the  statue 
is  not  the  serpent  of  .Esculapius,  l)ut  the  protec- 
tor of  the  olive  gardens.  The  ten  sides  of  the  nyni- 
plueiim,  once  adorned  with  mosaics  and  porphyry, 
are  occujiied  on  the  lower  story  by  a  door  and 
nine  niches,  with  (en  windows  above  them.  It 
was  covered  by  a  dome  which  was  destroyed  in 
1828.  When  the  ruins  were  excavated  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  numbers  of  statues  and  architec- 
tural marl'lcs  were  recovered. 

MINERVA  PRESS.  The  name  of  a  I.ondon 
printing  house,  from  which  issued,  late  in  the 
eighteenth  and  early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
an  immense  number  of  sentimental  and  trashy 
novels. 

MINERVINO  MTJRGE,  nie'ner-ve'no  moor'- 
jA.  A  walh'd  town  in  the  Province  of  T!ari. 
Italy,  situated  about  25  miles  southwest  of  Bar- 
letta  (^fap:  Italy.  L  0).  It  produces  fruit  and 
vegetables.     Population,  in   lOOl,   17.353. 

MINES  AND  MINING-.     See  Mining. 

MINES  AND  MINING  (in  Law).  Tlie  law 
relating  to  iTiincs  in  tlie  I'nited  States  has  been 
almost  wholly  developed  within  the  last  lifty 
years.  By  the  laws  of  England  all  mines  of  gold 
or  silver,  wherever  found,  belonged  not  to  tlie 
ow-ner  of  the  land,  hut  to  the  sovereign.  There  is 
some  doubt  as  to  whi'tlier  this  doctrine  was  ever 
generally  adopted  in  the  United  States.  It  was, 
however,  undoubtedly  recognized  by  several  East- 
ern States  immediately  after  the  Revolution,  and 
in  New  York  a  statute,  still  in  force,  expressly 
reserves  to  the  State  the  right  to  mines  of  gold 
and  silver.  In  general,  however,  the  Government, 
of  the  I'nited  States  was  considered  to  reserve  all 
mineral  rights  in  lands  conveyed  or  given  to  citi- 
zens, unless  such  rights  were  expressly  granted. 
For  a  time  the  Government  leased  mineral  lands 
on  royalties,  or  fixed  rents,  but.  owing  to  the 
great  dilliculty  in  ascertaining  and  collecting  the 
amounts  due,  the  policy  was  finally  abandoned, 
and  rights  to  take  minerals  were  granted  out- 
right. 

The  law  was  in  this  condition  when  gold  was 
discovered  in  California,  and  thousands  of  per- 
sons, many  of  them  without  previous  experience, 
rushed  I  here. anil  discovered  ami  ojH'ned  up  mines. 
To  avoid  the  frequent  shedding  of  blood  and  other 
disagreeable  consequences  of  dispiites  over  tlie 
extent  of  each  other's  rights,  il  became  the  cus- 
tom  for  the  n\iners  in  n  new  district  to  meet  and 
pass  rules  and  regulations  on  every  subji'Ct  relat- 
ing to  their  calling,  and  these  were  enforced  by 
committees  ajipointed  for  the  purpose.  Subse- 
quently, when  courts  were  established  in  Cali- 
fornia, they  adopted  those  rules  ami  regulations 
■whieh  had  become  so  recognized  and  fixed  in  min- 
ing communities  ns  to  become  in  elTect  the  common 
law-  of  mines.  The  claims  of  the  miners  were 
protected  upon  the  fiction  that  they  had  origi- 


nally obtained  a  license  from  the  tiovcrnment,  and 
if  tliey  followed  the  rules  of  their  particular  dis- 
tricts they  were  lield  to  have  a  properly  right  in 
their  mines  or  claims,  as  they  were  called.  These 
rights  or  claims  could  be  conveyed,  would  descend 
to  the  heirs,  and  were  in  every  way  treated  as 
real  property.  In  July,  18Gti,  Congress  passed  a 
law  providing  that  title  to  public  mineral  lands 
might  be  acquired  by  payment  of  a  small  juice 
or  fee  and  by  complying  with  certain  prescribed 
formalities.  This  act  was  superseded  by  an  act 
in  IS?;!  (  AVr.  t<tfif..  tit.  xxxii.,  (-h.  ti)  which  sub- 
stantially incuriiorated  the  provisions  of  the  for- 
mer act,  and  supplemented  them  with  otliers  sug- 
gested by  the  new  development  in  mining  law-. 

The  act  of  1873  also  provided  for  the  judicial 
recognition  of  the  rules  and  regulations  tlien 
prevalent,  and  such  as  might  thereafter  obtain 
recognition  in  mining  districts,  where  they  were 
not  contrary  to  its  own  provisions  or  the  laws  of 
the  States  in  which  such  districts  were  situated. 
One  of  the  important  provisions  of  the  last  act 
was  to  prescribe  the  maximum  limits  of  claims. 
The  extent  of  a  lode  i-laim.  that  is  one  where  the 
ore  runs  in  a  well-detined  vein,  is  fixed  at  .'idO 
feet  on  either  side  of  the  vein  by  1500  feet  in 
length :  and  placer  claims,  that  is  where  the  ore 
is  loosely  mingled  with  the  surface  earth,  are  not 
to  exceed  20  acres  to  one  individual,  or  100  acres 
to  an  association  of  individuals.  The  areas  of 
both  lode  and  placer  claims  may  be  changed  by 
the  statutes  of  the  various  States  or  by  the  rules 
of  a  mining  district,  provided  they  do  not  exceed 
the  above  ti.xed  limits.  The  owner  of  a  claim  may 
follow-  a  well-defined  vein  of  mineral  for  3000 
feet  from  the  oj)ening  of  the  shaft  in  any  direc- 
tion, and  he  may  follow-  a  vein  the  general  course 
of  which  is  downward  through  its  'dips'  and  vari- 
ations indefinitely. 

The  common-law  rule  that  a  man  owns  every- 
thing beneath  the  surface  of  his  land  is,  there- 
fore, not  followed  in  our  modern  law  relating 
to  mines.  It  often  happens  that  two  lodes  inter- 
sect, and  in  such  a  case  the  one  w-ho  first  ojiened 
his  mine  is  entitled  to  the  ore  at  the  point  ot 
intersection;  but  each  is  entitled  to  follow-  his 
lode  farther,  and  each  has  an  easement  or  right 
to  cross  the  tunnel  of  the  other  at  that  point  in 
the  proper  working  of  his  mine.  Owing  to  the 
great  dilficulty  in  ascertaining  whether  a  person 
is  trespassing  in  this  manner,  any  owner  of  lands 
who  has  reasonable  cause  to  suspect  that  another 
is  doing  so  may  ol>tain  from  a  eourt  of  equity 
an  'order  of  inspection'  to  determine  whether  he 
is  encroaching  on  the  land  of  the  complainant  or 
not. 

Rights  to  water,  whieh  is  so  essential  in  min- 
ing operations,  vary  in  ditTerent  jurisdictions; 
but  in  general  the  one  who  first  appropriates  the 
waters  of  a  stream  for  his  use  in  mining  is  con- 
ceded the  right  to  use  all  that  is  rcascmabjy  neces- 
sary in  his  operations.  However,  when  some  one 
else  locates  on  the  same  stream  the  first  person 
can  only  continue  to  take  the  amount  he  was 
using  when  the  second  person  located  his  claim. 
The  owner  of  a  mine  must  jiroperly  support  the 
earth  surrounding  his  tunnels,  and  is  liable  for 
any  damage  caused  to  the  lands  of  others  by 
settling  of  the  earth  if  he  is  negligent  in  this 
particular.  The  rules  and  customs  of  the  miners 
which  were  given  the  elTect  of  law-  by  the  statute 
of  IH73,  and  those  which  have  since  come  into  ex- 
istence, are  loo  numerous  and  complicated  to  be 


MINES  AND  MINING. 


545 


MINES  AND  MINING. 


set  forth  in  the  scope  of  lliis  artieh'.  However, 
it  may  be  said  tlial  in  the  present  state  of  the 
hiw  the  courts,  in  deciding  a  case  involving  min- 
ing \nw,  talce  into  consideration, in  the  order  men- 
tioned, the  statutes  of  the  United  States,  the 
laws  of  the  State  in  which  the  jiroperly  in  ques- 
tion is  situated,  and  the  rules  and  customs  above 
referred  to. 

Any  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  a  person 
who  has  declared  his  intention  to  become  such, 
may  locate  and  obtain  a  patent  for  a  mining 
claim  on  public  lands.  Before  a  person  can  ac- 
quire any  rights  he  must  have  actually  discov- 
ered the  presence  of  minerals,  as  it  is  then  cer- 
tain he  comes  within  the  law  as  to  mineral  lands. 
The  first  step  thereafter  is  to  make  a  'location' 
on  it;  that  is,  to  perform  certain  acts  which  are 
deemed  to  constitute  sufficient  evidence  of  an  in- 
tention to  claim  the  benefits  of  the  discovery. 
The  United  States  statutes  provide  that  a  claim 
must  be  '"distinctly  marked  on  the  ground  so 
that  its  boundaries  can  be  readily  traced."  This 
is  usually  done  by  setting  up  boundary  monu- 
ments, such  as  posts  or  stones  at  the  four  cor- 
ners of  the  claim.  In  most  States  the  locator, 
as  the  prospector  is  called,  is  required  to  post  a 
written  notice  of  his  claim  on  some  object  on 
the  land.  This  notice  consists  of  a  description 
of  the  land  thus  appropriated  and  a  declaration 
'if  his  intention  to  occupy  it  for  mining  purposes. 
Such  notice  of  claim  must  also  be  filed  with  a 
ii'cnrding  officer,  usually  the  register  of  deeds  of 
the  cnunfy.  After  a  miner  has  located  his  claim 
in  the  above  manner  he  must  continue  his  mining 
operations  or  he  will  be  deemed  to  have  forfeited 
it.  The  labor  mav  consi.st  in  actual  mining,  or 
in  improvements  in  the  mine  for  preservation  oi- 
incrcased  convenience  in  working  it.  When  a 
claim  is  forfeited  by  a  failure  to  perform  labor 
of  the  required  value  it  is  open  to  relocation  by 
any  one.  However,  under  this  statute  the  claim 
is  not  forfeited  until  the  expiration  of  a  year 
from  the  time  operations  ceased.  A  claim  may 
also  be  lost  by  abandonment,  which  consists  in 
leaving  a  claim  with  an  intention  not  to  return 
and  ^vork  it  again. 

Where  a  mining  prospector  complies  witli  all 
the  formalities  to  obtain  a  location  he  has  a  good 
title  against  every  one  except  the  I'nited  States. 
In  order  to  complete  his  title  and  make  it  a  mat- 
ter of  record,  the  locator  may  obtain  a  patent, 
that  is  a  grant,  of  the  claim  from  the  Federal 
Government,  by  having  a  survey  and  an  abstract 
of  his  possessory  title  made  and  filing  them  in 
the  United  States  Land  Office,  together  with  a 
formal  application  for  a  patent,  and  a  certificate 
to  the  effect  that  he  has  expended  at  least  ifSOO 
on  the  claim,  either  in  improving  or  working  it. 
The  application  consists  of  an  affidavit  to  the  ef- 
fect (hat  he  has  complied  with  all  local  mining 
customs  and  regulations  as  well  as  the  statutory 
requirements  to  obtain  a  good  possessory  title. 
One  copy  of  this  application  must  he  posted  on 
the  claim  and  a  notice  thereof  must  be  published 
in  the  nearest  newspaper. 

The  rules  of  law  in  regard  to  the  ownership, 
convevance.  and  descent  of  real  property  are,  in 
geneial,  applicable  to  mining  ])r(iperty.  A  lessee 
or  owner  of  a  life  estate  in  lands  is  entitled  to 
work  open  mines  thereon,  but  cannot  open  new 
mines  unless  this  right  is  expressly  given.  See 
La.M);  Re.\l  Property;  Water  Kioiits. 


BiBLiOGRAi'iiv.  liarringer  and  .\dams.  Mines 
and  Milling  (1S!I7);  t'lark,  Heltman,  and 
Consaul,  ilincral  Land  Laic  Uiijest  (1S97); 
C'opp,  American  Mininij  Code  (Gth  ed.,  Washing- 
ton, 1891)  ;  Copp,  United  States  Mineral  Lands 

(2d  ed.,  Washington,  1891)  ;  Lindlcy,  Atnerican 
Law  of  Mining  (1897)  ;  Morrison,  Mining  Uights 

(10th  ed.,  Denver,  1900)  ;  Wyman,  Public  Land 
and  Mining  Laws  (1898)  ;  Clark,  Miners'  Manual 

(1S9S). 

MINES  AND  MINING,  JIilitary.  The  term 
military  mining  is  used  in  two  sen.ses.  The  first 
refers  to  the  broad  subject  of  the  placing  and  ex- 
plosion of  charges  of  explosive  underground  with 
a  view  to  destroying  men  and  nuvterial.  This 
includes  the  ordinary  use  of  mines  as  an  obstacle 
to  the  approacli  of  an  attacking  force.  The 
other  and  more  generally  accepted  use  of  the 
term  is  to  denote  one  of  the  stages  in  a  stub- 
born siege.  In  the  discussion  of  siege  and 
siege  works  (q.v. )  it  is  shown  that  when  troops 
are  no  longer  able  to  advance  in  tlie  open,  prog- 
ress is  made  by  approaches  and  parallels,  in  the 
hope  that  if  the  besieged  is  not  first  starved,  the 
besieger  may  advance  close  enough  under  the  pro- 
tection of  his  own  trenches  for  the  delivery 
of  an  assault.  Occasionally  the  relative  force 
and  skill  of  the  combatants  are  such  that  the 
besieged,  by  virtue  of  his  heavier  fire  and  skill  in 
handling  it,  may  be  able  to  bring  the  approach  of 
the  besieger  by  trenches  to  a  standstill.  He  may 
accomplish  the  same  result  by  running  under- 
ground tunnels  and  placing  countermines  which 
so  threaten  an  overland  advance  as  to  make  it 
impracticable.  When  this  hap[)ens,  the  usual 
niethod  of  advance  is  by  military  mining. 

From  the  last  advanced  open  position  he  has 
been  able  to  construct,  the  besieger  proceeds  un- 
derground by  a  system  of  shafts  and  galleries. 
These  vary  in  size.  In  general  the  start  is  made 
with  large  galleries  gradually  ramifying  into 
smaller  but  more  numerous  galleries  whose  heads 
are  close  together.  The  principal  types  are 
great  galleries  with  a  height  of  0  feet  and  width 
of  7  feet,  common  galleries  with  the  same  height 
and  half  the  width,  half  galleries  with  a  height 
of  41.2  feet  and  width  of  3  feet,  and  branches  with 
a  height  of  314  feet  and  width  of  2i.j  feet.  The 
accompanying  cut  indicates  the  methods  in  which 
these  branches  develop.  The  shafts  and  galleries 
usvially  are  lined  with  board  casings  two  to  four 
inches  thick,  or  with  heavy  frames  placed  at  in- 
tervals and  holding  in  position  thin  sheeting.  For 
the  work  of  excavating,  special  tools  are  pro- 
vided shorter  than  those  used  above  ground.  Pro- 
vision must  be  made  at  frequent  intervals  for 
ventilating  the  tiinnels  sufficiently  to  permit  the 
miners  to  work  in  them.  Passage  from  one  level 
to  another  is  by  shafts  or  by  inclined  slopes. 
Great  care  is  taken  in  the  preparation  of  a  map, 
which  is  kept  corrected  to  date,  ami  shows  the 
position  of  the  various  tunnels  and  branches,  and 
their  relations  to  each  other,  both  in  plan  and  in 
elevation.  A  similar  system  of  tumiels  is  con- 
structed by  the  besieged.  As  the  two  systems 
ajiproach  near  to  each  other,  it  becomes  the  ob- 
ject of  each  combatant  to  destroy  the  system  of 
the  other.  In  doing  this  the  besieger  is  usually 
desirous  of  forming  a  crater  reaching  to  the 
ground  above  which  he  can  occupy  with  his 
troops,  thus  obtaining  new  points  of  vantage  on 
the   surface.     For   similar   reasons  the   besieged 


MINES  AND  MINING.  546 

is    dosiioiis    (if    clVcctinj;    his   ixplosions   without 
breaking  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  ex]ph)sive  used,  in  all  soils,  so  far  as  known, 
has  been  ginipowder.  Experiments  have  been 
conducted  witli  guncotton  and  other  high  explo- 


MINE  WORKERS  OF  AMERICA. 


1854  and  ISJj,  where  the  Itussinns.  under  the 
lead  of  the  aocomplislied  engineer.  General  Todle- 
ben,  were  able  to  withstand  tlie  Allies  a  period  of 
349  days.  ]\Iining  was  carried  on  in  tlie  siegea 
of  Vicksburg  and  I'etersburg  in  the  Civil  War, 


BESIEGERS    GALLERIES    j^j^^jj^^j^^  MINES  I.ILm.IV.V_  COUNTERMINE  GALLERIES  " 

PERMANENT  GALLERIES  IN  OUTLINE       PARTS  DESTROYED    SHADED. 

UUflNO  0PERATI0S3   AT   ORAUDENZ,   1862. 


MINES  ITOH. 


sives,  but  they 
have  not  yet  been 
used  in  mining 
operations  in  ac- 
tual warfare.  The 
<|iiantityof  powder 
to  be  used  depends 
upon  the  result  de- 
sired. A  common 
mine  is  one  in 
which  the  crater 
formed  has  a  di- 
ameter at  the  sur- 
face approximately 
twi<'e  the  depth. 
Mines  with  larger 
charges  of  powder 
than  will  produce 
this  result  are 
known  as  orcT- 
r  h  (I  (■  (/ '"  (/  mines; 
with  less,  as  under- 
(■  h  (I  r  II  r  <l  mines. 
W  hen  given  a 
charge  so  small 
that  no  crater  is 
produced  on  the 
surface,  they  are 
called  rtimouflcts. 
To  produce  a  connnon  mine  the  charge  varies 
eonsiih'rably  with  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The 
general  rule  f(jr  them  in  ordinary  earth  is  that 
the  charge  nuist  be  equal  in  pounds  to  one-tenth 
the  cube  of  its  distance  in  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. 

The  last  instance  of  mining  operntions  upon  a 
large  scale  was   at  the   siege   of   Sebastopol   in 


HBAPT-LlillXO. 


but  was  not  the  predominant  feature  in  either 
case.  In  view  of  the  fact  tliat  in  the  i)ast  mili- 
tary mining  has  jdaycd  such  an  important  part 
at  critical  times,  the  subject  is  studied  by  mili- 
tary engineers,  and  it  is  quite  within  the  range 
of  possibility  that  in  a  form  adajited  to  mod- 
ern conditions  it  may  at  some  time  in  the  future 
serve  to  decide  the  fate  of  a  war.  The  subject 
of  siege  works  and  military  mining  is  treated  in 
Mercur,  Attack  of  Forti/u'd  I'laces  (New  York, 
1894),  and  in  the  Chatham  Maniiali,  especially 
part  iv.  (London,  188.S).  For  submarine  mines 
and  torpedo  defenses,  see  ToRPF.no. 

MINETTE,  mi''n<"t'  (Fr.,  diminutive  of  mine, 
mine,  whence  llhcnish  C.er.  M incite,  iron  ore). 
An  igneous  rock  of  granular  or  porphyrilic  tex- 
ture, composed  essentially  of  orthoclase  feldspar 
and  biotite.  In  contrast'with  the  granites,  syen- 
ites, and  dioritcs.  to  which  it  is  related,  it  is 
rich  in  fcrro-magnesian  minerals,  and  hence 
has  a  darker  color.  Minettes  generally  occur  in 
dykes,  and  are  (|uitc  siisccptible  to  weathering 
agencies. 

MINE  WORKERS  OF  AMERICA,  The 
I'NiTEn.  The  largest  American  labor  union, 
whose  declared  object  is  "to  unite  n\inc  employees 
that  produce  or  handle  coal  or  coke  in  or  around 
the  mines,  and  ameliorate  their  condition  by 
means  of  conciliation,  arbitration,  or  strikes." 
The  officers  consist  of  a  president,  vice-president, 
and  secretary-treasurer,  who,  together  with  one 
delegate  from  each  of  the  2.")  districts  into  which 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  Mine  Workers  is 
dividid,  constitute  the  National  Executive  Board, 
which  has  the  power  to  levy  assessments  and  to 
order  general  strikes  by  a  two-thirds  vote.     The 


I 


MINE  WORKERS  OF  AMERICA. 


J47 


MTNGRELIANS. 


government  of  tlie  iinion  is  tliiis  liifjlily  central- 
ized. In  or^'anization  the  United  -Mine  Workers 
is  an  "industrial  union,'  aiming  to  unite  not  only 
miners,  liut  all  ^killed  and  unskilled  laborers 
working  about  coal  mines,  exce])t  mine  managers 
and  top  bosses.  This  policy  of  industrial  organ- 
ization has  brought  the  union  into  conflicts  with 
the  unions  of  the  Stationary  Firemen  and  of  the 
Blacksmiths.  In  operation  the  United  Mine 
Workers  is  a  typical  'new  union'  of  the  aggressive 
type.  It  maintains  no  extensive  system  of  fra- 
ternal benefits,  but  devotes  the  greater  part  of 
its  revenue  to  the  support  of  strikes  and  the  or- 
ganization of  new  unions.  Thus,  out  of  the  total 
expenditures  of  .$2,080,805  in  1902,  .$109,017  was 
devoted  to  salaries  and  expenses  of  organizers  and 
~I..S90.201  to  the  relief  of  strikers,  leaving  only 
-s  1,587,  less  than  15  per  cent.,  for  all  other  pur- 
poses. The  control  of  local  strikes  rests  partl,v 
with  the  national  officers.  Any  local  union  may 
strike  provided  it  obtains  the  consent  of  the  dis- 
trict officers  and  the  national  president,  but  in 
case  either  disapprove,  an  appeal  for  the  per- 
mission "to  strike  may  be  made  to  the  executive 
board.  Any  local  union  striking  in  violation  of 
the  above  provisions  shall  not  be  sustained  or 
recognized  by  tlie  national  officers."  This  seems 
to  constitute  the  only  penalty  for  unauthorized 
strikes.  In  the  bituminous  districts  of  Illinois, 
Indiana.  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania  strikes  have 
iieen  practically  eliminated  by  the  annual  joint 
i-onference.  or  collective  bargaining,  between  the 
miners  and  operatives,  in  which  a  scale  of  prices 
for  the  following  year  is  adopted  and  the  settle- 
ment of  further  dift'erences  provided  for  by  local 
boards  of  arbitration.  The  United  iline  Workers 
was  organized  .January  25.  1890,  but  its  member- 
ship decreased  rather  than  increased  until  the 
great  bituminous  coal  strike  of  1897,  during 
which  year  the  average  membership  was  only 
9731.  Since  that  time  the  membership  has  in- 
rreased  by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  in  December, 
1901.  the'  national  union  had  198.090  jniid  uj) 
members,  distributed  among  25  districts  and 
abovit  1200  local  unions.  The  greatest  gains 
were  coincident  with  the  anthracite  strikes  of 
1900  and  1902,  the  latter  of  which,  lasting 
more  than  five  months  and  involving  147.000 
workmen,  is  perhaps  the  most  important  strike 
in  American  history.  Mr.  John  Mitchell  was 
elected  president  of  the  union  in  1898.  and  now 
(190.3)  receives  a  salary-  of  $3000  per  annum. 
The  official  journal  is  The  Viiitrd  Mine  Worker, 
published  weekly  at  Indianapolis.  See  Trade 
Umons. 

MINGHETTI,  min-get'te.  :M.\rco  (1818-80). 
.\n  ItnliMU  writer  and  statesman.  He  was  born 
at  Unlogna.  Xovemlier  8.  1818,  of  a  wealthy  fam- 
ily, and  after  a  university  course  in  political 
science  made  a  study  of  the  institutions  of 
France,  rjermany.  and  Great  Britain.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Italy  he  published  an  essay  on  the  great 
commercial  advantages  of  free  trade,  as  existing 
in  England,  and  espoused  with  warmth  the  eco- 
nomic views  of  Richard  Colxlcn.  for  the  assimila- 
tion of  which  he  had  been  prepared  by  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  teachings  of  the  Tuscan  economist 
Bandini.  In  1846  'Minghetti  began  his  political 
lareer  by  starting  at  Bologna  a  journal  of  liberal 
tendencies.  II  Fclsineo:  by  1847  he  had  made  such 
a  name  for  himself  that  he  was  called  to  Rome 
bv  Pius  IX.  to  become  a  member  of  the  ConsuUa 


(Ji'llr  l-'iiia»:c,  and  in  IStS  he  became  ^linistcr  of 
Public  Works.  After  the  Pai)al  change  of  front, 
however.  Minghetti  withdrew  from  office  and 
joined  the  army  of  Charles  Albert  in  Lombardy, 
where  he  was  warmly  received  by  the  King 
and  appointed  to  tlie  roj-al  staff  with  the 
rank  of  captain.  After  the  battle  of  Goito  he 
was  made  a  major,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  the  engagement  of  Custozza  (July  25, 
1848).  In  tlie  autumn  of  the  same  year 
Minghetti  was  invited  to  Rome  by  his  friend 
Count  Rossi  as  a  member  of  the  new  con- 
stitutional Ministry.  He  arrived  the  day  of 
Rossi's  assassination,  and  after  refusing  the 
Pope's  request  that  he  take  the  place  of  the 
murdered  ^Minister  he  returned  to  the  Piedmont- 
ese  army.  On  the  disastrous  conclusion  of  the 
war,  Minghetti  resumed  his  study  of  political 
economy,  and  gained  the  confidence  of  Cavour,  by 
whom  he  was  consulted  during  the  conferences  of 
Paris.  In  1859  he  became  Secretary-General  in 
the  ilinistrv  of  Foreign  Affairs,  but  resigned 
with  Cavour  upon  the  conclusion  of  the  armis- 
tice of  Villafranca.  ^Minghetti  became  Minister 
of  the  Interior  under  Cavour  in  1800,  and 
after  the  death  of  Cavour  held  the  portfolios 
of  the  Interior  under  Ricasoli  and  of  Finance 
under  Farini.  In  March,  18G3,  he  became  Prime 
ilinister.  He  left  office  in  18G4.  He  went 
as  Ambassador  to  London  in  18G8,  and  was  sub- 
sequently for  a  short  time  at  the  head  of  the 
agricultural  and  couuiicrcial  department  in  the 
Menabrea  Ministry  (1809).  He  was  Ambassador 
to  Vienna  in  1870-73.  From  1873  to  1876  he  was 
again  at  the  head  of  the  Cabinet,  first  as  Minis- 
ter of  Finance  and  later  as  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  He  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in 
study  and  partial  retirement,  and  died  at  Rome, 
December  10,  1886.  Among  his  chief  writings  are: 
Delia  ecoiiomia  pubblica.  etc.  (1859);  OpuscoH 
Ictterari  ed  economici  (1872);  Stnio  c  cliiesa 
(  1878).  He  was  also  a  student  of  the  fine  arts, 
and.  besides  lecturing  on  Raphael  and  Dante,  he 
produced  a  work,  Le  doinie  italiane  nrUe  belle 
arti  (tl  secnlo  XV.  e  XVI.  (1877),  and  a  biog- 
raphy of  Raphael  (1885).  His  autobiography, 
I  miei  ricordi  (Turin,  1888),  appeared  after  his 
death. 

MINGRE'LIA.  A  former  independent  feudal 
State  of  the  Caucasus,  bordering  on  the  Black  Sea, 
now  included  in  the  Russian  tiovernmcnt  of  Ku- 
tais  (Map:  Russia,  F  6).  It  was  a  vas.sal 
State  of  Georgia  until  1414,  when  it  became  inde- 
pendent under  its  own  princes,  although  tribu- 
tary to  Turkey  and  Persia.  Russia  obtained 
control  over  it  in  1803,  but  the  internal  admin- 
istration was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  native 
chiefs  until  1867,  when,  as  a  result  of  a  series 
of  peasant  uprisings  begun  in  1857,  it  was  final- 
ly annexed  by  Russia.  The  inhabitants.  229.200 
in  1897,  are  mostly  Mingrelians.  closely  allied 
to  the  (Georgians.  Mingrelia  is  the  ancient  Col- 
chis. 

MINGRE'LIANS.  A  tribe  of  the  Kutais 
region  belonging  to  the  Georgian  group  of  peo- 
ples of  the  Caucasus.  (See  Mingreli.\.)  In 
stature  they  are  above  the  average,  and,  like 
the  Georgians  proper,  many  of  them  are  of 
great  physical  beauty.  The  Mingrelian  lan- 
guage varies  considerably  from  the  Georgian 
prototype.  Of  the  character  of  the  Mingrelians 
many  investigators  have  entertained  no  high  opin- 


MTNGRELIANS. 


548 


MINIMITES. 


ions,  scttiii;;  tlitiii  cIduii  as  lazy  and  unprogres- 
sive.  The  ilingrt'lians,  as  are  the  other  Georgi- 
ans, are  more  or  less  Christian.  They  have  a 
folk-literature,  consisting  of  legends,  songs,  etc., 
the  people  being  fond  of  music,  the  dance,  etc. 
Consult:  Erckert,  Der  Kaithasiis  und  seine 
Viilkcr  (Leipzig,  1887)  ;  Telfer,  The  Crimea  and 
Transcaucasia  (London,  1876)  ;  Chantre.  Re- 
cherchcs  unlhropoUxjiqucs  dans  le  Caura.sv  (Paris, 
1S85-S7)  :  Bryce,  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat 
(London,  1897).     See  Georgians. 

MINHO,  mS'nyd.  A  river  of  the  Iberian  Pen- 
in>vila.     Sec  itixo. 

MINHO.      A     Province     of     Portugal.       See 

K.NTKK-Doi  ROE-MlNIIO. 

MINIATtJRE  PAINTING.  A  late  develop- 
ment cif  tile  art  of  manuscript  illumination  ap- 
plied to  portraiture.  (See  M.\NrscRirTS,  Illumi- 
nation" OF.)  The  illuminators  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  headed  by  Giulio  Clovio, 
had  made  the  art  in  its  dying  days  far  more 
transparent  in  coloring,  more  cameo-like.  Ef- 
fects in  (/risaiUe  and  camaieu  led  the  way  to 
miniat\ircs.  When  there  were  no  longer  any 
manuscripts  to  illuminate,  the  art  turned  to 
minute  detached  and  framed  pictures  still  paint- 
ed on  vellum,  and  related  to  these  were  minute 
paintings  on  copper,  especially  by  the  Dutch 
School.  The  new  branch  of  minute  portraiture 
was  essentially  a  creation  of  Xorth  European  art 
of  the  seventeenth,  and  especially  the  eighteenth, 
century.  It  was  foreign  to  Italy.  Spain,  and 
Southern  France  and  flourished  in  Germany, 
England,  Northern  France,  and  the  Xctlier- 
lands.  It  was  especially  suited  to  portraying  the 
Court  costumes  of  the  times  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
XV. 

The  miniature  portraits  were  usually  of  oval 
shape  and  only  two  to  four  inches  high:  they 
were  usually  painted  on  vellum  or  ivory.  Imt 
sometimes  on  heavy  glazed  paper,  wood,  enamel, 
or  porcelain.  The  forerunners  of  the  true  minia- 
turists had  often  painted  in  oils  on  copper  or 
silver;  vellum  was  the  favorite  material  of  the 
seventeeiitli  century,  and  ivory  was  largely  in- 
troduced during  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  normal  method  was  to  use  opaque  body- 
colors  on  the  vellum,  that  is,  colors  mi.xed  with 
white  and  other  opaque  pigments:  but  when  ivory 
came  into  use.  transparent  colors  were  used  large- 
ly on  faces  and  all  other  nude  parts,  the  opaque 
colors  being  confined  to  the  draperies,  hair,  and 
accessories.  Transparent  effects  gradually  passed 
from  the  flesh  tints  even  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
picture,  so  that  but  little  that  was  opaque  re- 
mained. The  practice  up  to  about  17r>0  was  first  to 
lay  the  cohu's  on  in  broad  Hat  tones  and  then  to 
work  over  with  dotting  or  stippling  imtil  an  ex- 
quisite b\it  somewhat  finical  jewel-like  effect  was 
attained.  But.  toward  1700,  a  Swede  named 
Hall  utilized  the  nal\iral  tones  of  the  newly 
popular  ivory  ground  in  favor  of  new  transpar- 
ent effects  and  textures,  using  flniiarhr  water- 
color  elTecIs  with  a  manner  at  once  bold  and 
tender.  Afterwards,  the  fireadth  of  possible  ef- 
fects was  increased  by  the  use  of  hatching  as  a 
method. 

Among  miniaturists,  Isaac  Oliver  and  his  son 
Peter  Oliver  were  among  the  earliest  in  Englaml. 
and  were  followed,  later  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
turj-,  hy  Snmuel  Cooper,  whose  reputation  spread 


to  France  an<l  Holland,  r!laerenl)crghc.  of  the 
Dutch  School,  was  prominent  under  Louis  XV. 
Ro.sahela  Carriera.  Isaljey.  some  pupils  of  Mass6, 
like  Lebrun,  Prevot.  and  Cherlier.  nuule  his  deli- 
cate .style  popular,  until  Francois  Dumont  in  the 
time  of  Marie  Antoinette  combined  it  with  the 
more  transparent  and  free  style  of  Hall  and  so 
set  a  new  fashion.  The  name  of  Angelica  Kauf- 
man is  popularly  well  known  in  tliis  connection. 
.\fter  a  period  of  almost  complete  extinction 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tui-y,  tlie  art  has  lately  been  revived  with  suc- 
cess. Museums  have  nuide  collections;  there  are 
over  two  humlred  in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  But 
private  individuals  own  by  far  the  larger  number 
of  extant  miniatures. 

Consult:  Bradley,  Dictionarii  of  Miniaturists 
(London,  1887-80)";  Proport,  Historii  of  Minia- 
ture Art  (ill..  1887)  ;  Williamson.  Portrait  Min- 
iatures from  Holbein  to  lioss  (ih.,  1807).  See 
also  the  authorities  referred  to  under  Manu- 
scripts, Ilujiixation  of. 

MINIE,  me'nya'.  Claide  Etiex.ve  (1814-79). 
A  I'^renrh  soldier,  ordnance  expert.  ;uid  inventor. 
He  was  born  in  Paris,  entered  the  army  as  a 
volunteer,  and  served  in  Algeria  during  several 
campaigns.  He  became  eajitain  in  1840,  and 
superintendent  of  the  school  of  ordnance  at  Vin- 
cennes  in  1852.  In  18:38  he  was  employed  by  the 
ICgyptian  Government  to  superintend  a  manu- 
factory of  arms,  and  a  school  of  gininery  at 
Cairo.  He  invented  the  Jlinie  rille.  which  was 
brought  out  in  1840,  and  adopted  by  the  French 
Government,  and  is  especially  notcwortliy  in  that 
it  was  the  first  practii-il  inti<iiliiction  of  the 
principle  of  expansion  in  tlie  manuf;icture  of  pro- 
jectiles, and  gave  a  precision  and  range  previous- 
ly unknown.  The  Miuic  bullet  was  a  conical 
projectile  of  lead,  hollowed  out  at  the  base. 
When  fired  the  base  of  the  ball  expanded,  to 
take  the  riding.     See  Small  Arms. 

See     Mensurable 


I 


(in      music). 


MINIM 

Music. 

MIN'IMITES  (l.at.  fratres  minimi,  least 
brellircn.  so  called,  in  token  of  still  greater  hu- 
mility, by  contrast  with  the  fratrrn  minores, 
lesser  brethren,  the  original  name  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans). A  Roman  Catholic  religious  Order, 
founded  by  Saint  Francis  of  Paola  (q.v. ).  De- 
vout hermits  began  to  gather  round  him  as  early 
as  14:!.').  and  in  14.)4  a  community  life  was  begun. 
The  Order  received  Papal  confirmation  in  1474. 
It  spread  first  into  Fraiue.  when  the  founder  was 
summoned  tliither  by  Louis  XI.  lu  Paris  they 
were  commonly  known  as  Itons  ntiiitines.  ivom  the 
]>o]>ular  name  of  an  older  comiminity  to  whose 
house  at  Vincennes  they  succeeded ;  and  in  Spain, 
to  which  they  next  s])read.  they  got  the  name  of 
Fathers  of  Victory,  from  the  fact  that  the  recov- 
ery of  Malaga  from  the  itoors  was  ascribed  to 
their  prayers.  The  Fmiieror  Maximilian  invited 
them  to  Germany  in  1407.  Their  first  definite 
rule  was  not  drawn  up  by  the  founder  until  1493; 
it  was  exceedingly  austere,  forbidding  the  use 
not  only  of  meat',  but  of  all  animal  products, 
such  as  butter,  eggs,  cheese,  and  milk.  The 
Order  at  one  time  numbered  4.">0  houses,  but  later 
fell  into  decay  and  is  now  represented  only  by  a 
few  convents  in  Italy.  The  superior  of  a  convent 
lias  the  title  of  corrector,  the  head  of  the  whole 
Order  being  the  corrector-general.     Francis  also 


MINIMITES. 


549 


MINING. 


founded  an  Order  fur  wuiiicn  which  never  hail 
more  than  fourteen  convents  and  is  now  almost 
extinct,  and  a  tliird  Order  (see  Tektiaky),  for 
persons  living  in  the  world.  Consult  d'Attiehy, 
Bisloirv  <ii'iu'ralc  de  I'urdrc  sucre  de  Mitiimcs 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1824). 

MINIMUM  DEVIATION,   Angle  of.     See 

Light. 

MINING.  The  art  of  obtaining  from  the 
eartli  tlie  metallic  ores  and  other  useful  minerals 
in  an  economical  and  prolUahle  manner.  Tlie 
earliest  metals  employed  by  man  were?  those 
found  in  the  native  state.  Gold  i.s  tlie  most  wide- 
ly distributed  of  these,  and  has  been  mined  and 
utilized  from  very  remote  times,  ileteoric  iron 
was  also  known  and  utilized  by  many  ancient 
peoples,  and  the  native  copper  of  Lake  Superior 
was  extensively  mined  and  utilized  by  the  aborig- 
ines of  America.  As,  however,  the  knowledge 
of  metals  increased  and  civilization  advanced, 
the  ores,  or  metals  in  combination,  were  recog- 
nized and  utilized  and  mining  proper  began. 
Reference  is  made  to  mining  in  the  liil)le,  and 
other  ancient  records  prove  that  tlie  l'ha>nieians 
navigated  the  seas  as  far  as  Cornwall.  England, 
in  order  to  obtain  tin  ores  for  the  manufacture 
of  bronze.  The  Romans  had  extensive  mines  for 
iron  ore  in  the  island  of  Elba  that  are  still  in 
operation.  They  also  worked  the  great  copper 
veins  at  the  Rio  Tinto,  Spain,  and  the  timbering 
left  by  them  is  still  visible.  The  mines  at  Lauri- 
um,  Greece,  were  famous  in  ancient  times  for 
their  yield  of  silver.  From  the  old  mining 
districts  of  Cornwall  and  from  the  Erzgebirge 
(Ore  ilountains)  and  the  Harz  Mountains  in 
Germany  miners  have  gone  all  over  the  world, 
and  under  their  tuition  the  mining  i)ractice 
of  to-day  has  grown  up  in  all  the  newer  dis- 
tricts. 

Problems  in  mining  to-day  may  be  grouped 
into  those  relating  to:  (1)  mining  geology;  (2) 
mining  engineering;  (3)  mechanical  engineering; 
and  (4)  metallurgv*.  The  prol)Ienis  of  each 
group  overlap  to  some  extent  those  of  the  other 
groups,  but  the  division  adopted  serves  for  a 
general  consideration  of  the  subject  of  mining. 
In  this  article  particular  attention  will  be  de- 
voted to  mining  as  involving  the  problems  of 
mining  engineering  and  mechanical  engineering. 
These  problems  embrace  the  operations  of  dis- 
covering and  locating  mineral  deposits,  of  open- 
ing the  earth  and  excavating  the  ores,  of  trans- 
porting the  ores  to  the  surface,  and  of  handling 
nieclianically  the  ores  during  their  metallurgical 
treatment.  As.  however,  the  handling  nf  the  ores 
preparatory  to  and  during  the  processes  involved 
in  extracting  the  metals  is  of  a  different  nature 
tlian  mining  proper  and  is  frequently  done  at 
places  far  from  the  mines,  these  operations 
are  considered  in  the  article  on  Ore-Pressing 
and  in  the  section  devoted  to  Metallurgy'  in 
the  articles  on  the  various  metals  and  the  ad- 
junct articles  there  mentioned. 

Prospecting.  The  search  for  and  location  of 
deposits  or  veins  of  7netnl-bearing  ores  is  called 
prospecting,  and  the  men  wlio  pi'rform  this  kind 
of  work  are  called  prospectors.  The  first  proce- 
dure in  prospecting  a  tract  of  land  suspected 
to  contain  mineral  wealth  is  thoroughly  to 
traverse  it  and  to  note  carefully  the  familiar 
indications  of  the  presence  of  minerals.  These 
indications  are  often  numerous  in  kind  for  each 


mineral  and  they  also  vary  lor  different  minerals. 
Generally  speaking,  coal,  gypsum,  salt,  and  simi- 
lar minerals  occur  in  unaltered  deposits,  that  is, 
in  rocks  which  have  not  undergone  metamorphism, 
while  the  metallic  minerals  are  found  in  rocka 
that  have  untlergone  more  or  less  metamorphism. 
These  are  among  the  broad  indications  of  the 
presence  or  absence  of  certain  minerals.  The 
geological  age  of  the  rocks  is  in  respect  to  certain 
minerals  a  pretty  certain  indication  whether 
these  minerals  are  likely  to  be  found  or  not.  For 
example,  the  bulk  of  the  coal  deposits  of  the 
world  has  been  found  in  rocks  of  the  Carbonif- 
ei'ous  age;  they  exist  in  rocks  of  subsequent  ages, 
but  almost  never  in  rocks  of  preceding  ages.  Re- 
ferring to  specific  indications,  the  prospector  for 
coal  will  search  for  traces  of  smut  or  coal  dust 
in  the  streams  and  water-worn  banks,  and  for 
the  presence  of  outcropping  seams. 

The  presence  of  iron  is  indicated  by  mineral 
springs  and  rust-like  stains  of  earth  and  rock. 
The  presence  or  absence  of  vegetation  may  also 
indicate  the  existence  of  minerals;  for  example, 
a  bed  of  phosphate  rock  is  commonly  indicated  by 
a  line  of  luxuriant  vegetation  and  the  outcrop  of 
a  mineral  deposit  bj'  a  lack  of  vegetation.  Beds 
of  magnetic  iron  are  frequently  located  by  their 
attraction  for  the  magnetic  needle.  Placers  are 
fragmental  deposits  from  water  in  which  the 
heavier  minerals  have  been  concentrated  in  cer- 
tain portions,  usually  next  the  underlying  or  bed 
rock.  When  prospecting  for  jilacers  the  prospec- 
tor examines  the  country  for  the  presence  of  any 
existing  or  ancient  watercourses  in  which  de- 
posits of  placer  material  are  likely  to  have  been 
formed.  Metallic  gold  and  precious  stones  occur 
frequently  in  placers.  In  prospecting  for  petro- 
leum, natural  gas,  and  bitumen,  the  surface 
indications  looked  for  are  springs  of  petroleum 
oil  and  naphtha ;  porous  rocks  saturated  wit^i 
bitumen  or  cracks  in  slate  and  other  rocks  filled 
with  the  same  material ;  springs,  pools,  or  creeks 
showing  bubbles  of  escaping  ga.s  or  an  iridescent 
coating  of  oil. 

The  presence  of  a  mineral  deposit  having  been 
established,  the  next  procedure  is  to  determine  its 
extent  and  richness.  The  richness  of  the  ore  is  de- 
termined by  assaying  average  samples.  (See  As- 
saying.) To  determine  the  thickness  of  the  veins 
or  beds  and  their  lateral  extent,  borings  are  sunk 
at  more  or  less  close  intervals  and  records  taken 
of  the  continued  presence  of  the  ore  vein  and  of 
its  thickness.  These  coupled  with  a  geological 
survey  of  the  region  give  fairly  reliable  data  as 
to  the  quantity  of  ore  and  its  location  with 
respect  to  the  ground  surface.  Upon  these  data 
the  miner  estimates  the  value  of  the  deposit 
and  decides  whether  it  will  pay  to  work  it  or 
not. 

If  the  deposit  is  located  on  Government  land,  a 
'claim'  of  variable  size,  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  counti-y  or  district,  is  staked  out,  and  when 
this  is  opened  up  sufficiently  to  have  necessitated 
the  expenditure  of  a  certain  specified  sum  of 
money,  a  permanent  title  can  be  obtained.  In 
the  Western  States  of  the  United  States  claims 
usually  extend  I.'iOO  feet  along  the  vein,  and  either 
1.50  feet  or  .^OO  feet  on  each  side  of  it.  The  owner 
can  then  follow  the  vein  where  it  leads  him  be- 
tween the  vertical  planes  of  his  end  lines.  The 
outcrop  is  called  the  apex.  As.  however,  veins 
are  so  irregular  and  obscure  underground,  great 
uncertainty  may  arise  as  to  title,  and  expensive 


MINING. 


550 


MINING. 


litigation  may  ciisuf.  J'"or  these  reasons  many 
authorities  consider  it  better  practice  to  adopt 
square  claims,  say  1500  feet  on  each  side,  convey- 
ing the  rights  to  all  the  ore  lying  vertically  be- 
neath tliem.  This  is  the  practice  in  Western  Can- 
ada and  is  practically  so  in  most  Eastern  States 
of  the  United  States,  where  title  to  the  land,  un- 
less special  reservations  are  made,  carries  title 
to  the  mineral  rights.  In  some  States,  notably 
Xew  York,  and  in  many  foreign  countries,  the 
State  claims  i)eculiar  and  special  pro])rietary 
rights  to  deposits  of  useful  minerals.  Much 
variety  also  i)revails  in  America  in  tlie  size  of 
claims  other  than  for  deep  mines.  (Jold-hearing 
placers,  for  instance,  have  special  sizes  depending 
on  local  regulations;  they  may  be  very  small  in 
rich  diggings  or  of  great  extent  where  large  hy- 
draulic  enterprises   are   necessarj-. 

JIi.NiNG.  The  methods  of  mining  differ  ac- 
cording to  the  form  and  geological  relations 
of  the  mass  of  ore  or  other  minerals  to  be 
won.  If  tlie  mass  is  of  considerable  size  and 
extent  and  lies  on  the  surface,  one  method 
is  necessary;  if  it  is  a  relatively  flat  and 
very  widely  extended  bed,  as  in  the  case  of  most 
coal  seams,  another  nuist  be  adopted;  and  if  a 
steeply  inclined,  but  relatively  thin,  and  extend- 
ed, tabular  sheet  of  ore  is  to  be  removed,  it  may 
be  to  gicat  depths,  still  a  third.  A  mine  resem- 
bles a  Iiuge  well,  and  it  is  in  the  keeping  of  it  free 
from  water,  in  the  support  of  the  walls  when  the 
ore  has  been  removed,  in  the  ventilation,  and  in 
tlie  cheap  and  quick  removal  of  the  broken  rock 
and  ore.  that  tlie  didicult  problems  arise.  They 
often  demand  the  highest  grade  of  engineering 
skill  and  courage.  The  development  of  modem 
hoisting  machinery,  of  rock  drills  operated  usual- 
ly by  compressed  air,  of  high  explosives,  especial- 
ly dynamite,  and  of  cheap  and  eliicicnt  means  of 
transportation  both  on  and  >mder  the  surface, 
has  been  the  cause  of  our  great  modern  advances 
and  has  made  possiljle  operations  beyond  the 
reach  of  our  forefathers.  Electricity  is  finding 
one  of  its  principal  fields  in  mining  to-day,  and 
as  it  proves  a  ver,v  cheap  and  convenient  method 
of  transmitting  power  down  the  shafts  and 
through  devious  passages,  it  has  great  possibili- 
ties. Water-power,  even  at  a  distance  from  the 
mine,  can  often  be  employed  to  generate  it.  and 
notable  economy  introiluced. 

The  methods  of  mining  will  be  hriefl.v  outlined 
tinder  the  topics — A.  Surface  deposits;  B.  Under- 
ground deposits:  (1)  Flat;  (2)  Highly  inclined 
or  vertical. 

SfRi'ACK  Deposits.  When  a  mass  of  some  use- 
ful material,  metalliferous  or  otherwise,. is  found 
on  or  near  the  surface,  the  first  step  is  to  uncov- 
er it.  This  is  technically  known  a.s  xtripping, 
and  the  overlying  worthless  material  is  called 
the  hurilrn.  If  the  bunleii  is  soft  earth  or  gravel, 
it  is  removed  with  the  pick,  shovel,  and  wheel- 
barrow or  by  a  steam-shovel  and  small  tram-cars, 
operated  by  horses,  mules,  or  locomotives.  In 
quarries  of  building  stone,  the  decomposed  rock 
is  blasted  oil"  and  removed.  When  the  useful 
mineral  is  exposed,  its  most  favorable  position 
is  on  a  hillside,  because  then  the  pit  or  open 
cut  will  drain  itself,  and  the  ore  or  rock  will 
have  the  grade  favoring  its  transportation  in  re- 
moval. If  the  pit  is  in  level  or  depressed  ground, 
pumping  usually  becomes  an  immediate  and 
heavy  charge  on  the  work.  In  either  case  the 
operations  of  extraction  are  carried  on  by  benches 


or  terraces.  A  slice  of  convenient  thickness  is 
taken  ofl'  by  the  first  party  or  macliincs,  and 
when  they  have  advanced  far  enough  a  second  is 
stiirted,  and  so  on  as  many  as  there  may  be  room 
for.  The  outcrops  of  nian,y  large  but  inclined 
veins  of  ore  have  been  worked  in  this  way  in 
their  early  development,  hut  it  places  subsequent 
underground  operations  at  a  disadvantage,  be- 
cause it  exposes  them  to  the  weather.  Open  cuts 
are  the  simplest  form  of  excavation,  but,  as  just 
stated,  the  men  and  machinery  arc  subjected  to 
all  the  inclemency  of  the  seasons,  and  usually 
in  winter  have  to  cease  work  entirely.  One  form 
of  surface  mining  remains  to  be  mentioned,  and 
that  is  the  method  which  has  been  <leveloped.  espe- 
cially in  California,  for  working  auriferous 
gravels.  (See  Gold.)  Water  is  brought  often 
from  a  great  distance  and  with  heavy  fall,  and 
is  then  directed  through  large  nozzles,  called 
■giants.'  against  the  bank  to  be  removed.  This  is 
washed  away  and  the  gold  is  separated  fnmi  the 
moving  rock  material.  The  destructive  [lower  of 
a  swift  and  large  .stream  of  water  directed  against 
a  bank  is  almost  bevond  belief  until  seen.  The 
method  is  economical  where  the  topography 
favors  it,  and  profit  is  realized  when  the  gold 
averages  but  a  few  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

Underground  Deposits.  In  the  winning  of  the 
useful  minerals  from  underground  deposits  com- 
plications are  introduced  which  are  not  met  in 
open  cut.s.  The  overlying  rock  is  always  to  be 
si:|)ported  as  long  as  that,  portion  of  the  mine  is 
being  operated  or  is  used  as  a  jiassageway.  This 
ma.v  leqtiire  the  leaving  of  much  of  the  useful 
mineral  as  pillars  to  suiijiort  *the  overhanging 
wall  or  roof,  or  the  use  of  heavy  timbering  or 
even  of  masonrv.  Ventilation  also  becomes  an 
important  item,  and  all  these  charges,  it  must  be 
appreciated,  have  to  be  borne  by  the  product  be- 
fore any  profit  is  realized. 

The  mining  of  metallic  ores  and  minerals 
occurring  in  flat  or  sliglitl.v  inclined  beds  or 
deposits  does  not  differ  materialh"  from  the 
methods  pursued  in  the  mining  of  coal 
(q.v.). 

Almost  all  metal  mining  is  concerned  with 
steeplv  inclined  l>eds,  veins,  and  irregular  masses. 
In  the  past  historv  of  the  earth.  especiall,v  in 
mountainous  regions,  and  where  eruptive  rocks 
have  come  up  from  the  depths  below,  cracks  of 
greater  or  less  size  have  been  formed  in  the 
solid  rocks,  and  often  in  numbers.  Up  through 
these  have  come  waters,  as  a  rule  at  elevated 
tem])eratures  and  charged  with  minerals.  Where 
thev  have  brought  in  metallic  ores  the.v  have 
often  deposited  them  in  the  fissures,  along  with 
more  or  less  barren  material  called  gangtie, 
and  in  this  way  have  produced  'veins'  or  'lodes.' 
Where,  coming  through  a  crack  as  a  channel  of 
su]iply.  they  have  met  some  soluble  rock  like  lime- 
stone, they  have  often  replaced  it  with  valuable 
ore,  the  limestone  acting  like  a  precipitant  ujion 
the  dissolved  metals.  If  a  porous  rock  has  lieen 
met  the  s(dutions  have  at  times  impregnated  it 
with  ore.  Ore  bodies  of  great  size  and  of  more  or 
less  irregular  character  have  thus  resulted,  and 
problems  of  varying  degrees  of  complexity  are 
met  by  the  mining  engineer  in  devehipins  them. 
Tlie  ore  is  seldom  uniformly  distributed  through- 
out a  vein  or  other  deposit,  but.  on  the  contrarv, 
occurs  in  rich  portions  called  chutes  or  bonanzas, 
with  intervening  spaces  of  barren  ground.  It 
is    advisable   therefore   to   keep    the   mine   well 


MINING. 


551 


MINING. 


ujiened  up  ahead  of  actual  extraction  of  ore,  so 
as  to  average  the  rich  and  lean  portions  and 
make  the  enterprise  a  permanent  one.  Veins 
often  fork  and  send  off  stringers  into  the  walls; 
they  pinch  and  swell  along  their  length  and 
deptli.  The}'  usually  run  out  at  their  ends  into 
small  ramifications  and  liiially  cease.  They  may 
be  cut  off  sharply  by  other  eross-fraetures  ar.d 
disturbances.  They  extend  to  considerable  depths, 
liaving  been  followed  in  some  cases  a.s  deep  as 
3000   feet   or   more. 

As  a  typical  case  by  which  to  illustrate  the 
u-ual  methods  of  procedure,  we  may  assume  that 
u  vein  has  been  located  on  the  surface,  that  it 
extends  a  considerable  distance,  say  a  half-mile 
or  mile,  and  dips  at  GO  degrees  into  the  earth. 
IVst  pits  and  shallow  .shafts  have  indicated  its 
\alue.  The  engineer,  in  opening  a  new  deposit 
like  this,  would  select  as  suitable  a  place  as  pos- 
sible for  his  surface  works,  such  as  engine  house, 
ore  bins,  and  dump  for  wa.ste  rock,  all  in  con- 
neetion  with  a  spot  where  the  vein  showed  good 
ore.  He  would  then  sink  a  sliaft  or  slope  on  the 
vein,  and  if  it  held  good,  woiild  start  drifts  or 
levels  at  each  60  to  100  feet  of  descent.  As  soon 
:i~  a  level  had  advanced  some  distance  from  the 
>haft,  say  100  feet  or  more,  another  party  would 
be  started  near  the  shaft,  working  on  the  vein 
in  the  roof  of  the  level.  At  first  propped  up  on 
timbers,  they  would  excavate  a  space,  and  clear 
away  a  working  face,  so  that  while  the  level  was 
being  driven  ahead  they  could  follow  a  short  dis- 
tance back,  taking  off  a  slice.  Now  in  order  that 
the  loose  rock  and  ore  that  are  blasted  down 
should  not  block  the  passageway,  timbers  would 
be  set  across  the  top  of  the  level  as  at  first  run. 
The  timbers  called  stulls  would  tit  into  sockets 
in  the  walls  and  on  them  would  l)e  laid  rough 
plank  or  lagging,  with  taps  or  little  hatchways 
at  intervals  for  tapping  out  into  cars  the  ore  that 
would  be  blasted  dowii  upon  them.  This  method 
i^  called  'overhand  sloping.'  and  is  the  one  usual- 
ly adopted.  When  the  first  party  of  stopers  had 
advanced  far  enough  to  warrant  it.  a  second,  and 
later  a  third,  would  be  set  at  work  following 
them  up  on  other  and  higher  slices.  As  soon  as 
tlie  levels  had  gone  some  distance,  another  shaft 
would  be  sunk  to  connect  with  them,  not  alone 
fnr  hoisting,  but  to  afford  ventilation  after  blast- 
ing and  for  a  safe  line  of  escape  for  the  men  in 
ca.se  of  accident. 

Another  metliod  somewhat  different  from  over- 
hand stuping  is  sometimes  adopted  that  is  called 
underhand  sloping.  Suppose  levels  one  and  two 
ha<l  advanced  some  distance  from  the  shaft,  a 
small  connecting  shaft  is  then  cut  between  them 
called  a  winze.  It  may  be  opened  by  sinking 
from  the  upper  level  or  by  an  upraise  from  the 
lower.  After  it  is  cut.  a  party  may  begin  on  the 
upper  level,  and  drilling  in  its  floor  may  blast 
away  the  vein  into  the  winze  and  allow  it  to  fall 
to  the  level  below  to  be  removed.  They  may  take 
off  a  vertical  slice  of  the  vein  in  this  way.  and 
gradually  work  each  way  from  the  winze.  The 
upper  level  must  then  be  kept  passable  with  a 
floor  of  timber. 

As  these  inclined  .shafts  deepen  and  the  vein 
is  found  to  be  rich  and  permanent,  it  is  often 
advantageous  no  longer  to  use  the  inclined  shaft, 
but  rather  to  go  out  from  the  vein  into  the  hnng- 
ing  wall  on  the  surface,  and  sink  a  vertical  shaft 
that  will  intersect  the  vein  at  some  desirable 
depth.     Above  this  point  connections  are  made 


with  the  levels  by  crosscuts  through  the  hanging 
wall,  and  below  it  by  cross-cuts  through  the  foot- 
wall.  \'ertical  shafts  are  always  to  be  preferred, 
on  account  of  the  greater  ease  and  speed  of  hoist- 
ing, but  in  a  new  enterprise  the  safer  rule  is  to 
follow  the  ore  until  its  quantity  is  proved.  Va- 
riations on  the  above  simple  methods  are  intro- 
duced by  the  character  of  the  wall-rock  and  the 
size  of  the  ore  body.  If  the  wall-rock  is  bad,  and 
tends  to  scale  off  and  impede  the  workings,  it 
nuist  be  projjped  up  with  heavy  timbering.  If 
the  vein  is  thick,  the  timbers  are  built  up  either 
rough  or  squared,  and  so  mortised  at  the  ends 
that  they  lit  together  like  the  edges  of  a  cube, 
six  feet  on  the  side.  Others  fit  in  with  them, 
each  stick  entering  into  the  four  adjacent  cubes, 
and  in  the  end  a  framework  of  timber  of  great 
strength  is  built  up.  As  soon  as  possible  this  is 
filled  in  with  waste  rock,  which  finally  settles 
down  and  is  i)ractically  as  solid  as  the  original 
vein.  Unless  precautions  are  observed  in  con- 
nection with  keeping  the  walls  firm  and  im- 
movable, they  may  settle  and  do  great  damage 
both  to  surface  buildings  and  underground  work- 
ings. 

In  the  Lake  Superior  iron  mines  producing 
soft  ore,  that  lies  under  a  too  heavy  burden  of 
gravel  to  warrant  stripping,  a  system  has  been 
adopted  called  the  'caving  system.'  The  ores  of 
this  character  on  Lake  Superior  lie  in  great 
troughs  or  elongated  basins.  A  shaft  is  sunk  in 
the  rock  beyond  the  limits  of  the  ore  and  drifts 
at  various  levels  are  run  out  into  it.  From  the 
uppermost  level  upraises  are  made  to  the  top  of 
the  ore  and  minor  drifts  extended  to  its  outer 
limits.  Light  timbering  and  lagging  protect  the 
miner,  who  then  at  these  outer  limits  begins  to 
mine  out  the  ore  on  each  side  of  the  end  of  his 
drift,  letting  the  burden  gradually  cave  in  to  the 
place  whence  the  ore  is  taken.  By  multiplying 
these  drifts  in  every  direction  all  the  ore  is  re- 
moved, and  the  burden,  closing  in  all  the  time, 
keeps  the  mine  shut  and  the  miners  protected 
from  the  weather.  In  the  end  a  great  pit  results, 
sunk  in  the  natural  surface. 

In  small  mines  no  particular  system  of  timber- 
ing or  taking  out  the  ore  is  necessary,  especially 
if  the  wall-rock  is  firm.  Beyond  the  general  plan 
of  shafts  and  levels  the  workings  follow  the  ore, 
and,  without  much  systematic  exploration,  blast 
it  and  remove  it  to  the  surface.  The  objection  to 
this  method  is  that  when  the  known  rich  spots 
are  exhausted,  further  operations  until  more  ore 
is  located  are  all  dead  work,  yielding  no  return 
and  often  causing  the  enterprise  to  shut  down. 
In  large  mines  where  the  wall-rock  is  firm,  great 
excavations  may  be  made  with  no  timbering 
whatever. 

If  the  vein  or  series  of  veins  outcrop  on  a  hill- 
side, either  parallel  with  its  surface  or  crossing 
the  neighboring  valley,  the  ore  may  be  won  by 
adits  or  tiuinels  run  in  on  a  slight  up  grade. 
Such  a  tunnel  will  automatically  drain  all  the 
portions  of  the  vein  above  it  and  will  make  it  an 
easy  matter  to  take  out  the  ore.  which  is  merely 
loosened  and  sent  down  to  the  tunnel  in  winzes 
and  shoots.  But  the  portions  1k>1ow  the  tunnel 
will  of  necessity  be  reached  liy  shafts  from  it 
and  will  require  pumping.  For  this  reason,  unless 
the  advantages  of  a  tunnel  are  very  great,  most 
engineers  prefer  a  vertical  shaft  at  as  early  a 
stage  in  the  mine  as  possible,  because  it  is  so  easy 
and  convenient  to  handle  ore  quicklj'  and  cheaply 


MINING. 


552 


MINING  ENGINEERS. 


by  vertical  hoisting.  Nevertheless  some  long  and 
famous  tuiinels  have  been  e.xcavated  in  former 
years  to  drain  important  veins. 

In  the  handling  and  transportation  of  ore 
underground,  ini])()rtanl  problems  are  met  in 
large  works.  It  is  aeeomplislied  in  the  levels  by 
small  car.s,  usually  built  of  boiler  plate  to  with- 
stand the  pounding  tliat  they  receive,  and  these 
are  pushed  along  by  men  on  light  tracks  to  the 
shaft.  The  operation  is  called  tramming.  If  the 
shaft  is  vertical  the  ears  are  run  directly  on  the 
cage,  and  hoisted  to  the  surface,  wliere  they  are 
dumped  and  returned.  Large  mines  may  liave 
cages  with  two  or  even  three  decks,  bringing  thus 
two  or  three  tram-cars  at  a  trip.  If  the  shaft  is 
inclined,  the  tram-cars  are  dumped  at  the  landing 
of  the  level  into  a  ear  in  the  shaft  that  is  open 
at  the  end  instead  of  at  the  top.  This  is  called  a 
skip  and  its  track  is  the  skipway.  The  skip 
diunps  automatically  at  the  top  of  the  shaft.  In 
small  mines  an  iron  bucket  is  used  instead  of  a 
skip  or  cage,  but  as  soon  as  the  output  becomes 
at  all  large,  buckets  have  to  he  abandimcd.  The 
transportation  of  the  miners  up  and  down  deej) 
shafts  is  also  an  important  matter.  They  may, 
and  as  a  rule  do,  ride  on  the  skips,  cages,  or 
buckets  used  for  the  ore,  special  trips  being  made 
for  them.  Ladders,  except  for  shallow  depths, 
are  no  longer  used  in  good  practice  unless  in 
emergencies,  as  the  climbing  is  too  slow  and  ex- 
hausting. 

In  all  mines  one  of  the  most  dreaded  things  is 
fire.  The  forests  of  underground  timlicr  in 
manv  old  workings  nuike  it  a  very  dangerous 
accident,  and  even  when  in  shaft  houses  at  the  en- 
trances it  often  cntiiils  disastrous  consequences 
on  the  men  below.  In  coal  mines  there  is  the 
added  danger  of  explosions  and  even  of  com- 
bustion of  the  coal.  It  is  more  and  more  eustom- 
ary,  therefore,  to  locate  boilers  and  engines  in 
separate  buildings  from  shaft  houses,  and  to  use 
every  precaution  against  an  outbreak. 

In  the  organization  of  the  force  of  miners  the 
relations  of  cmphyer  and  employed  in  mihcs  arc 
somewhat  diflercnt  from  those  of  operations  on 
the  surface.  The  men  are  distributed  as  individ- 
uals and  small  parties  in  places  more  or  less 
scattered  and  beyond  regular  superintendence. 
It  is  therefore  often  customary  to  let  out  work  by 
contract  rather  than' by  day  wages.  A  fair  price 
is  offered,  based  on  experience,  and  usually  esti- 
mated by  the  cubic  yard  or  fathom  of  ore  or  rock 
excavated,  and  a  (larty  of  miners  organize  and 
assume  the  contract.  .Active  and  energetic  men 
do  well  under  these  circumstances,  b>it  as  a  rule 
the  prices  soon  adjust  themselves  to  about  a  fair 
average.  Tlic  company  furnishes  supplies  of  ex- 
plosives, drills,  timber,  etc..  to  the  men  at  rates 
agreed  upon.  It  also  has  a  mine  foreman,  with 
subordinates  to  see  that  the  work  goes  on  satis- 
factorily, and  at  the  end  of  each  month  the  sur- 
veyor or  engineer  or  supcrintemlent  measures  up 
the  work.  In  case  (he  owners  lack  capital,  or  the 
vein  is  pockety  and  not  ndaplcd  to  systematic 
work  in  the  l.nrge  way.  the  'tribute'  system  may 
be  adopted.  The  parties  of  men  then  lease  a  cer- 
tain block  of  ground  and  mine  at  their  own  ex- 
pense and  risk,  paying  to  the  owners  a  graded 
percentage  of  the  value  of  the  ore.  If  the  men 
strike  rich  ore  they  realize  high  returns,  hut  if 
it  proves  lean  and  low-graile  they  may  actually 
lose.  Old  miners  who  know  a  mine  thoroughly 
mav  often  thus  work  to  a  great  advantage.    Own- 


ers of  small  capital  sometimes  get  a  new  mine 
develoi)cd  by  leasing  it  to  a  party  of  practical 
miners  for  a  percentage  of  the  ore  values  for  a 
limited  time  period.  In  this  way  the  ore  body 
is  opened  up  without  expense  to  the  owners, 
but  the  leasers,  who  take  the  risks,  naturally 
reap  the  lion's  share  of  the  profits.  The  rela- 
tions of  employers  to  men  in  remote  settlements 
are  also  peculiarly  close.  The  mining  company 
of  necessity  furnishes  houses,  supplies,  and  all 
necessaries  of  life. 

The  production  of  the  metals  and  useful  min- 
erals the  world  over  has  increased  remarkably. 
Xowhere  has  the  advance  been  more  pronounced 
than  in  the  Inited  .States,  which  is  the  foremost 
of  mining  nations,  leading,  in  1002,  in  the  pro- 
duction of  iron  and  steel,  cop|)er,  gold,  silver, 
mercury,  coal,  salt,  and  petroleum.  Of  the  other 
more  prominent  metals  and  minerals.  Spain  is 
the  chief  luoducer  of  lead,  Germany  of  zinc,  and 
Russia   of   platinum. 

For  statistics  and  further  information,  consult 
the  separate  articles  on  the  various  metals. 

BlBUOGRAPllY.  The  Transactions  of  the  Ameri- 
can Institute  of  Milting  Engineers  contain  many 
papers  relating  to  mining.  -Additional  ones  may 
also  be  found  in  the  L'nginccriny  and  Mining 
Journal  (Xew  York);  The  Mineral  Industry 
(New  York)  ;  Mines  and  Minerals  (.Seranton)  ; 
the  Engineering  Magazine  (New  York)  ;  Mining 
and  ticicntific  Press  (San  Krancisco)  ;  Traut- 
u-ine's  Engineers'  I'ocket-Hook  (New  York,  190'2) 
contains  many  valuable  data  grouped  for  easy 
reference,  and  among  other  works  may  be  uk'U- 
tioned  II.  M.  Chance,  "Coal-Mining."  AV/mr/ . If., 
Pennsi/trania  Geological  Survrii;  R.  Peel.  Coal- 
Mining  (I'hiladelpliia)  ;  K.  II.  Davies,  Machinerif  | 
for  Metalliferous  Mines  (London):  F.  A.  Abel, 
Mining  Accidents  and  their  Prevention  (New 
York)  ;  A.  Serlo,  Leitfaden  zur  liergbaukunde 
(Berlin)  :  Barringer  and  Adams.  The  Law  of 
Mines  and  Mining  in  the  United  States  (Bos- 
ton) ;  The  Coal  and  Metal  Miners'  Pocket-Hook 
(Seranton,  Pa.,  1900);  Foster.  .1  Textltook  of 
Ore  and  ^tone  Mining  (Philadeli)hia.  lltOO)  ; 
Stretch,  Prosjieeting.  Locating,  and  Valuing 
Mines  (New  York,  1002)  ;  Wilson,  Ihidraulic 
and  Placer  Mining  (2d  ed..  New  York.  lOO:!)  ; 
Ihlseng,  .1  Manual  of  Mining  (3d  ed..  New  York, 
I90I)  ;  stiller.  Field  Book  of  Practical  Mineral- 
ogy   (New  York,  1901). 

MINING  CI/ AIM.  The  claim  of  a  person  to 
the  exclusive  right  to  work  land  in  which  he 
supposes  he  has  discovered  deposits  of  a  precious 
metal ;  hence,  the  parcel  of  land  supposed  to 
contain  the  metallic  deposits.  The  tenn  is  spe- 
cificallv  used  to  designate  the  area  of  siuh  metal- 
liferous land  which  may  be  held  under  one  lo- 
cation under  the  statutes  of  the  Inited  States, 
in  which  case  the  claim  and  location  are  iilen- 
tical  if  there  is  hut  one  location;  but  if  llic 
miner  acfiuires  two  or  more  locations  the  claim 
is  usually  used  to  designate  the  whole  tract  of 
land. 

.\  mining  claim  is  real  estate,  and  descends 
to  the  heir,  and  is  stibject  to  taxation,  execution, 
etc..  as  is  any  other  real  estate,  and  may  also, 
in  like  manner,  be  protected  by  the  action  of 
ejectment.     See  Mi.nes  .\M)  Mining. 

MINING  ENGINEERS,  AMERtc.\N  Insti- 
tute OF.     -\  society  foimded  in  1871,  for  the  pro- 


MINING  ENGINEERS. 


553 


MINISTER'S  WOOING. 


motion  of  the  arts  and  sciences  connected  with 
the  economical  production  of  minerals  and 
metals,  the  discussion  of  professional  papers, 
and  tlie  circulation  of  information  connected 
with  mining  interests.  Tt  had  a  membership  at 
the  close  of  1902  of  S.^OO,  made  up  of  honorary, 
elected,  and  associate  members.  The  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  Institute  is  held  in  February,  with 
other  meetings  during  the  year  as  authorized 
by  tlie  council.  The  Institute  publishes  a  volume 
of  Trniisnrlioiis  each  year,  besides  the  papers 
read  before  the  Institute  and  accepted.  The 
headquarters  of  the  Institute  are  in  New  York. 

MINING    LOCOMOTIVES.      See    Electric 
Raii.w.ws:    Loco.motive  :    C'ii.mpressed   Air   Lo- 

cnMIJTIVE;    STKAM    KxGINE. 

MINISTER  (Lat.,  servant).  A  public  func- 
tionary who  has  the  chief  direction  of  any  de- 
partment in  a  State.  (See  Ministry. )  Also  the 
delegate  or  representative  of  a  sovereign  at  a 
foreign  court  to  treat  of  affairs  of  state.  Every 
independent  State  has  a  right  to  send  public 
ministers  to,  and  receive  them  from,  any  other 
sovereign  State  with  which  it  desires  to  preserve 
relations  of  amit\-.  Semi-sovereign  States  have 
generally  been  considered  not  to  possess  the 
jus  legatlonis,  unless  when  delegated  to  them  by 
the  State  on  which  they  are  dependent.  The 
right  of  confederated  States  to  send  public  min- 
isters to  each  other,  or  to  foreign  States,  de- 
pends on  the  nature  and  constitution  of  the 
imion  by  which  they  are  bound  together.  Tlie  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  Provinces  of  the  IjOw  Coun- 
tries and  of  the  old  (Jernian  Empire  preserved  this 
right  to  the  individual  States  or  princes,  as  do 
the  present  constitutions  of  the  German  Empire 
and  Swiss  confederation.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  either  greatly  modifies  or  entirely 
takes  away  the  jus  Icciationis  of  each  individual 
State.  Every  sovereign  State  has  a  right  to 
receive  public  ministers  from  other  powers,  un- 
less where  obligations  to  the  contrary  have 
been  entered  into  by  treaty.  The  diplomatic 
usage  of  Europe  recognizes  three  orders  of 
ministers.  Jlinisters  of  the  first  order  possess 
the  representative  character  in  the  highest  de- 
gree, representing  the  State  or  sovereign  sending 
them  not  only  in  the  particular  allairs  with 
which  they  are  charged,  but  in  other  matters; 
tliey  may  claim  the  same  honors  as  would  be- 
long to  their  sovereigns,  if  present.  A  prin- 
ciple of  reciprocity  is  recognized  in  the  class 
of  diplomatic  agents  sent.  States  enjoying  the 
honors  of  royalty  send  to  each  other  ministers 
of  the  first  class ;  so  also  in  some  cases  do  those 
States  which  do  not  enjoy  them  :  but  it  is  said 
that  no  State  enjoying  such  honors  can  receive 
ministers  of  the  first  class  from  those  who 
are  not  possessed  of  them. 

Besides  these  orders  of  ministers,  there  are 
other  diplomatic  agents  occasionally  recognized 
— as  deputies  sent  to  a  congress  or  confederacy 
of  .'^tates.  and  conunissioners  sent  to  settle  ter- 
ritorial limits  or  disputes  concerning  jurisdic- 
tion. These  are  generally  considered  to  enjoy 
the  privileges  of  ministers  of  the  second  and 
third  orders.  Ministers-mediators  are  ministers 
sent  by  two  powers  between  which  a  dispute  has 
arisen  to  a  foreign  court  or  congress  where 
a  third  power,  or  several  powers,  have,  with 
the  consent  of  the  two  powers  at  variance, 
offered  to  mediate  between  them. 


Ministers  sent  to  a  congress  or  diet  have 
usually  no  credentials,  but  merely  a  full  power, 
of  which  an  authenticated  copy  is  delivered 
into  the  hands  of  a  directing  minister,  or  min- 
ister-mediator. 

The  title  'excellency'  has  since  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  been  accorded  to  all  diplomatic  agents 
of  the  first  class;  and  in  some  courts  it  is  ex- 
tended to  ministers  of  the  second  class,  or  at 
least  to  those  sent  by  the  Great  Powers. 

By  the  American  system  ministers  to  exercise 
diplomatic  functions  at  foreign  courts  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and  confirmed  by  the 
Senate.   See  .-\.mb.\ssadok;  Envoy:  C'onsui,,"Meb- 

CANTILE;       DiPLO.MACY;       DlPI.OJIATIC       AGENTS; 

Inviolability.     See  also  Cabinet.     Consult  the 
authorities  referred  to  under  the  last  three  of 

these  titles. 

MINISTERIAL  OFFICER.  An  oflicer 
whose  functions  consist  in  e-xecuting  the  com- 
mand of  a  superior,  or  in  performing  a  duty 
definitely  prescribed  by  law.  Its  propriety  is  not 
left  to  his  judgment  or  discretion.  He  is  legally 
bound  to  perform  it;  and  for  a  failure  to  do  his 
duty  he  is  liable  in  damages  to  the  person  in 
whose  favor  the  duty  was  to  be  discharged.  A 
policeman,  sheriff,  or  marshal  having  a  writ  for 
the  arrest  of  a  designated  person  is  liable  for 
false  imprisonment  if  he  arrests  any  other 
person  than  the  one  named.  Or,  he  may  have 
arrested  the  wrong  ])erson,  because  of  mistaken 
information,  yet  having  acted  with  due  caution 
in  making  his  inquiries.  In  both  eases  he  is 
liable.  As  a  rule,  the  ministerial  olhccr  acts 
at  his  peril.  Perhaps  the  harshest  ajiplication  of 
this  rule  is  seen  when  he  enforces  legal  process 
under  an  unconstitutional  statute.  If,  on  ap- 
peal, the  statute  is  declared  unconstitutional 
by  the  highest  court  of  the  State,  the  judges  of 
the  lower  court  are  not  civilly  responsible  for 
their  blunder,  but  the  sheriff  who  seized  and  sold 
property  under  the  execution  must  respond  to 
the  owner  for  its  value. 

Oftentimes  a  judicial  officer  or  a  legislative 
body  is  required  to  act  in  a  ministerial  or  execu- 
tive capacity.  Generally  speaking,  a  judge  acts 
ministerially  when  an  application  for  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  is  made  to  him.  The  law  does 
not  leave  the  granting  or  withholding  of  this 
writ  to  his  discretion.  A  justice  of  the  peace 
who  has  rendered  judgment  in  a  case  before 
him  is  under  a  pcremptorv  duty  to  issue  an 
execution  thereon  at  the  request  of  the  judgment 
creditor.  In  issuing  or  refusing  it  he  acts 
ministerially,  not  judicially.  If  a  statute 
charges  a  county  judge  with  the  duty  of  select- 
ing jurors  for  the  various  courts  sitting  in  the 
county,  his  acts  luider  the  statute  arc  minis- 
terial. Whether  an  act  required  by  law  of  an 
officer  is  judicial  or  ministerial  depends  upon  its 
character,  and  not  on  the  rank  of  the  actor. 
See  Officer,  and  the  articles  there  referred 
to. 

MINISTER'S  'WOOING,  The.  A  story  by 
Harriet  Bceclicr  Stowe.  published  as  a  serial  in 
the  Atlnntir  Mnnthlii  (IS.'iO).  The  scene  is  Xew 
England  in  the  Revolution,  wdien  Mary  Scud- 
der's  lover  is  supposed  to  have  been  (irowned. 
and  the  girl  is  persuaded  to  many  old  Dr.  Hop- 
kins, the  minister.  The  lover  returns.  Mary 
is  true  to  her  promise,  but  the  minister  frees  her 


MINISTRY. 


554 


MINK. 


MINISTKY.  A  body  consisting  usually  of 
the  lioads  of  the  chief  executive  or  ailniinistra- 
tive  departments  of  a  government,  and  consti- 
tuting an  advisory  council  of  the  sovereign. 
In  several  European  countries  there  is  a  chief 
minister  who  has  a  certain  precedence  in  rank 
and  authority  over  his  colleagues,  and  who  is 
known  as  the  premier  or  prime  minister.  In 
several  others,  the  cliief  minister  hears  the 
title  of  minister-president,  and  enjoys  a  cer- 
tain precedence  in  dignity  over  his  colleagues, 
but  exercises  no  authority  over  them.  Every- 
where, the  right  of  selecting  tlie  members  of  the 
ministry  belongs  to  the  chief  executive.  In 
those  countries,  like  England,  where  the  Crown 
is  only  the  nominal  executive,  the  head  of  the 
State  selects  only  tlic  prime  minister,  and  in- 
trusts thtf  selection  of  the  others  to  him.  In  the 
Gorman  Empire,  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  the 
Empire  of  .Japan,  and  the  American  republics, 
where  the  ministers  are  not  res|)onsible  to  the 
legislature  for  their  political  policy,  they  are 
all  appointed  directly  by  the  chief  executive 
without  being  restricted  to  acknowledged  party 
leaders.  It  is  a  general  rule  in  European  ('oun- 
tries  that  members  of  Parliament  may,  with 
the  approval  of  their  constituents,  serve  as  min- 
isters. But  whether  nu'mbers  of  Parliament  or 
not.  ministers  are  entitled  to  sit  in  either 
House,  and  to  participate  freely  in  tlu'  discussion 
of  measures  in  which  tliey  are   interested. 

In  general,  the  term  'ministry'  is  synonymous 
witli  the  term  'cabinet'  (q.v.),  but  there  are 
exceptions.  Thus,  in  Oreat  Britain,  the  'minis- 
try' includes  in  addition  to  members  of  th-e 
cabinet,  all  those  political  undersecretaries  who 
have  seats  in  Parliament  (at  present  about 
forty  in  number),  and  who  are  expected  to  re- 
sign when  their  policy  is  defeated  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  while  the  'cabinet'  consists  of  a 
certain  number  of  ministers  (at  present  nine- 
teen) who  control  the  policy  of  the  government 
and  preside  over  the  chief  administrative  de- 
partments. Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  not  all 
the  ministers  are  members  of  the  cabinet.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  may  liappen  that  some  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet  will  have  no  administrative 
duties.  Such  members  are  known  as  ministers 
without  portfolios.  Departments  of  adminstra- 
tion  over  which  ministers  are  generally  placed 
are:  foreign  afl'airs.  war.  finance,  justice,  public 
odueation,  public  worship,  navy,  conunerce.  post 
and  telegraphs,  and  cohmies.  In  those  countries 
where  ministers  are  responsible  to  the  chief  exec- 
utive, they  act  independently  of  one  another  in 
the  cnndiu-t  of  their  administrative  departments, 
and  (heir  responsibility  is  individual  rather  than 
collective. 

MINITARI,  mO'nA-tJi're,  or  ninATS.\.  h*- 
diil'-a.  .\  tribe  of  Siouan  stock  (q.v.),  orig- 
inally a  part  of  the  Crow,  whose  language  they 
speak,  but  from  whom,  for  .some  petty  tradi- 
tii)ii:il  (inarrel.  they  b)ng  since  separated.  Since 
known  to  the  whites  they  have  resided  nearly 
in  their  present  position  on  the  Missouri  River 
in  North  Pakota  in  close  alliance  with  the 
Mnniian  and  .\rikarn  (q.v.).  They  call  thom- 
wlves  nidalnn.  their  popular  name  being  of 
Sioux  or  Mandnn  origin,  and  said  to  signify 
'pe<iple  who  have  cro-ixed  over  the  water.'  Both 
they  and  a  detached  band  of  .\rapaho  were  known 
to  the  French  as  lliofi  ]'rnlre.<>  (q.v.).  They  oc- 
cupied permanent  stockaded  villages  of  circular 


earth-covered  log  houses  along  the  bluffs  ot 
the  Missouri,  where  they  had  fiehis  of  corn, 
pumpkins,  and  sunllowers,  and  made  periodic 
excursions  into  the  open  plains  to  hunt  the 
buffalo,  at  which  times  they  lived  in  tepees. 
Like  their  allied  triljes.  they  had  elal)orate 
ceremonials  and  social  organization.  They  have 
been  uniformly  friendly  to  the  whites.  In  1804 
they  were  estimated  at  2.500.  but  have  decreased 
rai)idly.  lirst  from  tlie  smalljio.x  of  1S.'57,  and 
later  from  the  diminislied  food  supply  conse- 
quent upon  the  destruction  of  the  buffalo.  They 
number  now  about  4fi0,  and  live  with  the  Man- 
d'Sin  and  Arikara,  upon  the  reservation  at  Fort 
Bert  hold.  The  population  of  the  three  tribes 
for  some  years  has  remained  about  stationary. 
The  Minitari  are  the  most  industrious  of  the 
three,  having  the  largest  herds  and  earning 
nuire  than  the  other  two  together.  Consult 
JIatthew.  Ethnology  and  Philology  of  the  Hi- 
datsti  Indiinis. 

MIN'IUM,  or  Red  Lead.  A  beautifully  scar- 
let crystalline  substance  consisting  chielly  of  le.id 
ortho-phinibate,  2Pb().Pbt);.  It  is  made  by  cau- 
tiously heating  uuissieot  or  white  lead  in  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace  or  in  special  barrel-shaped 
ovens  open  at  both  ends.  If  heated,  minium 
gradually  changes  its  color,  becoming  violet  and 
ultimately  black;  but  it  regains  its  original 
color  on  cooling.  If  ignited  in  the  air,  minium 
is  converted  into  the  monoxide  of  lead.  Minium 
is  used  as  a  mineral  color,  yielding  a  fine  paint. 
It  is  also  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  Hint- 
glass.  The  commercial  product  usually  contains 
more  or  less  litharge  and  is  often  found  adul- 
terated with  iron  oxide,  brick-dust,  red  bole, 
powdered  heavy  spar.  etc..  the  most  objectionable 
adulterant  being  iron.  Minium  has  also  been 
found  native  in  certain  localities  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, Russia,  etc. 

MIN'IVET.  One  of  a  group  of  about 
twenty  species  of  small  shrike-like  birds  of  the 
Oriental  region.  The  males  are.  in  general, 
black  and  rose,  while  the  females  are  gray 
and  saffron.  Consult  Blythe.  MamDinh  mid 
liirds  of  Burma  I  London.  187.5);  an<l  other 
authorities  on  Oriental  ornithology  cited  under 
Bird. 

MINK  (probably  from  Swed.  »i'iiik.  mink). 
.\ny  of  several  species  of  weasel-like  animals  of 
the  genus  Putorius.  family  Mustelida\  distin- 
guished from  the  martens,  .stoats,  etc..  by  their 
semi-aqiuitic  habits  and  certain  peculiarities 
of  dentition.  The  American  mink  ll'iitoriiis 
rison )  is  foiuid  throughout  Xorth  America,  but 
especially  in  the  northern  and  mountainous  parts. 
The  European  mink  (Putorius  lutrrnhi).  usually 
called  'norz'  or  'miink.'  occurs  in  Finland.  Poland. 
Scandinavia,  and  Russia,  and  formerly  extemled 
as  far  west  as  Central  Gennany.  The  mink  of 
Siberia  (I'litoriufi  Sihirica)  is  a  (|uite  distinct 
but  little  known  species.  The  American  mink 
is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Eurojiean  s))ecie8 
(1.5  to  IS  inches  long,  besides  the  tail.  0  inches), 
and  is  further  distinguisheil  by  the  black  upper 
lip:  in  the  European  mink  the  up])cr  lip  is 
white. 

Minks  are  inhabitants  of  well-watered  areas, 
haunting  the  banks  of  streatns  and  borders  of 
jionds  in  search  of  their  food,  and  making  their 
hoiiies  in  burrows,  which  open  near  the  water. 
They   are   excellent  swimmers,   having  the   feet 


MINK. 


555 


MINNEAPOLIS. 


partially  webbed,  and  spend  much  time  in  the 
water.  Althoufjh.  like  other  ilustelid;r,  they 
eat  birds,  small  maunnals,  and  e;,'ys,  tlie  ]irin- 
cipal  food  of  minks  comes  from  the  water;  thus 
lish,  I'roys,  salamanders,  eraytish,  and  even  mcd- 
lusks,  form  their  cliief  diet,  and  muskrats  and 
other  water-lovinjj  mammals  also  fall  prey  to 
their  voracity.  The  fur  of  the  mink  is  of  <;reat 
value  commercially,  though  the  price  varies  much 
with  color  and  quality.  (See  FuB  and  the  Fub 
Trade.)  Jlinks  are  usually  brown,  sometimes 
rather  light,  but  more  often  very  dark,  especially 
along  the  mid-dorsal  line.  The  darker  the  animal 
the  more  valualile  it  is.  The  fur  is  made  up 
of  a  dense  un<lereoat  and  an  outer  coat  of  long, 
shining  hairs,  and  the  skins  from  the  coldest 
regions  are  usually  the  most  valuable.  Like 
all  its  near  relatives,  the  mink  is  bloodthirsty 
and  cruel.  It  is  very  courageous,  and  when 
cornered  is  savage.  The  joung  are  boin  in 
the  early  spring,  usually  in  a  hole  in  the 
bank  of  some  body  of  water,  where  plenty 
of  food  is  easily  obtained.  The  number  of  young 
is  about  six  in  a  litter.  The  mink  is  second  only 
to  the  skunk  in  the  strength,  penetrating  power, 
and  nauseousncss  of  the  odor  of  the  secretion  in 
the  anal  glands,  but  fortunately  it  is  only  when 
the  animal  is  greatly  enraged  that  the  odor 
becomes  verj'  disagreeable.  Jlinks  are  said  to 
be  easily  tamed  if  taken  young,  and  to  enjoy 
being  petted,  but  their  temper  is  capricious, 
and  as  they  grow  old  they  become  dangerous. 
Civilization  seems  to  have  little  efi'ect  upon 
them,  there  being  few  districts  so  completely 
cleared  or  denselj'  settled  as  not  to  aft'ord  them 
nfuge. 

I'onsiilt:  Audubon  and  Bachman,  Quadrupeds 
<■;  Xorth  America  {Sev;  York,  1851)  ;  Coues,  Fur- 
binriiuj  Animals  (Washington,  1870)  :  Stone 
and  Cram,  Amcricau  Animals  (Xew  York,  1002). 
See  Fur-Bearing  Animals. 

MINK-FROG,  or  Hoosier-Feog.  A  small 
frog  (Ra)ia  scptcufrionalis)  of  the  Northwestern 
I'uited  States.  It  is  2^4  inches  long  from  nose 
111  vent,  dark  olive  green  above,  with  sooty  brown 
1m  rs  anil  blotches,  and  pure  white  underneath. 
Its  hazel  iris,  minky  color,  and  quiet  solitary 
haliits,  distinguish  it  from  others.  A  detailed  ac- 
count of  its  features  and  ecology  was  given  l)y  J. 
H.  Garnier  in  The  American  Nafurulist,  vol.  xvii. 
(Philadelphia,  1883). 

MIN'KOPIS.  The  inhabitants  of  the  An- 
daman Ishinds.     See  Mincopie.s. 

MINNA  VON  BARNHELM,  min'na  f6n 
biirn'lirdm.  A  comedy  by  Lessing,  produced 
at  Haml)urg  in  1767.  The  action  occupies  part 
<if  a  single  day,  and  the  scene  throughout  is  an 
inn.  The  plot  rests  on  the  ru.se  employed  by 
the  heroine  to  overcome  the  false  sense  of  honor 
of  her  fiance,  ilajor  von  Tellheim,  who  refuses  to 
bind  her  to  him.  because  of  his  poverty. 

MIN'NEAP'OLIS.  A  city  and  the  county- 
jseat  of  Ottawa  County,  Kan.,  127  miles  west 
of  Topeka :  on  the  Solomon  River,  and  on  the 
Union  Pacific  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  railroads  (Map:  Kansas.  E  2).  It 
derives  considerable  trade  from  the  adjacent 
farming  and  stock-raising  country,  and  has  grain 
elevators,  flour  mills,  carriage  shops,  a  foundry, 
etc.  Building  stone  is  quarried  in  the  vicinity. 
There  is  a  public-school  librarv  of  ."^OOO  volumes. 
Population,  in  1800.  1756;  1000,  1727. 
Vol.  XUl.— 3G. 


MINNEAPOLIS.  Ihe  largest  city  of  Min- 
nesota, and  the  county->eat  of  Hennepin  County, 
situated  at  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony,  on  the 
Missi.ssip|)i  River,  above  Saint  Paul,  the  suburbs 
of  which  join  tho.se  of  Minneapolis,  the  two 
municipalities  being  termed  'Twin  Cities.'  The 
river,  which  divides  the  city  into  unequal  por- 
tions, the  main  portion  being  on  the  right  bank, 
is  crossed  by  a  number  of  massive  highway  and 
railroad  bridges.  The  Falls  of  Saint  .\nlliony  are 
in  the  heart  of  the  manufacturing  district. 

Minnea|)olis  stands  on  a  gently  undulating 
plateau.  SOO  feet  above  sea-level,  in  a  pictur- 
esque lake  region  much  frequented  as  a  place  of 
resort.  There  are  several  lakes  within  the  city 
limits,  and  of  others  in  the  iumiediate  vicinity. 
Lake  Minnetonka  is  the  largest  and  most  popu- 
lar. The  city  is  about  10  miles  long  by  t)  in 
width,  and  has  an  area  of  5.3  square  miles.  Its 
streets  are  broad  and  regular.  An  extensive 
park  system  has  been  developed.  There  are 
some  twenty  parks,  comprising  a  proportionately 
large  area  of  1581  acres.  Attractive  driveways, 
of  which  the  Kenwood  Boulevard  (150  feet  wide) 
is  an  example,  skirt  the  lakes,  constituting  a 
picturesque  feature  of  the  park  .system.  Loring 
Park,  in  the  centre  of  the  cit}',  contains  a  fine 
lake  and  Fjelde's  statue  of  Ole  Bull,  ilinnehaha 
Park,  of  133  acres,  is  a  jjicturesque  tract,  embrac- 
ing the  Falls  of  Minnehaha.  50  feet  in  height, 
which  have  beeen  immortalized  by  Longfellow's 
Hiauatha.  Adjoining  the  park  are  the  beautiful 
grounds  of  the  State  Soldiers"  Home,  occupying 
()0  acres.  Jlinneapolis  has  many  handsome  edi- 
fices, both  public  aiul  private.  The  Court  House 
and  Citv  Hall  was  completed  at  a  cost  of  more 
than  $3,000,000  in  1002.  It  is  built  of  Min- 
nesota granite,  and  is  300  feet  square,  inclosing 
a  large  open  court.  The  tower  commands  a  su- 
perb view  of  the  city  from  its  height  of  345 
feet.  The  post-office  and  the  public  library 
are  fine  Romanesque  structures.  The  latter 
contains  a  collection  of  12,000  volumes,  an  art 
gallery  and  school  of  art,  and  the  Museum  of  the 
Jlinnesota  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  The 
Guaranty  Building,  12  stories  high,  is  conspicu- 
ous among  the  office  buildings  of  the  city.  Other 
])rominent  structures  are  the  New  York  Life  In- 
surance Building,  Masonic  Temple,  West  Hotel, 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  Andrus  Building^  and  the 
Lumber  Exchange.  Minneapolis  is  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  Jlinncsota  (q.v. ),  on  the  grounds 
of  which  is  a  .statue  of  ex-CJovernor  .lolin  S. 
Pillsbury,  by  French.  Other  educational  institu- 
tions are  Augsburg  Seminary  (Lutheran),  estab- 
lished in  1800;  the  medical  department  of  Ham- 
line  University  (Saint  Paul),  the  Nortlnvestcrn 
Conservatory  of  Music,  IMorgan  Hall,  and  Stan- 
Icy  Hall.  There  are  numerous  private  and  public 
cliaritable  institutions,  and  a  bureau  of  associated 
charities  which  is  organized  for  cooperation  and 
general  superintendence. 

ComiERCE  AND  Indistry.  The  conditions 
which  have  contributed  most  to  the  industrial 
development  of  Minneapolis  arc  the  advantages 
afforded  by  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  and  their 
convenient  location  in  relation  to  the  abundant 
grain  and  timber  of  the  Northwest.  Excellent 
transportation  facilities  give  the  city  command 
over  these  s\ipi)lies  and  over  the  markets  of  the 
country.  Twenty-two  lines  of  railway,  operated 
under  ten  systems,  enter  the  city.  With  the.se 
advantages,  Jlinneapolis  has  developed  into  the 


MINNEAPOLIS. 


556 


MINNEDOSA. 


foremost  oitj*  of  tlio  Xtnthwcst,  beiiifr  noted  par- 
timilarly  for  its  iiiamifacturing  ami  wholesale 
interests.  The  first  inaiuilactorv  in  the  .State 
was  established  at  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony.  It 
was  used  first  as  a  .saw-mill  and  then  as  a  flour- 
mill.  The  power  atl'orded  by  the  l<"alls  has  been 
utilized  more  and  more,  until  .Minneapolis  has 
become  the  largest  flour  and  lumber  market  in  the 
world.  The  water  ]Kiwor  at  the  Falls  of  Saint  -Vn- 
thony  was  developed,  previous  to  1S7I),  to  yield 
30.000  horse  power,  and  in  1807  a  new'  dam,  giv- 
ing  10,000  horse  power,  was  completed.  The 
United  States  (iovernment  is  (1003)  construct- 
ing a  system  of  locks  and  dams  below  the  Falls 
which  will  add  10.000  horse  power.  For  a  num- 
ber of  years  the  lumber  industry  was  most  im- 
portant, but  after  the  introduction  of  improved 
processes  of  llourniilliiig  in  the  seventies,  the 
latter  industr\-  surjiassed  lumber  manufacturing, 
and  has  since  rapi<lly  outstripped  it.  This  rela- 
tion, undoubtedly,  will  continue  to  exist,  as  the 
tributary  grain-jirochuing  area  is  constantly  in- 
creasing, while  the  timber  supply  is  diminishing. 
The  lumber  cut  bv  Minneapolis  mills  increased 
from  118,223,113  'feet  in  1S70,  to  343,.5S3,7C2 
feet  in  ISOO.  and  ,->78,l  13,000  in  1001.  The  pro- 
duction of  Hour  increased  from  040.780  barrels 
in  1878  to  l!.08S,(!30  barrels  in  1800,  and  1.5.- 
921.880  in  inoi.  The  daily  capacity  of  the 
mills  in  1901  was  80,.')16  barrels,  and"  one  mill 
alone  bad  a  capacity  of  15.000  barrels.  Other 
prominent  industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  malt  liquors, 
and  linseed  oil, 

.\mong  the  railroads  that  contribute  to  the 
high  commercial  and  industrial  rank  of  Min- 
ncapidis  are:  the  Chicago  .and  Xorthwestern; 
the  Hurlington  Route ;  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  Saint  Paul:  the  Chicago,  Hock  Island  and 
Pacific:  the  Xorthern  Pacific:  the  Crcat  North- 
ern: the  Minneapolis.  Saint  Paul  and  Sault  Saint 
Marie:  the  Chicago  (ireat  WC^tern :  and  the 
Saint  Paul  and  Dubith.  The  Mississippi  River 
is  navigable  to  Minneapolis,  but  vessels  prac- 
tically go  no  higher  than  Saint  Paul,  In  the 
crop  year  1891  there  were  received  in  Min- 
neapolis 81.001,000  bushels  of  wheat,  0,266.300 
bushels  of  corn.  12,909.710  bushels  of  oats.  5,- 
348,040  bushels  of  barlev,  and  7,180.000  bushels 
of  llax.  In  1901,  118,0.50,000  feet  of  lumber, 
lath,  and  shingles  were  received,  and  40.5,40.5,000 
feet   were   ship|>cd. 

GovF.HNMENT,  Minneapolis  is  governed  under 
a  charter  of  1872,  granted  at  the  consolida- 
tion of  Minneapolis  with  Saint  Anthony.  Tliis 
charter  has  been  frequently  amended  by  the 
Legislature.  The  city,  through  a  commission 
consisting  of  fifteen  resident  freeholders  ap- 
pointed by  the  district  court,  now  has  the  power 
to  draft  a  new  charter  and  anieml  it,  subject  to 
ratification  by  the  people.  The  main  elective 
olliicrs  (if  the  city  are  the  mayor,  treasurer, 
comptroller,  two  numici|ial  judges,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  city  council,  twenty-six  in  nimiber, 
two  from  each  ward  elected  for  four  years, 
one  being  chosen  in  each  ward  at  every  bien- 
nial election.  The  council  is  a  unicanieral  body. 
The  mayor,  treasurer,  and  comptroller  are  elect- 
ed for  two  years.  The  mayor's  veto  may  be 
overridden  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  coiuicil. 
There  are  also  the  following  elective  boards: 
Library  board,  i)ark  board,  and  board  of  edu- 
cation.    The  police  department  is  under  the  con- 


trol of  the  mayor,  who  appoints  the  superin- 
tendent and  all  members  of  the  police  force,  the 
appointment  of  the  superintendent,  however,  re- 
quiring confirmation  by  the  city  council.  The 
mayor  is  exolUcio  member  of  the  park  board, 
the  library  board,  the  board  of  sinking-fund 
commissioners,  and  the  board  of  charities  and 
corrections.  The  last-named  board  consists  of 
five  members,  the  other  four  being  appointed  by 
the  mayor, 

Fix.\.NC'E.  The  city  had  in  1902  a  funded  debt 
of  ,$8,209,000,  which  was  partially  covered  by 
a  sinking  fund  of  .*1,034,331.  The  charter  limits 
the  municipal  debt  to  5  per  cent,  of  the  assessed 
valuation.  The  assessed  valuation  of  real  and 
personal  property  in  1902  was  .$121,279,537.  The 
legal  basis  for  assessment  of  property  is  100  per 
cent.,  or  the  full  market  value,  but  in  practice 
the  basis  is  about  00  per  cent.  The  tax  rate 
for  1903  was  2.533  per  cent.  The  total  receipts 
in  1902  were  .$4,559„503,  The  expenditures  for 
maintenance  and  operation  were  $2,044,208;  the 
main  items  being:  for  schools,  $805,289;  for  the 
fire  department,  $346,099;  for  interest  on  debt, 
$310,085;  for  the  police  department,  $224,999. 
^Minneapolis  owns  and  operates  its  water-w'orks, 
which  represent  an  outlay  of  $4,602,708. 

PoriLATiON.  Minneapolis  is  the  largest  of  the 
.\merican  cities  which  have  developed  wholly 
since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Its 
population  bv  decades  has  been  as  follows:  1800, 
2564:  1870,  13,006;  1880,  46,887:  1890,  164,738; 
1900,  202,718.  The  total  population  in  1900  in- 
eluded  more  than  01,000  persons  of  foreign  birth, 
or  30.1  per  cent.,  while  the  persons  of  foreign 
parentage  represented  69  per  cent,  of  the  total, 
Scandinavians  compose  the  majority  of  the  for- 
eign-lior!i  element.     The  negroes  nuniliered    1548. 

lllSTORV.  Father  Uenni'pin  visited  the  Falls  of 
Saint  .\nthony  in  1680  and  gave  them  their  name. 
Though  the  United  States  CJovernment  in  1819 
built  Fort  Snelling  at  the  mouth  of  the  ^lin- 
nesota,  and  in  1822  erected  a  large  mill  within 
the  present  limits  of  Minneapolis  (then  included 
in  the  "Military  Reservation  of  Fort  Snelling'), 
no  real  settlement  on  the  west  side  of  the  river 
was  made  until  1850,  when  Colonel  .T.  It.  Stevens 
established  a  claim  overlooking  the  falls.  Owing 
largely  to  the  uncertainty  of  land  titles,  few  set- 
tlers came  until  after  1855,  when  Congress  first 
granted  a  right  of  preemption.  The  settlement, 
iiaving  previously  borne  several  names  in  suc- 
cession, was  incorporated  in  1850  as  the  town, 
and  in  1807  as  the  city  of  Minneapolis.  In  1872  the 
city  of  Saint  .\nthony,  directly  across  the  river, 
which  had  been  settled  in  1837.  an.l  incorporated 
in  1855,  was  annexed,  .\fter  1860  the  growth 
of  the  city  was  exceedingly  rapid.  From  1886 
to  1893  a  large  Industrial  Exposition  was  held 
here,  and  in  1892  the  Republican  National  Con- 
vention met  in  the  Exposition  Building.  On  Sep- 
tember 23,  1891,  there  was  a  notable  'Harvest 
Festival'  to  celebrate  the  return  of  agricultural 
pros]>erity  in  the  Northwest  after  a  period  of 
poor  crops  and  general  depression.  Consult 
.Atwater,  IJinton/  of  the  Cii>i  of  ^fhulrapolis 
(New  York,  189.3), 

MIN'NEDO'SA,  A  town  of  Marquette  Coun- 
ty, Maiiitolin,  (':ina(la.  on  the  Little  Saskatche- 
wan River,  and  on  the  Manitoba  and  Nnrtbwest- 
ern  I!;nlway.  135  miles  northwest  of  Winnipeg 
(Alap:  JIanitoba,  .1  4).  A  branch  line  also 
connects  it  with  Rapid  City,  15  miles  south.    It 


MINNEDOSA.  557 

is  tlip  busy  centre  of  a  r;>i)i<lly  colonizino;  afri'i- 
cultiual  region.  Population,  in  1S91,  014;  lilDl, 
10.32. 

MINNEHAHA,  niiirn.'-hii'lii.  Tlie  heroine 
lit  LiMiufellow's  Indian  |)iHMn.  niaicatJta.  who  is 
represented  as  the  (hni{,'hter  of  an  old  arrow- 
maker.  The  name  Miniiehalia  (Sioux  Mini-hitha, 
■laughiuf;  water')  is  home  hy  a  pieture.sipie  eas- 
eade.  ahout  .")(>  feet  iiifih.  in  tlie  Minnehalia  River, 
a  small  stream  emptying  into  the  Mississippi  at 
ilinneapolis,  !Minn.  It  may  he  mentioned  that 
in  Lon;; fellow's  work  the  hero  has  an  Iroquois 
name,  the  heroine  a  Sioux  name,  while  the  poem 
itself  is  based  upon  the  Ojibwa  legends  published 
in  Schoolcraft's  Alyic  Researches. 

MIN'NESINGER.  The  common  name  for 
those  Crniiau  poets  who  flourished  at  the  vari- 
ous feudal  courts  of  Germany  in  tlie  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  The  themes  of  tlie 
minnesingers  are  first  epic,  then  mainly  religious 
in  ins|iiration.  Tliey  also  described  the  beau- 
ties of  nature.  Jlore  often  tlian  the  troubadours 
they  were  of  noble  birtli,  but,  like  the  trouba- 
dours.' they  roved  from  court  to  court.  Jlinne- 
poetrj'  has  three  epochs.  In  the  first,  a  little 
after  1150,  lyric  poetry  begins  to  free  itself  from 
the  epic;  the  second  is  its  brilliant  period;  the 
third,  Ijeginning  about  1300.  marks  its  decline 
and  the  rise  of  the  nieistergesang,  cultivated  by 
the  meistersinger  (q.v.).  The  minnesingers  em- 
ploy either  the  verse  with  four  beats,  or  the  long 
line  with  rhymes  in  pairs,  and  often  their  songs 
are  only  a  strophe  long.  Eenmants  of  old  Ger- 
man poetry  show  that  the  chanted  long  line 
and  tlie  rhymed  verse  with  a  regular  beat  were 
collaterally  employed.  The  former  was  better 
suited  to  heroic  songs  or  narrative ;  the  latter, 
being  lively,  fitted  the  lyric.  The  oldest  extant 
love  songs  in  German  are  in  rhymed  verses  with 
fourfold  arsis,  or  they  are  in  the  long  line. 
Not  seldom  variety  was  obtained  by  the  intro- 
duction of  an  'orphan'  or  rhymeless  verse,  or  by 
having  long  and  short  lines  in  one  and  the  same 
strophe.  The  ditties  of  early  singers  such  as 
Dietmar  von  Aist,  von  Kiirenberg.  Meinloh  von 
Seveningen,  and  the  burgraves  of  Regensburg  and 
liietenhurg,  are  marked  by  sim]ilicity  of  thought, 
by  absence  of  repining,  and  hy  the  use  of  as- 
sonance. The  minnesingers,  like  tlie  troubadours 
(q.v.),  throve  in  the  heyday  of  chivalry.  How 
deeply  each  of  the  minnesingers  was  influenced 
by  the  troubadours,  and  to  what  degree  they 
drew  upon  the  traditions  and  customs  of  their 
own  land,  or  finally  to  what  extent  they  imitated 
once  genuine  emotions  or  spoke  from  their  hearts, 
is  often  extremely  problematical.  Certainly,  the 
oldest  poems  utter  true  experience,  though  we 
must  allow  for  the  fiction  which  presents  the 
lover  and  his  lady  in  colloquy.  Some  of  the 
most  ancient  German  poems  are  put  into  wo- 
man's mouth,  but  we  can  scarcely  conclude  that 
women  were  therefore  among  the  minnesingers, 
tliongh  several  ladies,  as.  for  instance,  the  Count- 
ess of  Dia,  wrote  love  poems  in  Provencal. 

\A'ith  the  more  artful  verses  of  the  Burgrave 
TJieteiiliurg.  Provencal  influence  becomes  clear. 
To  all  people  miiiiip  meant  love,  but  to  the  lord- 
lier poets  or  to  those  who  sang  in  their  halls 
niiiuic  had  an  exalted  significance.  Platonic  love 
had  ousted  the  older  and  far  more  genuine 
sentiment  between  men  and  women.  We  shall 
find   tliat   the   minnesingers   were   merely   doing 


MINNESOTA. 


what  had  been  done  a  little  sooner  by  the  trouba- 
dours, but  the  minnesong  was  not  so  brilliant, 
though  it  was  almost  as  artificial  as  the  poems 
written  in  the  best  period  (1100-1200)  of  Pro- 
vencal literature  (q.v.).  The  (iernians  culti- 
vated such  forms  as  were  popular  in  Southern 
France,  as  the  love-poem  proper,  the  sirventes 
(q.v.)  and  the  tenzon  (q.v.).  Like  the  trouba- 
dour, the  minnesinger  sang  the  praises  of  his 
lady,  who  was  often  his  patron's  wife.  Of  her 
he  made  an  earthly  angel,  and  whatsoever  boon 
she  might  grant  him  was  his  bliss.  The  minne- 
singers whose  dialect  jnits  them  on  the  western 
boundary  of  Germany  first  show  French  in- 
fluence. Provencal  influence  is  earliest  percep- 
tible in  Friedrich  von  Hansen,  a  Franconian 
from  the  Rhine.  The  dactylic  rhythm  bears  wit- 
ness also  to  a  romantic  origin.  Jlinnesingers 
who  used  it  were,  besides  Friedrich  von  Hansen, 
Heinrich  von  V'eldeke,  Heinrich  von  Mornngen, 
Hartmann  von  Aue,  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide, 
Hildbold  von  Schwangau,  and  Ulrich  von  Liech- 
tenstein. 

With  Friedrich  von  Hansen  we  first  meet  the 
Crusading  song.  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide 
gave  the  fullest  utterance  to  the  minnesong.  In 
him  we  find  both  courtly  and  popular  elements. 
Walther  also  modeled  poems  after  romantic  pat- 
terns. Austria  was  the  centre  of  court  poetry. 
There  Reinmar  had  lived  and  there  Walther  had 
learned  his  art.  Neidhart  had  first  composed 
for  peasants  songs  and  dances,  but  his  ambi- 
tious tendencies  displeased  them  and  he  turned 
to  the  Court.  With  Walther  and  Neidhart  the 
road  goes  in  twain,  and  each  had  his  followers. 
Princes  had  been  among  the  troubadours.  So  it 
was  in  Germany,  where  Henry  VX.  and  Conradin 
were  singing  in  the  south,  while  farther  north 
were  Duke  Henry  II.  of  Anhalt.  JIargrave  Otho 
IV.  of  Brandenburg,  and  Henry  III.  of  Jleissen. 

Consult:  Pfaft'.  L)cr  }[iniiesaii(:i  des  12.  bis  l-'f. 
Jahrhuiiflerls  (Stuttgart,  no  date)  ;  Uhland, 
"Der  Jleistergesang,"  in  Hchriften  ziir  Qeschichte 
der  Diehtiin;/  und  8nge,  vol.  v.  (Stuttgart.  1S70), ; 
Scherer.  Deutsche  Siudien  (Vienna.  1870,  1874)  ; 
Burdach,  Reinmar  der  Alte  und  Walther  von  der 
yofieheeide  (Leipzig,  1S80)  ;  Lyon,  Minne-  und 
Meistergesanfi  (ib.,  1883)  :  Lechleitner.  Der 
deutsche  Miunerjesang  ( Wolfenbiittel.  1S!)3)  ; 
Grimm,  Geschiehte  der  Minncsin(jer  (Paderborn, 
1807).  For  the  history  of  the  German  gnomic 
poetry  consult  Roethe's  edition  of  the  Ge- 
dichie  Reinmars  von  Zireter  (Leipzig,  1887). 
For  a  general  collection  consult  von  der  Hagen. 
Mimicsinr/r^-  (ib.,  1838)  :  for  a  selection  consult 
Bartsch.  Deutsche  Liederdiehter  des  12.  bis  I'l. 
Jalirhuiidrrls  (3d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1803). 

MIN'NESO'TA  (Indian,  sky-tinted  water). 
One  of  the  North-Central  States  of  the 
American  Union.  It  lies  around  the  head 
w-aters  of  the  Mississippi  River,  between 
43°  30'  and  40°  2.5'  north  latitude,  and  between 
89°  20'  and  07°  5'  west  longitude.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  liy  the  Canadian  provinces  of  On- 
tario and  Manitoba,  on  the  east  by  Lake  Supe- 
rior and  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  on  the  south 
hy  Iowa,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Dakotas.  It  has 
an  extreme  length  north  and  south  of  about  400 
miles,  and  east  and  west  of  380  miles,  averaging 
240  miles  in  width,  and  comprising  an  area  of 
83.30.1  square  miles,  of  which  410O  square  miles 
are  water.  It  ranks  tenth  in  size  among  the 
States. 


MINNESOTA. 


558 


MINNESOTA. 


TopocB.\pnT.  Xmllicrn  Minnesota  is  an  ex- 
tension of  the  Laurfntian  iiif;lilands — ancient 
reeks  snioothed  down  to  moderate  relief.  The  sur- 
face liere  is  rollin<;.  is  densely  covered  with  pine 
forests,  except  in  the  western  part,  and  abounds 
in  lakes  and  swamps.  Southern  Minnesota  is 
larjielj-  prairie,  wide  expanses  of  gently  rollin<j;. 
grassy,  and  "enerally  treeless  plains  of  boulder- 
clay,  "belted  with  nuiVaines,  The  greater  part  of 
the  surface  is  young,  the  plains  arc  as  yet  un- 
dissected,  and  lakes  still  remain  in  the  moraines. 
In  the  southeastern  and  southwestern  corners  of 
the  State  the  old  surface  was  not  covered  over 
by  the  later  Wisconsin  glacial  sheet,  and  here 
v."e  find  tlic  surface  has  weathered  smooth  and  the 
lakes  luive  disappeared.  The  surface  of  the  State 
has  as  its  central  feature,  in  the  north- 
central  part,  an  elevated  plateau,  which 
rises  1":J0  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
From  this  plateau  the  country  slopes  off  north, 
south,  east,  and  west,  reaching,  however.  2200 
feet  in  the  northeast  in  the  Mesabi  Jlountains 
north  of  Lake  Superior,  and  after  a  considerable 
decline  rising  again  in  the  southwest  corner  of 
the  State  to  1800  feet  in  the  Coteau  des  Prairies. 
The  average  elevation  is  1200  feet,  or  600  feet 
above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior.  The  surface 
is  unl>roken  by  any  sudden  uplifts,  and  the  slope 
from  the  central  plateau  in  each  direction  is 
very  gradual.  The  lowest  jiortions  of  the  State 
are  the  region  around  the  head  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  the  southeast  section  of  the  Slate  where  the 
land  falls  to  an  elevation  of  about  (iOO  feet. 

The  rivers  of  Minnesota  radiate  in  all  direc- 
tions from  the  central  plateau  mentioned  above. 
The  two  principal  drainage  systems  are  those 
of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red  River  of  the 
North.  The  Mississippi  rises  in  the  Itascan  lake 
group,  and  with  its  two  large  tril)utaries,  the 
Saint  Croix  on  the  eastern  l)Ounilary,  and  the 
^Mimusota  in  the  west,  drains  more  than  one- 
half  the  State.  The  Red  River  of  the  Xorth. 
vliicli  drains  the  western  slope,  flows  northward 
ou  the  western  boundary  through  a  Hat  laeuslrinc 
basin  to  Lake  Winnipeg.  The  northern  and  north- 
eastern slopes  are  small  in  area  and  drained  by 
short  streams  flowing  into  the  Rainy  River  and 
Lake  system  on  the  northern  boundary,  and  into 
Lake  Superior.  The  largest  of  these  streams  is 
the  Saint  Louis  River,  which  flows  into  the  west- 
ern extremity  of  Lake  Superior.  The  Mississippi 
River  alone  is  used  for  navigation;  the  Minne- 
sota an<I  the  Red  River  are  reported  'navigable,' 
but  are  little  used.  The  direction  of  the  rivers, 
as  well  as  the  |)osition  and  formation  of  the  in- 
numerable lakes  dotting  the  svirface  of  the  State, 
have  been  ilctermined  by  glacial  action.  Tn  the 
north  the  lakes  are  usually  cut  out  of  the  old 
rock  and  display  bold  tortuous  shores.  In  the 
south  (he  lakes  are  often  broad  and  shallow. 
Three-fourths  of  the  lakes  of  the  State  are  those 
occupying  the  undrained  hollows  in  the  morainal 
deposits,  which  cover  the  greater  portion  of  the 
surface  of  the  State:  others,  such  as  Lakes 
Pepin,  Traverse,  and  Rig  Stone,  are  river  expan- 
sions. The  lakes  varj-  in  size  from  mere  ponds  up 
tn  Red  Lake,  with  an  area  of  .140  square  miles. 
The  other  more  important  lakes  are  Leech  and 
Winnilii;.Mshish  in  the  plateau  region:  Mille  fyac: 
and  Minnetonka.  a  popular  siuumcr  resort  for 
Minneapolis  and  Saint    Pi\ul. 

The    most    important     lacustrine    feature    of 
Minnesota  is  the  extinct  Lake  Agassiz.     An  inci- 


dent in  the  recession  of  the  Pleistocene  ice  was 
the  ponding  of  the  marginal  drainage  of  the  ice 
sheet  in  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  as  fast  as 
it  was  uncovered  by  the  melting  ice.  A  great 
lake  was  formed  which  has  been  called  Lake 
Agassiz.  At  its  largest  stage  it  has  a  maximum 
width  of  nearly  700  miles,  and  drained  through 
the  Minnesota  River  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
On  the  disappearance  of  the  ice.  and  the  draining 
out  of  Lake  .\gassiz  by  the  Xelson  River,  its 
bed  was  left  as  a  level  alluvial  plain. 

Climate  a.nd  Soil,  ilinnesota  lies  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  north  temperate  zone,  and  in  the 
geographical  centre  of  the  continent.  This  gives 
it  a  continental  climate,  with  marked  extremes 
of  temperature.  The  average  temperatures  for 
January  are  1.5°  F.  at  the  southeastern  corAer, 
and  at  the  northwestern  corner  only  1°  or  2° 
F.  For  .fuly  it  is  70°  F.  in  the"  south  and 
05°  F.  in  the  north.  Maxinuim  shade  tempera- 
tures rise  above  100°  F.  over  all  the  State  west 
of  Duluth.  while  the  minima  are  40°  F.  below 
zero  in  the  southern  and  northeastern  counties 
and  50°  F.  below  in  the  extreme  northwestern, 
thus  giving  a  range  of  150°  degrees  or  over  for 
Red  River  Valley.  The  annual  rainfall  ranges 
from  20  inches  in  the  northwest  to  over  30 
inches  in  the  southeast.  The  rainfall  is  charac- 
terized by  a  scant  precipitation  in  the  winter 
season,  and  moderately  heavy  rains  during  the 
crop  season.  There  is  an  average  annual  snow- 
fall of  20  inches  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
State,  which  increases  gradually  to  80  inches  at 
Pigeon  Point.  The  southern  counties  have  an 
average  annual  relative  humidity  of  less  than 
70  per  cent.,  rising  steadily  northward  to  75  per 
cent,  in  the  northwestern  counties.  The  average 
velocity  of  the  wind  is  8  miles  per  hour  in  the 
east,  and  almost  11  miles  per  hour  at  Crooks- 
ton,  which  is  the  highest  inland  average  velocity 
recorded  in  .\merica.  The  average  path  of  the 
northwest  cyclones  passes  through  tlie  southern 
counties.  Between  300  and  350  such  storms  occur 
in  ten  years.  The  prevailing  wind  is  west  in  the 
northern  half  and  southwest  in  the  southern  half. 
The  climate  on  the  whole  is  rigorous  in  winter, 
though  mild  and  even  occasionally  hot  in  the 
southern  counties  in  summer.  But  the  nights 
are  always  cool,  and  the  air  dry.  making  the 
whole  State  <a  favorite  summer  resnrt. 

The  soils  of  the  State  arc  wholly  glacial,  and 
since  the  outcropping  stratified  rock  is  largely 
limestone,  most  of  the  soil  derived  from  this 
source  is  extremely  rich — a  black  and  finely 
comminiited  loam.  On  the  older  drift  in  the 
southeastern  counties,  for  30  to  40  miles  back  from 
the  Mississippi  River,  there  is  a  coating  of  loess, 
an  extremely  tine  black  loam  of  great  fertility. 
Where  the  Cambrian  sandstone  outcrops  in  the 
east  central  |)art  of  the  State,  eonsidcrabic  areas 
are  covered  with  a  light  sandy  soil,  not  at  all 
encouraging  for  agriculture.  In  the  old  land  of 
the  northeast  and  north  central  counties  t^ere 
arc  large  areas  almost  denuded  of  soil,  or  cov- 
ered with  a  scanty  coating  of  granitic  drift.  In 
the  Valley  of  the' Red  River  the  silts  of  the  ex- 
tinct Lake  .Agassiz  occur,  a  fine  black  soil  of 
almost  incomparable  richness,  constituting  some 
of  the  best   wheat   lands   in   the  world. 

Oeoi.ocv.  The  northwestern  corner  of  the  State 
formed  a  part  of  the  old  .\rehiran  continent,  and 
its  east  central  portion  was  in  .\rch:i'an  times 
occupied   by   a    large   island.     These   areas  now 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  MINNESOTA  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 


Aitkin 

Anoka 

Becker 

Beltrami... 
Benton 

Big  Stone.. 
Blue  Earth . 

Brown 

Carlton 

Carver 

Cass 

Chippewa . . 
Chisago  — 

Clay 

Cook 


Cottonwood . 
Crow  Wing 

Dakota. 

Dodge 

Douglas 

Faribault 

Fillmore 

Freeborn .... 
Goodhue. . . . 
Grant 

Hennepin 

Houston 

Hubbard 

Isanti . 

Itasca 


Jackson 

Kanabec 

Kandiyohi 

Kittson 

Lac  qui  Parle,. 

Lake  

Lesueur 

Lincoln  

Lyon 

McLeod 

Marshall 

Martin 

Meeker  

Millelacs 

Morrison 

Mower 

Murray 

Nicollet  

Nobles 

Norman 

Olmsted 

Ottertail 

Pine 

Pipestone 

Polk 

Pope 

Ramsey 

Red  Lake  

Redwood 

Renville 

Rice 

Rock 

Roseau 

St.  Louis 

Scott 


Sherburne  . . 

Sibley 

Stearns 

Steele 

Stevens  

Swift 

Todd 

Traverse 

Wabasha 

Wadena 

Waseca 

Washington. 
Watonwan . . 

Wilkin 

Winona 


Wright 

Yellow  Merlirine 

White  Earth / 

Indian  Reservation  f 


Map 
Index. 


E  4 

E  5 

C  4 

C  3 

D  5 

B  5 

D  6 

D  6 

F  4 

E  U 

D  4 

C  5 

F  5 

B  4 

U  3 

C  6 

D  4 

E  6 

F  r 

C  3 

D  r 

F  - 

E  r 

F  (i 

B  5 

E  5 

G  7 

D  4 

E  3 

E  -2 

C  7 

E  5 

C  6 

A  1 

B  5 

G  3 

.E  6 

B  6 

C  (i 

D  6 

A  i 

J)  7 

D  3 

E  4 

D  4 

F  7 

C  0 

D  i; 

C  7 

B  3 

F  C 

B  4 

F  4 

B  li 

B  3 


C  3 

B  1 

B  3 

C  U 

C  (i 

E  e 

B  7 

A  1 

F  3 

E  G 

E  3 

D  0 

D  5 

E  li 

B  5 

C  5 

1)  5 

B  5 

F  6 

C  4 

E  7 

F  5 

D  7 

B  4 

G  G 

D  3 

B  6 

C  3 


County  Seat. 


.\itkin 

.\noka 

Detroit  City.. 

Beruidji 

Sauk  Rapids  . 

Ortonville. . . . 

Mankato 

New  Ulm 

Carlton 

Chaska 


Walker 

Montevideo 

Center  City 

Moorhead 

Grand  Marais. . . 

Windoni 

Brainerd 

Hastings 

Mantorville 

.\Iesandria 

Bine  Earlh  City. 

Preston 

Alljcrt  Lea 

Red  Wing 

Elbow  Lake 

Minneapolis 

Caledonia 

Park  Rapids 

Cambridge   

Grand  Rapids.. . 

Jackson 

Mora 

Willuiar 

Hallock 

Madison 


Two  Harbors.  . . 
LesiK'ur  Center. 
Lake  Benton. . . 

Marshall 

Glencoe  . .    - 

Warren    

Fairmont. 

Ijitchlield 

Princeton 

Littlefalls 

Austin 

.Slayton 

Saint  Peter 

Worthington. . , 
.\da...... 


Rochester 

Fergus  Balls. .. 

Pine  City 

l^ipestone 

Crookston 

Glenwood 

St.  Paul     

Redlake  Falls . 
Redwood  Falls 
Beaverfalls  ... 

Faribault 

Luverne 

Ro.seau 

Duluth 

Sliakopee 

Elk  River   ..   . 

Hi'uderson 

Saint  Cloud  . . . 

Owatonna 

Morris 

Benson 

Long  Prairie  . . 

Wheaton 

Wabasha 

Wadena 


Waseca 

Stillwater 

Saint  James. . 
Brecken  ridge. 
Winona 

Buffalo. 


Area  in 
square 
miles. 


1,869 
447 
1,389 
4,li80 
397 
484 
736 
611 
&36 
360 

2,977 
583 
440 
1,032 
1,490 
6.34 
508 
604 
432 
685 

720 
825 
720 
744 
553 

573 

561 

547 

441) 

5,575 

720 

.33(; 

814 

1,059 

763 

o  ]22 

"'475 

528 

714 

504 

1,784 
732 
613 
570 

1,126 

700 
703 
432 
720 
1,425 

644 
2,127 
1,425 

460 
1,893 

700 
173 
1,116 
870 
9S9 

497 

490 

1,692 

5,532 

360 

446 
588 
1,310 
4-26 
557 

740 
967 
.545 
.531 
032 

■mo 

402 
432 
720 
630 


Population. 


Granite  Palls. 


1890. 


2,462 
9,884 
9,401 
312 
6,284 

5,722 
29,210 
15.817 

5,273 
16,,532 

1.247 

8.555 

10.3.59 

11,517 

98 

7  412 
8.852 
20,240 
10,864 
14,C06 

16,708 
25,966 
17,962 
28,806 
6.875 

183.394 

14,6.53 

1,412 

7,607 

743 

8,924 
1,579 

13,997 
5,387 

10,.382 

1,299 
19,0.57 
5,091 
9.501 
17,026 

9,130 
9.403 

15,456 
2,S15 

13,335 

18,019 
0,093 

I3,.382 
7,958 

10,618 

19.800 
34,233 
4,052 
5,133 
30,192 

10,032 
139,796 

"9,386 

17,099 

23,968 

6,817 


44,862 
13,831 

5.908 
13,199 
34,&i4 
13,232 

5,251 

10,161 
12.930 

4,516 
16,972 

4,053 

13,313 

25,992 

7,746 

4..346 

33,797 

24,164 

9,854 


1900. 


6,743 
11,313 
14,375 
11,0.30 

9,912 

8.731 
32,963 
19,787 
10,017 
17,544 

7,777 
12,499 
1.3,248 
17,942 
810 

12,069 
14,250 
21,7.33 
13,340 
17,964 

22,055 
28,238 
21,838 
31,137 
8,935 

238,340 
15,400 
6.578 
11,675 
4,573 

14,793 
4,614 

18,416 
7,889 

14,289 

4,654 
20,2.34 

8,966 
14.391 
19.E93 

15.698 
16.936 
17,753 
8,066 
22,891 

23.335 
11,911 
14,774 
14.9.32 
15,045 

2.3,119 
45,375 
11,546 
9,264 
.35,429 

12..577 
170.5.34 
13,195 
17,261 
33,693 

36,080 

9,608 

0,994 

82,932 

15,147 

7,381 
16,862 
44,464 
16,534 

8,721 

13  503 
22.214 

7.373 
18,924 

7,931 

14,760 
27.808 
1 1,496 
8,080 
33,686 

29,157 
14,602 

3,486 


r^ 


r 


MINNESOTA. 


559 


MINNESOTA. 


consist  of  granites  and  gneisses  of  the  arcluran 
basal  eomplex,  parts  of  which  have  also  been  un- 
covered along  tlie  upper  valley  of  the  Minnesota 
River,  where  tliere  are  valuable  granite  (juarries. 
Shore  deposits  and  lava  Hows  of  the  lluronian 
age  outcrop  as  highly  metamorpliosed  rocks  in 
broad  zones  along  the  margins  of  these  Areha;an 
old  lands,  cutting  into  the  latter  in  deep  tongues 
and  bands,  some  of  .which  contain  iron-bearing 
be<is  of  great  wealth.  The  broad  Huronian  belt 
extending  soutbwestward  from  the  Minnesota 
River  contains  the  Sioux  (piartzites,  a  most  beau- 
tiful and  valuable  building  stone,  and  beds  of 
metamorphosed  red  mud,  the  catlinite,  or  far- 
famed  red  pipestone  of  the  Indians.  The  Lake 
Superior  synclinal  trough  is  occupied  by  Cam- 
brian sandstones  and  limestones,  and  Ordovieian 
rocks  occur  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State, 
consisting  of  the  Saint  Peter  sandstone  beds  cov- 
ered with  Trenton  limestone,  a  combination  which 
has  given  rise  to  the  blurt's  along  this  part  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  to  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony. 
Silurian  rocks  occur  in  the  valley  of  tlie  Red 
River  and  in  some  of  the  southeastern  counties, 
and  slight  cretaceous  deposits  are  found  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  State.  The  Pleistocene  ice  in- 
vasion is  most  largely  responsible  for  the  present 
surface,  the  State  lying  in  a  sort  of  focus  of 
glacial  activity.  It  was  entirely  covered  by  ice 
in  the  Kansan  and  lowan  epochs,  and  in  the  Wis- 
consin epoch  two  great  lines  of  invading  ice  met 
at  the  centre  of  the  State,  and  Howed  south  in 
a  great  tongue  into  Iowa. 

Mining.  The  prominence  of  Jlinnesota  as  a 
mining  State  is  based  principally  on  its  iron  de- 
posits. The  mineral  is  found  in  an  almost  pure 
state  in  the  Vermilion  and  Mesalu  ranges.  Al- 
though the  existence  of  iron  in  Minnesota  was 
known  as  early  as  1860,  nothing  was  done  toward 
exploitation  before  1884.  The  State  has  occupied 
since  1894  the  second  position  among  the  iron- 
producing  States.  In  1901  its  output  exceeded 
that  of  Michigan.  Prior  to  1892  the  Vermilion 
Range  was  the  only  source  of  iron  in  the  State. 
In  that  year  operations  were  begun  in  the  Mesabi 
Range,  the  output  of  which  advanced  from  29,- 
24.5  tons  in  1892,  to  1.913,234  tons  in  1894. 
Since  189.5  the  Mesabi  Range  has  been  the  largest 
iron-producing  range  in  the  Lake  Superior  re- 
gion (and  probably  the  largest  in  the  world). 
Its  output  advanced  in  1901  to  9,303.541  tons, 
against  1,805,996  from  the  Vermilion  Range, 
making  the  total  output  of  tlie  State  fnr  that 
year  11,100,537  tons,  or  38  per  cent,  of  that  of 
the  United  States.  Tlie  value  of  the  outi)ut  at 
the  mines  in  that  year  amounted  to  $15,3.35,513. 
In  the  same  year  10.790,953  tons  of  iron  ore  were 
shipped  from  the  Vermilion  and  Mesabi  ranges, 
chiefly  from  the  ports  of  Two  Harbors  and  Du- 
luth.  ISIinnesota  has  building-stone  and  slate, 
and  produces  cement  on  a  small  scale.  The  slate 
deposits  are  believed  to  be  considerable,  but  they 
are  not  much  exploited.  Tlie  local  clay  is  used 
chiefly  for  the  manufacture  of  bride. 

Agriculture.  Although  only  a  little  over  one- 
half  (51.8  per  cent.)  of  the  land  area  is  in- 
cluded in  farms,  the  State  has  attained  the 
first  rank  in  the  cultivation  of  certain  crops. 
Every  decade  since  1850  has  witnessed  a  large 
gain  in  the  farm  acreage,  the  largest  being  made 
from  1890  to  1900.  The  percentage  of  improved 
farm  land  has  also  constantly  increased,  reach- 
ing 70.3  per  cent,  in  1900.   The  land  not  included 


in  farms  is  found  mainly  in  the  extensive  forest 
areas  of  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  From 
1891  to  1901  an  annual  average  of  about  375,- 
000  acres  of  homcstca'l  lands  were  entered.  The 
recent  expansion  of  the  farming  area  has  been 
greatest  in  the  Northwest.  The  formation  of  manV 
large  farms  in  that  section  tends  to  increase  the 
average  size  of  farms  for  the  State,  notwith- 
standing the  division  of  farm  holdings  going  on 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  In  1900  there 
were  365  farms  containing  each  1000  acres  or 
more.  The  average  size  in  1900  was  109. 7  acres, 
as  comparcil  with  139.4  acres  in  1870.  The  rent 
system  is  becoming  very  common,  the  percentage 
of  rented  farms  having  increased  from  9.2  in 
1880  to  17.3  in  1900.  About  four-fifths  of  these 
were  rented  according  to  the  share  system.  It 
is  in  this  region — particularly  the  Red  River 
Valley — that  wheat-growing  has  been  so  exten- 
sively developed.  For  a  number  of  years  there 
was  little  indication  that  the  crop  would  attain 
much  prominence  in  the  State.  The  processes 
of  milling  then  in  use  could  obtain  only  an  in- 
ferior quality  of  Hour  from  the  'spring  wheat' 
such  as  was  raised  in  the  State.  With  the  in- 
troduction of  modern  methods,  however,  this 
difficulty  was  obviated  and  the  State  mills  be- 
came famous  for  the  high  quality  of  their  prod- 
uct. The  cultivation  of  wheat  then  increased 
rapidl.v,  and  in  1890  the  State  had  become  first 
in  both  acreage  and  production.  From  1890  to 
1900  the  increase  was  unprecedented,  the  acreage 
for  the  latter  year  being  94.5  per  cent,  greater 
than  for  the  former,  and  constituting  58.5  per 
cent,  of  the  area  devoted  to  cereals.  The  per 
acre  production  is  high,  and  the  State  easily 
holds  first  rank  in  the  production  of  this  cereal. 
In  parts  of  the  State  the  sowing  and  harvesting 
of  wheat  are  done  with  the  large  type  of  ma- 
chinery which  performs  a  number  of  processes. 
Oats  has  about  a  third  as  great  an  acreage  as 
wheat,  and  ranks  next  to  it  in  importance.  It 
has  always  been  a  prominent  crop  in  the  State, 
and  continues  to  increase  in  acreage.  Owing 
principally  to  the  shortness  of  the  season,  corn 
has  never  been  a  favorite  crop,  and  in  this  respect 
the  State  stands  in  striking  contrast  with  Iowa 
and  most  of  the  other  Mississippi  Valley  States. 
Both  corn  and  oats  are  grown  most  extensively 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State.  In  barley 
and  flaxseed  raising  also,  the  State  takes  a  high 
rank,  and  increasing  quantities  of  rye  are  pro- 
duced. Hay  and  forage  crops  cover  about  one- 
half  as  great  an  acreage  as  is  devoted  to  wheat. 
Of  this,  69.0  per  cent.  (1900)  consisted  of  wfld, 
salt,  and  prairie  grasses.  Large  quantities  of 
Irish  potatoes  are  raised,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  sugar  beet  has  been  introduced.  Fruit  cul- 
ture is  mainly  confined  to  tlie  southern  part  of 
the  State  and  is  not  yet  extensively  developed. 
The  little  attention  given  to  the  raising  of 
corn  is  largely  responsible  for  the  poor  showing 
of  the  State  in  the  raising  of  stock.  Mo.st  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  Slates  far  e.\cel  Minnesota 
in  this  respect.  Nevertlieless.  every  decade  since 
18.50  shows  an  increase  for  all  varieties  of  farm 
animals,  except  sheep,  and  mules,  and  asses,  for 
the  decade  1890- 1900,  The  relative  gain  in  the 
number  of  dairy  cows  was  greatly  excelled  by  the 
increase  in  the  dairv  produce.  Of  a  total  value 
of  .$16,623,460  for  the  year  1900,  66.9  per  cent, 
represented  the  amount  derived  from  sales.    The 


MINNESOTA.  560 

value  of  poultry  products   for  the  census  year 
1900  amounted  to  $7,;Jli4,St)5. 

Tlif  folluwiii;;  tables  show  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  leading  varieties  of  crops  and  farm 
animals  for  the  census  years  18110  and   1900: 


MINNESOTA. 


Wheat 

Oats 

Corn 

Barley 

Eye 

Flaxseed 

Uay  and  forage.. 
Potatoes 


1890 


Acres 

Acrt-s 

3,372,B27 

6.5U0.7U7 

1,579.258 

2.201. S2.5 

901,fi90 

1,441.580 

358,310 

877.K45 

62,869 

IIS.SCO 

30.'i.6S5 

56(;,H(il 

2,709.191 

3,157.«'.ll) 

106,880 

146.«r)y 

1890 

1900 

Dalrv  cows 

593,908 
779.671 
461,509 
9,511 
399,049 
853,716 

753.632 

1,117.693 

096.469 

Sheep 

359  3->8 

1,440.806 

JlAXTFACTrRES.  Minnesota  lias  won  much  re- 
nown bv  virtue  of  its  manufacturing.'  cntcrprisps. 
The  succes.s  of  these  is  mainly  attributable  to  the 
a1)undance  of  its  <!rain  and  forest  products,  and 
the  excellence  of  its  water  power  and  transporta- 
tion facilities.  Lake  Superior,  touehinp;  the  State 
on  tlie  northeast,  gives  access  to  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  lake  transjiortation.  while  the  Mississijjpi 
River  and  the  railroad  development  in  the  south 
pive  superior  advantajics  to  that  sei-tion.  In  but 
few.  if  any.  States  has  the  industrial  di'velopnii'nt 
been  so  rapid.  The  value  of  the  manufactured 
pro<luct  in  1900 — .$2(i2,().'j.').0O0 — was  eleven  times 
as  large  as  in  1S70.  The  ab.solute  gain  was 
greatest  between  ISSO  and  1H90.  In  1900  the  in- 
dustry employed  77.200  wage-earners,  or  4.4  per 
cent,  of  the  population.  This  was  a  higher  al>so- 
lute  figure  than  for  1S90.  but  a  smaller  per  cent, 
of  the  population  than  in  1890.  The  beginning 
of  the  manufacturing  industry  in  the  State  was 
prophetic  of  the  course  of  its  develojmient.  In 
1822  a  sawmill  was  erected  at  the  Fails  of  Saint 
Anthony,  and  two  years  later  was  fitted  up  for 
the  grinding  of  Hour.  In  1900  the  value  of  the 
products  of  these  and  certain  allied  industries 
■was  over  one-half  of  the  total  for  the  State,  and 
around  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  had  grown 
lip  the  twin  city  of  Minneapolis-Saint  Paul — 
one  of  the  three  large  industrial  centres  located 
on  the  Mississippi  River. 

For  a  long  time  the  flour  and  grist-milling 
industry  made  but  little  progress.  About  1870  the 
melhod  of  reducing  the  grain  to  flour  by  a  num- 
ber of  distinct  processes  began  to  re|)laee  the  old 
method  by  which  the  flour  was  obtained  by  a 
single  grinding,  and  marked  a  new  epoch  in  the 
development  of  the  industry.  The  (lour  now 
produced  was  of  (he  bes(  quality,  and  heavy  ship- 
ments were  made  to  home  anil  foreign  markets. 
The  power  alTorded  by  (he  Falls  of  Saint  .\n- 
tliony  gave  the  millers  who  utilized  them  a  de- 
cided advantage  over  (hose  of  other  portions  of 
the  eountr>-  and  tended  (o  centralize  (he  industrv 
nt  that  point.  However,  from  1890  (o  1900.  (he 
increase  in  (he  number  of  mills  was  greatest  out- 
side of  Minneapolis.  The  (o(aI  increase  in  the 
value  of  products  for  (hat  decade  was  .30.4  per 
cent.  The  eapi(al  invested  in  the  Slate  mills  in 
1900  was  11  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the  United 


Slates.  The  value  of  the  Slate  products  was 
15  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the  country,  and 
nearly  t«ice  as  great  as  that  of  Xew  York,  the 
second  State  in  rank. 

The  manufacluring  industry  has  recently  taken 
on  a  much  broader  scope  than  formerly,  rellect- 
ing  the  more  diversified  asi)ect  whicli  agriculture 
is  now  assuming  in  that  secliim.  The  dairy  in- 
dustry— the  manufacture  of  cheese,  butter,  and 
condensed  milk — has  attained  its  ])resent  large 
proportions  almost  wholly  since  1880.  The  in- 
crease in  the  value  of  the  i)rcKluct  from  1890  to 
1900  was  18(i.(>  per  cent.  The  slauglitering  and 
meat-iiacking  industry  and  the  manufacture  of 
mall  llijuors  and  linseed  oil  are  also  of  recent 
development.  The  rale  of  their  increase  is  signifi- 
cant of  their  future  possibilities.  These  three  in- 
dustries are  centred  mainly  in  ^linneapolis  and 
Saint  Paul. 

The  extensive  iron-mining  in  the  north  does  not 
benefit  the  State's  manufacturing  interests  great- 
ly, since  there  are  no  coal  or  limestone  deposits 
in  proximity  to  the  ore.  The  latter  can  be  ex- 
ported more  economically  than  the  former  can 
be  im])orted.  The  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
however,  are  in  a  nourishing  condition.  Other 
important  industries  are  th<we  required  by  the 
growing  railroad  interests  of  the  State,  the  manu- 
facture of  boots  and  shoes,  and  the  ])rinting  and 
publishing  of  news])apers  and  jieriodicals.  The 
tal)le  on  the  following  page  covers  the  eleven  most 
important  industries  for  the  dwade  1S90-1900. 

Forests  .vxn  Forest  Prodicts.  Minnesota  is 
one  of  the  richest  States  in  forest  resources,  hav- 
ing in  1900  a  woodland  area  of  about  .52.200 
square  miles,  including  slump-lands.  The  forest 
area  extends  well  over  the  northern  two-thirds 
of  the  Stale,  excluding  the  Red  River  Valley. 
Hard-wood  forests  border  the  (irairies,  while  far- 
ther north  the  white  pine  jjiedominates,  Nor- 
way jiiiie  and  sjiruce  being  also  abundant.  Al- 
though the  white  pine  has  been  heavily  draw'U 
upon,  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 
was  estimated  that  there  were  over  12,000,000,- 
000  feet  of  this  variety  still  standing,  and  the  mer- 
chantable forest  pine  was  estimated  to  be  greater 
than  in  any  other  State.  The  lumber  indiistr,v 
of  the  Slate  increased  but  slowly  until  1880. 
From  1890  to  1900  the  increase  (see  table  below) 
in  the  value  of  the  |)roduct  was  greater  than  in 
any  other  State,  and  it  ranked  third  in  impor- 
tance. The  unusual  facilities  for  water  transpor- 
tation allorded  by  the  large  number  of  streams 
anil  lakes  have  been  of  advantage  to  the  in- 
dustry. But  recenlly  railroails  have  been  ex- 
tensively used  for  timl)er  transportation,  espe- 
cially in  the  shipments  to  Minneapolis,  where 
nearly  half  the  lumber  of  the  State  is  sawed. 
The  State  has  displayed  a  greater  interest  in  for- 
est preservation  than  have  most  other  Slates.  The 
three  elected  town  supervisors  are  fire  wardens, 
and  have  the  authority  of  impressing  men  into 
service  to  prevent  fore-t  fires.  The  system  has 
worked  so  e(Tectividy  that  for  a  number  of  years 
the  Slate  has  wludly  escaped  destructive  fires. 
The  State  has  encouraged  lree-f,iantiug  in  the 
prairie  region,  and  about  .$000,000  in  bounties 
has  l)een  expended  for  this  puipose.  There  is  a 
forest  reserve  of  200,000  acre-  in  Chippewa  Reser- 
vation. 

Tr.wsportation.  Minnesota  is  favored  with 
the  advantages  of  both  the  .Saint  Lawrence  and 
the  Mississippi  systems  of  navigation.     The  lat- 


MINNESOTA. 


561 


MINNESOTA. 


INDUSTRIES 


Total  for  selected  industries  for  State j 

Increase.  1890  to  1900 

i'erceut.  of  increase 

Ter  cent,  of  total  of  all  industries  in  State | 

Flouring  and  grist-mill  products i 

Cheese,  butter,  and  condensed  milk,  factory  products | 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing  :  Total | 

Liquors,  malt -j 

Oil,  linseed | 

Foundry  and  machine  shop  products | 

Boots  and  shoes,  factory  product j 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by  steam  rail-  j 
road  companies ( 

Printing  and  publishing,  newspapers  and  periodicals | 

Lumber  and  timber  products | 

Lumber,  planing  mill  products,  including  sash,  doors,  and  blinds  ) 


1900 
1S90 


1900 
1890 

1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
190() 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 
1900 
1890 


Number  of 
establish- 
ments 


2,500 
1.403 


1.095 
77.9 

22.6 

18,7 

512 

307 

696 

106 

20 

IS 

78 

C6 

3 

17.1 

92 

16 

8 

39 

18 

560 

3*1 

438 

392 

61 

54 


.\verage 
number 
wage- 
earners 


35,862 
30,334 


5,528 
18.2 

46.4 
43.5 

4,086 

3,609 

740 

783 

668 

222 

856 

648 

155 

90 

3,139 

1,289 

2,025 

1,099 

4,700 

1.951 

2.714 

2.143 

15,140 

16.170 

1.639 

2,530 


Value  of  prod- 
ucts, including 
custom  work 
and  repairing 


$177,172,025 
111.052,701 


$66,119,324 
59.5 

67.5 

57. S 

$83,877,709 
60.15H,088 
•  8,479.896 
2.958.476 
7,8in..')55 
2,510.431 
4,456.928 
2.206,366 
3.2"2,.598 
1,547,719 
5,975,077 
2,8:15,024 
3.015.801 
2.032.S14 
6.319,876 
2.628.174 
5,790,148 
4,157,026 
43,585,161 
25,076,132 
3,988,276 
4.943,451 


ter  is  becoming  relatively  less  important  owing 
to  the  development  of  railroads,  and  the  former 
is  becoming  rapidly  more  important  with  the  in- 
dustrial development  of  the  North.  The  possi- 
bility of  lake  transportation  has  been  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  development  of  the  State's  min- 
ing industry,  and  Duluth  has  become  one  of  the 
leading  lake  ports.  It  has  immen.se  shipments 
of  ore,  grain,  and  lumber.  But  few  regions  of 
the  country  are  better  supplied  with  railroads 
tlian  are  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  the 
State.  Minneapolis-Saint  Paul  is  the  objective 
point  of  most  of  the  great  lines  northwest  of 
Chicago,  and  the  transcontinental  Great  North- 
ern and  Northern  Pacific  cross  the  State  from 
east  to  west.  Among  the  lines  which  have  a 
large  mileage  in  the  State  are  the  Chicago.  Mil- 
waukee and  Saint  Paul:  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western; the  Chicago.  .Saint  Paul  and  Omaha; 
the  Eastern  Railway  of  ilinnesota ;  and  the  Min- 
nesota and  Saint  Louis.  The  total  mileage  in- 
creased from  1092  miles  in  1870  to  554.5  in  1890 
and  0996  in  1900.  The  State  has  a  railroad 
and  warehouse  commission  which  hears  and 
pa.sses  judgment  upon  complaints,  with  due  no- 
tice to  carriers  to  arrange  a  tariff  of  freight  in 
pursuance  thereof.  Upon  refusal  of  the  carriers 
to  adopt  such  rates  the  commission  publishes 
the  same. 

Baki^s.  The  first  banking  law  of  Minnesota 
was  passed  in  1858,  at  the  first  session  of  the 
Legislature;  the  law  was  amended  in  1878.  plac- 
ing the  banks  under  the  control  of  the  public  ex- 
aminer, who  is  ex-officio  superintendent  of  banks. 
The  law  was  amended  and  made  more  stringent 
in  1881.  1,889.  and  1895.  Banking  business  in  the 
State  was  very  unprofitable  at  first,  and  all  the 
State  banks  organized  in  1858-08  were  discon- 
tinued. In  1878  there  were  17  banks,  and  in 
1898  101  banks  in  operation.  Savings  banks 
are  regulated  by  the  law  of  1S79,  which  placed 
them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bank  Com- 
missioner.    Trust  companies  were  authorized  in 


1883.  but  are  prohibited  from  doing  a  general 
banking  business.  In  1902  there  were  128  na- 
tional banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$13,323,000;  surplus,  $2,952,000;  cash,  etc., 
$0,984,000;  loans,  $65,040,000;  and  dejiosits, 
$65,797,000;  238  State  banks  with  capital  of 
$7,360,700;  surplus, $1,230,0.55  ;  cash,  .$3.220.,534; 
loans,  $38,100,783:  and  deposits,  $41,283,240. 

Finance.  The  Constitution  of  1857  prohibited 
debts  for  public  improvement,  and  prohibited  any 
State  debt  above  $250,000.  But  an  amendment 
in  1858  enabled  the  State  to  issue  $5,000,000  of 
7  per  cent,  bonds  to  lend  to  the  railroads  of  the 
State  under  guaranty  of  first  mortgage  bonds. 
Less  than  half  of  these  bonds  were  sold,  the  rail- 
roads defaulted  the  interest  on  their  mortgage 
bonds,  and  the  State  acquired  their  property  by 
foreclosure.  Nevertheless  the  State  was  unable 
to  meet  the  interest  payment,  and  in  1800  the 
debt  on  these  bonds  was  repudiated.  The  obliga- 
tions were  resiuned  in  1881.  when  the  old  bonds 
were  exchanged  for  new  ones  at  the  rate  of  50 
per  cent.  This  gave  the  State  a  debt  of  $4,253,- 
000.  which  was  quickly  reduced  in  the  eighties, 
amounting  to  $2,154,000  in  1890  and  $2,009,000 
in  1901.  The  original  constitutional  prohibition 
of  State  debts  is  in  force  and  no  further  exten- 
sion of  the  debt  is  possible.  The  budget  rose 
rapidly  from  less  than  a  million  in  1870  to  more 
than  five  millions  in  1S90,  and  in  1901  the  re- 
ceipts amounted  to  $8,901,184,  and  disbursements 
to  $0,900,841,  leaving  a  balance  of  $2,000,343. 
The  receipts  included  the  permanent  school  fund, 
$1,258,127;  the  general  school  fund,  $1,900,070; 
the  general  university  fund.  $420,479;  and  the 
revenue  fund.  $4,457,708. 

PoPUL.\Tiox.  The  population  of  Minnesota  by 
decades  is  as  follows:  1850.  0077;  1800,  172.02.3'; 
1870.  439.700:  1880.  780.773:  1890,  1„301.826; 
1900,  1.751.394.  The  rank  of  the  State  has  risen 
every  decade,  standing  nineteenth  in  1900.  The 
largest  ab.solute  gain  was  in  the  decade  1880-90. 
From  1890  to  1900  the  increase  amounted  to  34.5 


MINNESOTA. 


562 


MINNESOTA. 


per  cent.,  as  compared  with  20.7  for  the  United 
Stales.  During  that  decade  every  county  in  the 
State  sliared  in  the  increase,  but  it  was  generally 
greatest  throughout  the  northern  ones,  where  the 
population  is  still  very  sparse.  The  movement 
of  the  population  turned  toward  iiinnesota  at 
a  period  when  the  (ierinan  immigration  was  still 
great  and  the  Scanrlinavian  peoples  were  just 
beginning  to  come  in  large  numbers.  As  a  re- 
sult these  elements  are  heavily  rejiresentcd.  No 
otlier  State  contains  so  large  a  mmiber  of  Swedes 
and  Norwegians.  In  lOOO  the  foreign-born  popu- 
lation numbered  ")U5,;jlS.  The  colored  popula- 
tion numbered  only  14,358.  of  whom  40.i9  were 
negroes,  7414  Indians  ta.xed,  and  1708  Indians 
not  ta.xed.  As  is  common  in  newly  settled  States, 
tliere  is  a  large  excess  of  the  male  sex.  At  the 
last  census  there  were  22.1  inhabitants  to  the 
square  mile.  The  State  contains  the  two  large 
metropolises  of  the  Up])er  Jlississippi  Valley — 
Minneapolis  and  Saint  Paul — and  the  per  cent. 
of  urban  population  is  therefore  high  for  so  new 
a  State.  In  1900  the  10  places  which  exceeded 
4000  inhabitants  each  Constituted  31  per  cent, 
of  the  total  population.  The  figures  for  the  four 
largest  cities  in  IIIOO  were  as  follows:  Jlinneap- 
olis.  202.718;  Saint  Paul,  103.005:  Duluth,  52,- 
969;   Winona,   19,714. 

EELKiioN.  The  noteworthy  characteristic  of 
the  religious  situation  in  Jlinncsota  is  the  great 
predominance  of  the  Konian  Catholic  and  the 
Lutheran  Churches.  The  strongest  of  the  other 
denominations  represented  are  the  Jlelhodists, 
Baptists,  Presbyterians,  Congregational i.sts,  and 
Protestant  Episcopalians. 

Edication.  The  census  of  1900  reported  4.1 
of  the  population  ten  years  of  age  and  over  as 
being  illiterate;  for  the  native  white  population 
alone  it  was  only  0.8  per  cent.  The  average 
length  of  the  school  year  in  1900  was  109  days, 
which  was  greater  than  that  of  any  other  State 
west  of  the  .Appalacliians.  The  Stale  has  been 
very  zealous  in  building  no  a  conii>lete  and  su- 
perior system  of  public  schools,  and  its  success 
has  been  greatly  aided  by  the  large  State  en- 
dowment. Iiinnesota  has  developed  a  system 
intended  both  to  aid  and  to  stimulate  the  schools 
to  a  higher  degree  of  ellieiency.  The  apportion- 
ment of  the  current  school  fund  is  based  upon  the 
number  of  pupils  attending  school  forty  days 
in  the  year,  and  in  adilition  to  this  there  are 
State  appropriations  to  such  schools  as  attain 
a  eertiiin  meritorious  rank,  the  test  of  merit 
being  the  employment  of  teachers  holding  the 
higher  certificate,  and  meeting  the  requirements 
of  duration,  of  eiiuipmenl;  and  of  gradation.  In 
1900  additional  aiil  W'as  received  by  115  high 
schools,  110  graded  schools,  191  semi-graded 
schools,  and  000  rural  srho<ds.  'Hie  policy  of 
••ausing  the  special  ajjpropriation  to  depend  in 
part  upon  the  grade  of  certificate  held  made  it 
lu'cessary  to  establish  a  uniform  test,  to  secure 
which  the  State  took  over  the  examination  of 
candidates  for  that  grade  of  certificate.  The 
counties  still  examine  the  candidates  for  the 
lower  certificates.  The  total  number  of  teachers 
in  1900  was  10.580,  of  whom  8.534  were  females. 
Tlie  State  provides  opportunity  for  pedagogical 
training  at  the  mirnial  sihools  at  Mankato.  Moor- 
liea<l.  Saint  Cloud,  and  Winona.  The  p(dicy  of 
supporting  sununer  schocds  for  the  benefit  of 
teachers  has  been  adopte<].  The  State  Univer- 
sity, located  at  Minneapolis,  is  one  of  the  fore- 


most educational  institutions  in  the  West.  The 
enrollment  has  reached  about  3500.  There  are 
also  a  number  of  small  denominational  colleges 
in  the  St;ite.  In  .July,  1900,  the  total  permanent 
school  fund  amounted  to  .$12,540,599,  the  prin- 
cipal sources  of  which  were  the  sale  of  lands 
(.$9,417,791)  and  the  sale  of  pine  timber  ($2,- 
170,073).  The  permanent  university  fund  of 
that  date  amounted  to  .$1,240,817.  The  appor- 
tionment for  the  current  school  fund  in  1900  was 
$1,295,459.  and  the  total  paid  to  teachers 
amounti-d  to  $3,842,987. 

CUAHITABI.E  AND   PeNAL  INSTITUTIONS.      A  laW 

was  passed  in  1901  for  the  creation  of  a  Board  of 
Control,  consisting  of  three  members  appointed 
by  the  Governor  and  Senate  for  the  term  of  six 
years,  and  having  full  power  to  manage  and  con- 
trol the  .State  eliaritablc  and  ]ienal  institutions, 
and  authority  in  financial  matters  in  certain 
State  scliools,  including  those  for  the  deaf  and 
blind.  Under  the  new  system  each  institution 
has  but  one  head,  the  superintendent.  To  prevent 
nepotism,  the  lioard  has  ordered  that  superintend- 
ents or  wardens  cannot  employ  or  retain  any 
relative,  or  any  relative  of  the  officer  to  whom 
such  an  employee  would  be  directly  responsible; 
nor  does  the  board  itself  appoint  any  relative 
of  any  member  to  ofiice  under  it.  A  uniform  sys- 
tem of  records  and  accounts  has  been  introilueed. 
and  the  first  report  of  the  Board  of  Control 
shows  a  general  decrease  in  expenses  over  the 
preceding  year.  The  fidlowing  table  gives  a 
summary  of  the  institutions,  with  the  average 
number  of  inmates,  and  the  per  capita  cost  of 
maintenance  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  in  1902: 


INST1TUTIOX9 

Per  capita 
cost 

.\veraffe 

number  of 

Inmates 

$116.70 
137.98 
125.49 
154.89 
151.71 
192.41 
254.48 
143.27 

152.79 

138.51 

280.70 

48.62 

121.3 

133.6 

F^T^iis  Falls  Hospital 

1.350.1 

971.4 

1,101.8 

257. 

.s.'lirx.l  tor  lilind,  Fnrihaillt 

Si-liDiil    tor    Feuljle-iliiided,   Fari- 
bault  

Stat*'  I'liblic  School.  Owatonna.... 
State  Training  School.  Uecl  Wing. 

79.4 

769. 
228.4 
390.9 
170.7 

547.8 

The  State  public  school  is  for  dependent  and 
neglected  children.  The  Reformatory,  at  Saint 
Cloud,  is  for  criminals  within  the  age  period  of 
sixteen  to  thirty  years,  while  the  older  age  group 
is  sent  to  the  prison  at  Stillwater.  The  convicts 
at  the  State  prison  are  worked  under  the  piece- 
price  and  [niblie  account  systems,  and  also  manu- 
facture supplies  for  the  use  of  the  pul)lic  insti- 
tutions. 

Mii.iTlA.  In  1900  the  population  of  militia  age 
of  the  State  amounted  to  3!I9.734.  The  aggregate 
strength  of  the  militia  in  1901  was  1922  men. 

(ioVEHNMf.XT.  The  present  Constitution,  whiell 
is  the  only  one  the  State  has  had,  was  adopted  by 
an  almost  unanimous  vote  of  the  people,  in  Octo- 
ber, 1857.  Proposed  ainendnu-nts  upon  receiving 
a  majority  vote  of  both  Houses  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  people  at  a  general  election,  when 
each  amendment  is  voted  upon  separately  and 
becomes  a  part  of  the  Constitution  if  it  receives  a 
majority  of  the  votes  east.  ,\  two-thirds  vote 
of  each  House  and  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote 
arc  necessary  to  call  a  constitutional  convention. 


MINNESOTA. 


563 


MINNESOTA. 


Voters  must  have  re^idiil  in  the  State  six 
liiuutlis  and  in  the  election  district  thirty  days 
and  liavc  been  citizens  of  tlie  Initod  States  lur 
three  months.  Women  may  vole  for  scliool  and 
library  otKcers.  or  upon  any  measure  pertaining 
to  schools  and  libraries,  and  are  eligible  to  scliool 
and  library  oilices.  Registration  is  re(iuire<l  by  law. 

Legislature.  Senatorial  and  Representative 
districts  are  composed  of  contiguous  territory, 
and  no  Representative  district  can  he  divided  in 
the  formation  of  a  Senate  district.  Senators  serve 
four  and  Representatives  two  years.  State  elec- 
tions occur  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  .Mon- 
day in  Xovember.  The  Legislature  meets  bien- 
nially on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monilay  in 
January,  and  is  limited  to  a  session  of  90  days. 
E.\cept  on  request  of  the  Governor  no  new  bill  can 
be  introduced  during  the  last  twenty  days  of  the 
session.  Revenue  bills  originate  in  the  Lower 
House.  No  law  can  be  passed  unless  voted  for 
by  a  majority  of  all  the  members  elected  to  each 
House.  The  power  of  impeachment  rests  with  the 
House,  the  trial  of  impeachment  with  the  Senate. 

ExEciTiVE.  A  Governor,  Lieutenant-Governor, 
Secretary  of  State.  Trea.surer.  and  Attorney-Gen- 
eral are  elected  for  two  years,  and  an  Auditor  for 
four  years.  The  Governor  may  convene  extra  ses- 
sions of  the  Legislature ;  he  may  veto  any  bill 
or  any  item  of  an  appropriation  bill,  but  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  both  Houses  overrides  the  veto. 

.Tumci.\EY.  The  Supreme  Court  judges  cannot 
exceed  five  in  number,  and  are  elected  by  the 
electors  of  the  State  at  large.  The  State  is 
divided  into  districts,  in  each  of  which  one  or 
more  judges  are  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years. 
There  is  a  probate  court  in  each  county,  elected 
for  two  years.  .Justices  of  the  peace  are  elected 
for  a  term  of  two  years. 

Local  Government.  New  counties  may  be  or- 
ganized or  old  ones  altered  (subject  to  their  own 
consent),  but  not  reduced  below  400  square  miles 
in  area.  Cities  of  20,000  inhabitants  may  be  or- 
ganized into  separate  counties.  Any  city  or 
village  may  frame  a  charter  subject  to  the  gen- 
eral limits  prescribed  by  State  laws,  which  must 
receive  a  four-sevenths  vote  of  the  electors  vot- 
ing. State  laws  provide  for  the  election  of 
county  and  township  officers. 

Other  Constitutional  or  Statutory  Provi- 
SION.S.  ^larried  women  retain  the  same  legal  ex- 
istence and  personality  as  before  marriage,  may 
sue  or  be  sued.  and.  with  the  exception  of  voting, 
receive  equal  protection  of  all  their  rights.  The 
legal  rate  of  interest  is  7  per  cent.;  10  is  allowed 
by  contract:  the  penalty  for  usury  is  forfeiture 
of  debt  if  the  interest  is  over  12  per  cent.  A  local- 
option  liquor  law  is  in  force,  and  high  license  ob- 
tains in  places  that  do  not  prohibit.  Combina- 
tions to  monopolize  the  nuirkets  for  food  products, 
or  restrict  the  freedom  of  such  markets,  are  crim- 
inal  conspiracies. 

The  State  has  nine  votes  in  the  United  States 
Electoral   College.      Saint   Paul   is  the  capital. 

History.  The  first  European  to  visit  the  re- 
gion now  included  within  the  State  was  Duluth, 
who.  in  107.'>.  built  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Pigeon  River,  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Superior.  In  1080  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony 
were  discovered  by  Louis  Hennepin,  a  Fran- 
ciscan priest.  Before  1700  there  were  trading 
posts  on  Lake  Pepin  and  on  the  Minnesota 
River.     A  part   of   Minnesota   was   included    in 


the  extensive  territory  ceded  by  France  to 
Great  Uritain  in  17l>;i.  in  17Uti  it  was  explored 
by  Capt.  Jonathan  Carver,  of  Connecticut.  In 
1783  it  became  a  pos.session  of  the  United  States. 
The  part  of  the  State  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi 
belonged  in.  turn  to  the  Territories  of  Indiana, 
Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  The  region  west 
formed  part  of  the  Territories  of  Louisiana,  Mis- 
souri, and  Iowa.  In  1805  a  tract  of  land  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Croix  and  another  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Minnesota  wore  purchased  of  the 
Indians,  but  the  number  of  settlers  was  small. 
The  exploring  expedition  of  Lieutenant  Pike  in 
1805  was  followed  by  many  others  within  the 
succeeding  forty  years;  and  with  an  increased 
knowledge  of  the  country  came  the  first  impor- 
tant beginning  of  immigration.  Fort  Saint  An- 
thony (Snelling)  was  built  in  1819-21;  in  1822 
a  clearing  was  made  at  the  Falls  of  Saint  An- 
thony, and  a  mill  was  built,  and  in  1823  the 
first  steamboat  ascended  to  the  falls.  The  next 
settlements  made  were  by  a  colonv  of  Swiss,  near 
Fort  Snelling  in  1827,  aiid  at  Sti'Uwater  in  1843. 
Two  years  before  this  latter  date  Father 
Galtier  had  erected  a  log  chapel  a  little 
southeast  of  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony 
and  dedicated  it  to  Saint  Paul.  This  was 
the  nucleus  of  the  present  city  of  that  name. 
The  Indian  titles  to  the  lands  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi were  not  extinguished  until  the  year 
1838,  and  it  was  not  until  March  3,  1849,  that 
the  Territory  of  Minnesota  was  organized,  with 
the  Missouri  River  as  its  western  boundary.  In 
1851  the  Indian  titles  to  the  lands  (except  reser- 
vations) between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red 
River  of  the  North  were  extinguished,  and  immi- 
gration increased  rapidly.  On  May  11,  1858, 
Minnesota  was  admitted  as  a  State.  The  excel- 
lent educational  institutions  for  which  Minne- 
sota is  noted  took  their  rise  early  in  the  history 
of  the  Territory.  Hamline  LTniversity,  at  Ham- 
line,  was  founded  in  1854,  and  Saint  .John's  Uni- 
versity at  Collegeville,  was  established  three 
years  later.  In  18G2  the  Sioux  Indians,  under 
Little  Crow,  angered  at  the  continuous  inroads 
made  upon  their  lands,  attacked  and  destroyed 
many  of  the  frontier  settlements.  Over  500 
white  .settlers  and  soldiers  were  killed  and  25,000 
])eople  were  driven  from  their  homes.  The  In- 
dians were  decisively  defeated  at  Wood  Lake  on 
September  22,  1862,  and  after  engaging  in  spo- 
radic raids  in  1863  were  removed  west  of  the 
Missouri.  In  spite  of  the  horrors  of  Indian  war, 
immigration  continued  undiminished;  it  was 
stimulated  by  the  activity  of  immigration  agents 
in  the  Eastern  States  and  Europe,  and  was  en- 
couraged by  the  enactment  of  lilicral  homestead 
laws.  From  the  sale  of  its  extensive  public 
lands,  the  State  obtained  a  very  large  school 
fund,  which  it  employed  in  building  up  an  ad- 
mirable school  system.  Legislation  after  the 
Civil  War  was  concerned  largely  with  the  regu- 
lation of  railway  corporations,  and  the  most  de- 
bated question  of  policy  fiU'  a  long  time  was  that 
of  the  redemption  of  $2,275,000  in  bonds,  which 
the  State  had  issued  in  1S58  to  aid  in  the  con- 
struction of  railways,  and  had  repudiated  in 
1860.  For  more  than  twenty  years  a  large  party 
in  the  State  urged  the  redeni]ition  of  the  bonds  as 
a  measure  necessitated  by  public  honor,  and  in 
1881  the  Legislature  accepted  the  offer  of  the 
bondholders  to  surrender  their  bonds  at  half  the 
face  value. 


MINNESOTA. 


564 


MINNEWATJKON. 


Since  18G0  Minnesota  1ms  been  steadily  Re- 
publican, save  for  the  election  of  1898,  when  the 
Democrats,  roi)iilists,  and  Silver  Republicans 
elected  their  candidate  for  Governor.  The  follow- 
in"  is  a  list  of  the  Governors  of  Minnesota  since 
its  organization  as  a  Territory: 

TEEEITOBIAL 

Ale:tandnr  Ramsey JS?"?? 

Willis  A.  Gorman tri'i'.l 

Samuel  Medary IBoi-JB 

STATE 

....Democrat 1858-60 

...Uepublican 1860-6i 


Henr.T  fl.  Sibley 

AU'-xiUider  Kamsey 

Stephen  .Miller  

William  li.  Marshall.. 

Horace  .Austin 

CusUman  K.  Davis.... 

John  S.  Pillsbury 

Lucius  F.  Hubbard... 

.\udrew  R.  MeOill 

William  U.  Merriam.. 

Kiiute  .Nelson 

David  M.  Clough 

John  Lind 

Samuel  K.  Van  Sant.. 


BiBUOGKAPUY. 

sola    (Xew   Vork; 


1864-66 

'■  18tJ6-70 

1870-7* 

•"  1871-76 

■■  1876-82 

<■  1882-87 

"  1887-89 

1889-93 

189;!-95 

'"_"'",  "  1895-99 

bemocrat-Populist 1899-1901 

Kepublicau 1901 — 

Seymour.  Sketches  of  Mimie- 
1850)  ;  Bond,  ilinnesota  and 
Its  Resources  (Xew  York,  1854)  ;  Geological  and 
Natural  History  Survey  Annual  Reports  (Saint 
Paul,  1873  et  3eq.)  ;  Harrington,  Geography,  His- 
ioru.and  Civil  Government  (Minneapolis,  18i)l )  ; 
McVev,  Government  of  Minnesota,  Its  History 
and  Administration  (Xew  York,  1001)  :  Williams, 
•■Outline  Ilistory  of  Minnesota  from  1858-81."  in 
Warner  and  Fo'ote.  History  of  Dakota  (Minne- 
apolis, 1881)  :  Xcill,  Concise  History  of  the  State 
of  Minnesota  (ilinneapolis,  1887)  ;  Flandrau, 
History  of  Minnesota  (Saint  Paul,  1900)  ;  Gil- 
lillan.  Early  Political  History  of  Minnesota 
(Saint  Paul,  1901);  .l/in/i^so(a  Historical  So- 
cietif  Collections,  vol,  iii.,  contains  bibliography 
(Sa'int  Paul,   1880). 

MINNESOTA,   Uxivebsity   of.     A   coeduca- 
tional   State    institution   of   higher    learning   in 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  established  by  an  act  of  the 
Territorial  legislature  in  1851  and  confirmed  by 
the  State  Constitution  adopted  in  1857.   The  i)rcs- 
ent  charter  was  adopted  in   1808.  and  the  first 
collegiate  work  was  l)cg\in  in  the  following  year. 
Its  government   is  vested   in  a  board  of  thirteen 
regents,  nine  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  the 
State  and  holding  odice  for  six  years,  and  three 
cxotlicio  members,  the  Governor,  the  State  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction,  and  the  ])resident 
of  the  university.     By  sjiccial  act  of  the  Legisla- 
ture in  1895  John  S,  Pillsbury  was  made  regent 
for  life.     The  university  comiirises  the  following 
colleges,  schools,  and  depart  iiicnts  :    ( 1 )    The  grad- 
uate'^departmcnts,   with   advanced  courses   in  all 
branches  except  that  of  medicine,     (2)   The  col- 
lege of  science,  literature,  and  the  arts,  ofTering 
foTiryear    courses,    largely    elective,    leading    to 
the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  arts,  science,  literature, 
and  philosophv,  and  including  the  School  of  Tech- 
nical and  Applied  Chemistry.     A  summer  school 
for  teachers  offers  a  six  weeks'  course  in  various 
iinivcrsitv  subjects,    (3)  The  College  of  Engineer- 
ing and   the   Slechanie   Arts,   offering  four-year 
courses  in  civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical  engi- 
neering,  and   in   science   and   technology-,   leading 
to  (he  bachelor's  degree.  (4)  The  School  of  Mines, 
with  a  four  vears"  course  in  mining  and  mctal- 
hirgv  leading  to  the  degrees  of  engineer  of  mines 
and  metallurgical  engineer.     (5)   The  College  of 
Agriculture,  with  a   four  years'  course,  le.iding 


to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  agriculture.     There 
is  also  a  School  of  Agriculture,  giving  training 
for  practical  farm  life  and  in  domestic  economy, 
and  a  dairy  school,      (G)     The  College  of  Law, 
giving  a  three  years'  cour.se.  leading  to  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  iaws.    (7)    The  deixutment  of  med- 
icine, including   (a)   the  College  of  Jledicine  and 
Surgery,    and    (b)    the   College   of   Homa-opathic 
Medicine   and    Surgery,   with   four-year   courses, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine;    (c) 
the    College    of    Ueiitistry,    with    a    three    years' 
course,  leading  to  the  degree  of  pharmaceutical 
chemist;  and  (d)  the  College  of  Pharmacy,  with 
a  two  or  tlivee  years'  course,  leailing  to  the  de- 
gree of  pharmaceutical  chemist.  Under  the  control 
of  the  university  authorities  are  also  the  State 
Agricultural   Experiment    Station   and   the   Geo- 
logical  and   Xatural    History   Survey.     The   de- 
grees conferred  for  graduate  work  are  the  mas- 
ter's degree   in  arts,  science,  laws,  and  pharmacy, 
and  the  doctor's  degree  in  philo.sophy,  civil  law, 
medicine,  and  pharmacy,     Xo  honorary  degrees 
are  conferred.     Students  are  admitted  on  exam- 
ination m  on  certificate  from  accredited  schools  of 
the  State.     Tuition  is  free  in  all  departments  ex- 
cept   law    and    medicine.      In    1902    the    faculty 
numbered   275  and   the  attendance  was  ,3656,  of 
whom   1042   were  women.     Of  this   number  the 
College  of  Science,  Literature,  and  the  Arts  had 
11 70  Students.      The   general    library    contained 
84,000  volumes,  and  there  were  special  libraries 
in   connecti<m   with   the   various  departments  of 
instruction.     The  laboratories  arc  extensive  and 
well  equipped,     Tliere  is  a  herbarium,  with  over 
200,000  sjiecimens.  and  a  museum.     There  is  no 
dormitory  system  except  in  connection  with  the 
department "  of     agriculture.       The     university 
grounds  comprise  about   forty-five  acres,  valued 
at  $.350,000,    The  buildings  are  eighteen  in  num- 
ber and  are  valued  at  over  $950,000.  and  their 
equipment  at  about  $275,000.     The  State  experi- 
mental farm  consists  of  250  acres  between  Minne- 
apolis and  Saint  Paul  and  is  valued  at  $.300,000. 
The  buihlings  and  equipment  of  the  department  of 
agriculture  are  estimated  at  over  $300,000.     The 
universitv  is  supported  by  the  income  of  its  per- 
manent   endowment    of    national    lands,    a    State 
tax    of    three-twentieths    of   a    mill,    and    special 
legislative     appropriations     for     buildings     and 
equipment.     The  gross  income  for  1902,  exclusive 
of  special  appropriations,  was  $400,000.     The  en- 
dowment  was   $1,308,814,  and   the   value   of  all 
the   university   property   $3,340,000.     The  presi- 
dent after  1884  was  Cyrus  Xorthrop, 

MINNESOTA  RIVEB,  An  affluent  of  the 
VpiiiT  Mi--i--i)qii  (Map:  Minnesota,  P  6),  It 
rises  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  South  Dakota 
and  flows  through  Big  Stone  Lake  on  the  botind- 
ary  between  South  Dakota  and  Minnesota,  after 
which  it  traverses  the  latter  State,  first  in  a 
southeast  direction  to  Mankato,  where  it  makes 
a  sharp  bend,  after  which  it  flows  northeast, 
entering  the  ilississippi  opposite  Saint  Paul  and 
just  south  of  :Minneapolis.  Its  valley  is  the 
dividing  line  between  the  Big  Woods  to  the 
north  and  the  prairie  regions  to  the  south.  It  is 
navigable  for  steamers  45  miles,  and  at  high 
watc'i-  small  vessels  can  ascend  it  295  miles,  be- 
yond which  it  is  obstructed  by  falls  and  rapids. 
Its  total   length  is   (70  miles. 

MINNEWATTKON,  min'n.'-wn'kon,  L.vke.  or 
Devil's  Lake.  The  largest  lake  of  Xorth  Dakota, 


MINNEWAUKON. 


565 


MINOK. 


situated  in  tlio  iioi  tlu'a>ti'rii  pan  of  tlio  State 
(.Map:  North  Dakota,  G  1).  It  is  40  miles  long, 
and  from  two  to  twelve  miles  broad.  It  receives 
the  Coulee  Creek,  but  has  no  outlet,  and  its  water 
is  brackish. 

MINNOW  (ME.  menow,  from  AS.  myiie, 
luinnow,  probably  from  AS.  «ij;i,  leel.  miiiiir, 
Goth,  minnha,  OHG.  niinniro,  Ger.  minder,  Lat. 
minor,  less,  Gk.  luvivduv,  miiiynlhciii,  to  lessen, 
Skt.  nil,  to  diminish).  The  name  iiopularly  ap- 
plied to  almost  any  small  tish.  More  technically 
it  applies  to  members  of  the  family  Cyprinidoe, 
which  includes  the  roach,  dace,  carp,  etc.;  spe- 
cilically,  in  England,  Leuci»cus  phojcimis.  This  is 
a  small  fish  about  three  inches  long,  abundant 
in  gravelly  bottomed  streams.  It  is,  of  course, 
unimportant  as  food  except  for  larger  fishes.  In 
the  United  States  the  name  usually  belongs  to 
various  small  cyprinodonts,  mainly  of  the  largo 
genvis  Xotropis,  living  in  the  lesser  streams,  and 
frequently  called  "shiners."  The  largest  and  best 
known  of  these  is  the  golden  shiner  (Xotropis 
Uiidsoniiis) .  which  has  a  very  small  head,  but 
is  sometimes  a  foot  in  length.  (See  Dace.)  These 
fishes  are  mostly  bottom-feeders,  are  oviparous, 
carnivorous,  and  devour  much  spawn  of  their 
own  and  other  kinds  of  fishes.  The  'top-minnows' 
are  of  a  different  group,  being  killifishes  (q.v.) 
of  the  genus  Gambusia,  and  take  their  name  from 
their  surface-feeding  habits.  Along  the  eastern 
and  southern  coast  the  common  'minnow'  of 
brackish  water  is  the  mummichog  fq.v.).  Con- 
sult Jordan,  Manual  of  the  \'crtel)rfites  of  the 
Xortliern  United  States  (Chicago,  5th  ed.  1890). 
See  Plates  of  Dace  and  Minnows;  Killifishes 
AND  Top-Minnows. 

MINO,  or  in  Portuguese  MINHO,  me'nyo 
(I.at.  Minius).  The  principal  river  of  Galicia.  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  Spain  (ilap:  Spain,  B 
1 ) .  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  the  Province  of 
Lugo,  and  flows  in  a  southern  and  southwestern 
direction,  forming  a  part  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween Spain  and  Portugal,  until  it  enters  the 
Atlantic  through  a  wide  estuary.  Its  total 
length  is  211  miles,  for  the  last  25  of  which  it 
is  navigable  for  small  vessels,  but  it  is  much  ob- 
structed by  reefs,  islands,  and  shifting  sand 
banks. 

MINO  DA  FIESOLE,  me'no  da  fy.-i'zA-la 
(1431-84).  A  Florentine  sculptor  of  the  Early 
Renaissance.  He  was  born  at  Poppi  in  the 
Casentino  Valley.  While  employed  as  a  stone- 
mason at  Florence  he  became  the  friend  and 
pupil  of  Desiderio  da  Settignano.  His  home 
was  at  Florence,  but  there  is  documentary 
evidence  to  show  that  he  was  employed 
at  Rome  in  1454,  1463.  and  1404.  From  1475 
till  1480  he  was  employed  upon  the  monument 
to  Pope  Sixtus  IV..  of  which  there  are  fragments 
in  the  Grotte  Vaticane.  under  Saint  Peter's 
Church.  He  died  at  Florence.  .Tuly  11.  1484.  His 
work  possesses  beauty  and  delicate  finish,  but  is 
lacking  in  originality.  Its  high  reputation  is  due 
to  rich  decoration  and  to  a  certain  naivete  of 
expression,  especially  in  his  numerous  portrait 
busts,  which  are  his  best  work.  His  chief  works 
are  in  the  churches  of  Florence.  Fiesole.  and 
Rome.  His  most  important  achievements  in 
Florence  are  in  the  Church  of  La  Hadia :  the 
nionuinents  of  Bernardo  Giugni  (14(il!)  and 
of  the  Margrave  Hugo  of  Tuscany  (1481). 
In  the  Museo  Xazionale  at  Florence  are  busts 


of  Piero  de'  Medici  i  M.>i).  (iiuliano  de'  Medici, 
and  Kiualdo  della  Luna  (14(J1).  One  of  his 
best,  if  not  his  most  important  work,  belongs 
to  his  early  i)eriod:  the  monument  of  Leonardo 
Salutate,  Bishop  of  Fiesole  (d.  14l)(i),  in  the 
cathedral  of  that  city;  it  is  surmounted  by  a  fine 
bust.  A  beautiful  piece  of  Rcnais.sance  decora- 
tion is  the  Tabernacle  at  Santa  Maria  in  Traste- 
vcre,  Rome,  in  which  city  is  also  his  monument 
of  Cardinal  Fontegucrra  in  Santa  Cecilia.  His 
oilier  works  include  busts  of  Niccolo  Strozzi,  in 
the  Museum  of  Berlin;  San  Giovannino,  in  the 
Louvre;  and  five  reliefs  in  South  Kensington 
iluseum.  Consult  Semi)er  and  Barth,  UervoiTa- 
gende  Bildhauer-Architekten  der  Renaissance 
(Dresden,  1880). 

MINOKIES,  The.  A  London  pari.sh  and 
street  leading  northward  from  the  Tower  to  Aid- 
gate,  now  forming  with  Houndsditcli  the  Jewish 
quarter  of  the  city.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  nuns  of  Saint  Clare,  called  Sororos  Minores, 
or  Jlinoresses.  The  Church  of  the  Trinity,  once 
belonging  to  a  nunnery  of  the  Order,  still  exists 
in  the  Minories. 

MINOR  (Lat.,  less).  A  term  in  music  ap- 
plied to  intervals  and  modes.  ( 1 )  The  interval 
between  any  note  and  another  is  named  according 
to  the  number  of  degrees  between  them  on  the 
scale,  both  notes  included.  The  interval  between 
C  and  E  is  called  a  third;  that  between  E  and 
G  is  also  a  third ;  but  these  intervals  are  unequal, 
the  one  consisting  of  four  semitones,  the  other 
of  three;  the  former  is  therefore  distinguished  as 
a  major,  the  latter  as  a  minor  interval.  (2)  There 
are  two  modes  in  which  a  musical  jiassage  nuxy 
be  composed.  Whereas  the  major  mode  makes 
use  of  but  one  form  of  scale,  which  is  the  same 
whether  aseending  or  deseending.  the  minor  mode 
recognizes  two  forms  of  scale,  the  harmonic  and 
melodic.  ]\Iodern  music  conceives  a  mode  as  a 
system  of  three  fundamental  chords,  which  con- 
tain all  the  tones  proper  to  the  scale  of  that 
mode.  These  chords  are  the  tonic,  dominant,  and 
subdominant.  Arranging  the  tones  of  the  pure 
minor  scale  as  elements  of  these  three  chords  we 
have  the  following: 

tonic 


d  —  f  —  a 
1                 1 

1 
—  c  —  e  —  g  —  6, 
1                1 

subdom. 

dom. 

where  all  three  chords  present  themselves  as 
minor  (because  having  the  minor  third),  just  as 
the  corresponding  cliords  are  major  in  the  major 
mode.  (See  Ma.ior. )  Arranging  these  tones  in 
this  diatonic  order  as  a  descending  scale,  begin- 
ning with  the  highest  tone  of  the  tonic  chord 
(e),  the  following  results:  e,  d,  c,  b,  a,  g.  f.  e. 
Here  we  have  a  pure  minor  scale  which  is  iden- 
tical with  the  Dorian  mode  of  the  Greeks.  (See 
Greek  Mi'SIC.  )  Comparing  this  deseending 
minor  with  the  ascending  major  scale,  we  find 
each  to  be  the  exact  opposite  of  the  other,  thus 
establishing  the  polarity  of  major  and  minor 
already  known  to  Zarlino  and  Tartini.  but  fully 
developed  only  in  1S.53  by  Hauptmann.  Where 
the  ascending  major  has  the  major  third  (on 
third  degree)  and  semisteps  (3-4.  7-8)  the  de- 
scending minor  has  the  same  in  the  same  place: 

e,  d,  e,'~f,  g.  a.  b,  e. 
e,  d,  c,  b.  a.  g.  f.  e. 


MINOB. 


566 


MINORCA. 


For  practical  oompositicin,  however,  the  scale 
always  begins  with  the  tonic.  In  the  progression 
a,  I),  o,  (1,  e.  f,  g,  a,  tlie  whole  step  from  7  to  8 
was  found  unsatisfactory  to  tlie  ear,  which  im- 
peratively demanded  a  semistep.  By  raising  g  a 
semistep  this  leading  tone  was  obtained,  but  the 
step  from  6  to  7  was  augmented.  It  was  only 
during  the  nineteenth  century  that  this  form  of 
the  minor  scale  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  gjf,  a,  which  is 
known  as  the  harmonic  minor  scale,  was  pro- 
claimed as  the  normiil  form.  Itefore  that  the- 
orists had  been  afraid  of  the  augmented  sec- 
ond from  G  to  7  (a  dissonance)  and  had  over- 
come the  difficulty  by  also  raising  the  sixth  de- 
gree a  semitone,  so  that  ascending  the  minor 
scale  had  this  form:  a,  b.  c,  d,  e,  fjf,  gj,  a,  while 
dcsccndiny  the  7th  anil  (>th  degrees  were  restored 
to  their  original  pitcli.  Thus  what  is  known  as 
the  melodic  minor  scale  has  two  forms,  one  when 
ascending  the  other  wlicn  descending.  Now,  con- 
sidering the  luiruionic  form  as  the  normal  minor 
scale,  modern  musical  tlieory  establislies  the  dom- 
inant chord  of  both  the  major  and  minor  modes  as 
a  major  triad.  Thus  the  three  fundamental 
chords  of  the  modern  minor  mode  present  them- 
selves as  two  minor  triads  (tonic  and  subdoni- 
inant)    and  one   major  triad    (dominant).     See 

lMl:liVAL:    JIODES. 

MINOR.  In  the  law,  a  person  who  has  not 
attained  the  age  of  full  legal  capacity,  or  the  age 
of  legal  capacity  with  respect  to  the  performance 
of  certain  acts.  The  term  minor  belongs  strictly 
to  the  civil  law,  in  which  a  person  of  full  legal 
capacity  is  called  'major;'  but  generally  the  term 
miiinr  is  used  in  English  as  synonymous  with 
I.M-A.\r.  tinder  wliich  title  the  statement  of  the 
general  law  of  the  subject  will  be  found.  In 
Scots  law  'minor'  is  sometimes  specifically  used 
of  an  infant  above  the  age  of  a  pupil  ( 12  years 
for  fenuiles.  14  for  males),  and  imder  the  full 
age  ("21  years)  of  majority.  See  Infant; 
Parent  and  Child. 

MINOR,  m^'nor,  .Jakob  (18.5.5—).  An  Aus- 
trian sihidar  in  Teutonic  philology  and  litera- 
ture, born  at  Vienna.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Vienna  (1874-78)  and  Berlin  (1878- 
70).  became  a  lecturer  at  the  former  (18S0).  in 
I88'2-84  lield  a  chair  in  the  Accademia  Scientifico- 
Letteraria  of  Milan,  and  from  1884  to  1885  was 
professor  of  the  (iernian  language  and  literature 
in  the  I'niversity  of  I'rague.  In  1885  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Teutonic  philology  at  Vi- 
enna. His  numerous  [mblications  include  many 
editions  of  texts,  such  as  volumes  7.3  (Fabcl- 
dichler,  Haiiriker,  und  Popuhirphiloxophcn  dex 
achlzehntcn  Jahrhundcrtu) ,  145  (Ticrk  und 
\yacirnrndcr) .  and  151  (/)«.«  SrhichKiilsdrama) , 
wilh  introductory  essays  and  annotations,  in  the 
"Deutsche  Xational-I.itteratur"  series,  and  the 
Ar<hd\ike  Ferdinand's  Spccuhim  \'ilw  Hiimanw 
(188!t)  :  Xcuhoclidrulsrhc  Mrlrik  (180.1).  a  valu- 
able manual  of  Oerman  prosody,  based  on  lec- 
tures given  at  Vienna  in  1882:  and  important 
works  in  literary  history,  such  as  Die  Srhirk- 
Siilslniftodir  in  ilirrn  flauplrrrtrilrrn  (ISSS), 
and  an  uncompleted  stuily  of  Schiller.  Srhillrr. 
■irin  Lrhrn  und  srinr  ^Verlcc  (vols.  i.  and  ii., 
1800).  ranked,  so  far  as  it  extends,  among  the 
Iw'st   on  the  subject. 

MI'NOR,  T.rciAN  (1802-58).  An  .Vmericnn 
lawver  and  author,  bom  in  Virginia.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  in  1823, 


and  five  years  later  became  Lonnnonwealth  attor- 
ney for  Louisa  County,  \'a.,  an  ollice  which  he 
held  until  1852.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  William  and  Mary.  He  wrote  a 
])art  of  .John  A.  (!.  Davis's  Guide  to  Justices 
(1838),  and  contributed  the  notes  to  Daniel 
Call's  Viryinia  Reports.  A  tract  of  his.  Reasons 
for  Abolishing  the  Liquor  Traffic,  had  a  large 
sale;  and  after  his  deatli  his  Travels  in  Xcio 
England  were  edited  by  .1.  R.  Lowell  for  appear- 
ance in  the  .l(/«H(ic. 

MINOR,  RoiiEiiT  Ckannell  (1840—).  An 
American  lanilscajic  painter,  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  studied  under  Diaz  at  Barbizon, 
France,  and  under  ^'an  Luppen  and  Boulanger 
in  Antwerp,  and  traveled  in  Germany  and  Italy. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Society  of  American  Art- 
ists and  the  National  Academy  of  Design.  His 
pictures  have  been  exhibited  in  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  Chicago,  and  elsewhere  in  this  country, 
as  well  as  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  London  and 
-salons  of  Paris  and  .Antwerp.  His  works  include 
"Dawn,"  "Sundown,"  "The  Stream,"  "October 
Days,"  "The  Vale  of  Kennet,"  "Edge  of  the 
Wood,"  "Interior  of  the  Forest,"  "Jlorning  in 
.June,"  "Sunrise  on  Lake  Champlain,"  "Cradle 
of  the  Hudson,"  "Close  of  Day,"  and  "A  Jloun- 
tain  Path." 

MINOR,  Virginia  Loiisa  (1824—).  An 
American  woman  sutl'ragist,  born  in  Goochland 
County,  Va.  She  was  educated  at  a  seminary 
in  Cliarlottesville  in  Virginia,  but  in  1846  went 
to  live  in  Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  three  years  after  her 
marriage.  She  was  a  nurse  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  in  1867  organized  the  Missouri  Wom- 
an's Suffrage  Association.  In  1872  sh»  appealed 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  for 
woman's  right  to  vote.  She  was  the  first  woman 
in  this  country  to  take  this  question  to  the  courts. 

MINOR  BARONS.  Tlie  term  applied  in  the 
early  Middle  Aj.'es  in  luiglaiid  to  tliosr  tenants-in- 
chief  of  the  King  who  did  not  receive  a  special 
summons  to  council  and  to  militaiy  service,  but 
were  summoned  by  a  general  proclamation  of 
the  sherifT  given  in  the  county  courts.  The  term 
was  not  used  in  England  after  the  thirteenth 
century. 

MINOR'CA  (Sp.  Mcnorcn).  The  second  lar- 
gest of  the  Balearic  Islands  (q.v.).  It  is  the  east- 
ernmost of  the  group,  and  lies  20  miles  north- 
east of  Majorca  (Map:  Spain,  G  3).  Area,  403 
square  miles.  Its  northern  half  consists  of  rather 
low.  rolling  hills,  generally  arid  and  covered  with 
heath:  the  soutlieni  half  is  an  undulating  plateau 
out  by  deep,  fertile  valleys.  There  are  numerous 
bays  on  the  north<astern  coast,  in  one  of  which 
is  the  harbor  of  Port  Mah6n  (q.v.),  the  principal 
town.  Though  minerals  are  found  on  the  island, 
agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation,  the  principal 
products  being  wine,  oil,  grain,  flax,  and  sweet 
potatoes.  The  island  is  not  prosperous,  and  its 
po])iilation  is  declininsr.  largelv  bv  emigration. 
Population,  in  1887,  30.041  :  "in  'lOOO.  38.301. 
Minorca  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1713  and 
held  by  them,  with  several  intermissions,  until 
1,802.  when  it  was  finally  secured  by  Spain  by  the 
Treaty  of  .\miens. 

MINORCA.  .\  class  of  domestic  fowls  re- 
sembling Leghorns,  but  of  more  length  of  body 
and  heavier  mold.  Their  flesh  is  good  for  table 
purposes,  but  their  chief  value  is  as  egg-layers, 


MINORCA, 


567 


MINOT. 


in  which  they  excel,  prochioinj^  very  larjjc  white 
eggs.  They  are  hardy,  active  in  luiiitiii^'  fur  their 
food,  and  generally  eonmiendahle.  A  ilinorea 
cock  should  weigh  eight  pounds;  a  hen  six  and 
a  half  pounds.  This  breed  should  be  long-bodied 
and  stand  high  upon  strong,  slate-black  legs;  tlie 
tomb  is  larger  than  that  of  the  Leghorn;  the 
wattles  thin  and  pendulous,  and  the  ear-lobes 
pure  white.  Two  varieties  are  recognized — the 
black  and  the  white.  In  each  ease  the  color 
must  be  alisulutely  pure;  the  comb,  face,  and  wat- 
tles bright  red ;  eyes  dark  hazel  or  red.  See 
Colored  Plate  of  FowL.s,  under  Poi'LTRY. 

MINORITY      REPRESENTATION.        See 

CU-MULATIVE     VOTI^O  :      KeI'KESKN'IATION. 

MINOR  PROPHETS.  A  common  designa- 
tion for  a  gruup  of  twelve  prophetical  books  in 
the  Hebrew  canon,  whicli  in  the  lOnglish  Bible 
form  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  was  em- 
ployed as  early  as  tlie  time  of  .\ugustinc  and  Ru- 
iinus,  who  are  careful  to  explain  that  its  use  is 
occasioned  by  the  brevity  of  the  books  and  does 
not  characterize  their  merit  or  im[)ortance.  The 
corresponding  designation,  major  prophets,  is 
applied  to  the  longer  books  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezckiel.  and  Daniel.  The  Hebrews  called  tliis 
group  of  writings  'the  Twelve'  and  this  nomen- 
clature was  followed  by  the  Greeks.  (See  the 
article  Bible.)  The  first  reference  to  the  collec- 
tion is  in  Ecclns.  xlix,  10.  a  .section  probably 
written  in  the  time  of  .John  Hyrcanus.  The 
books  included  in  the  collection,  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  arranged  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  are 
Rosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Na- 
lium,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zcchariah, 
JIalachi.  This  order  is  retained  in  the  English 
Bible.  In  the  Greek  version  the  arrangement  is 
as  follows:  Hosea,  Amos.  Jlicali.  Joel,  Obadiah, 
Jonah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk.  Zephaniah,  Haggai, 
Zcchariah,  llalachi.  Both  arrangements  no 
doubt  were  intended  to  be  chronological.  There  is 
a  general  advance  from  the  Assyrian  to  the 
Chalda-an  and  Persian  periods.  The  three 
prophets  of  the  Chalda^an  period  (Nahum, 
Habakkuk.  Zephaniah)  and  the  three  of  the 
Persian  period  (Haggai,  Zcchariah,  Malachi)  are 
given  in  the  same  order.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
earlier  prophets  seem  to  have  formed  two  groups 
in  the  Greek,  viz.  Hosea,  Amos,  Micah.  and  Joel. 
Obadiah,  .Jonah.  It  is  significant  that  of  these 
six  only  the  first  group  of  three  can  be  assigned 
to  the  As.syrian  period  in  the  light  of  modern 
criticism.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the 
late  books.  .Joel.  Obadiah,  and  .Jonah,  once  were 
ajipcnded  to  the  others,  but  subsequently  W'ere 
copied  after  the  prophets  of  the  Assyrian  period 
on  account  of  the  reference  to  .Jonah  in  II.  Kings 
xiv.  25.  The  same  consideration  may  have  led 
to  the  placing  of  .Jonah  before  Micah  as  in  the 
Hebrew  recension.  For  the  dates  of  the  books  and 
further  information,  consult  the  articles  upon  the 
individual  books. 

BiRLiOGR.vpiiY.  Many  commentaries  have  been 
written  upon  the  twelve  minor  prophets  as  a 
whole.  The  following  are  the  more  recent: 
Rosenmiiller.  Prophcttr  Miiiorea  (2d  ed..  Leipzig. 
1S27)  ;  Hitziff,  Die  zwUlf  l,lei»eyi  Prophrlm  (ih., 
IS.SS:  4th  ed!  by  Steiner.  1881)  :  Ewald.  Prophr- 
lm (Ira  nifrn  Biindrs  (Grdtingcn.  1840-41:  2d 
ed.  1367)  :  Henderson.  Connnrnlnrif  on  thr  Tn'rjrc 
Minor  Prophets  (London.  18fiO-fii):  Pusey.  The 
Minor  Prophets    (ib.,    I860   seq.)  ;    Keil,   Kleine 


Prophetcn  (Leipzig,  186(i;  yd  ed.  1888)  ;  Reuss, 
l.a  Bible,  vol.  ii.  (Paris,  1876);  Knabcubauer, 
Conniienlurius  in  Prophitus  Minores  lib.,  1886)  ; 
Orelli,  Kleine  Propltelen  (Munieli,  1888;  2d  ed. 
1896)  :  Farrar,  The  Minor  Prophets,  "Men  of  the 
Bible  Series"  (London,  1890);  Wellhausen,  Die 
hieinen  Prophelen  {I'ilcizzen  und  Vorarbciten.  v., 
Berlin,  1892;  lid  ed.  1898);  Deane,  "Minor 
Propliets"  (Pulpit  Commentary.  London,  189.3)  ; 
George  Adam  Smith,  "The  Book  of  the  Twelve 
Prophets"  (Expositor's  Bible.  London,  1896); 
Nowack,  Die  kleinen  Prophet  en  (Gottingcn,  1897). 
Consult  also  Robertson  Smitli,  Prophets  of  Israel 
2d  ed.,  London,  1895).  For  other  works,  see  the 
articles  upon  the  different  prophets. 

MI'NOS  (Gk.  mum).  A  legendary  King  of 
Crete,  son  of  Zeus  and  Europa.  and  brother  of 
Khadamanthus  and  Sarpedon.  In  the  ordinary 
version  he  ajipears  as  a  just  and  wise  ruler,  giv- 
ing to  Crete  a  code  of  laws  received  from  his 
father,  Zeus.  He  was  also  a  powerful  monarch, 
establishing  the  first  fleet  and  clearing  the  -Egean 
of  pirates.  He  thus  exercised  a  sway  over  the 
Greek  coast-lands.  After  his  death  his  reputa- 
tion for  justice  led  the  gods  to  make  him  a 
judge  in  the  lower  world,  where  with  Rhada- 
raaiithus  and  -Eacus  he  passed  sentence  on  the 
souls  of  the  dead.  In  contradiction  to  this  char- 
acter is  the  group  of  legends  which  gather  about 
tlie  Minotaur,  where  he  appears  as  at  fir.st  de- 
priving Poseidon  of  his  due  ofTering,  the  bull 
sent  by  the  god  from  the  sea  in  answer  to  his 
prayer.  From  this  bull  and  Pasiphae,  wife  of 
Minos,  sprang  the  Minotaur  (q.v.),  for  whose 
keeping  Dsedalus  (q.v.)  built  Minos  the  Laby- 
rinth. When  his  son  Androgeos  was  slain  by  the 
Athenians.  Minos  made  war  upon  them,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  pay  the  tribute  of  seven  youths 
and  seven  maidens  to  be  food  for  the  Jlinotaur, 
luitil  Theseus  (q.v.)  released  them  by  killing  the 
monster.  The  cruel  character  of  Minos  in  this 
legend  led  later  writers  to  distinguish  two  kings, 
the  elder,  a  son  of  Zeus,  who  was  just,  and  his 
grandson,  who  was  cruel.  The  recent  discoveries 
of  a  splendid  palace  at  Cnosus  and  the  evidences 
of  a  very  powerful  and  splendid  kingdom  in 
Crete  during  the  Mycena'an  age  warrant  the  be- 
lief that  the  story  of  Minos  contains  reminis- 
cences of  an  early  Cretan  supremacy  in  the 
.Egean. 

MITIOT,  Charles  Seduwick  (1852—).  An 
American  biologist,  born  in  Roxbury,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  in  1872,  studied  biidogy  at  Leipzig 
and  Paris,  and  completed  his  studies  at  Harvard, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  S.D.  in  1878.  In 
1880  he  became  a  lecturer  in  embryologj'  in  the 
Harvard  Medical  School  and  an  instructor  in 
oral  pathology  and  surgery,  and  in  1892  was 
appointed  professor  of  histology  aiul  embryology. 
He  made  important  investigations  and  discoveries 
in  the  fields  of  muscular  physiology,  respiration, 
and  human  embryology.  In  1887  he  invented  the 
automatic  microtome  which  is  now  in  general  use. 
He  w'as  president  of  the  American  Society  of 
Naturalists  in  1894.  and  of  the  American  Asso- 
i-i:ition  for  the  .Vdvaneement  of  Science  in  1900. 
In  nrldition  to  many  papers  and  monographs,  his 
luiblications  include  llnmnn  Enibri/olor)!/  (1892), 
which  has  been  translated  into  German  and  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on  the  subject. 


MINOT. 


568 


MTNSTBEL. 


MINOT,  George  (1817-56).  An  American 
jurist,  born  in  Haverhill.  Mass.  lie  graduated 
at  Harvard  iu  lS3ti.  and  at  the  law  department 
of  thai  institution  in  1838,  studied  under  Kul'us 
Choate,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839. 
He  edited,  in  association  with  Kicliard  Peter, 
Jr.,  eight  volumes  of  the  U.  .S".  >Slatutes  at 
Laiqe,  and  was  sole  editor  of  that  work  from 
1848  to  1856.  He  published  A  IJiycst  of  the  De- 
cisions of  the  .S'H/vrfmc  Court  of  Massachusetts 
(45  vols,  with  su])plement,  1844-52)  ;  and  edited 
English  Admiralty  liepurts  (9  vols.,  1853-54). 

MINOT,  George  Richards  (1758-1802).  An 
American  jurist.  He  was  born  iu  Boston,  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1778,  and  soon  afterwards 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  From  1781  to  1791 
he  was  clerk  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of 
Representatives,  lie  was  secretary  of  the  con- 
vention called  to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution. 
In  1792  he  was  appointed  judge  of  probate  for 
Suffolk  County;  in  1799  lie  was  made  Chief  .Jus- 
tice of  the  Cuuit  of  Common  Pleas,  and  from 
1800  until  his  death  was  judge  of  the  Municipal 
Court  of  Boston.  He  published  a  History  of  the 
Insurrection  in  Massachusetts  in  1786  (1786); 
and  a  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay  (1798- 
1803).  The  latter  work  is  in  continuation  of 
Hutchinson's  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 

MINOT,  Laurence  (1300?-52?).  An  English 
lyric  poet,  born  and  bred  probably  in  the  north- 
east midlands  of  England.  He  was  no  doubt  a 
layman.  Professor  Herford  agrees  with  other 
scholars  in  thinking  that  Minot  was  ]U'obably  a 
soldierly  minstrel,  who  sang  also  at  Court.  Minot 
wrote  in  haste,  with  the  warlike  or  iwlitical 
events  that  he  describes  still  fresh  in  his  mind. 
His  style  is  rough.  He  is  preeminently  a  war 
poet  and  a  patriot,  full  of  love  for  a  united  Eng- 
land, though  he  was  himself  in  all  likelihood  of 
Norman  origin.  He  wrote  eleven  spirited  political 
songs  (in  the  Northern  dialect)  celebrating  the 
militarv  events  of  the  time.  Thev  begin  with  the 
Battle  of  Halidon  Hill  ( 1.333)  and  clos,.  with  the 
Capture  of  Guisnes  (1352).  Among  the  best  is 
How  Kdicard  Came  to  Brabant  { 1339) .  They  ex- 
ist in  only  one  manuscript  (British  Museum), 
discovered  by  Tyrwhitt.  The  best  editions  arc 
Laurence  Minot's  Lieder,  ed.  by  William  Scholle 
in  Quellen  und  Forschungcn  (Strassburg,  1884), 
and  The  Poems  of  Laurence  Minot,  ed.  bv  Hall 
(Oxford,  1887). 

MIN'OTAtrR  (Gk.  Mii-iiroepot,  Min<itnuros) . 
The  bull  of  Minos.  According  to  the  Greek  legend, 
son  of  the  wife  of  Minos,  Pasiphae,  and  a  bull 
sent  by  Poseidon.  For  it  she  conceived  a  pas- 
sion which  the  skill  of  Dirdalus  enabled  her  to 
gratify.  Her  offspring,  a  human  body  with  a 
bull's  head,  was  shut  uj)  by  Minos  in  the  myste- 
rious Labyrinth  at  Cnosus,  where  he  was  fed  on 
human  victims.  Yearly  (or  every  three  or  nine 
years,  according  to  other  versions  of  the  story) 
the  -Athenians,  who  had  been  eonrpiered  by  Alinos, 
were  compelled  to  send  seven  youths  and  seven 
maid<'ns  for  this  monster,  till  Theseus  (q.v.) 
slew  him.  The  origin  and  nature  of  this  story 
have  as  yet  received  no  adcpiate  explanation,  biit 
the  fri'seoes  of  the  palace  at  Cnosus  showing  men 
and  girls  perfmining  gymnastic  feats  upon  wild 
bulls  suggest  that  the  origin  of  the  legend  is  to 
be  sought  in  dim  reminiscences  of  the  Myceniean 
bullring.     See  Minos. 

MINOT'S  LEDGE.     .See  Lighthouse. 


MINSK,  minsk.  A  government  of  West  Rus- 
sia, iu  Lithuania,  bounded  by  the  Government  of 
Vitebsk  on  tlie  north,  ilohilev  and  Tchernigov  on 
the  east,  Kiev  and  Volhynia  on  the  south,  and 
Grodno  and  Vilna  on  the  west  (Map:  Russia,  C 
4).  Area,  35.293  square  miles.  The  northwestern 
part,  about  one-fifth  of  the  entire  area,  is  some- 
what elevated.  It  forms  the  watershed  between 
the  Dnieper  and  the  Niemcn.  Tlic  remainder  of 
the  government  is  low,  marshy,  thickly  wooded, 
and  very  sparsely  inhabited,  forming  the  larger 
l)0rtion  of  Poliessie  (q.v, ).  ilinsk  is  watered 
ehietly  by  the  Beresina,  the  Pripet,  and  the 
Xiemen ;  lakes  abound  in  the  southern  part,  and 
the  climate  is  unhealthful.  By  the  nature  of  its 
surface  Jlinsk  is  not  well  fitted  for  agriculture, 
and  the  industry  is  in  a  priinitive  state.  Stock- 
raising  is  favored  by  the  abundance  of  pasture 
land.  The  forests,  mostly  pine,  occupy  over  one- 
third  of  the  total  area  and  fonu  one  of  the  chief 
natural  resources  of  the  region.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  timber  are  floated  to  Prussia  by  the 
Beresina,  the  Pripet.  and  the  canal  which  con- 
nects the  Dnieper  with  the  Bug.  a  tributary  of 
the  Vistula.  Considerable  quantities  of  wood 
for  fuel  are  also  exported  to  Kiev  and  used  on 
the  local  railroads.  The  extent  of  this  industry 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  about  70.000 
jieople  arc  emplnytd  aniuially  in  the  transporta- 
tion of  the  timber  down  the  rivers.  Spirits, 
yeast,  flour,  and  wooden  products  of  all  kinds 
are  the  chief  manufactures.  The  shipbuilding 
industry  deserves  special  mention.  The  govern- 
ment is  traversed  by  two  important  railways, 
one  connecting  Warsaw  with  Moscow,  and  the 
other  running  from  the  Baltic  Provinces  to 
Southern  Russia.  Population,  in  1S97.  2.156.123, 
composed  chiefly  of  White  Russians.  Poles,  .Jews, 
and  Lithuanians,  Over  70  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation belong  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church. 
Capital,  Minsk. 

MINSK.  The  capital  of  the  Government  of 
ilinsk,  Itussia,  situated  in  a  hilly  region  on  the 
Svislotch.  a  tributary  of  the  Beresina,  468  miles 
by  rail  southwest  of  Moscow  (ilap;  Russia,  C4). 
It  is  an  old  and  irregularly  built  town  with  two 
cathedrals, (>f  which  that  of  .Saint  Catharine  ( 1611 ) 
is  especially  worthy  of  mention.  Among  its  educa- 
tional institutions  are  two  classical  gymnasia 
and  one  real  gymnasium,  a  theological  sen)inary, 
a  museum,  and  a  theatre.  Jlinsk  manufactures 
leather,  agiicultural  implements,  soap,  spirits, 
tobacco  products,  etc.  The  commerce  is  mostly 
in  agricultural  and  forest  products  and  leather, 
Minsk  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  Orthodox  and 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  The  mmiicipality 
maintains  a  pawn  shop.  Population,  in  1897, 
91,494,  of  whom  about  50.000  were  Jews,  21,000 
Greek  Orthodox,  15.000  Roman  Catholics,  and 
over  1700  Mnhanunedans.  The  town  is  first  men- 
tioned in  1066  as  a  dependency  of  the  princ(*  of 
Podolsk.  -After  a  short  existence  as  the  capital 
of  a  separate  princi|>ality,  it  fell  at  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century  into  the  hands  of  Lithu- 
ania. In  1499  it  obtained  Magdeburg  rights,  and 
in  1793  passed  to  Russia.  During  the  Polish 
upri-*ing  in  1831  several  engagements  took  place 
in  the   \ii  iiiity  of  the  town. 

MINSTREL  (OF.  menestrel.  meneslrrcl.  nien- 
eslrnl.  Fr.  meneatrnl.  It.  ministrelln.  mrnestrello, 
from  ML.  minislrnlis.  ministrel.  retainer.  Lat. 
minister,     attendant,     retainer,     minister     from 


MINSTREL. 


569 


MINSTREL. 


^^ 


minor,  less).  Tlie  term  scoms  to  have  been  em- 
ployed at  first  to  designate  a  retainer  who 
amused  his  lord  with  music  and  song.  It  has 
now  come  to  he  the  generic  name  lor  the  poet- 
musician,  tlie  verse-reciter,  the  mountebank, 
merry  Andrew,  juggler,  and  acrobat  of  tlie  Mid- 
dle Ages,  as  well  as  for  certain  modern  entertain- 
ers. (See  below. )  Before  the  Norman  Comiuest, 
the  professional  poet  was  known  in  England  as 
a  scop  (shaper  or  maker).  "Maker'  sometimes 
signified  a  poet  in  Shakespeare's  time.  The 
seOp  shaped  or  composed  his  own  poems,  and 
chanted  or  sang  them  to  the  accomiianimcnt  of 
a  rude  harp.  Widsith  (i.e.  Long-travel),  per- 
haps the  oldest  of  extant  English  poems  (for  it 
is  earlier  than  the  Angles'  inroad  of  Britain), 
is  an  account  of  the  scop's  wandering  and  recep- 
tion among  the  Huns.  Goths,  Danes,  and  other 
peoples.  For  the  tales  he  recited  in  the  mead 
hall,  the  scop  was  rewarded  with  many  treasures, 
including  golden  rings  and  bracelets.  The  scop 
was  not  commonly  a  wanderer.  He  was  rather 
attached  to  the  household  of  some  chief,  by  whom 
he  was  maintained,  and  in  some  cases  rewarded 
with  gifts  of  land.  The 
scop  was  held  in  great 
honor.  He  composed  his 
poems  in  solitude  and  re- 
cited them  in  the  hall 
where  his  master  feasted. 
Tlie  recitation  was  doubt- 
less accompanied  by  ges- 
ture as  well  as  by  music. 
The  scop  was  first  of  all 
a  poet,  differing  from  the 
modern  poet  mainly  in 
the  fact  that  he  not  only 
shaped  but  also  recited 
his  compositions.  His 
theme  was  the  glorious 
deeds  of  his  chieftain  or 
of  some  hero  of  his  race. 
To  him  we  are  indebted 
for  our  primitive  and 
narrative  poems  like  Beo- 
wulf. The  spread  of 
Christianity  in  England 
broke  up  the  old  tribal 
relation,  and  therefore 
the  standing  of  the  scop 
was  changed.  In  a  rank 
much  beneath  the  scop 
were  the  gleemen.  W'ho, 
though  they  no  doubt  sometimes  improvised  songs 
and  modified  the  matter  that  came  to  them,  were 
satisfied  for  the  most  part  to  render  what  others 
had  composed.  They  had  no  settled  abode,  but 
strolled  far  and  near,  earning  what  they  could 
by  their  minstrels^'.  (The  accompanying  illus- 
trations, derived  from  mediicval  manuscripts, 
give  some  notion  as  to  the  strolling  minstrels' 
looks  and  demeanor.)  Among  their  aeeom])lish- 
nients  were  tumbling.  ro[)e-walking.  and  feats  of 
jugglery.  Some  of  them  chewed  stones  or  ap- 
peared to  swallow  knives  or  fire.  Others  had 
performing  animals,  such  as  bears,  goats,  mar- 
mots, dogs,  and  monkeys. 

The  Xormans  brought  not  a  few  jonfileum 
(q.v.)  and  irouhadours  (q.v.)  to  England.  The 
minstrels  of  the  ^liddlc  Ages  were  in  part  de- 
scendants of  the  Teutonic  seopas  and  gleemen 
who  took  root  in  Gaul  with  the  invasion  of  the 
Franks,  or  of  those  who  went   along  with   the 


ROPE-WALKER 
JCQGLER. 


Teuton  invaders  into  Italy,  England,  and  else- 
where, in  part  of  the  niiini  and  scurrw  who  had 
once  overrun  the  Roman  Empire.  With  the 
Celtic  bards  they  have  probably  no  kindred.  At 
the  battle  of  Hastings  Taillefer.  minstrel  and 
warrior,  rode  before  the  Xorman  chivalry,  tossing 
his  shield  aloft,  and  stirring  their  courage  with 
the  Song  of  Roland,  and  there  bravely  met  his 
death.  By  the  fourteenth  century  the  poet  and 
the  performer  in  England  were  usually  distinct. 
The  scop  and  the  troubadour  were  transformed 
into  poets  like  Chaucer  and  Gowcr.     True,  there 


MINSTREL  WITH  DRUM,  FLAGEOLET.  AND  PERFORMING  BEAR. 

still  survived  in  the  structure  of  their  tales  sev- 
eral devices  of  the  singers,  such  as  the  address  to 
an  audience,  but  the  audience  was  wholly  imag- 
inary. The  gleemen  and  jongleurs  were  tlien 
known  as  minstrels,  of  whom  the  more  reputable 
were  still  held  in  great  honor.  At  feasts  and 
festivals  they  swarmed   in  great  numbers  with 


MINSTREL  PLAYINO   A   REBEC, 

harps,  fiddles,  bagpipes,  flutes,  flageolets,  cit- 
terns, and  kettle-drums.  Such  an  occasion  is  de- 
scribed by  Chaucer  in  the  Squire's  Tale:  As  Cam- 
buskan  dines,  the  "minstralles"  play  "beforn  him 
at  the  bord  deliciously."  When  he  goes  out  he 
is  preceded  by  "loude  niinistralcye," 

Ther  afi  the.v  sownen  ciivprs*^  iustrumentz 
That  it  is  l.vk  an  lieveu  for  to  here. 

But  the  decline  of  minstrelsy  had  already  set  in, 
as  we  know  from  Langland's  Piers  I'lowiiian,  the 
best  single  source  of  information  for  England. 
Jlinstrels  as  a  class  Langland  severely  satirized, 
calling  them  prattlers  and  bufToons,  foul  and 
scurrilous  of  speech,  indeed  the  very  children  of 


MINSTREL. 


570 


MINSTREL. 


Satan.  Vet  in  Knghuul  minstrels  may  liave  had 
a  closer  connection  with  genuine  poets  than  they 
had  on  the  Continent,  where  from  the  outset 
these  sons  of  the  Roman  mimi  and  scurrcB  (com- 
pare 'scurrilous')  and  of  the  old  bards  of  the 
JJorth  were  abhorred  by  the  Clunxli.     ilass  and 


A   KING    MIN8TBEL. 

Head  of  a  minstrel  troupe. 

absolution  were  denied  them;  indeed,  they  were 
under  perjietual  excommunication,  and  were  as- 
sured that  they  would  spend  eternity  at  the  bot- 
tom of  hell.  Xor  had  they — on  the  Continent, 
at  all  events — any  standing  before  the  secular 
law.  Those  who  harmed  tliem  went  unpun- 
ished: yet  if  a  minstrel  was  ill  handled,  he  had 
the  privilege  of  beating  the  shadow  of  his  of- 
fender. 

^lost  minstrels  were  itinerant;  others  were 
retained  by  lords  as  jesters.  Xot  seldom  they 
were  women,  or,  at  all  events,  women  followed 
many  a  band  of  minstrels  and  lived  their  hard 
and  "dissolute  life.  Tlie  very  name  of  minstrel 
was  a  byword,  but  everywhere  they  were  wel- 
come. After  the  invention  of  printing,  there 
was  little  ])lace  for  the  minstrel  as  an 
intermediary  between  autlior  and  puldic.  He 
gradually  found  his  main  occupation  as  a  ballad- 
singer  at  street  corners  or  at  the  wassails  of 
the  more  ignorant  banms.  Musicians  still  con- 
tinued, it  is  true,  to  be  retained  at  Court,  and 
ample  provision  was  made  for  their  maintenance. 
But  by  an  act  of  Parliament  in  the  thirty-ninth 
year  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  'ministrcis  abroad' 
were  classed  as  'rogues  and  vagabonds,'  and  were 
ordered  to  be  punished  as  .sudi. 

In  spite  of  new  social  conditions,  minstrelsy 
was  slow  in  dying  out.  (ieorge  the  Second  main- 
tained a  ciimpiniy  of  twenty-four  nuisiciiins.  who 
were  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Chapel  lioyal 
and  in  rendering  odes  on  birthdays  and  New 
Year's.  Scott,  ns  is  well  known,  collected  the 
minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  border,  consisting  of 


traditional  ballads  that  were  still  recited.  And 
in  the  Lay  of  the  l.asi  iiiiistrel  is  described  a 
wandering  harper  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Re- 
cently, too,  W.  B.  Veats  has  discovered  'the  last 
gleenian  in  Ireland.'  a  certain  Michael  Moran, 
blinil  almost  from  birth.  "He  was,"  says  Yeats, 
■•a  true  gleeman,  being  alike  piH't.  jester,  and 
newsman  of  the  people."  The  di'sccndant  of  the 
old  gleeman,  it  is  said,  is  still  not  unknown  in 
the  Orkneys. 

American  Minstrels.  Toward  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  a  new  type,  the  South- 
ern negro,  appeared  on  tlie  American  stage.  At 
first  he  was  accepted  merely  as  a  comic  char- 
acter, but  gradually  his  songs  and  eccentricities 
overshadowed  his  personal  charaeterislics,  and 
he  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  "feature'  in  the 
performance.  Before  the  advent  of  Thomas  D. 
Rice,  the  re])uted  founder  of  negro  minstrelsy, 
there  had  been  a  score  of  actors,  who.  as  negro 
comedians,  had  sung  and  danced  their  way  into 
popular  favor;  but  Rice  was  the  first  minstrel 
whose  performances  receive<l  universal  recog- 
nition. His  most  famous  character,  'Jim  Crow,' 
was  drawn  from  life,  its  original  being  an  old 
Louisville  slave.  In  1831)  Rice  went  to  England, 
where  he  duplicated  his  American  successes.  In- 
dividual negro  iMin>trels  now  became  very  nu- 
merous, and  in  1S43  the  first  company,  the  "Vir- 
ginia Jlinstrcis,'  was  formed.  It  consisted  of 
"Dan'  Emmett,  Frank  Brower,  "Billy'  Whit- 
lock,  and  "Dick'  relham.  The  style  of  per- 
formance adopted  by  tliem  has  remained  much 
the  same  ever  since,  for  they  danced,  sang,  played 
their  instruments,  and  carried  oil  a  running 
dialogue  of  jokes,  .\niong  the  more  famous  bands 
of  minstrels  may  l)e  mentioned:  White's  'Kitchen 
Minstrels.'  his  "Virginia  Serenaders,'  his  "Xew 
York  Minstrels:'  "Christy's  Jlinstrels.'  which 
made  a  tremendous  sensation :  "Bryant's  Min- 
strels,' "Wood's  Minstrels,'  and  the  companies 
formed  by  'Tony'  Pastor,  Thatcher.  Primrose. 
Dockstader,  West.  Buckley,  Backus.  Birch,  and 
Bailey.  Minstrel  iierformances  are  usually  of 
one  general  character.  The  peiformers.  who  are 
always  men  and  who  numl)cr  from  l.i  to  40.  sit 
in  a  semicircle.  At  either  end  sit  the  "end  men.' 
or  "bones.'  while  in  tlic  iniddli'  of  the  line  is  the 
"interlocutor.'  who  gravely  asks  his  companions, 
especially  the  'end  men.'  such  questions  as  shall 
bring  out  their  stock  of  jests.  Each  member  of 
the  troupe  takes  some  part  in  the  performance. 
The  minstrel's  characteristic  instruments  are  the 
guitar,  the  banjo,  tambourine,  and  the  "bones." 
which  are  two  pairs  of  ebony  sticks,  about  an 
inch  wide  and  six  inches  long,  and  are  clapped  to- 
gether in  the  performer's  tingers. 

Consult,  in  general:  Wilhelm  von  Hertz.  "Die 
Spielleutc."  an  essay  in  his  ilclightful  Sitielmaiiiis- 
huch.  second  edition  (Stuttgart,  IHOOl  :  Percy, 
lleliiiiies  of  Ancient  Poeliy.  vol.  i.  ( 1705)  ; 
Ritson,  Ancient  Enrilixh  Mrlriinl  Rnmamrs, 
vol.  i.  (1802);  and  Chappell.  \iilionnl  Enfi- 
li.ih  Airs  (18.38);  Langland"s  I'iers  Ploirman 
(The  G.  Text  Passus  i.  and  xvi. :  and  the 
Prolnpiie  of  the  A.  Text).  For  the  sc.lp. 
consult:  Stopford  Brooke,  ICitfllifth  Lileniture  from 
the  lirfiinnin;/  to  Ihr  X'irmiin  t'Dtujiirst  (Xew 
York,  1898)  ;"and  Henry  Morlcy,  Eiifilish  Lilera- 
lure.  vol.  ii.  (Xew  York,  1888).  For  the  later 
minstrelsy,  consult  W.  G.  Courthopc,  "Tlie 
Decay  of  English   Minstrelsy,"  in  .1   Histort/  of 


MINSTREL. 


571 


MINT. 


HiKjlish  Poetry,  vol.  i.    (New  York,  1895).     See 
Jlix.NE.si.NGEBS;  Sk.\ld;  Tuolbadolks. 

MINSTREL  BOY,  The.  A  favorite  song  in 
Jloiii'f's  Irisli  Mrlddien.  The  music  is  that  of 
"The  -Moreen,"  an  old  Irish  air. 

MINT  (AS.  mynct,  mijitit,  inynyt,  from  Lat. 
vwiutii,  mint,  epitliet  of  Juno,  whose  temple  at 
Koine  was  the  mint,  from  vioiiere,  to  warn).  An 
estahlislinient  for  making  coins  or  metallic  money. 
See  ilo.NEY. 

The  earliest  regulations  regarding  the  English 
mint  iK'long  to  Anglo-Saxon  times.  An  officer 
called  a  reeve  is  referred  to  in  the  laws  of  Canute 
as  having  some  jurisdiction  over  it,  and  certain 
names  « liich.  in  addition  to  that  of  the  sovereign, 
appear  on  the  Anglo-Sa.\on  coins,  seem  to  have 
been  those  of  the  moneyers,  or  principal  officers 
of  the  mint.  Besides  the  sovereign,  barons,' 
bishops,  and  the  greater  monasteries  had  their 
respective  mints,  where  they  exercised  the  right 
of  coinage,  a  privilege  enjoyed  hy  the  archbisliops 
of  Canterbury  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  Vlll., 
and  by  W'olsey  as  Bishop  of  Durham  and  Arch- 
bishop of  York. 

After  the  Xornian  Conquest  the  officers  of  the 
royal  mint  became  to  a  certain  extent  subject 
to  the  authority  of  the  excliequer.  Both  in 
Saxon  and  Xornian  times  there  existed,  under 
control  of  the  principal  mint  in  London,  a  num- 
ber of  provincial  mints  in  different  towns  of 
England :  there  were  no  fewer  than  thirty-eight 
in  the  time  of  Ethelred,  and  the  last  of  them 
were  only  done  away  with  in  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam in.  The  oll'icers  of  the  mint  were  formed 
infn  a  corporation  by  a  charter  of  Edward  II.; 
they  consisted  of  the  warden,  master,  comptroller, 
as>ay-niaster.  workers,  coiners,  and  subordinates. 

The  seigniorage  for  coining  at  one  time  formed 
no  inconsiderable  item  in  the  revenues  of  the 
Crown.  It  was  a  deduction  made  from  the 
bullion  coined,  and  comprehended  both  a  charge, 
for  defraying  the  expense  of  coinage  and  the 
sovereign's  profit  in  virtue  of  his  prerogative. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  the  seigniorage 
animinted  to  6d.  in  the  pound:  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.,  Is.  2V_'d.  The  seigniorage  on  gold 
was  abolished  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
and  has  never  since  been  exacted.  The  shere.  or 
remedy,  as  it  is  now  called,  was  an  allowance 
for  the  unavoidable  imperfection  of  the  coin. 

A  new  mint  was  erected  on  Tower  Hill  in 
1810.  In  181.5  some  alterations  were  made  in  the 
constitution  of  the  mint,  and  in  18.51  a  complete 
change  was  introduced  in  the  whole  system  of 
administration.  The  control  of  the  mint  was 
vested  in  a  master  and  a  deputy  master,  and 
coni])t roller.  The  mastership,  which  had  in  the 
early  ])art  of  the  last  century  become  a  political 
appointment  held  by  an  adherent  of  the  Govern- 
ment, was  restored  to  fhi^  position  of  a  perma- 
nent office,  the  master  being  the  ostensible  execu- 
tive head  of  the  establishment.  Further  changes 
were  made  in  the  administration  of  the  mint  in 
ISfin.  The  mastership  was  added  to  the  duties 
of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  without  any 
additiim  of  salary,  and  the  offices  of  deputy  mas- 
ter and  comptroller  were  amalgamated. 

A  mint  was  established  at  Sydney  in  1853  and 
at  ^b'lhourne  in  1869  to  coin  the  gold  so  largely 
found  in  .\ustralia. 

Tlie  first  mint  in  the  United  States  was  estab- 
lished   at    Philadelphia    by    the    coinage    act   of 
Vol.  XIII.— 37. 


April  2,  1792;  the  first  production  of  the  new 
mint  was  the  copper  cent  of  1793.  Silver  dollars 
were  first  coined  in  1794,  and  gold  eagles  in 
1795.  At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century 
there  were  four  mints,  located  at  I'liiladelphia, 
San  Francisco,  Xew  Orleans,  and  Carson  City, 
respectively.  Assay  offices  are  located  at  XeW 
York,  Denver,  Helena,  Boise,  Charlotte,  Saint 
Louis,  Deadwood,  and  Seattle.  The  act  of  April 
1,  1873,  put  all  the  mints  and  assay  oflices 
on  the  same  footing  as  a  bureau  of  the  Trcasurj' 
Department,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Director  of  tlie  Jlint,  who  is  appointed  by  the 
President  for  a  term  of  five  years  and  is 
sul)oi-diiiatc  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
The  Philadeli]hia  mint  has  an  engraver  who 
supervises  the  manufacture  of  the  dies  used  in 
all     the     United    States    mints. 

PKOCES.SES  OF  CoixiNG.  Down  to  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  little  or  no  improvement 
seems  to  have  been  made  in  the  art  of  coining 
from  the  time  of  its  invention.  The  metal  was 
simply  hammered  into  slips,  which  were  after- 
wards cut  up  into  squares  of  one  size  and  then 
forged  round.  The  required  impression  was  given 
to  these  by  ])lacing  them  in  turn  between  two 
dies  and  striking  them  witli  a  hammer.  As  it 
was  not  easy  by  this  method  to  place  the  dies 
exactly  above  each  other,  or  to  apjily  proper 
force,  coins  so  made  were  always  faulty  and 
had  the  edges  unfinished,  which  rendered  them 
liable  to  be  clipped.  The  first  great  step  was 
the  application  of  the  screw,  invented  in  1553  by 
a  French  engraver  of  the  name  of  Brucher.  The 
plan  was  found  expensive  at  first,  and  it  was  not 
till  1662  that  it  altogether  superseded  the  ham- 
mer in  the  English  mint.  In  1882  the  lever- 
press  was  introduced. 

The  following  description  of  the  method  of 
coining  money  is  based  on  a  pamphlet,  "Mint 
Processes  of  "the  United  States,"  issued  by  the 
Treasury  Department.  The  processes  required  for 
converting  the  crude  metal  into  money  are:  (1) 
Assaying;  (2)  refining  or  parting,  which  reduces 
the  material  into  ingots  or  bars  of  standard  pu- 
rity; (3)  reducing  the  bars  to  coinage  ingots  by 
mixing  with  them  the  proper  amount  of  copper 
alloy;  (4)  coining,  or  transforming  the  coinage 
ingots  into  money.  The  gold  and  silver  which  is 
brought  to  the  mint  may  be  in  a  crude  or  manu- 
factured condition  and  is  of  every  degree  of  fine- 
ness. The  initial  process,  therefore,  is  to  assay 
the  metal,  in  order  to  determine  both  its  value 
and  the  subsequent  minting  operations  necessary 
to  refine  it.  This  process  and  the  succeeding  one 
of  refining  are  described  in  the  metallurgical 
articles  on  Gold  and  Stt.ver  and  under  As.saying. 
The  bullion  thus  purified  is  reduced  to  bars,  a 
gold  bar  usually  weighing  0000  ounces,  worth 
about  $8000.  It  is  now  ready  to  be  used  for 
industrial  purposes,  or  for  the  next  stage  in  the 
coinage  process. 

The  consumption  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  arts 
and  industries  is  very  great.  During  the  year 
ending  .Tune  30.  1895.  gold  and  silver  bars  for 
industrial  use.  in  about  equal  ratio,  were  manu- 
factured in  the  Philadelphia  mint  and  in  the 
assay  office  at  Xew  Y'ork  to  the  coinage  value  of 
$17,818,381.  Private  refineries  furnished  not  less 
than  $5,000,000  more.  These  bars  are  0.999  fine. 
A  depositor  may  bring  crude  bullion  in  any  quan- 
tity, of  $100  or  more  in  value,  and  receive  either 
fine  gold  bars  or  coin,  at  his  option,  a  charge 


MINT.  572 

of  not  more  tlian  five  cents  an  ounce  being  made 
for  assaying  and  iflining.  I'oi'  tlie  silver  alloy  in 
the  gold  the  owner  will  \k  paid  either  in  silver 
bars  or  silver  dollars,  at  the  market  value  of 
silver. 

If  the  gold  or  silver  is  to  be  coined  into 
money  the  pure  bars  must  be  mixed  with  cop- 
per alloy;  standard  gold  coin  is  composed  of  75 
parts  of'copper  and  2'i  of  silver  in  1000.  Tlie  law 
allows  a  slight  variation  from  this  standanl,  hut 
in  actual  practice  a  single  gold  coin  rarely  varies 
more  than  0.03  per  cent,  from  the  standard, 
either  way,  and  a  silver  coin,  which  is  much  more 
diflieult  to  manage,  not  more  than  0.1  per  cent., 
while  the  average  is  almost  exactly  correct. 
Weighed  quantities  of  gold  and  copper,  or  of 
silver  and  copper,  are  melted  together  in  a 
black-lead  crucible,  the  molten  metals  thoroughly 
stirred  together,  and  then  poured  into  cast-iron 
molds  to  form  ingots.  These  vary  in  size  ac- 
cording to  the  denomination  of  the  coins  to  be 
made  frcmi  them.  The  following  table,  compiled 
by  William  E.  Morgan,  Coiner  of  the  United 
States  Mint  at  Philadelphia,  gives  the  sizes  and 
approximate  weights  of  .yold  ingots: 


MINT. 

while  t'liose  that  are  above  weight  are  filed  down. 
The  standard  weight  for  gold  coins  is  as  follows: 
Double  eagle,  51(i  grains;  tolerance  allowed  by 
law,  0.50  grain.  Eagle,  ,258  grains;  tolerance, 
0.50  grain.  Half  eagle,  129  grains;  tolerance, 
0.25  grain.  Quarter  eagle,  54.5  grains;  toler- 
ance, 0.25  grain. 

Next  comes  the  process  of  milling,  or  produc- 
ing a  raised  rim  around  the  edge  of  the  coin,  to 
prevent  abrasion.  This  is  accomplished  in  a 
milling  machine,  into  wliicli  tlic  blanks  are  placed 
one  by  one  by  hand.  The  blanks  rotate  in  a  hori- 
zontal plane  in  a  groove  formed  on  one  side  by 
a  revolving  wheel  and  on  the  other  by  a  fixed 
segment  of  corresponding  groove.  Each  piece,  as 
it  passes  through  this  narrow  groove,  has  its 
edges  forced  up  into  an  even  rim.  After  an 
ncaling  and  cleaning,  the  coins  are  now  read\ 
for  the  final  process  of  stamping.  The  planchet, 
fed  to  the  press  through  a  vertical  tube,  is 
automatically  placed  in  a  steel  collar,  whose 
inner  surface  is  reeded  to  produce  the  fluted 
surface  on  the  milled  edge  of  the  coin.  Here 
it  is  firmly  held  while  the  dies  close  upon  it 
with   enormous   force,   producing  impressions  on 


DEXOMINATIONS 


Double  eagles... 

Eaales 

Half  eagles 

Quarter  eagles.. 


Approximate 
weight  iu  ounces 


80 
B2 
40 
33 


Len^h  in  inches 


12% 

12 
12V4 


Thickness  in  inches'    Width  in  inches 


H4 

% 
H 


The  ingot  for  silver  dollar  coinage  is  1% 
inches  wide,  'A  inch  thick,  and  I2V2  inches  long. 
The  ingots  are  passed  repeatedly  between  heavy 
rollers  to  form  them  into  stri|>s,  a  process  which 
is  called  'breaking  down.'  After  each  passage 
the  rollers  are  screwed  tighter,  the  amount  of 
pressure  being  regulated  exactly  by  a  clock-dial. 
The  strips  are  annealed  during  the  process  to 
prevent  their  breaking.  The  strips,  having  been 
greased  with  tallow,  arc  finally  reduced  to  stand- 
ard thickness  by  drawing  out  in  draw-benches 
by  a  process  similar  to  that  of  wire-drawing. 
(See  Wire.)  Having  been  drawn  to  the  required 
weight,  which  is  ascertained  by  weighing  sample 
blanks  cut  from  each  end,  the  strips  are  cut  into 
planehets.  by  means  of  a  steel  punch,  working 
into  a  matrix.  (See  Die.s  and  Die-Sixkixg.) 
These  planehets  are  now  cleaned  and  carefully 
sorted,  all  that  are  not  perfect  or  are  under  the 
standard  weight  being  set  aside  to  be  remelted, 


both  sides  of  the  coin.  (This  process  and  the 
preparatory  one  of  engraving  and  stamping  the 
dies  are  described  under  DiKs  axd  DieSi.xking,) 
The  pressure  required  to  prod\icc  a  clear,  s!.  irp 
impression  on  the  various  gold  coins  is  as  fol- 
lows: Double  eagle,  175  tons;  eagle,  120  tons; 
half  eagle,  75  tons ;  quarter  eagle,  40  tons. 
Double  eagles  and  eagles  are  struck  at  an  average 
rate  of  80  per  minute;  half  eagles  and  quarter 
eagles  at  a  rate  of  100  per  minute.  The  pressure 
required  for  stamping  silver  coins  is:  Dollar, 
150  tons;  half  dollar,  110  tons;  quarter  dollar, 
80  tons;  dime,  40  tons.  The  first  three  are 
struck  at  an  average  rate  of  80  per  minute,  and 
dimes  at  the  rate  of   100  per  minute. 

The  total  coinage  of  gold  bv  the  mints  of  the 
Inited  States  from  1702  to  .hine  30.  1900,  was 
.$2.1(!7,0S8,1I3,  of  which  it  is  estimated  that 
$923,053,(142  is  still  in  existence  as  coin  in  the 
United    States,    while   the    remainder   represents 


COINAOE  OF  SlLTBR  COINS,    BY  ACTS   AN1>    DENOMINATIONS,    FROM  1792   TO    .IrXE  30,    1900 

(From  Circular  No.  113,  issued  b.v  the  Cnlted  States  Treasur.v  Department.  July  2, 1900) 


DCNOMINATION 

1792  to  1863 

1863  to  Feb. 
12,  1873 

Feb.  12. 1873.  to 
.lune  30.  1900 

Total  silver 

2.506,890.00 

5.624.348.00 

498.496.215.00 

3,'>,96'>,924.00 

60.000.00 

506  527.4.'i;V0O 

Trade  dollars 

35.»«5.W4.(X) 

60.QUO.tl0 

2.506.S90.00 

5.624.348.00 

6.')4,612,139.00 

542.543,377.00 

66.280,640.50 

32,666,832.60 

4C.041.re!6,lKI 

2..Mll.().i2..'iO 

41,880,190.60 

10.006.76 

271.000.00 

27.133.111.10 

H-1,08S..'.(I!I.(MI 

Half  dollarrt  Columbian 

a.i'iOl  ,0,12.5(1 

Quarter  dollars 

3,994,640,56 

17,879,790.60 

C3.7fi:).021..'«l 

Quarter  dollars.  Cnlumbian 

lO.OO.'i.T,') 

27I,«I0(«) 

3,890,230.10 

1,826,126.40 

744,927.00 

4.908,520.00 

3,056,093.00 

5.'17,160.20 

35,931.861.20 

Hal(  dimes              .    .  .            .  . 

4.K80.21V.40 

1.282,087.20 

Total  subsidiarr 

76.734.964.60 

5».(HT.396,30 

117.845.39.'5  85 

263,627.7e«.M 

Total  Bilvor 

79.241.854.60 

64.571,744.20 

662.357.534.85 

796.171.183.65 

MINT,    ETC. 


1.  NEW  JERSEY  TEA    (Ceanothus  Americanus).  3.  TALL   MEADOW-RUE   (Thalictrum   polygamum). 

2.  SPEARMINT  (Mentha   spicatal.  4.    FOUR-LEAVED    MILKWEED  'Asclepias    ciuadrifolla) 

5.  VIRGINIA  GOAT'S-BEARD  IKrIgIa   VIrglnlcal. 


MINT. 


573 


MINUCIUS    FELIX. 


the  excess  of  exports  over  imports  and  the 
amount  consumed  in  the  arts.  (See  Circular 
A'ci.  IIJ,  issued  by  the  United  States  Treasury 
De])artnient,  July  2,  I'JOO. )  The  amount  of  sil- 
ver coinage  for  the  same  period  is  given  in  the 
accompanying  tahle. 

The  coinage  for  1900  in  the  mints  of  the 
United  States  was  the  largest  on  record,  amount- 
ing to  184,37.3,793  pieces,  of  the  value  of  .$141,- 
351,9(;o.3U.  A  significant  feature  was  that  the 
chief  increase  was  in  subsidiary  coins,  due  prob- 
ably to  the  unusual  activity  of  retail  trade 
throughout  the  country.  The  seigniorage  on  the 
coinage  of  silver  dollars,  subsidiary  and  minor 
coins  during  the  year  amounted  to  $10,280,302.50. 
(See  Skig^'IORAOE.)  Consult  the  annual  reports 
of  tlic  Director  of  the  Mint,  and  also  tlie  various 
pamphlets  on  coinage  issued  by  the  Treasury  De- 
partment at  Washington. 

MINT    (AS.  minte,  Icel.  mintii,  OHG.  ininsa, 
viiin:<i.    (Jer.    Minze,    Miinze,    from    Lat.    menta, 
meiitha,  from  Gk.   idvBa,     mintha,    nivB-q,  minthe, 
mint).    Mentha.      A    genus     of     plants     of    the 
natural  order  Labiatsp;  with  small,  funnel-shaped, 
4-liil    corolla,    and    four    straight    stamens.      The 
s])i'cies  are  perennial  herbs,  vai'ying  considerably 
in  ap])earance.  but  all  with  creeping  rootstocks. 
The  flowers  are  whorled,  the  whorls  often  grouped 
in  spikes  or  heads.     The  species  are  widely  dis- 
tributed over  the  world ;  some  of  them  are  very 
connnon.     \A'atcr  mint   (Mentha  aquatica)   grows 
in    wet    grounds    and    ditches,    and    corn    mint 
(Mentha  arvensis) ,  which  abounds  as  a  weed,  in 
European   fields   and  gardens.     The.se  and   most 
of  the   other  species   have  erect   stems.      All   the 
species  contain  an  aromatic  essential  oil,  in  vir- 
tue of  which   they  are  more  or  less   medicinal. 
The  most  important  species  are  spearmint,  pep- 
permint,   and    pennyroyal;    spearmint    or    green 
mint    (Mentha   viridis  or  spicata),   a  native  of 
almost    all    the    temperate    parts    of    the    globe, 
has    erect,    smooth     stems,     from     one     foot    to 
two    feet    high,    with    the    whorls    of    flowers    in 
loose    cylindrical    or    oblong   spikes    at   the    top; 
lanceolate,  acute,  smooth,  serrated  leaves,  desti- 
tute of  stalk,  or  nearly  so.     It  has  a  very  agree- 
able   odor.       Peppermint    {Mentha    piperita),   a 
plant  of  equally  wide  distribution  in  the  temper- 
ate parts  of  the  world,  is  very  similar  to  spear- 
mint, but  has  stalked  leaves  and  flowers  in  short 
spikes,  the  lower  whorls  somewhat  distant   from 
the  rest.     It  is  very  readily  recognized  by  the  pe- 
culiar pungency  of  its  odor  and  of  its  taste.     Pen- 
nyroyal  (Mentha  PnJeriinm) .  also  very  cosmopol- 
'  itan.  has  ovate,  stalked  leaves,  a  mnch-branched 
;  prostrate  stem.  whi<'h  somds  down  new  roots  as  it 
'  extends    in    length,    and    the    flowers    in    distant 
j  globose  whorls.     Its  smell  resembles  that  of  the 
•  other  mints.     All  these  species,  in  a   wild  state, 
!  grow  in  ditches  or  wet  places.    All  are  cultivated 
tin   gardens.      l\Iint    sance    is    generally   made    of 
!  spearmint,  wliicli  is  also  used  for  flavoring  soups, 
jctc.     A  kind  of  mint  with  lemon-scented   leaves, 
jcalled  bergamot  mint    (Mentha  eitrala).  is  fo\md 
■  in   some   parts   of   Europe,   and    is   cultivated    in 
igardens.    Varieties  nf  peppermint  and  horse-mint 
\(^tentha  si/tresti'ifi) ,  witli  eri<]ied  nr  inflated  ru- 
igose  leaves,  are  much  cultivated  in  Germany  under 
jthe   name   of   cni'led    mint     ( Kranse-nrinze)  :    the 
leaves  are  dried  and  used  as  a  domestic  medicine, 
.and  in  poultices  and  baths.     .Ml  kinds  of  mint  are 
.easily    propagated   by   parting   the    roots    or   by 


cuttings.  It  is  said  that  mice  have  a  great 
aversion  to  mint,  and  that  a  few  leaves  of  it  will 
keep  them  at  a  distance. 

Peppermint,  pennyroyal,  and  spearmint  are 
used  in  medicine.  The  pharmacopceias  contain 
an  ut/ua,  S'piritus,  and  oteuin  of  each  of  them, 
theoHicinal  part  being  the  leaves  and  stems,  which 
should  be  colh'Ctcd  when  in  flower.  Peppermint 
is  extensively  used  to  flavor  candy  and  mixtures 
to  cover  the  taste  of  drugs.  Nearly  one-half  of 
the  oil  of  peppermint  and  spearmint  now  used  in 
the  world  is  produced  and  distilled  in  Michigan, 
the  great  seat  of  this  industry  being  in  Saint 
Josepli  County. 

MINT  FAMILY.  An  order  of  plants.  See 
Laeiat.e. 

MIN'TO,  GiLiiERT  Elliot,  first  Earl  of  (1751- 
1814).  A  British  diplomatist  and  administrator. 
He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  O.xford,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1774.  In  177(5  he  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Whig.  From  1794  to  1790  he 
was  Viceroy  of  Corsica.  In  1797  he  was  created 
Baron  Minto,  and  two  years  later  became  Am- 
bassador to  Vienna.  On  his  reappearance  in  the 
House  of  Lords  he  became  an  advocate  of  the 
union  of  Ireland  with  England,  and  afterwards 
strenuously  opposed  Roman  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion. He  was  Governor-General  of  India  from 
1807  to  1813,  and  did  much  to  suppress  internal 
disorder  in  the  regions  under  his  government. 
Consult  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Minto, 
edited  by  the  Countess  of  Minto,  his  great-niece 
(1874).' 

MINTO,  William  (1845-93).  An  English 
literary  critic.  He  was  born  at  Alford,  Scotland, 
and  graduated  at  Aberdeen  in  1805.  He  edited 
the  London  Examiner  from  1874  to  1S78,  and  in 
1880  became  professor  of  logic  and  English  litera- 
ture at  Aberdeen.  He  wrote  three  stories.  The 
Crack  of  Doom  (1886),  The  Mediation  of  Ralph 
Hardelot  (1888),  and  Was  She  Good  or  Bad? 
(1889),  but  is  chiefly  known  as  a  critic.  In  this 
latter  field  he  published  many  well-known  works, 
including:  Manual  of  Enfflish  Prose  Literature, 
liioijraphical  and  Critical  (1872);  Characteris- 
tics of  English  Poets  from  Chaucer  to  Shirley 
(1874)  ;  and  Daniel  Defoe  (for  the  "English  Men 
of  Letters  Series,"  1879).  There  appeare<l  po.st- 
humously  Unirersiti/  Extension  Manual  on 
Lof/ic  (1893)  ;  Plain  Principles  of  Prone  Compo- 
sition (1893)  ;  and  Eiifilish  Literature  Under  the 
Georges  (1894).  Original  in  method,  he  ably  de- 
fended many  novel  hypotheses. 

MIN'TON,  TIIOMA.S  (176.5-1.836).  An  English 
manufacturer  of  porcelain.  He  was  born  in 
Wyle  Cop,  Shrewsbury;  studied  engraving  under 
■John  Turner,  who  is  said  to  have  invented  blue 
printing  on  china;  and  between  1788  and  1793, 
after  working  for  Spode  in  London,  settled  at 
Stoke  and  built  a  pottery.  .loseph  Ponlson  and 
William  Pownall  were  for  a  lime  members  of  the 
firm;  and  afterwards  (1817)  IlEnnEnT  JIixton 
(1703-1858).  a  son  of  Thomas,  wlui  succeeded 
him  in  1836.  In  1883  the  firm  became  Mintons, 
Ltd.  Herbert  Jlinton  devised  methods  of  making 
hard  potterv  (1849)  and  encaustic  tiles,  and 
produced  a  marble-like  porcelain  called  'Parian.' 
He  was  for  a  long  time  the  only  English  man\i- 
facturer  of  majolica. 

MINUCITIS  (minTTo'shl-iis)  FETLIX,  Mar- 
cus.    The.  first  Latin  apologist  of  Cliristianity. 


MINtrCIUS    FELIX. 


574 


MINUTE  MEN. 


He  was  a  licallieu  by  birth  and  fullowed  his 
profession  of  lawyer  at  Konie.  His  woik  entitled 
Oclaiius  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  a 
Christian  called  Oclavius  and  a  heathen  called 
Csecilius.  Octavius  defends  the  Christians  from 
the  calumnies  which  were  circulated  against 
them,  charging  theui  with  crimes  in  their  secret 
religious  meetings,  and  exposes  the  licentious 
practices  of  the  heathen.  The  style  of  the  work 
is  argumentative  and  pure,  and  nnuh  informa- 
tion is  given  concerning  the  manners,  customs, 
and  opinions  of  the  jjcriod.  As  an  apolog}'  of 
Ciiristianity  it  compares  favorably  with  those 
of  .Justin,  Tertullian,  and  other  early  advocates 
of  the  Christian  faith,  and  with  those  of  Lactan- 
tins,  Ambrose,  and  Kusebius  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. Its  date  has  been  disputed,  but  the  best 
opinion  now  places  it  in  the  age  of  the  Antonincs, 
between  150  and  180.  The  text  is  in  Jligne, 
Patiul.  LtiL.  iii.,  and,  edited  by  Halm,  in  the 
Corpus  Hvriptorum  Ecc!f<aiusticorum  Lalinorum 
(Vienna,  1SU7):  Eng.  trans,  in  the  Axtf-Siccnc 
Fathers,  vol.  iv.  Consult:  Kiihn,  Der  Octavitis 
de»  Miniicixs  Felix  (Leipzig,  1882)  ;  Bahlen, 
Qiiestiones  Miniicianw  (Berlin,  1894). 

MIN'XJET  (Fr.,  small,  diminutive  of  menu, 
from  Lut.  minutes,  small,  p.p.  of  minuere,  to 
diminish,  from  wijnof.less;  connected  with  Gk.ytuwj, 
miiiys,  small,  Skt.  mi,  to  make  small.  Goth,  miii- 
niza,  OHG.  «iiii»iro,  Ger.  minder,  AS.,  archaic 
Eng.  min,  less;  so  called  because  of  the  small 
steps  taken  in  the  dance).  A  graceful  and  state- 
ly dance  of  French' origin.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  Poitou,  and  was  introduced  into 
Paris  in  lOoO.  The  first  known  minuet  tunes 
were  written  by  Lully  (q.v. )  in  165."?.  The 
minuet  was  a  favorite  at  the  Court  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  was  carried  over  into  England  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  where  it  continued  popular 
until  the  time  of  George  11.  In  Russia  it  llour- 
ished  during  the  reigns  of  Peter  the  Great  and 
Catharine  II.  At  first  the  minuet  was  in  three- 
quarter  time  and  onnsistcd  of  two  eight-bar 
phrases,  each  of  which  was  repeated,  ilozart's 
minuet  in  Dnn  (iiornnni  shows  the  form  of  the 
early  dance.  It  was  soon,  however,  extended  by 
the  addition  of  a  second  movement  (written  in 
three-part  harmony  and  hence  called  Trio)  and 
by  increasing  the  number  of  bars.  Bach  and 
Handel  often  introduced  the  minuet  into  their 
suites.  Those  of  the  former  are  especially  fa- 
mous, and  Handel  also  used  it  as  a  concluding 
movement  for  operatic  and  oratorio  overtures. 
The  minuet  is  of  particular  imiiortnnce  because 
of  the  position  it  still  occupies  in  tlie  symphony, 
which  is  an  evolution  of  the  suite.  Haydn  was 
the  first  to  employ  it  in  the  symphony.  l>ut  be 
changed  its  character  by  quickening  tlie  time  and 
making  it  vivacious  rather  than  stately.  Mozart 
used  Haydn's  form,  retaining  the  rapid  tempo, 
hut  gave  it  a  tender,  graceful  significance.  With 
Beethoven  its  history-  practically  ceases,  for  he 
transformed  it  into  the  scherzo,  thtis  making  it 
an  integrnl  pari  of  the  symphony.  Its  use  hv 
later  composers.  Schumann.  Mendelssohn,  and 
others,  is  comparatively  rare.  See  Dancing: 
Siitf:  Svmi'Iionv. 

MINTJIT,  min'rtlt.  MINTTTTS,  or  MINNE- 
WIT,  Pf-tkr  (l.l.sn.lfi41  ).  An  early  Govirnor  of 
New  Nelherland.  He  was  born  in  Wesel.  im  thi- 
Rhine:  was  a  deacon  for  n  time  in  the  Protestant 
or    Walloon    Church    there,     removed    to    Hol- 


land early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
in  December,  1025,  received  from  the  Dutdi 
West  India  Company  the  appointment  ol 
Governor  and  Director-General  of  Xew  Xether- 
land.  He  reached  Manhattan  Island  May  4. 
1020,  and  soon  afterwards  purchased  the  island 
from  the  Indians,  obtaining  it  for  the  sum  of 
sixty  guilders  (about  twenty-four  dollars).  He 
built  Fort  Amsterdam,  defended  with  great  cour- 
age and  determination  the  claim  of  the  Dutch 
to  rightful  posse>.>ion  of  the  ishiud.  and  adminis- 
tered the  atiairs  of  his  ollice  judiciously  and  to 
the  general  satisfaction  of  the  colony.  The  fact 
that  the  patroons  were  successful  in  establisliing 
titles  to  enormous  tracts  of  land  became  ubjec- 
tiouable  to  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  who 
plnced  the  responsil)ility  on  the  shoulders  of 
Minuit.  In  1 031  he  was  accordingly  recalled  by 
the  company,  and  sailed  for  Holland  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  but  was  driven  into  Plymoutli. 
England,  by  a  gale.  Here  he  was  chargid  witli 
having  prosecuted  illegal  trading  within  Englisli 
dominions,  and  his  vessel  was  attached  on  com- 
plaint made  by  the  Council  for  Xew  Eng- 
land. In  May,  however,  his  vessel  was  re- 
leased. !Minuit  made  every  effort  to  reestablisli 
himself  in  the  favor  of  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company,  but  without  success,  and  finally  ottered 
his  services  to  the  Government  of  Sweden. 
Through  the  inlluence  of  Oxenstiern,  then  Clian- 
cellor.  a  Swedish  West  India  Company  was  or- 
ganized, and  ^linuit  was  commissioned  to  estab- 
lish a  Swedish  colony  in  America.  He  accordingly 
gathered  together  a  siiffieicnl  number  of  Swede- 
and  Finns  for  this  purpose,  sailed  from  the  port 
of  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  in  1G.37.  and,  early  in 
1038  built  Fort  Christiana,  near  where  the  citv 
of  Wilmington,  Del.,  now  stands.  The  Swedisli 
colonization  scheme  was  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
Dutch,  who  threw  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
its  success,  and  eventually  captured  the  enlony 
and  annexed  it  to  tb<ir  possessions  in  1655.  Kor 
a  biographical  sketch  consult  Kapp,  "Peter  .Min 
ncwet  aus  Wesel."  in  llistorische  Zeitschrift,  vol. 
XV.  (186C)  :  and  Micklcy,  "Some  Account  of  Wil- 
liam L'sselinx  and  Peter  Minuit,"  in  the  Peln- 
irnre  Hislorienl  Soeictii  Papers,  Xo.  vi.  ( Wil- 
mington. 18S0). 

MINTTLITAN,  me'noo-loo'an.  A  town  of 
Xegros,  Philip|>ines,  in  the  Province  of  Western 
Xcgros.  It  is  situated  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
the  island,  live  miles  north  of  Bacolod  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  H  9).     Population,  11,340. 

MINUSINSK,  m6'nu-s,M)sk'.  A  town  of 
Southern  Sibiria.  in  the  Government  of  Yenise- 
isk, sitmited  on  the  'Menisci,  300  miles  south- 
east of  Tomsk.  It  has  a  high  school  for  girls. 
a  pood  museinn  and  library,  and  considerable 
trade  in  grain  and  eattle.  Population,  in  1897, 
10.255. 

MINUTE  (OF..  Fr.  minute,  from  Lat.  minii- 
turn,  -mall  portion,  from  minuere.  to  make 
small).  A  term  applied  to  the  60th  part  of  an 
hour  and  to  the  fiOth  part  of  a  degree  of  a  circle. 
In  architecture  the  term  minute  is  applied  to  the 
60th  part  of  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  of  n  classic 
column,  measured  at  the  base:  it  is  used  as  a 
measure  to  determine  the  proportions  of  the 
order. 

MINUTE  MEN.  Tn  American  historv.  those 
civilians,  in  Massachusetts  and  several  other  col- 
onies, who,  on  the  approach  of  the  Revolutionary 


MINUTE  MEN. 


575 


MIR. 


War,  pledged  thcmoclves  to  take  the  tield  at  a 
uiinutf's  iiolke.  lu  ilassacliusetts  tluy  were 
enrolled  in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  the  Provincial 
Congress  passed  Xovember  23,  1774. 

MINUTOLI,  me-noo'to-lt-,  Hkixricii,  Baron 
ilK.NL  \uN  ( 1772-1S41)) .  A  Prussian  ollicor  and 
arih:rolugist.  He  wa.s  burn  in  tioneva  of  an 
old  Italian  family,  early  entered  the  Prussian 
army,  and  distinguished  himself  in  17'J3  in  the 
Rhenish  eanipuign  against  France,  being  severely 
wounded  at  Bitseh.  Frederick  William  111.  pro- 
moted him  to  be  major-general,  and  in  1820  made 
him  head  of  the  Prussian  arelueological  expedi- 
tion to  Egj'pt.  His  valuable  Egyptian  collection 
was  bought  for  the  Berlin  Jluseum.  Jlinutoli's  last 
years  were  spent  in  retirement  at  Lausanne.  He 
wrote:  Veber  aniike  Glasmosuik  (with  Klaproth, 
1S14)  ;  the  important  Reise  zuin  Tempel  ilcs  Jupi- 
ter Amnion  tiiid  iiach.  Ohc>'ii(ii/ptcii  (1824-27); 
and  L'ehcr  die  Anfcrtiyuntj  und  yutzaiiwendung 
der  farhigen  Gliiser  .bei  den  Allen  (1837);  as 
well  as  a  biography  of  Frederick  William  III. 
1 1838-44),  and  an  account  of  the  campaign  of 
1792  (1847). 

MIN'YAS  {Gk.  Miviai,  iliityas).  A  legend- 
ary hero  connected  with  the  Bcuolian  city  Orcho- 
nienos.  He  is  called  son  of  Poseidon  in  the  ear- 
lier writers,  but  in  Pausanias  his  father  is 
Cliryses,  and  he  is  famed  for  his  riches,  and  as 
builder  of  the  first  great  treasury — really  the 
domed  tomb  of  Orchomenos.  His  fame  in  legend 
is  connected  with  the  fate  of  his  three  daughters, 
Leucippe  (or  Leuconoe),  Arsippe  (or  Arsinoe), 
and  .\lcathoe,  who,  refusing  to  take  part  with 
the  Micnads  in  the  orgies  of  Dionysus,  w'ere  visit- 
ed by  the  god  with  Bacchic  madness,  in  which 
they  tore  to  pieces  the  young  son  of  Leucippe. 
Their  story  was  acted  at  the  festival  of  the 
Agrionia,  where  the  priest  of  Dionysus,  with  a 
drawn  sword,  pursued  women  of  the  family  of 
the  MinyadtE.  The  Argonauts  from  lolcos  in 
Thessaly  were  also  called  Minyie.  but  the  origi- 
nal connection  with  ilinyas  is  ver>'  doubtful,  and 
the  statements  of  the  ancients  arc  obviously  mere 
attempts  to  explain  the  identity  of  name. 

MIOCENE  EPOCH  (from  Gk.  imIwv,  meiOn, 
li^s  -(-  KruvSs,  kninos.  new).  A  division  of  geo- 
Ingic  time  following  the  Oligoccne  and  preceding 
the  Pliocene  epochs  of  the  Tertiary  period.  The 
Miocene  is  represented  in  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States  by  a  series  of  miconsolidated  sands  and 
gravels  (rarely  conglomerates  and  limestones), 
which  attain  a  thickness  of  from  400  to  l.'iOO 
feet.  In  the  interior  region  it  includes  the  Loup 
Fork  formation  of  fresh-water  strata,  occurring 
in  Montana,  South  Dakota,  and  the  States  south- 
ward to  Mexico,  and  the  John  Day  1)eds  of  east- 
ern Oregon,  which  are  largely  composed  of  vol- 
canic tuffs  and  ashes.  In  Europe  the  'Miocene 
strata  are  extensively  developed.  Great  geo- 
graphical changes  were  accomplished  during  this 
epoch,  one  of  the  most  important  being  the  up- 
heaval of  Central  America,  by  which  the  conti- 
nents of  North  and  South  America  were  joined. 
See  Terti.vry  System. 

MIOGA.     A  kind  of  ginger    (q.v.). 

MIOHIP'PXJS  (from  Eng.  mio-ccne  +  Gk. 
firiros,  hijipos,  horsp).  A  name  sometiniPs  used 
to  designate  the  Upper  Pliocene  stage  of  evo- 
lution of  the  horse,  represented  by  the  genus 
Anchitherium. 


MIOLAN,  myo'lii.x',  Feux.  A  name  some- 
times used  by  the  French  singer  ilarie  Caroline 
Felix  Carvallio  (q.v.). 

MIONNET,  myo'na',  TafiODOKE  Eume  (1770- 
1842).  A  French  numismatist,  horn  in  Paris, 
where  he  studied  in  the  College  du  Cardinal  le 
iloine,  and  in  the  Ecole  de  Droit.  After  four 
years  of  legal  practice  and  a  short  term  in  the 
army,  from  which  he  retired  because  of  illness, 
he  became  assistant  in  1800  in  the  numismatic 
cabinet  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale,  and  there 
began  to  catalogue  the  collections.  He  traveled 
in  Italy,  made  many  valuable  numismatic  finds, 
and  in  1830  was  elected  to  the  -Vcadeniy  of  In- 
scriptions. His  great  works,  which  still  have  a 
distinct  scientific  value,  are  Description  dcs 
mvdiiiUes  antiques,  grecques  et  romaincs  (1806- 
30,  in  17  vols.)  and  Dc  la  ruretc  et  du  prix  des 
iiicdaiUes  romaines  (1815;  3d  ed.  1847).  Consult 
Walckenaer,  Xolice  historique  sur  la  vie  et  les 
ourriKjcH  de  M.  Mionnet   (Paris,  184G). 

MIQUEL,  me-keP,  .Joii-\xxES  voN  (1829- 
1901).  A  German  statesman,  born  in  Xeuenhaus, 
Hanover,  of  a  family  of  French  emigres,  and  edu- 
cated for  the  bar  at  Heidelberg  and  Gijttiugen. 
In  his  student  days  he  was  a  rabid  revolutionist 
and  something  of  a  Socialist,  but  when  the  period 
of  reaction  set  in  lie  soon  forsook  his  earlier 
sentiments.  His  practice  in  Gottingen  was  very 
successful,  and  in  18C4  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Hanoverian  Diet,  and  in  180.5  Burgomaster 
of  Osnabriick.  Removing  to  Berlin  in  1870.  he 
was  a  director  of  the  Diskontogesellschaft  until 
1873,  and  then  president  of  its  advisory  board 
uutil  1S7G.  Then  he  was  again  made  Chief  Burgo- 
master of  Osnabriick.  and  in  1880  of  Frankfort- 
on-the-JIain.  But  his  greater  field  of  usefulness 
was  in  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies  and  in 
the  Imperial  Diet.  There,  as  in  the  Prussian 
House  of  Lords,  of  which  he  was  ex-oUicio  a  mem- 
ber as  Burgomaster  of  Frankfort,  he  was  a  leader 
of  the  National  Liberal  Party  and  one  of  Bis- 
marck's, most  able  and  forceful  lieutenants.  In 
1890  he  l^ecame  Prussian  Minister  of  Finance, 
and  was  hailed  as  the  'Emperor's  man,'  no  doubt 
to  reassure  the  country  in  face  of  its  fear  that 
the  new  Imperial  policy  was  to  be  merely  reac- 
tionary. In  this  office,  wliicli  Mi(]uel  held  up  to  a 
few  months  before  his  death,  he  showed  himself 
an  able  financier,  and  a  bold  reformer  in  his 
attempt  to  liberate  the  Im])erial  Treasury  from 
depending  on  the  contributions  of  the  various 
States.  As  a  politician  he  was  an  opportunist 
driven  to  intrigue  with  any  party  and.  above  all, 
to  any  sacrifice  of  conviction  to  the  policy  of  the 
Kaiser,  in  the  hope  that  he  might  be  made  Chan- 
cellor. But  if  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  pro- 
gramme of  Imperial  finance,  in  his  more  proper 
sphere  of  Prussian  finance,  by  playing  somewhat 
into  the  hands  of  the  Agrarian  Party,  he  .secured 
the  adoption  of  a  new  tax  system,  which  greatly 
benefited  the  working  classes  and  at  the  same 
time  tremendously  increased  the  revenue.  On  his 
Prussian  policy,  consult:  Zedlitz  und  Neukirch, 
■'Miquel  als  Finanz-  und  Staatsminister,"  In 
Preussische  Jahrbiichcr   (1901). 

MIQUELON,  mo'k'-lox'.  An  island  near 
Xewfoundhind.    See  Saint  Pierbe  a.\d  Miquelon. 

MIR,  mer  (Buss.,  OChurch  Slav,  tnirii.  union, 
peace,  world,  Litb,  nirr.i.  .Mb.  mir,  peace).  The 
name  of  the  civil  communities  of  the  Russian 
peasants.     All   land   is   held   in   common   and   is 


MIR. 


576 


MIRABEAU. 


divided,  usually  according  to  the  number  of 
males  at  the  "last  census,  being  redistributed 
«heuever  necessary.  Kach  family  receives 
meadow,  forest,  and  arable  land,  tlie  meadow 
being  sometimes  kept  in  common  and  only  the 
grass  divided.  The  mir,  or  village  comnuine,  as 
a  body  is  assessed  for  ta.\es  by  the  Central  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  burden  of  ta.\atiou  is  distributed 
among  the  heads  of  families,  according  to  the 
amount  of  laud  occupied  by  each.  Each  mir  is 
self-governing  with  elected  ollieers,  and  adjoining 
niirs  may  be  grouped  in  volasts  or  snuiU  cantons. 
The  system  is  very  old,  but  is  gradually  chang- 
ing, as  a  mir  nuiy  now  go  over  to  private  owner- 
ship of  land  and  inheritance  of  property  on  vote 
of  two-thirds  of  its  members.  Consult:  Wallace. 
Ilussiu  (London.  1877)  ;  Keussler,  Zur  lleschich- 
te  und  Krilik  den  hiim-rlklien  (lemcindibcsitzes 
ill    lyu.f.sldiid  (Saint    Petersburg,  1876-87). 

MJRABEAU,     me'ra'bi',     G.4.BRIEL     HoNORfi 
RlQUETl.  Count  de   (174!l-ni).     A  French  writer, 
orator,  and   statesman.     He  was  the  second   son 
of  Victor  Riqueti,  Marquis  de  Xlirabeau.  a  cele- 
brated economist,  and  was  born  at  Bignon,  near 
Nemours.    March    !),    1740.      .\fler   several    years 
imder  a  tutor,  the  young  Mirabeau  was  ])laced 
(1707)     in    a     fashionable    militarj-    school    in 
Paris,  where  he  became  proficient  in  languages 
and  in  the  accomplishments  of  good  society.     In 
1767   he  joined  the  Berry  cavalry   regiment  and 
the  ne.\t  year  he  received  a  .second  lieutenant's 
commission,  but  his  freaks  of  conduct  and  his  love 
aft'airs,   one   of   which   brought   him    into   rivalry 
with    his    colonel,    caused    his    imprisonment    in 
the    citadel    of    the    island    of    Re.    from    which 
he    was    released,    at    his     father's    instigation, 
in   March,    17(!!t.      The    condition   of   his    release 
was  that  he  should  join  the  expedition  to  Corsica, 
and  as  a  member  of  the   legion   of  Lorraine  he 
served   with   credit   in   the   subjugation   of   that 
isUuul.      In    1771    he   was  connnissioned   captain 
of  dragoons,  and  in  1772  he  was  married  at  Aix 
to  Marie  Kmilic  de  Covet,  only  daugliter  of  the 
Marquis  de  Marignane.     Of  tliis  union  one  son, 
Victor,   was  l)ni-n   in    177:{.   but   lie  died   in    1778. 
Debts,  quarrels  with  his  father  and  wife,  and  an 
altercation     with     the     .Marquis    de     Villeneuve- 
Monans.    led   to   his   imprisonment  by   lettrc   de 
cachet  in  the  Castle  of  If  in  1774.  whence  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Castle  of  .loux,  near  Pontarlier, 
the  next  year.     Being  at  freedom  to  visit  Pontar- 
lier.   he    made    the    acquaintance    of    the    Mar- 
quis de  Monnier,  an  old  man  of  seventy,  and  hi-; 
twenty-two-year-old  wife.  Marie  Thi'rfse  Richard 
de   IlufTey.      Forgetful    of   his   obligations   to   the 
Marquis.Mirabeau  fell  violently  in  love  with  the 
young   Marq\iise:    trouble  ensueil.  an<l   Mirabeau 
finally    escajied    to    Switzerland,    where    he    was 
joined  by  Sophie,  as  he  called  his  mistress,  and 
in    October,    1776.    they    settled    in    .\msterdam, 
where   Mirabeau   gained   a   livelihood   as   a   hack 
writer.      In    the    meantime,    the    French    courts 
pa*ed   sentence   upon   the   runaway  lovers,   who 
were  arrested  in  May.  1777.  and  brought  to  Paris, 
where  Sophie  was  kept  under  close  surveillance, 
while   Alirabenu    was    imprisoned    at   Vincennes. 
For  three  years  and  a  half  he  was  kept  in  close 
confinement,    but    through    his    guard,    a    brother 
Freemason,  he  was  able  to  carry  on  his  famims 
(■orre-pdiidi'iire  with   Sophie.     These  letters  mark 
the  culmination  of  Mirabenii's  wild  and  vicious 
career.     As  n  prisoner  he  devoted  himself  to  the 


translation  of  numerous  ilassics,  ami  to  the  pro- 
duction of  various  original  works,  some  of  which 
were  later  published.  After  his  release  in  Decem- 
ber, 1780,  he  forsook  Sophie,  who,  after  another 
lo\c  allair,  conuuitted  suicide  in  1789.  Then 
he  returned  to  Pontarlier,  secured  the  revocation 
of  the  death  sentence,  which  had  been  passed  on 
him  for  the  seduction  of  Sopliie,  and  later  went 
to  .\ix,  where,  after  a  trial  in  which  he  ably 
conducted  his  own  suit,  he  was  legally  separated 
from   Ills  wife  in   1783. 

Because  of  his  suits  at  Pontarlier,  he  found 
it  advisable  to  leave  France  for  a  few  months, 
which  he  spent  at  Neuchatel,  where  he  met  the 
(iencvese  Liberals  Clavi&re  and  Duroveray,  and 
where  he  published  his  Dcs  lettres  de  cachet  el 
den  /jrisaiis  d'elut,  the  best  known  of  his  earlier 
writings.  From  Sejitember,  178.'i,  to  August, 
1784,  he  was  in  Paris,  where  he  seems  to  have 
begun  his  life-long  intimacy  with  Henriette  van 
Harcn,  a  young  woman  of  nineteen,  known  as 
Madame  de  Xehra,  whose  influence  over  Jlira- 
bcau  was  exerted  entirely  for  his  good.  In  August, 
1784,  he  withdrew  to  London  to  allow  another  , 
storm  to  blow  over.  In  England  he  met  his  old  \ 
schoolfellow,  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot  (later  first  Earl  ; 
ofMinto),Mr.  (later  Sir)  Samuel  Romilly,  Lord 
Lansdowne.  and  other  well-known  men.  He  ' 
there  wrote  the  Coiisidira lions  xiir  I'ordre  de  ' 
Ciiiciniuilus,  which  caused  a  sensation  in  the  : 
Cnited  States.  After  nine  months  in  Eng- 
land, the  intercessions  of  iladame  de  Xehra 
enabled  him  to  return  to  Paris,  where  he  en- 
tered into  intimate  relations  with  the  Genevese 
exiles  and  other  Liberals,  like  Brissot.  and 
wrote  numerous  panqdilets  on  financial  ques- 
tions, published  during  178.').  These  were  followed 
(1787-1789)  by  his  attacks  on  stock-jobbing  and 
his  criticisms  on  Nccker's  administration  of  the 
finances.  Tn  the  meantime,  he  had  twice  visited 
Prussia,  once  on  a  secret  mission  for  the  Govern- 
ment. On  his  first  visit  (Decend>er.  1785.  to 
May,  1786)  he  was  received  by  Erederick  the 
Great,  whose  death  occurred  iluring  his  second 
visit  at  Berlin  (.July.  1786.  to  .Tanuary.  1787). 
In  1787  he  failed  in  an  attempt  to  secure  the 
position  of  Secretary  to  the  Assembly  of  Nota- 
bles, and  his  attacks  on  Xcckcr  drove  him  to 
take  refuge  in  Prussia.  Returning  from  this 
third  visit  to  Berlin,  he  published  in  1788  his 
most  famous  work,  Dc  la  mdiiarehie  pnissiciine 
.■ioii.s  Frederic  le  Grand {8  vols,  and  atlas.  London, 
1788).  In  October.  1788,  Mirabeau  once  more 
was  reconciled  with  his  father,  and  in  .Tanuary, 
1789,  he  arrived  at  Aix  to  iiarticipatc  in  the  elec- 
tions to  the  States-General.  In  Ajuil.  having 
been  ejected  bv  his  own  order,  the  nobility,  he 
was  elccte<l  bv'the  Third  Estate  both  of  Aix  and 
of  Marseilles'to  the  Statcs-General,  and  he  chose 
to  r<q)resent  the  former  i-ity.'  Uv  was  in  Paris  in 
time  to  publish  on  May  "2.  1789,  the  first  number  of 
his  newspaper,  which,  after  some  changes  of  title, 
finally  look  the  name  of  Cniirrier  dc  Prorence, 
and  a  few  days  later  to  be  present  at  the  opening 
of  the  States-General  at  Versailles,  He  never  had 
a  following  upon  whom  he  could  depend  in  the 
States-General,  where  his  success  was  always  a 
result  of  his  ability  to  take  advantage  of  tem- 
piirarv  enthusiasm  or  excitement — an  ability 
which  gave  him  a  reputation  for  boldness,  for 
knowing  his  own  mind,  for  oratorical  powers, 
and  for  many  of  the  arts  of  the  demagogue. 
The  true  greatness  of  Mirabeau  was  not  revealed 


MIEABEAU. 


577 


MIRABEAU. 


until  the  publication  of  his  works,  and  especially 
his  correspondence  witli  La  Jlarck,  many  years 
after  his  death.  l'"rom  the  first  jMirahcau  saw 
tliat  tlie  royal  and  ministerial  sclienie  of  financial 
reform  would  be  insullieient  to  cure  the  existing 
evils,  but  he  likewise  saw  that  reforms  could  be 
successfuU.v  carried  out  only  b}'  a  strong  (jov- 
crnnicnt.  Kroni  the  opening  of  the  States-Gene- 
ral until  his  death  two  years  later,  JSIirabeau  was 
undeniably  the  most  important  figure  in  puldic 
life  in  France,  and  the  story  of  his  life  is  that  of 
the  Revolution.  He  took  part  in  the  debates  eou- 
cerning  the  status  of  the  members  of  the  Third 
Estate,  and  his  bold  attitude  as  their  spokesman 
at  the  royal  session  of  June  23d  marked  him 
as  the  champion  of  the  Third  Estate  in  the 
struggle  which  ended  iu  the  reorganization  of  the 
States-General  as  the  National  Assembly.  He 
]>rotested  vigorously  against  the  attempt  to  over- 
awe the  Assembly  by  the  mobilization  of  troops 
around  Paris,  but  his  father's  death  on  July  l;Jth 
prevented  his  participation  in  the  stirring  events 
of  the  following  day  when  the  Bastille  was 
stormed  and  <lestroyed  by  the  populace  of  Paris. 
The  protracted  debates  on  the  rights  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  the  reckless  haste  in  the  destruction 
of  the  idd  order  by  the  Assembly  on  August  4th, 
called  forth  his  protests.  Still  he  recognized  the  im- 
portance of  the  proposed  Declaration  o.f  the  Rights 
of  5Ian,  and  took  an  active  part  in  framing  it. 
Mirabeau,  however,  saw  that  neither  theoretical 
nor  destructive,  but  constructive  statesmanship 
was  the  need  of  the  hour.  One  by  one  he  brought 
forward  his  favorite  con.stitutional  measures  and 
defended  them  witli  all  his  powers  of  logic,  elo- 
quence, and  persuasion,  only  to  see  them  voted 
down.  After  the  failure  of  his  proposition  to 
choose  the  royal  Ministers  from  the  members 
of  the  National  Assembly,  on  November  7,  1789, 
Mirabeau  strove  earnestly  to  put  his  great  abili- 
ties at  the  service  of  the  King,  whom  he  had 
attempted  to  advise  as  early  as  October  15th. 
He  tried  to  work  with  Lafayette  and  Necker,  but 
everywhere  he  was  viewed  with  suspicion,  his 
advice  was  never  followed,  and  his  assistance  was 
rejected  entirely  or  accepted  with  ill  grace.  Fi- 
nally in  May,  171)0.  he  abandoned  his  attempts 
to  cooperate  with  Necker  and  Lafayette,  and, 
through  La  Marek,  entered  into  regular  relations 
with  the  King  and  Queen,  for  whom  he  wrote  his 
famous  series  of  notes  of  advice.  This  change 
was  marked  in  the  Assembly  by  his  speech  in 
favor  of  the  royal  prerogative,  especially  in  ques- 
tions of  peace  and  war,  wliich  directed  suspicion 
toward  him.  and  caused  a  temporary  outburst  of 
popular  indignation  against  him.  He  was  large- 
ly responsildc  fcir  Neckcr's  resignation  in  Sei>tem- 
ber.  171)0,  and  for  the  appointment  of  ClaviJ're 
in  his  place.  In  July  he  had  been  placed  on  the 
Diplomatic  Conuiiittee  of  the  Assembly,  and,  in 
cooperation  with  his  old  friend  Jlontmorin,  the 
Minister  of  F'orcign  Affairs,  had  dealt  with  the 
perplexing  questions  of  foreign  relations,  such 
as  the  annexation  of  Avignon  and  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Family  Compact  with  Spain.  He 
insisted  that  no  other  coinitry  should  interfere 
in  the  internal  atTairs  of  France;  that  other  coun- 
tries must  keep  their  agreements  with  F' ranee; 
and  that  France  must  respect  her  agreements 
with  other  countries.  On  November  ^0.  1700.  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Society  of  the 
Friends  of  the  Constitution,  popularly  known  as 
the  Jacobin   Club,   and   on   Januarv  20.    1791,  he 


received  the  coveted  honor  of  election  as  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Assembly.  His  last  note  to 
the  Court,  through  L.a  Marek,  was  sent  on  Feb- 
ruary 3d.  His  last  appearance  in  the  Asseml)ly 
was  on  March  27th.  On  April  2,  17'J1,  he  died 
in  the  Rue  de  la  Chaussee  d'Antin  in  Paris.  He 
was  buried  in  the  Church  of  Sainte-Genevi&ve 
(the  Pantheon),  but  three  years  later  his  remains 
were  removed  to  make  room  for  those  of  Marat. 

The  greatness  of  Alirabeau  has  been  generally 
recognized,  but  in  estimating  the  details  of  his 
life  and  policy  there  has  been  the  widest  di- 
vergence of  opinion.  French  republicans  have 
condemned  him  unsparingly  for  his  monarchical 
sympathies,  but  most  of  all  liccause  in  return  for 
his  services  the  Court  paid  his  debts  and  supplied 
him  with  funds.  In  his  defense  it  must  be  said 
that  Mirabeau  regarded  himself  as  de  facto  prime 
minister,  charged  with  the  duty  of  saving  France, 
a  task  to  which  he  felt  he  alone  was  equal.  The 
keynote  of  his  advice  to  the  Court  was  that  the 
King  should  transfer  the  Court  and  the  Assembly 
from  Paris  to  Fontainobloau,  or  Compi&gne,  or 
some  other  small  town  of  Central  France,  where 
the  influence  of  the  mob  of  Paris  would  cease  to 
control  the  Assembly,  and  the  King  and  the  As- 
sembly would  be  free  to  give  France  a  strong 
monarchical  constitution.  Mirabeau  had  great 
power  over  men,  <and  made  those  who  came  under 
his  fascination  willing  to  merge  their  personali- 
ties in  his  and  allow  him  to  take  all  the  credit 
for  their  labors.  The  ^ouccnirs  of  Etienne  Du- 
mont,  one  of  his  collaborators,  first  showed  fully 
Mirabeau's  methods  of  work,  and  the  way  in 
which  he  made  regular  use  of  the  services  of 
Dumont,  Reybaz,  Pellene,  and  even  better  known 
persons  like  C'lavi6rc  and  the  Abbe  Lamourette. 
In  Mirabeau  everything  was  on  a  colossal  scale; 
in  personal  appearance  and  moral  character  he 
was  almost  a  monster;  in  intellect  and  powers  of 
endurance  he  was  a  titan.  In  his  personality  all 
that  was  noblest  and  best  of  the  F^rench  Revolu- 
tion seemed  combined  with  the  greatest  of  its 
characteristic  evils.  The  philosophers  of  history 
have  mourned  Mirabeau's  death,  because  they  be- 
lieved that  had  he  lived  he  would  have  saved 
France  from  the  excesses  of  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
It  would  he  safe  to  s.ay  that  he  was  the  only  one 
who  might  have  rendered  France  that  service,  but 
it  is  to  be  doubted  whether  even  the  man  whose 
character  can  best  be  summed  up  in  the  word 
excess  could  have  saved  his  nation  from  the  evil 
of  excess.  Alike  terrible  in  their  greatness, 
Mirabeau  and  Napoleon  were  the  greatest  men 
of  the  French  Revolution. 

Bibliography.  Mirabeau,  (Euvres  (9  vols., 
Paris.  1825-27),  is  the  most  complete  collection 
of  his  writings,  but  lacks  the  Monarchic  prus- 
sienne.  Mcmoires  dc  Mirabeau  Merits  par  lui- 
menie,  par  son  pfre,  son  onclc,  ct  son  fils  adoptif 
(9  vols.,  Paris,  1834-35),  is  still  the  most  im- 
portant authority,  in  spite  of  many  defects.  Wil- 
lert,  Mirabeau  (l,ondon,  1898),  is  the  only  recent 
life  in  English,  but  may  be  supidemented  by 
Morse  Stephens,  The  French  Rcroliitiou  ;  Carlyle, 
The  French  Reroliitinn ;  and  Von  Hoist.  The 
French  I'erolution  Tested  bti  Mirabeau's  Career 
(Chicaixo.  1804).  For  Mirabeau's  relations 
witli  the  Court,  consult  Correspovdanee  entre 
le  Comte  de  Mirabeau  ct  Ic  Oomie  de  La  Marek 
pendant  les  annces  ]7f(9,  1790.  ct  1791  (Paris, 
1851).  For  Mirabeau  as  an  orator,  see  Aulard, 
L'Hoquence    parlementaire    pendant    la    Revolu- 


MIRABEAU. 


578 


MIRACLES. 


tion  francaise  (ib.,  1SS2;  ;  lor  liis  methods  of 
work,  Diimont,  lioufciiirs ;  and  Keybaz,  Lit  col- 
laborutvur  tie  Mirabcau  (ib.,  1874)  ;  for  liis  elec- 
tion to  the  titates-Ueiieral,  Guibiil,  llirabeau  ct 
la  Provence  (ib.,  1887-91)  ;  for  his  career  in  the 
Assembly,  Reynald,  Mirubeau  et  hi  Vonstituantc 
(ib.,  1872).  The  best  lives  are  Stern,  Dus  Leben 
Mirabcaiis  (Berlin,  1889)  ;  Mezi6re.s,  ]'ie  de 
Mirabcau ;  and  LomCnie,  Lea  Mirabeaux  (5  vols., 
Paris,   1889-01). 

MIRACLE  PLAY  (OF.,  Fr.  miracle,  from 
Lat.  miruculuin,  miracle,  from  miruri,  to  wonder, 
from  mirus,  wonderful;  eonnoctcd  with  Gk.  ^«- 
5o>',  mcidaii,  Skt.  siiii,  to  smile).  Strictly,  the 
second  stage  in  the  development  of  the  modern 
drama  under  religious  auspices,  though  it  is 
sometimes  confounded  with  the  lirst,  for  which, 
and  for  a  general  account  of  this  development, 
see  ilYSTEBY.  The  distinction  between  the  two, 
where  it  is  made,  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
whereas  the  mysteries  proper  took  their  subjects 
from  the  Scripture  narrative,  centring  about  the 
life  of  Christ,  the  miracle  plays  were  taken 
rather  from  tlu>  lives  of  the  saints.  The  signifi- 
cant features  of  this  change  were  that  by  getting 
away  from  the  sacred  text  of  the  Scriptures 
greater  latitude  was  gained,  and  a  greater  range 
of  characters;  a  nearer  approach  to  a  repre- 
sentation of  contemporary  life  was  thus  also 
permittcil,  and  a  freer  introduction  of  the  comedy 
clement  than  reverence  would  allow  in  the  earlier 
form.  Mattlicw  Paris  mentions  a  miracle  phiy, 
Ludiis  de  Sancta  Kathnrinn,  that  was  performed 
at  Dunstable  about  1110,  under  the  direction 
of  a  certain  GeofTrey.  afterwards  Abbot  of  Saint 
Albans.  Again,  William  KitZ'Stephen,  in  his 
Life  of  Thomas  Becket  (about  1182),  writes 
approvingly  of  London  plays  on  the  miracles 
and  snircrings  of  martyrs  and  confessors.  Other 
miracle  plays,  based  on  the  lives  of  Saint  Fabian, 
Saint  Sebastian.  Saint  Botolph.  Saint  George, 
and  Saint  Crispin,  were  performed  in  the  four- 
teenth, fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries.  Very- 
few  texts  of  English  miracle  plays  have  been 
preserved;  but  from  numerous  Continental  speci- 
mens, it  may  be  inferred  that  they  were  in  aim 
and  structure  similar  to  the  mysteries.  For 
bibliography,  see  JIystery. 

MIRACLES.  The  view  to  be  taken  of  these 
extraordinary  events  is  very  largely  a  qtiestion 
of  what  definition  of  them  is  presupposed.  .V 
miracle  was  for  a  long  time  held  to  be  "a  viola- 
tion or  sus[)cn-iion  of,  or  an  interference  with,  the 
laws  of  nature."  A  later  typical  definition 
makes  it  "an  extraordinary  operation  cognizable 
by  the  senses,  which  has  its  course  not  in  tlie 
order  of  nature,  as  known  to  us,  hut  in  God." 
.\nother,  not  antagonistic  to  this,  but  perhaps 
more  in  accordance  with  the  most  recent  scien- 
tific and  rcdigioiis  thought,  understands  a  mira- 
cle as  "a  revelation  of  a  higher  life,  the  prophecy 
of  a  new  stage   in  tlie  devclo|imcnt  of  creation." 

The  old  definition  upon  which  flume  trained 
his  intellectual  artillery  has  disappeared  with 
the  eighteenth  century  Deism  which  gave  it 
birth.  Hume's  ar'/imient  and  the  replies  of  the 
Christian  apologists  of  his  day  are  no  longer 
factors  in  tl^  discussion  of  the  miraculous.  The 
theory  of  special  creations  has  been  snpplanteil 
by  that  of  organic  growth.  The  divine  bein;; 
is  recojrnized  as  immnnpnt  as  well  as  transcend- 
ent. He  is  neither  banished  from  the  world 
nor  buried    in    it.      .\s   a   result,   God   and   man 


are  closer  together.  The  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween the  natural  and  llie  suiwrnatural  is  finer. 
Some  writers  even  insist  that  the  couimoii  dis- 
tinction between  the  two  is  unreal  and  mislead- 
ing. We  are  told  that  there  are  not  and  cannot 
be  any  divine  interpositions  in  nature,  for  God 
cannot  interfere  with  Himself,  ills  creative 
activity    is    evcrywlicre    i)resent. 

Man,  though  made  in  the  image  of  God,  is  not 
the  measure  of  God.  If  he  were,  nothing  would 
he  morn  supernatural  to  him  than  the  visible 
and  known  course  of  things  is  now.  To  men 
thinking  along  these  lines  miracles  are  no  longer 
interferences  with  or  violations  of  the  fixed  laws 
of  nature.  They  are  but  the  uianilestalions  of 
a  Higher  Life — the  expression  among  the  lower 
sequences  of  life  of  that  which  a  larger  vision 
may  one  day  make  our  own.  ilan  himself, 
by  the  exercise  of  his  personality,  works  wonders 
among  the  laws  or  forces  of  the  natural  world 
which  are  brought  under  his  control,  ileu  of 
scientific  training  elVect  changes  in  physical 
things  which  are  miracles  to  other  men.  Grown- 
up people  perform  miracles  in  the  sight  of  chil- 
dren. A  distinction,  moreover,  has  been  made 
between  "known'  ami  imknown'  laws.  The  old 
laws  formerly  designated  as  -the  laws  of  nature' 
are  not  violated  or  suspended.  All  natural  proc- 
esses go  on,  l)ut  they  are  counteracted  or  inter- 
acted by  a  new  kind  of  nature  working  by  a  new 
law  with  a  new  power.  The  'fixity  of  law'  in 
the  physical  world  is  no  longer  an  indispeusal)lc 
factor  in  biological  phraseology.  It  is  contendeil 
that  modern  .science,  in  enlarging  its  horizon,  has 
disc()v<>red  and  labeled  some  of  the  principles 
by  wliich  an  immanent  (iod  effects  His  beneficent 
purposes,  but  that  beyond  and  above  these  are 
other,  and  to  man,  as  yet,  'unknown'  and  higher 
laws. 

Further:  the  great  First  Cause  who,  Christian- 
ity assumes,  is  behind  all  the  evolutionary  proc- 
esses of  nature  has  another  kingdom.  He'  is  the 
author  and  controller  of  the  moral  as  well  as  the 
natural  order  of  the  universe.  Embodied  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  immanence  is  the  unity 
of  a  divine  purpose  throughout  the  moral  and 
the  physical  world.  The  natural  and  the  moral 
are  not  two  opposing  spheres  of  which  the  one 
dominates  the  other,  but  the  one  conjoint  reve- 
lation of  the  moral  nature  of  God.  tlie  lower 
of  which  pre|)arcs  for  and  leads  on  to  tlic  higher. 
Or.  in  other  words,  the  moral  and  the  material 
world  are  obviously  and  incontcstably  part  and 
parcel  of  one  and  the  same  system.  Hence, 
our  definition  may  be  enlarged  to  make  a  mir- 
acle not  only  the  prophecy  of  a  new  state  in 
the  development  of  creation,  but  "an  event 
in  physical  nature  which  makes  unmistakably 
plain  the  presence  and  direct  action  of  God 
working  for  a  n.oral  end."  This  view  eliminates 
the  Kantian  dualism,  and  makes  the  Bible 
miracles  not  detached  and  meaningless  portents, 
but  part  of  a  preparatory  dispensation  in  the 
divine  evolution.  Displays  of  miractilous  power 
are  but  the  nuinifestations  to  man  in  his  imper- 
fection of  that  for  which  he  hungers,  and  toward 
which  he  struggles — the  perfection  of  the  moral 
king  of  the  universe. 

To  the  unbiased  thinker  along  these  lines 
the  rationale  of  miracles  is  at  once  apparent, 
and  their  possiliility  or  even  probability  pre- 
sents no  serious  dilliculty.  But  the  credibility  of 
the    so-called    miraculous   events   car    be   estab- 


I 


MIRACLES.  579 

lislied  only  by  satisfactory  evidence.  Faith  is 
not  fii'ilulity,  and  it  presents  a  reasonable  de- 
mand for  proofs.  The  Apostk's  ck'arly  had  no 
prejudice  in  favor  of  the  resurrection  and  ascen- 
sion of  their  master.  They  had  everythin<;  to 
lose  and  nothing  to  gain,  from  a  worldly  point 
of  view,  by  sticking  to  their  stories.  So  the 
Gospel  evidence  cannot  be  simply  ignored.  New 
Testament  criticism,  moreover,  seems  unable  to 
find'  any  theory  by  which  the  miraculous  can  be 
entirely  eliminated,  and  the  historicity  of  the 
Gospels   still    preserved. 

Passing  from  the  Gospels  to  the  Kpistles,  the 
great  authority  in  support  of  the  resurrection 
is  held  to  be  Saint  Paul,  especially  I.  Cor.  xv., 
the  genuineness  of  which  is  unchallenged  by  im- 
partial criticism.  His  citation  of  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  risen  Christ  to  "above  five  hundred 
brethren  at  once,  of  whom  the  greater  part  re- 
main unto  this  day,"  remains  a  strong  argu- 
ment. Owing  to  the  proximity  of  Corinth  to 
the  Syrian  coast,  it  could  easily  have  been  chal- 
lenged, but  it  does  not  appear  that  it  was.  It 
would  follow,  then,  that  within  twenty-five 
years  after  the  Crucifixion  there  were  living  over 
two  hundred  and  fifty  persons  who  had  seen 
t  iirist  alive  after  His  death  at  one  time  and 
place. 

The  evidence  for  apostolic  miracles,  as  con- 
tained esi«?cially  in  a  number  of  passages  of 
the  Epistles  to  the  Romans,  Galatians,  and 
Cdrinthians,  is  of  a  kind  w'hich,  for  the  special 
|iiir|iosc  for  which  it  was  written,  is  particularly 
valuable.  This  evidence,  which  gains  force  from 
being  incidental  and  not  didactic,  shows  (in 
Sanday's  words)  that  the  Apostle  "was  conscious 
of  the  power  of  working  miracles,  and  tliat  he 
had  actually  wrought  them ;  and  it  shows  that 
he  assumed  the  existence  of  the  same  power 
in  others  besides  himself,  and  that  he  could 
appeal  to  it  withovit  fear  of  being  challenged." 

The  evidential  value  of  miracles  does  not  hold 
so  prominent  a  place  in  Christian  apologetics  as 
it  once  did.  The  tendency  today  is  to  put  Jesus 
Christ  and  His  claims  to  recognition  as  a  Teacher 
and  Saviour  in  the  forefront  of  the  Christian 
position.  He  was  His  own  greatest  miracle, 
an  evidence  of  Christianity  the  force  of  which 
can  be  estimated  without  special  critical  train- 
ing. His  miracles  were  according  to  the  law 
of  His  being  'in  rational  sequence'  with  the 
character  of  His  person  and  mission.  Works 
(?p7a)  and  powers  (SveAfien)  were  natural  to 
Him,  as  "the  unique  manifestations  of  His  unique 
personality."  Hence,  we  are  told  that  the  uniq\ie 
revelation  of  God  made  in  the  person  of  Jesus 
Christ  must  be  its  own  evidence.  The  appeal  is 
made  to  men  to  believe  in  the  Christ  primarily 
on  moral  and  spiritual  grounds.  His  miracles 
are  not  credentials:  they  are  manifestations  of 
and  inseparable  from  Himself.  Belief  in  His 
I'crson  and  character  will  ultimately  lead  to  a 
belief  in  His  miracle-working.  The  fact  that 
miracles  are  of  the  very  substance  of  the  Gos- 
pels is  but  the  reflection  of  the  deeper  fact  that 
they  arc  nf  the  very  essence  of  Christ's  manifes- 
tation of  Himself. 

The  apostolic  miracles  may  be  viewed  from 
the  same  standpoint,  as  the  flashing  forth  after 
Pentecost  of  the  more  glorious  divine  life  when  an 
opening  was  made  for  it.  They  were  coupled 
with  and  the  power  to  work  them  was  trans- 
mitted by  the  "laying  on  of  hands,"  and  it  is 


MIRACLES. 


widely  held  that  no  real  miracles  have  been  per- 
formed since  the  death  of  the  last  of  those  upon 
whom  the  Apostles  laid  their  hands.  To  take  this 
position,  however,  is  to  challenge  the  genuineness 
if  not  to  deny  the  possibility  of  what  are  known 
as  'ecclesiastical'  miracles.  Some  of  their  advo- 
cates admit  that  the  great  mass  of  them  were  a 
new  dispensation,  but  insist  that  no  strong  antc- 
eeilent  improbability  can  be  entertained  against 
such  a  dispensation,  because  the  Scripture  mir- 
acles had  already  borne  the  Iiruut  of  hostile  at- 
tacks and  'broken  the  iec'  for  their  successors. 
It  may  fairly  be  said,  too,  that  the  claim  for  the 
cessation  of  miracles  in  .subapostolic  days,  or, 
as  some  hold,  after  the  Church  was  established 
by  the  civil  power  under  Constantine.  and,  there- 
fore, did  not  need  supernatural  assistance,  is  but 
a  part  of  the  now  generally  exploded  idea  that 
miracles  were  given  for  evidential  j)ur|)oses.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  noticeable  that  during  the 
second  and  third  centuries  Christian  writers  have 
comparatively  little  to  say  about  contemporary 
wonder-working,  except  in  three  forms,  viz.  cur- 
ing disease,  casting  out  demons,  and  prophesying. 
They  seem  to  recognize  that  the  e.Ktensi\e  powers 
resident  in  Christ  and  the  Apostles  have  ceased 
to  operate.  But  in  the  fourth  century,  and  on 
through  the  Middle  -Ages,  constant  reference  is 
made  to  miracles  of  all  kinds  and  full  descrip- 
tions of  their  occurrence  are  given.  The  school- 
men bent  their  energies  to  setting  forth  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  with  regard  to  these  records 
of  the  supernatural,  and  reconciling  them  with 
what  was  then  believed  concerning  tlie  world  and 
God.  Thomas  Aquinas  taught  that  a  miracle  is 
something  altogether  outside  the  natural  order, 
while  Albertus  JIagnus  held  that  God  has  woven 
the  miraculous  into  the  order  of  nature,  as  one 
of  its  possibilities.  Abi'lard  freely  criticised  the 
accounts  of  alleged  miracles  in  the  age  in  which 
he  lived,  yet  he  believed  that  divine  power  might 
alter  even  the  nature  of  things,  whence  miracles 
were  possible.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
always  maintained  that  the  'spiritual  gift'  of 
working  miracles  (cf.  I.  Cor.  xii.  10)  has  not 
ceased,  but  resides  in  the  Church  forever.  It 
does  not,  however,  require  a  belief  in  the  truth  of 
any  particular  one  of  these  later  miracles,  leaving 
the  evidence  in  the  individual  case  to  he  the  cri- 
terion. Proof  of  the  power  to  work  miracles  is 
an  essential  prerequisite  to  canonization. 

In  conclusion,  then,  all  real  miracles  may  be 
regarded  as  sacraments  of  divine  woi-king — 'out- 
ward and  visible  signs'  of  the  inner  and  unbroken 
unity  of  the  natural  and  moral  kingdoms  of  the 
Supreme  Love.  In  this  sense  they  were  parts  of 
a  great  whole — normal  and  fitting  vehicles  of  a 
revelation.  They  were  in  themselves  "the  revela- 
tions of  a  higher  life,  the  ]n'0])hecics  of  a  new 
stage  in  the  development  of  creation."  But  in 
them,  as  in  all  so-called  'miraculous'  manifesta- 
tions, the  moral  as  well  as  the  historical  circum- 
stances must  be  fully  grasped  and  clearly  pre- 
sented before  a  hearty  and  loyal  recognition  can 
be  secured. 

BiBLioGR.iPiiY.  For  older  discussions  of  the 
subject,  consult:  Butler,  Analofn/  (London,  1730)  ; 
Hume,  Philosophical  Esuai/fi  Conccrnintj  Uuniiin 
rntlcrxtandinfi  (ib.,  1748)  :  Paley,  Eritlcnces  ( ib., 
1794).  For  modern  treatment:  Newman,  Two 
Lectures  oil  Mirarhs.  (1)  liihlicnl.  (2)  Ecclesias- 
licnl  fib..  1S43)  :  Duke  of  .\rgyll,  Itciqn  of  Lnio 
(ib.,  1866)  ;  Arnold,  Literature  and  Dogma   (ib.. 


MIBACLES. 


580 


MIRAMON. 


1873)  ;  Trench,  Xotts  on  the  Miracles  of  Our 
Lord  (ib.,  1840)  :  Mozk-y,  On  Miracles,  Baiiiptoii 
Lectures  (ib.,  1870)  ;  Bushnell,  Nature  and  the 
Hupernaturul  (newed.,  Xew  York,  1870)  ;  Drum- 
Diond,  Sutural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World 
(ib.,  1883),  and  two  answers  to  Drum- 
uiond — Cockburn,  The  Laws  of  Xalure  and 
the  Laws  of  God  (ib.,  1880)  ;  Laing,  Mod- 
ern Science  and  Modern  Thouyht  (ib.,  1885); 
!Moore,  ticiencc  and  the  Faith  ( ib.,  ISSO)  ;  Liddon, 
Home  Elements  of  Religion,  Bampton  hocturos 
(ib.,  1872)  ;  Christlieb,  Modern  Doubt  and  Chris- 
tian Belief  (Edinburgh,  1874)  ;  Westoott,  The 
Gospel  of  Life  (London,  1893)  ;  lllingworth, 
Divine  Immanence  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Bender,  Der 
fVunderhegriff  des  neuen  Testaments  (Frankfort, 
1871):  Lias,  .ire  Miracles  Crediblet  (London, 
18831  :  ilcCosh,  7'he  tSiipernatural  in  Ifelation  to 
the  Xatural  ( ib.,  1802):  VVestcott,  Characteris- 
tics of  the  Gospel  Miracles  (Cambridge,  18.59)  ; 
Stemmeyer,  The  Miracles  of  Our  Lord  in  dela- 
tion to  Modem  Criticism  (Kng.  trans.,  Kdin- 
burgh,  1875)  :  Fisher,  Grounds  of  Theistic  and 
Christian  Belief  (New  York,  1883)  ;  Bormiot, 
^yunder  und  ticheinwunder  (Regensburg.  1897)  ; 
Taylor,  The  Gosprl  Miracles  in  Their  Relation  to 
Christ  and  Chrislianitif  (New  York,  1880)  ;  .Mill- 
ler,  Xiilur  und  Wunder,  ihr  (lefiensal:  und  ihre 
Barmonie  (Freiburg.  1802);  id.,  Das  Wander 
vnd die GeschicJitswissensehaft  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Hogan. 
Clerical  Studies  (Boston.  1898);  Temple,  The 
Relation  Between  Relir/itm  and  Science,  Bampton 
Lectures  (London.  1884)  :  Bruce.  The  Miraculous 
Element  in  the  Gospels  ( ib.,  1887)  :  Row,  Chris- 
tian Eridences  Vieu:rd  in  Relation  to  Modern 
Thought  (ib.,  1877)  ;  Abbott,  The  Kernel  and  the 
Uusk  (ib.,  188G)  ;  Huxley,  "The  Value  of  Wit- 
ness to  the  Miraculous."  in  Christinnilii  and 
Agnosticism  (New  York,  1899)  ;  Wiite,  history 
of  the  Warfare  of  Sdencf  with  Theology  ( ib., 
1896). 

MIRAFLORES,  uic'rano'ras.  Manuel  de 
I'.VMxi.  Marijui<,  and  Count  of  Villapaterna 
(17921872).  A  Spanish  statesman.  He  was 
born  at  Madrid,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Lon- 
don in  1834,  and  was  ambassador  at  Paris  in 
1838-40.  In  1840  he  was  Premier,  and  in  1803 
again  filled  the  same  ofTice.  He  wa.s  ambassador 
to  Vienna  in  ISOO.  and  was  several  times  ])resi- 
dcnt  of  tlu'  Senate.  He  wrote  a  numlicr  of  works 
which  are  of  value  for  the  jiolitic.Tl  history  of 
8pain  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  most  im- 
portant is  a  Hislon/  of  the  First  Seven  Tears  of 
the  Reign  of  Isabella  II.    (1843-44). 

HIRAOE,  inT-riizli'  (Fr.,  from  mirer,  to  gaze). 
A  i)lieiiciiMencin  extremely  conunon  in  certain  lo- 
calities, and  due  to  eimditions  existing  in  the  at- 
mosphere. As  a  result  of  a  deviation  of  the  rays 
of  light  caused  by  refraction  and  rellection.  ob- 
jects seen  with  the  eye  appear  in  innisual  positions 
and  often  multiple  or  inverted.  One  cause  of  mir- 
age, such  as  occurs  in  a  clesert.  is  a  diminution  of 
the  density  of  the  air  near  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
often  produced  liy  the  radiation  of  beat  from  the 
earth,  the  denser  stratum  being  thus  placed  ahore, 
instead  of.  as  is  usually  the  case,  below  the  rarer. 
Now.  rays  of  light  from  a  distant  ohjeet.  situated 
in  the  denser  medium  (i.e.  a  little  above  the 
earth's  level),  coming  in  a  direction  nearly  par- 
allel to  the  earth's  surface,  meet  the  rarer 
rnedium  at  a  very  obtuse  angle,  and  (see  Lionx) 
instead    of    passing    into    it.    they    are    reflected 


back  to  the  dense  medium,  the  common  surface  of 
the  two  media  acting  as  a  mirror.  The  image 
produced  by  the  rellectcd  rays  will  ap|icar  in- 
verted, and  below  the  real  object,  just  as  an 
image  rellected  in  water  appears  wlu'n  observed 
from  a  distance.  If  the  object  is  a  cloud  or  por- 
tion of  sky.  it  will  appear  by  the  rellected  rays 
as  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  bearing 
a  strong  resemblance  to  a  sheet  of  water:  also, 
as  the  rellecting  surface  is  irregular,  and  con- 
stantly varies  its  position,  owing  to  the  constant 
communication  of  heat  to  the  upper  stratum,  the 
reflected  image  will  be  constantly  varying,  and 
will  present  the  appearance  of  a  water  surface 
ruflled  by  the  wind.  This  form  of  mirage  is  of 
common  occurrence  in  the  arid  deserts  of  Lower 
Kgypt.  Persia,  Turkestan,  etc.  In  the  case  of 
mirage  at  sea  the  denser  layers  of  air  are  next  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  redeclion  takes 
place  from  the  rarer  atmosphere  al>ove.  Conse- 
quently we  have  the  object  appearing  in  the  air 
suspended  and  inverted.  Sometimes  images  of  ob- 
jects are  seen  not  above  one  another,  but  side  by 
side,  caused  by  the  existence  of  bodies  of  air  of 
different  densities  in  proximity. 

In  particular  states  of  the  atmosphere  reflec- 
tion of  a  portion  only  of  the  rays  takes  place  at 
the  surface  of  the  dense  medium,  and  thus  double 
inuiges  are  formed,  one  by  rellection.  and  the 
other  by  refraction — the  first  inverted  and  the 
second  erect.  The  phenomena  of  mirage  are  fre- 
quently niuch  more  strange  and  complicated,  the 
images  being  often  much  distorted  and  magnified, 
and  in  some  instances  occurring  at  a  considerable 
ilistance  from  the  object,  as  in  the  case  of  a  tower 
or  church  seen  over  the  sea,  or  a  vessel  over  dry 
land,  etc.  The  particular  form  of  mirage  knowTi 
as  looming  is  very  frequently  observed  at  sea, 
and  consists  in  an  excessive  apparent  elevation  of 
the  object.  Consult  Miiller,  I.ehrbuch  der  kos- 
misehcn   Phgs-ik    (Brunswick,   1890). 

MIRAMAR,  me'ra-miir'.  An  imperial  palace 
anil  public  pleasure  resort  on  the  Gulf  of  Triest, 
six  miles  northwest  of  Triest   (q.v.). 

MIRAMICHI  (mir'A-m/*she')  RIVER.  The 
second  l!irL'i'~t  river  in  Xew  Brimswick.  Canada. 
It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  northwest  and 
southwest  Miramichi  (Map:  New  Bnmswick, 
C  3).  It  flows,  after  a  course  of  about  100  miles, 
into  the  Bay  of  Miramichi,  a  part  of  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence.  Pine  woods  abounding  with 
gnuH'  line  the  banks  of  the  river,  which  is  navi- 
g;ible  for  vessels  of  modern  size  for  a  distance  of 
40  miles  from  its  m«uth.  The  fishing  is  excellent, 
salmon  and  trout  abound,  and  there  is  a  State 
fish  breeding  establishment  on  one  of  the  tribu- 
taries, 

MIRAMON,  me'r:Vmon',  :^fIG^-EL  (1832-67), 
A  Mexican  general,  of  French  descent,  born  in  the 
City  of  Mexico.  He  was  ed\icate<l  for  the  army, 
and  fought  against  the  Cnited  States  at  Molino 
del  Rev  and  Chapultepec.  He  saw  much  active 
.service  during  the  fifties,  and  was  promoted  to  be 
a  lieutenant-cnloncl  in  1S55.  He  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  opposition  to  Comonfort  (q.v.)  in 
1856.  and  supported  Zuloaga,  the  representative 
of  the  clerical  and  reactionary  party,  in  the  move- 
ment which  forced  Comonfort  to  retire  to  the 
I'nited  States  in  1858.  Later  in  the  same  year  ne 
was  chosen  acting  President  by  a  Junta  de  Xola- 
hies,  hut,  contrary  to  the  expectations  of  the  junta 
apparently,  he  turned  the  office  over  to  Zuloaga 


MIRAMON. 

and  assumed  the  coiuhict  of  the  campaign  against 
the  Liberals,  led  Ijy  Jiiaiez.  Returning  to  tlie 
capital,  he  was  again  installed  as  acting  Presi- 
dent, exercising  its  duties  until  Dccemher,  1800. 
when  his  defeat  by  Juarez  at  Calpulalpam  forced 
him  to  leave  the  country.  He  rea|)])eared  in 
Mexico  in  1800,  after  the  announcement  that  the 
French  army  was  to  leave  the  country,  and 
oHered  his  services  to  Jlaxiniilian.  Raising  an 
ainiy  in  the  West,  he  joined  the  Emperor  at 
(^ueretaro,  where  he  was  wounded  during  the 
Knal  struggle  with  the  republican  forces.  lie 
was  tried  and  condennied  to  be  shot  with  the 
Emperor  on  June  19,  1807.  As  they  were  lined 
up  for  the  execution,  Maximilian  insisted  that 
Miramon  should  take  the  place  of  honor  in  the 
centre,  as  a  tribute  to  his  bravery.  For  bibliog- 
raphy, see  under  JIaximiliajj  and  the  general 
works  on  later  Jlexican  history. 

MIRANDA,  me-raN'da.  A  Portuguese  poet. 
See  !Sa  de  -\1ik.\nd.\,  Fr.vxcisco  de. 

MIRAN'DA.  In  .Shakespeare's  Tempest,  Pros- 
pero's  daughter  and  the  lady  love  of  Ferdinand, 
who  was  shipwrecked  on  the  desert  island  on 
which  she  was  brought  up. 

MIRANDA,  me-riln'da,  Fraxcesco  (1750?- 
1810).  A  Spanish-American  revolutionist.  He 
was  born  in  Venezuela,  and  entered  the  Spanish 
Army,  rising  to  the  rank  of  captain.  He  resigned 
in  order  to  serve  with  the  French  in  the  United 
States.  He  was  then  sent  to  C\iba.  where 
he  engaged  in  illegal  trade  and  was  obliged  to 
take  refuge  in  Europe.  There  he  traveled  exten- 
sivel}'.  and  was  well  received  at  the  Court  of  Rus- 
sia. The  French  Revolution  called  forth  his 
enthusiastic  admiration.  He  served  in  the  French 
Republican  army,  and  gained  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  Although  he  had  some  skill  as  a  com- 
mander, the  division  under  him  met  with  little 
success.  The  defeat  at  Xeerwinden  (170,3)  was 
attributed  largely  to  his  treachery,  and  the  sus- 
picion led  to  his  arraignment  before  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal.  After  the  fall  of  the  Girondists 
he  fled  to  England,  and  endeavcn-ed  in  vain  to  in- 
duce William  Pitt  to  aid  him  in  an  attempt  to 
free  ^■enezuela  from  the  Spanish  dominion.  In 
180.3  he  went  to  New  York,  where  he  found  means 
to  fit  out  two  vessels  and  some  200  volunteers, 
with  whom  he  sailed  for  South  America  in  1800. 
He  succeeded  in  taking  possession  of  one  or 
two  coast  towns,  but  the  great  popular  demon- 
stration in  his  favor  which  he  had  expected  w'as 
entirely  lacking.  In  1810  he  organized  another 
expedition,  and  took  possession  of  Valentia, 
Puerto  Cabello,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  New 
Granada.  Miranda  organized  a  revolutionary 
government,  proclaimed  a  constitution,  made  him- 
self Vice-President,  and  entered  C'arftcas  in  tri- 
umph, in  April.  1812.  The  members  of  the  Gov- 
ernment were  not  able  to  act  in  harmony.  Mi- 
randa was  taken  prisoner  by  the  opposition  faction 
of  revolutionists  in  July,  and  shortly  afterwards 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spanish  authorities, 
by  whom  he  was  sent  to  Spain.  He  died  in  the 
dungeons  of  the  Inquisition  at  Cadiz  three  years 
later.  Consult  Biggs.  Hiator;/  of  Minindii's  At- 
tempt in  !?outh  .Imerlen  (London.  1800).  For 
Aliranda's  career  in  France,  consult  Rojas.  Mi- 
rniidn  rliin.i  hi  Rrrohition  frnnccixe  (Carficas, 
ISSOK  a  collection  of  official  documents. 

MIRANDOLA,  mf-riin'do-la.  A  town  in  the 
Province    of    Modena.    Italy,    10    miles    by    rail 


581 


MIRES. 


north-northeast  of  the  citv  of  Modena  (Map: 
Italy.  F  3).  The  little  town  is  regularly  laid 
out.  and  has  some  extremely  interesting  buildings, 
of  which  the  old  ducal  palace,  the  Cathedral,  and 
the  Church  of  Gesil  arc  the  most  imjiorlant.  Tlie 
principal  industries  are  cattle-raising  and  farm- 
ing.    Population,  in  1901    (comnuine),  13,731. 

MIRANDOLA,  Giovanxi  Pico  della.  An 
Italian  humanist.    See  Pico  della  Mibandola. 

MIRANHA,   me-ril'nya.     See  M'aranha. 

MIRAT,  me-riit'.  A  city  of  British  India. 
See   Meerut. 

MIRAVAL,  me'ra'val'.  Raimon  de  (c.UOO- 
1210).  A  Provencal  poet.  His  poverty  com- 
pelled him  to  subsist  on  the  favor  of  the  great 
lords  at  whose  courts  he  seems  to  have  passed 
most  of  his  time.  His  chief  patron  was  Raimon 
VI.  of  Toulouse,  addressed  in  his  poems  by  the 
name  Audiart.  Though  living  at  a  time  when 
his  country  was  in  the  throes  of  death.  Raimon 
wrote  solely  of  the  gallantries  of  Court  life.  He 
died,  probably,  at  a  convent  in  Catalonia.  Con- 
sult Andraud,  La  rir  et  I'ecuvre  du  troubadour 
Raimon  de  Miraval    (Paris,   1002). 

MIRBACH,  mer'bac,  Julius,  Graf  von  (1839 
— ).  A  German  politician,  born  in  Sorquitten, 
East  Prussia.  He  served  in  the  army  after  com- 
pleting his  legal  studies  in  Konigsberg,  Bonn, 
and  Berlin,  and  in  180.5  retired  to  manage  his 
estates  near  Sensburg.  In  1874  he  entered  the 
Prussian  House  of  Lords,  and  in  1878-81  and 
1880-08  was  a  member  of  the  Reichstag,  and  a 
prominent  figure  in  the  German  Conservative 
Party,  taking  a  foremost  part  in  economic 
and  .agrarian  reforms,  acting  as  leader  of  the 
Steuer-  und  Wirtsehaftsreformrr  (1870  sqq.), 
and  eagerly  opposing  the  gold  standard.  He  was 
ennobled  iii   1888. 

MIRBEL,  mcr'bel',  Charles  Francois  Bris- 
SEAU  (1770-1854).  A  French  botanist,  born  in 
Paris.  In  1800  he  began  a  botanical  course  at 
the  Athence.  and  in  1803  he  was  made  intendant 
of  the  ilalmaison  Gardens,  where  he  had  oppor- 
tunity to  continue  his  researches  into  plant  life. 
In  1800  he  was  made  a  councilor  of  State  at  the 
Dutch  Court,  and  as  director  of  fine  arts  he  was 
charged  with  the  mission  of  organizing  a  school 
in  Paris  for  Dutch  artists.  He  was  professor  of 
culture  at  the  .Tardin  des  Plantes  (1828),  and 
taught  his  subject  in  the  Normal  School.  His 
great  contributions  to  structural  botany  are  re- 
corded in  his  works:  Traitf  d'anntomie  et  de 
physioloffie  vfgetales  (1802);  Exposition  de  la 
tlU'orie  de  I'orrjanisotion  vccjftalc  (1809);  Ele- 
ments de  hotanique  et  de  phi/siolofjie  vfqftale 
(1815):  and  Eistoire  naturcUe  des  iH^gftaux 
classes  par  families   (18  vols.,  1802-20). 

MIRES,  me'ra',  Jltles  (1809-71).  A  French 
financier  and  speculator.  He  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux of  .Jewish  parents,  and  connncnced  opera- 
tions on  a  large  scale  in  Paris  in  1848.  In 
company  with  ^toTse  Mil  laud,  be  l)eL'an  to  b\iy 
up  the  press  of  Paris;  he  purchased  the  Cliemins 
de  Per,  and  afterwards  the  f'onseiller  du  Pcuple. 
the  C'onstitutionnel.  and  Lc  I'ai/s.  Swaying  pub- 
lic opinion  in  this  manner,  he  organized  the 
Paisse  r/encrale  des  eheniins  de  fer.  or  railway 
bank,  commenced  to  build  railroads  in  Spain  and 
elsewhere,  negotiated  nnuiicipnl  and  national 
loans,  and  acquired  an  iimnense  fortune.  During 
the  last  four  years  of  his  career  his  speculations 


MIRES. 


582 


HIBBOB. 


amounted  to  1,500,000.000  francs.  Arrested  for 
frniiil  in  1800.  lie  was  condemned'  to  imprison- 
ment, but  was  freed  in  1802.  He  resumed  bank- 
inj;  operations,  but  people  came  to  distrust  his 
promises  of  magnificent  possibilities.  He  was  a 
man  of  infinite  resources,  quick  to  plan,  daring 
to  act,  carrying  out  his  immense  coups  by  gigan- 
tic combinations,  overcoming  all  opposition  by 
the  onset  of  billions  and  with  the  liclp  of  his 
hired  journjijists  and  politicians,  lie  jjublishcd 
ill  1870  Vn  crime  judicinirr,  and  carried  on  a 
lively  war  of  pamphlets  with  his  enemies. 

MIR'FIELD.  A  maruifacturing  town  in  the 
West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  eight  miles 
east-southeast  of  Halifax  (Map:  England,  E  3), 
one  of  the  chief  railway  centres, in  the  country. 
It  lias  manufactures  of  woolen  fabrics,  car- 
pet?, and  blankets.     Population,  in  1891,  11,707; 

in  mm.  11. .300. 

HIB'IAM.  The  sister  of  Moses  and  Aaron. 
In  tjie  triple  tradition  of  the  career  of  Hoses 
(q.v. ),  as  embodied  in  the  Book  of  Exodus, 
Miriam  apjiears  only  in  the  narrative  of  the 
Elohist.  (8ce  Eloiiist  and  Y.viiwisr.)  She  is 
called  a  'prophetess'  and  is  represented  as  cele- 
brating the  deliverance  of  the  people  from  Egj'pt 
as  the  leader  of  a  female  choir  (Ex.  xv.).  Ai)art 
from  this,  she  is  mentioned  again  only  in  con- 
nection with  Aaron's  rebellion  against  Moses,  in 
which  Miriam  stands  on  Aaron's  side.  She  is 
smitten  with  leprosy  as  a  punishment  (Num. 
xii.),  but  after  seven  days'  isolation  (Lev.  xiii. 
5)  is  healed  by  Yahweh  at  Moses'  solicitation. 
Her  death  takes  place  at  Kadesh  (Xum.  xx.  1). 
Miriam,  though  not  expressly  named,  is  Uiought 
to  be  the  sister  referred  to  in  the  story  of  Moses' 
infancy  (Ex.  ii.),  who  acts  as  a  nurse  and  pro- 
tector to  him.  The  name  may  bo  connected  with 
Merari,  one  of  the  sons  of  Levi  (Ex.  vi.  16), 
and  a  very  plausible  view  is  to  assume  that 
Aaron  and  Miriam  represent  priestly  families, 
the  one  at  Horeb.  the  other  at  Kadesli,  who 
were  joined  to  the  early  traditions  of  the 
Hebrews  by  virtue  of  reminiscences  that  some 
of  the  clans  once  followed  the  cult  at  the  sanc- 
tuaries in  the  two  places  named.  The  associa- 
tion iM'tween  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam  onctf 
established  gave  rise  to  further  elaboration  which 
was  adjusted  to  the  general  priestly  narrative 
in  the  Pentateuch.  Tlie  allusion  in  Micah  vi.  4 
to  'Moses,  Aaron,  and  iliriam'  as  the  forerunners 
in  the  rcilcmplinn  of  Israel,  is  a  vahiatile  indica- 
tion for  tlii>  pcriiiil  at  wliicli  the  combination  of 
tlic  three  in  popular  tradition  an<l  legcml  had 
taken  place. 

MIRIBEL,  nK^'rc'bel'.  .Mauie  Fraxoois  .To- 
SEI'H  UK  ( I8:il0.'!).  .\  French  general.  He  was 
born  at  .Montbonnot,  stmlicd  at  the  Kcole  Poly- 
technique  and  at  the  Military  -Vcadeiny  of  Metz, 
and  at  twenty-four  was  commissioned  a  lieuten- 
ant of  artillerv  and  sent  to  the  Crimea.  He 
fought  in  Italy  in  18.59  and  in  Mexico  (18G2- 
Co|:  served  on  the  international  conimission 
dealing  with  the  use  of  explosive  bullets;  and 
in  ISOS  was  appointed  military  attache  in 
Saint  Petersburg.  .Miribel  fought  bravely  at 
Champigny  and  liuzcnval  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War:  comiiiandi'd  a  corps  of  artillerv  against 
the  f'ommiinc;  and  in  1877  became  chief  of  the 
general  staff.  His  reappointment  to  this  post 
in  1881  created  great  excitement,  and  he  resigned 
after  the  fall  of  Gainl)ettn'.s  Ministry.     In  1890 


he  was  once  more  made  chief  of  staff  with  greater 
powers  than  before,  and  showed  himself  an  able 
administrator. 

MIRIM,  me-rex',  or  Lagoa  Mini.  A  lake  or 
lagoon  in  the  extreme  southeastern  corner  of 
Brazil,  on  the  boundary  of  Uruguay  (Map: 
South  America,  DC).  It  is  130  miles  long  and 
from  5  to  25  miles  wide,  and  is  separated  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  a  low  sandy  tract  from 
15  to  40  miles  wide,  containing  several  true 
coast  lagoons.  It  receives  a  number  of  small 
rivers  from  the  west,  and,  though  its  shores 
are  low  and  marshy,  it  is  not  in  direct  com- 
munication with  the  ocean,  but  discharges  its 
waters  northward  into  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos 
(q.v.).  Like  the  latter,  it  was  evidently  formed 
through  the  cutting  off  by  sand-bars  of  a  large 
bay  of  the  ocean.  The  water  of  Lake  ilirim  is 
fresh,  and  tides  are  not  felt  in  it. 

MIRITI    (m^re'te)    PALM.     See  Mauritia. 

MIRKHOND,  mcr-Kond'.  Haman  ed  mx 
(1433-98).  A  distinguished  Persian  historian, 
born  of  Sayyid  descent  from  a  Bokharan  f:unily 
probably  near  Xisha|)ur.  About  1474.  under  the 
patronage  of  Mir  Alisbir,  Mirkhond  began  his 
historical  work,  entitled  liaiczat-uxsafa,  or  'Gar- 
den of  Purity.'  It  is  of  great  value,  and.  on  the 
whole,  is  a  very  remarkable  com]iilation,  being,  ( 
save  for  the  seventh  volume,  which  deals  with 
the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  centurv,  and  must 
have  been  by  Mirkliond's  son,  Khondcmir  (  1475- 
1334).  the  work  of  a  single  man.  Beginning  with 
mythical  times,  the  Garden,  contains  biographical 
notices  of  the  leading  Persian  notables  <l(iwn  to 
1523.  The  part  on  the  early  kings  was  trans- 
lated by  Shea  (London.  1S32)  ;  that  on  the  Sas- 
sanids,  into  French  by  S.  de  Sacy  (Paris,  1793)  ; 
on  the  Samanids,  into  Latin  by  ^Vilken  (Berlin, 
1832),  and  into  French  by  Dcfremery  (Paris, 
1845)  ;  on  the  Seljuks,  by  VuUcrs  into  German 
(Giessen.  1837)  :  and  the  stor^'  of  ilohammed 
by  Kehatsek  into  English   (London.  1893). 

MIRROR  (OF.  mireor,  miroiir,  Fr.  miroir, 
It.  mtrntorc,  iitiradorf.  from  Lat.  mirari,  to  look, 
from  miruK,  wonderful;  connected  with  Gk.  ftei- 
SS.i',  mcidan,  Skt.  smi,  to  smile).  An  object  hav- 
ing a  smooth  or  polished  reflecting  surface  by 
which  virtual  or  real  images  of  an  object  are 
produced.  Mirrors  are  used  largely  for  toilet 
and  decorative  purposes,  and  also  in  scientific 
apparatus  and  in  numerous  other  practical 
devices  to  concentrate,  scatter,  or  divert  rays  of 
light  or  heat.  The  action  of  the  mirror  depends 
on  the  law  of  reflection  where  it  is  stated  that 
the  angle  of  reflection  must  equal  the  angle  of 
incidence  and  be  in  the  same  plane.  This  op- 
tical principle  was  well  known  to  the  ancients 
and  was  doubtless  long  preceded  by  an  actual 
practical  knowledge  of  the  instrument.  Prob- 
ably for  ages  after  the  civilization  of  man  com- 
menced, the  still  waters  of  ponds  and  lakes 
were  the  only  mirrors.  ^Ve  read  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch of  mirrors  of  brass  being  used  by  the 
Hebrews,  while  it  is  known  that  mirrors  of 
bronze  were  in  very  common  use  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and 
many  specimens  are  preserved  in  musenms. 
Praxiteles  taught  the  use  of  polished  silver  for 
mirrors  in  the  year  B.C.  328.,  and  polished  mir- 
rors of  obsidian  or  natural  glass  were  used  by 
the  Romans. 

Mirrors  of  glass  were  first  made  at  Venice  in 


MIRROR. 


583 


MIRROR  OF  KNIGHTHOOD. 


1300;  nnd  judginf;  from  tiiose  still  in  existence, 
they  were  very  riulc  coiitrivunce.s,  compared  witli 
those  of  modern  make. 

It  was  not  until  l(i73  that  the  making  of  mir- 
rors was  introduced  into  England,  and  tlie  in- 
dustry has  since  developed  in  Europe  and 
America  to  a  point  wliere  it  is  a  very  important 
niamifactnre:  and  mirrors  can  be  jjroduced  of 
any  size  to  which  plate  glass  can  be  east. 

For  many  centuries  mirrors  were  made  accord- 
ing to  the  process  originally  introduced  at 
Venice,  by  backing  a  sheet  of  glass  with  an 
amalgam  of  mercury  and  tin.  The  surface  was 
overlaid  with  sheets  of  tinfoil,  rubbed  do«Ti 
smooth,  and  the  whole  covered  with  quicksilver, 
which  immediately  formed  an  amalgam  with 
the  tin.  The  su])eriIuous  mercury  was  then  run 
oil'  and  a  woolen  cloth  held  firmly  over  the 
surface,  by  means  of  iron  weights.  After  this 
pressure  had  been  continued  twenty-four  hours, 
more  or  less,  the  weights  and  cloth  were  re- 
moved and  the  glass  ])laeed  on  a  table  witli  a 
movable  toj).  which  was  gradually  inclined  until 
the  unanialgamated  quicksilver  liad  entirely 
drained  away,  and  only  the  surface  of  perfect 
amalgam  remained  adhering  to  tlie  glass.  This 
process,  which  was  long  used,  was  open  to  many 
objections,  not  least  of  which  was  its  extreme 
unhealthfulness  for  the  workmen.  The  process 
was  also  long  and  tedious,  and  at  best  made  an 
imsatisfaetory  mirror,  reflecting  less  than  half 
t!ie  rays  of  light. 

The  first  attempt  to  back  the  glass  with  silver 
was  made  by  Liebig  in  1830.  and  diflferent  solu- 
tions were  proposed  by  other  chemists,  all  of 
which  produced  mirrors  that  were  satisfactory 
for  a  short  time,  but  finallj'  became  spotted. 
In  185.5  Pcttijean  jiatented  a  process  which,  with 
various  modifications,  is  tlie  one  now  in  general 
tise.  The  method  of  mirror  manufacture  com- 
mon in  America  may  be  described  as  follows: 
The  raw  stock  or  plain  plate  glass  reaches  the 
factoiy  carefully  packed  in  eases  of  immense 
size.  The  glass  is  first  thoroughly  inspected  and 
all  defects  marked.  It  then  goes  to  the  cutters' 
department,  where  it  is  cut  into  the  proper 
sizes.  Thence  it  is  moved  to  the  beveling  de- 
partment, where  it  is  beveled  and  polished  on 
rapidly  revolving  emerj'  wlieels  of  varying  de- 
grees of  smoothness,  the  plates^some  of  them 
of  enormous  size — being  lightly  held  against  the 
wheel  by  the  workmen.  After  both  surfaces, 
incluiling  the  beveled  edge,  have  been  reduced, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  to  a  condition  of  perfect 
smoothness,  the  glass  is  passed  on  to  the  silver- 
ing di'partnient.  Here  it  must  be  thoroughly 
cleansed,  and  so  delicate  is  this  operation  that 
n  sppiially  distilled  water  is  often  required 
I  r  the  purpose.  The  glass  is  now  ready  for  the 
I  -^rntial  process  of  silvering.  The  nitrate  of 
-ilvcr  is  dissolved  in  ammonia  and  is  precipitated 
by  a  solutfrm  of  tartaric  acid.  The  glass  is 
placed  on  warm  tables  and  the  solution  poured 
over  it.  The  heat  lielps  the  silver  to  i)recipitate 
and  adliere  to  the  glass.  The  silver  back  re- 
ceives a  coat  of  shellac  and  then  of  paint,  which 
completes  the  process.  Silvered  mirrors  reflect 
from  20  to  2.5  per  cent,  more  of  light  than  those 
backed  with  quicksilver. 

The  optical  considerations  involved  in  reflec- 
tion will  be  foimd  fully  discussed  together  in  the 
article  on  Limit,  but  lirief  mention  may  here  be 
made   of   mirrors   whose   reflecting  surfaces   are 


other  than  i)lane.  In  a  concave  spherical  mir- 
ror we  have  distant  rays  of  light  or  heat 
brought  to  a  focus  and  a  real  image  form. 
Conversely,  if  a  point  source  of  light  is  placed  at 
the  focus  of  the  mirror,  a  parallel  beam  of  light 
results.  The  first  idea  is  made  use  of  in  the 
rellecting  telescope  (see  Telescope)  ,  while  the 
latter  is  employed  in  the  search  liglit   (q.v.). 

A  pariiholic  minor  is  one  "in  which  every 
section  through  the  principal  axis  cuts  the  sur- 
face in  a  i>arabola,  so  that  rays  from  a  light 
placed  at  the  focus  are  all  reflected  parallel  to 
the  axis  and,  conversely,  parallel  rays  are 
brought  to  the  focus."  The  reflector  of  a  loco- 
motive   headlight     is    thus     constructed.        See 

AbERKATIOX,    SPIIERICAi;    LiGHT. 

Cylindrical  mirrors  do  not  play  as  important 
a  part  in  optics  and  optical  instruments  as 
those  of  S])herical  and  ])arabolic  cross-section, 
but  their  etl'ects  are  sometimes  interesting.  By 
using  a  glass  that  is  curved  instead  of  flat,  the 
reflected  shape  of  the  object  will  become  dis- 
torted: a  concave  cylindrical  mirror  lengthening 
it  at  the  expense  of  width,  and  a  convex  mirror 
producing  the  opposite  effect. 
I  As  heat  is  reflected  as  well  as  light  from  the 
surface  of  a  mirror,  a  concave  mirror  may  be 
used  to  bring  rays  of  light  to  a  focus.  In  this 
way  combustible  substances  may  be  set  on  fire 
at  a  distance  from  the  reflector  whence  they 
receive  their  heat.  The  Arcltimedean  mirror  was 
made  on  this  plan.  A  series  of  mirrors  set  in 
a  concave  curve  concentrated  the  rays  of  light 
iipon  an  enemy's  ship,  causing  it,  according  to 
the  story,  to  bum. 

MIRROR  CARP.  An  artificial  variety  of 
carp  (q.v.  I  witli  very  large  scales  in  two  or  three 
rows  along  the  sides  of  its  body,  which  is  other- 
wise bare. 

MIRROR  FOR  MAGISTRATES,  A.   A  long 

series  of  poems  on  incidents  in  English  history 
showing  the  tragedies  in  the  lives  of  great  men. 
The  plan  was  suggested  by  Boccaccio's  Falls  of 
Uluntrious  Men  and  Lydgat^-'s  Falls  of  Princes. 
and  was  devised  by  William  Baldwin,  George 
Ferrers,  and  Saekville.  who  wrote  a  general 
introduction  called  the  Induction.  It  was  partly 
printed  in  15.55.  when  it  was  stopped  by  Lord 
Chancellor  Gardiner.  It  was  licensed,  however. 
in  1559,  and  then  contained  nineteen  metrical 
biographies,  lieginning  with  Tressillian  in  Rich- 
ard XL's  reign.  New  editions,  witti  additional 
lives  by  various  writers,  appeared  in  15(>3.  1574, 
1578,  1587,  and  1010.  and  a  reprint  of  the  whole 
by  Haslcwood  in  1815.  Some  of  the  best-known 
contributors  are  Thomas  Saekville,  who.se  JniJuc- 
lion  and  Comphiint  of  f<lafforil.  Dnke  of  Jinck- 
hif/ham.  are  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  work; 
Michael  Drayton,  Thomas  Churchyard,  and  John 
Skelton. 

MIRROR  OF  KNIGHTHOOD,  TnE.  A 
translation  of  a  Spani'sh  romance.  Cnviillcro  del 
Fi'ho.  the  Knight  of  the  Sun.  which  tells  the 
adventures  of  Febo  and  his  brother  Rosiclair. 
It  belongs  in  a  sense  to  the  Amadis  cycle  of 
romance,  as  the  father  of  the  Knight  of  the  Sun 
was  related  to  Amadis.  Tlie  Spanish  version  was 
evidently  the  work  of  several,  and  was  left  un- 
finished." The  translation  of  the  romance  into 
English  was  printed  in  1578.  See  Dunlap's  History 
of  Prose  Fiction. 


UIBZA. 


584 


MISDEMEANOR. 


MIBZA,  mCr'zi'i  (Purs,  mirzu.  contracted  from 
Amir  /.iUhih,  sou  of  the  prince).  A  Persian  title. 
As  a  prcli.x  preceding  tlie  snrname  of  tlie  individ- 
ual it  is  a  common  Persian  title  of  honor;  but 
when  annexed  to  the  surname  it  designates  a 
priiite  or  a  male  of  the  blood  royal. 

MIRZAPTJR,  mOr'zapoor'.  The  capital  of  a 
district  of  Benares,  in  the  United  Provinces, 
British  India,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
.'iO  miles  southwest  of  Benares,  ami  .')n!l  miles 
northwest  of  Calcutta  on  the  East  Indian  Railway. 
(  Map:  India.  D.3) .  It  is  a  well-built  city  ;  the  river 
front  is  lined  with  a  series  of  elegant  ghats,  and 
there  are  several  interesting  temples  and  hand- 
some European  residences.  It  is  noted  for  its 
manufactures  of  carpets  and  rugs,  and  has  numer- 
ous lac  factories.  Prior  to  the  railway  period  it 
was  the  largest  cotton  and  grain  trading  centre 
on  the  Ganges,  and  the  converging  market  of 
North  and  Central  India.  Population,  in  1891, 
84.I.3U:    in    IHOI,   711.787. 

MIRZA  SCHAFTY.     See  Bodenstedt. 

MISANTHROPE,  me'za.\'tr(ip'.  Le.  A  com- 
edy by  ibiliOre  (1(J6G)  dealing  with  refined  so- 
ciety and  based  on  a  study  of  character  ratUer 
tlian  (in  incidents.  It  depends  for  its  comedy 
element  chiefly  on  the  constant  discord  in  the 
elevated  character  of  Alccste  and  the  more  com- 
monplace characters  of  the  other  jiersons  of  the 
play.  The  comedy  is  considered  MolifTe's  mas- 
terpiece, and  shows  his  style  at  its  highest  dc- 
vcldiniicnt. 

MISCARRIAGE.  In  its  broadest  sense,  a 
breach  of  legal  duty.  This  is  the  signification  in 
the  fourth  section  of  the  English  Statute  of 
Frauds,  and  in  similar  statutory  provisions  in 
this  country,  which  in  order  to  make  a  person 
liable  to  answer  for  the  debt,  default,  or  miscar- 
riage of  another  jierson.  require  special  promises 
in  writing.  The  term  bears  quite  a  different 
meaning  in  criminal  law.  being  substantially 
synonynious  with  abortion   (q.v.). 

MISCEGENATION  (from  Lat.  miscere,  to 
mix  +  tinnis.  race).  .Mixing  of  races;  usually 
restricted  to  amalgamation  of  Caucasian  and 
African  races  in  -Xmerlca.  The  expression  came 
into  common  use  in  discussions  of  negro  slavery 
in  the  United  States  toward  and  after  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  certain  publicists 
advocated  the  gradual  absorption  of  the  blacks 
by  intermarriage  with  whites.  The  expression  is 
seldom  employed  in  scientific  discussion  of  racial 
problems,  such  collocations  as  'mixing  of  races.' 
'blood-blending,'  etc..  taking  Its  place.  The  proc- 
ess .so  denoted  is  of  nuich  Importance;  Indeed, 
one  of  the  primary  factors  of  human  develop- 
ment, as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  most 
advanced  peoples  are  those  whose  blood  is  most 
mixed.  Tlie  elTect  of  blood-blending  seems  to  vary 
with  the  degree  of  diversity  between  the  uniting 
races,  the  benefit  being  greatest  when  the  races 
are  least  diverse,  and  the  effect  less  beneficial 
or  even  Injurious  when  the  races  are  widely  dis- 
tinct ;  thus  the  blcnils  of  white  and  red  (meztizo) 
and  of  red  and  black  (zambo)  are  apparently 
better,  measured  by  the  vitality  and  fecimdity 
of  the  progeny,  than  that  of  white  and  black 
(mulatto).  The  process  of  racial  assimilation 
Is  going  on  in  every  part  of  the  world,  and  with 
progressively  increasing  rapidity.  Even  in  the 
United  State.s,  despite  the  most  strenuous  opposi- 


tion on  both  national  and  M'litimcntal  grounds, 
the  admixture  of  whites  and  blacks  has  gone  so 
far  that  among  the  nine  millions  enumerated  as 
colored  in  the  census  of  1900,  the  population 
of  pure-blooded  Africans  is  comparatively  small, 
while  the  admixture  of  red  and  white  races  has 
ali'ected  a  proportion  of  our  population  which 
may  be  estimated  at  .SO  per  cent,  to  (iO  per  cent, 
of  the  element  reckoned  as  Indian.  The  data 
are  too  meagre  to  Indicate  the  vital  value  of  the 
meztizo  type  in  the  United  States,  though  the 
experience  of  Mexico  suggests  tliat  the  value  Is 
high.  The  more  general  aspects  of  racial  blend- 
ing arc  discussed  in  the  article  Mixed  Races. 

MISCHIANZA,  mis'ke-Un'tsa,  The.  An  elab- 
oiatc  fete  or  entertainment  given  at  Philadeli)hia, 
.May  18,  1778,  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  by 
otlieers  of  the  British  Army,  in  honor  of  Sir 
William  Howe,  who  having  been  superseded  in  the 
command  of  the  British  Army  in  .\merica  by  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  was  about  to  sail  for  England. 
The  entertainment,  which  was  given  at  Walnut 
Grove,  the  country-seat  of  Thomas  Wharton, 
lasted  twelve  hours,  and  comprised  a  regatta,  a 
mock  tournament  between  the  'Knights  of  the 
Blended  Rose"  and  the  'Knights  of  the  Burning 
Mountain.'  a  dance  and  a  dinner.  Captain  (later 
.Major)  Andre  was  prominent  in  planning  and 
directing  the  entertainment,  and  wrote  a  detailed 
description,  which  may  be  found  in  Sargent, 
Life  uf  Major  Andre  (last  ed..  New  York,  1902). 

MISDEMEANOR  (from  mis-  +  demeanor, 
from  il'imnii.  from  OF.  demener,  deminer.  to 
manage,  from  Lat.  dr.  down  +  minare.  to  lead, 
drive).  The  name  given  by  English  common  law 
to  ever}'  crime  below  the  grade  of  felony  (q.v.). 
By  the  common  law,  the  offense  of  greatest 
enormity  is  lrc:ison.  and  the  least  is  mis- 
demeanor. The  original  distinction  between 
felony  and  ml.sdemeanor  consisted  in  the  conse- 
quences of  a  conviction.  A  party  convicted  of 
felony,  if  capital,  forfeited  both  his  real  and 
jiersonal  estate;  if  not  capital,  his  personal 
estate  only.  A  party  convicted  of  misdemeanor 
forfeited  none  of  his  property.  The  distinction 
is  not  kept  up  between  the  two  classes  of  crimes 
by  any  greater  severity  of  punishment  in  felony, 
for  many  misdemeanors  arc  jiunlshed  as  severely 
its  some  felonies  But  it  has  been  the  practice 
of  the  legislature,  when  creating  new  offenses,  to 
say  whether  they  are  to  be  classed  with  felony 
or  misdemeanor;  and  when  this  Is  done,  the 
above  Incidents  attach  to  the  conviction  accord- 
ingly, in  the  absence  of  legislation  to  the  con- 
trary. 

Misdemeanor,  in  the  Ignited  States,  does  not 
Include.  In  its  legal  application,  offenses  against 
police  regulations,  city  by-laws,  and  the  like, 
though  In  conunon  language  and  in  some  statutes 
It  may  extend  to  any  misbehavior.  It  Is  evident 
that  what  is  a  stat\ite  felony  in  ono  State  may 
lio  a  misdemeanor  In  another,  and  it  is  therefore 
impossible  to  give  a  complete  classification  of 
such  offenses.  They  may  be  crimes  against  pub- 
lic justice.  ]>eace.  health,  or  trade;  against  per- 
sonal or  property  rights  of  indlvhiuals ;  or  may 
be  mere  attempts  and  solicitations. 

In  some  States  it  Is  provided  that  upon  ac- 
knowledgment of  satisfaction  by  the  injured 
partv.  In  such  cases  as  assault  and  battery-  or 
malicious  mischief,  the  criminal  proceeding  shall, 
with  the  consent  of  the  magistrate,  be  dropped; 


MISDEMEANOR. 


585 


MISHNA. 


a  course  wliich,  dbviously,  would  be  improper  in 
dealing  witli  felonies. 

See  Fkloxy  and  Law,  Criminal. 

MISENO,  nieza'no  (Lat.  Misenum),  Cape. 
A  promontorj'  projecting  into  the  Bay  of  Naples 
on  the  northwest  and  connected  with  the  main- 
land by  a  narrow  strip  of  coast,  nine  miles  south- 
west of  the  city  of  Naples.  On  the  outskirts  of 
the  promontory  are  the  scanty  rviins  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Misenum,  including  tlie  Piscina  Mirabilis, 
a  huge  reservoir  with  a  wcll-])reserved  vaulted 
roof,  supported  by  pillars,  and  the  (Irotto  Dra- 
gonara,  a  subterranean  vaulted  structure,  of  un- 
certain use.  Misenum  was  made  by  Augustus 
the  naval  station  for  a  division  of  the  Roman 
fleet,  and  for  that  purpose  a  great  harbor  with 
three  basins  was  constructed,  of  which  the  inner 
is  now  a  lagoon,  the  Mare  Jlorto.  The  town  was 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  8!)0. 

MISE  OF  AMIENS,  ii'meTuV  (OF.,  Fr.  mise, 
putting,  expense,  judgment,  from  Lat.  mitlere,  to 
send).  Tlie  name  given  to  the  decision  of  Louis 
IX.  of  France,  delivered  as  arbitrator  between 
Henry  IIL  of  England  and  his  barons  on  .January 
23,  1264.  All  points  in  dispute  were  decided  in 
favor  of  Henry,  and  the  Provisions  of  Oxford 
(q.v.)  were  specifically  annulled.  See  Mont- 
fort,  Simon  de;  Henry  IIL 

MISE  OF  LEWES,  IQ'is.  The  name  given  to 
the  capitulation  of  Henrj-  III.  of  England  after 
the  battle  of  Lewes,  in  whicli  on  May  14.  1204, 
the  barons  defeated  and  captured  him.  This 
treaty  greatly  limited  the  royal  power,  and  upon 
it  Simon  tie  Montfort  sought  to  estaldish  a  new 
constitution  for  England.  See  Montfort,  Simon 
I)E;  Hknry  111. 

MISEBABLES,  me'za'ra'bl',  Les.  A  noted 
rninuuce  by  \'ictor  Hugo,  begun  in  1846,  but  in- 
trrrupted  by  the  author's  political  activity.  It 
was  completed  during  Hugo's  stay  in  Saint 
Peter's.  Guernsey,  and  was  published  in  1862, 
the  first  part  appearing  simultaneously  in  Paris, 
Knissels,  London,  New  York,  Madrid,  Berlin, 
^;iint  Petersburg,  and  Turin.  It  formed  ten 
\olumes.  divided  into  five  parts,  entitled  Fantine, 
I'li.sctte,  ilarius,  L'idi/Ue  rue  Pliiinrl,  and  Jean 
1  iiljnni.  The  interest  centres  tliroiighout  on 
Ic  an  Valjean,  a  fallen  man  who  achieves  his  own 
rcliabilitation  after  long  physical  and  mental 
suffering  and  degradation.  The  leading  charac- 
ters, Valjean.  .Javert,  and  Gavroche,  are  crea- 
tions of  Hugo.  The  saintly  Bishop  Mynil  or 
Bienvenu  is  modeled  on  De  Miolles,  Bishop  of 
Digne ;  Marius  represents  the  author's  idea  of 
himself  in  his  youth,  and  the  Baron  Pontmercy 
i-  intended  as  a  sketch  of  Hugo's  father.  The 
i\ork  embodies  the  fruits  of  long  observation  and 
~lndy  set  down  with  keen  exactness  and  force. 

MISERERE,  miz'e-re're  (Lat.,  have  mercy). 
The  name,  taken  from  its  first  word,  of  the 
Psalm  which  is  the  50th  in  the  Vulgate  and 
the  51st  in  the  Authorized  Version:  the  principal 
one  of  the  seven  penitential  Psalms,  commonly 
understood  to  have  been  composed  by  David  in 
his  remorse  after  being  rebuked  by  Nathan  for 
his  sin  with  Bathsheba.  It  is  used  on  numerous 
penitential  occasions  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  forms  part  of  the  service  for  Ash 
Wednesday  in  the  Anglican  Prayer-Book. 


MISERERE.  A  jirojection  on  the  under  side 
of  tlic  seal--  of  the  stalls  of  mediaeval  churches, 
chapels,  and  other  ecclesiastical  buildings.  They 
are  usually  ornamented  with  carved  work,  and 
are  so  shaped  that  when  the  seats  proper  are 
raised  they  form  a  su])port  at  a  higher  level  to 
a  person  resting  upon  it.  Aged  and  infirm 
ecclesiastics  were  allowed  to  use  these  during 
long  services. 

MISFEASANCE  (OF.  mesfaisance,  wrong, 
from  mesfaire,  imsfcrre,  Fr.  mefaire,  to  do 
wrong,  from  mcs-,  from  I>at.  minus,  less  -}-  faire, 
from  Lat.  faccre,  to  do).  Doing  a  lawful  act 
in  an  improper  or  negligent  manner;  contrasted 
with  malfeasance  and  with  nonfeasance.  When 
misfeasance  results  in  legal  damage  to  a  person, 
it  amounts  to  an  actionable  tort  (q.v.),  although 
the  same  act  may  be  a  breach  of  contract  also,  as 
when  a  common  carrier  injures  a  passenger  by 
the  negligent  use  of  its  property  or  improper 
conduct  of  its  servants. 

MISHAWAKA,  mish'a-wn'ka.  A  town  in 
Saint  .Joseph  County,  Ind.,  four  miles  east  of 
South  Bend,  the  county-seat ;  on  the  Saint  Jo- 
seph River,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  Grand  Trunk, 
tlie  Elkhart  and  Western,  and  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Jlichigan  Southern  railroads  (Map:  Indiana, 
CI).  It  has  good  water  power  from  the  river, 
and  is  noted  as  a  manufacturing  centre,  the  prod- 
ucts including  windmills,  heavy  machinery,  pul- 
leys, agricultural  implements,  furniture,  church 
organs  and  furniture,  gasoline  engines  and 
launches,  paper  pulp,  flour,  and  knit  felt,  and 
felt  boots  and  rubbers.  The  government  is  ad- 
ministered under  a  charter  of  1809,  which  pro- 
vides for  a  mayor,  chosen  every  two  years,  and  a 
unicameral  council.  The  city  owns  and  operates 
the  water-works  and  electric  light  plant.  One  of 
the  oldest  cities  in  northern  Indiana,  Jlishawaka 
was  settled  in  1828  and  was  incorporated  in 
1834  as  "Saint  Joseph  Iron  Works,"  the  change 
to  its  present  name  being  authorized  by  special 
legislative  act  in  1838.  Population,  in  1800, 
3371;  in  1000,  5560. 

MISHTWIS.  The  natives  of  the  :Mishmi  Hills 
in  the  valley  of  the  Brahnuiputra  in  North- 
eastern India.  By  language  they  are  related  to 
the  adjacent  peoples  of  Indo-China  (Chins,  Shans, 
Lushai,  etc.).  These  primitive  tribes  are  very 
interesting  from  a  sociological  point  of  view. 
Among  them  the  custom  that  the  favorite  child 
(without  respect  to  age)  inherits  prevails.  The 
marriage  customs  are  also  peculiar.  Consult: 
Cooper,  r/ie  Mishmco  Flillx  (London.  1873)  :  Dal- 
ton.  Descriptive  Ethnoloijtj  of  licnqcil  (Calcutta, 
1872). 

MISH'NA  (Heb.,  explanation,  from  shutuih, 
to  learn).  The  body  of  the  'oral  law,'  or 
the  juridico-political.  civil,  and  religious  code 
of  the  .Jews.  As  such  it  forms  a  kind  of  com- 
plement to  the  Pentateuchal  codes,  which  it  ex- 
plains, amplifies,  and  inunutably  fixes  in  accord- 
ance with  traditional  usage,  enforced  by  the 
application  of  the  peculiar  exegetical  methods 
developed  in  the  rabbinical  schools  of  Babylonia 
and  Palestine.  The  Mislinaic  laws  were  subse- 
quently submitted  to  a  process  of  exposition 
similar  to  that  which  the  biblical  enactments 
underwent,  and  hence  there  arose,  as  a  supple- 
ment to  the  Mishna,  the  Gemara  (q.v.) ,  embodying 
the  discussions  on  the  Mishna  by  the  rabbis  of 
Babylonia  and  Palestine  from  the  third  to  the 


k 


MISHNA. 


586 


MISREPRESENTATION. 


sixth  century,  wlicn  tlie  Jlishna  and  the  Gcmara 
were  brought  toj,'olher  in  a  final  compihition 
known  as  the  Talmud.  The  Mishna,  to  which 
again  there  are  "apocryphal'  supplements  known 
as  Toseftas  (additions)  and  Baraitlias  (extras), 
■nas  finally  redacted,  after  .some  earlier  incom- 
plete collections  bj-  Rabbi  Jehudah,  called  Han- 
asi  (C.200  .\.D.),  at  Til)erias.  It  is  mostly  written 
in  pure  Hebrew,  and  is  ilivided  into  six  portions 
(Sedarira)  :  (1)  Zeraim  (seed.s),  on  benedic- 
tions. agrieuUure,  tithes,  etc. ;  (2)  !XIoed  (feast), 
on  the  Sabbath,  festivals,  and  fasts;  (3) 
Xashim  (women),  on  marriage,  divorce,  etc. 
(embracing  also  the  laws  on  the  Nazirship 
and  vows)  ;  (4)  Xezikin  (damages),  chiefly  civil 
and  penal  laws  (also  containing  the  ethical  treat- 
i.se  Aboth)  ;  (5)  Kodashim  (sacred  things),  sacri- 
fices, etc.;  description  of  the  Temple  of  Jeru- 
.saleni,  etc. ;  (0)  Toharoth  (purifications)  on  pure 
and  impure  things  and  [x-rsons.  (See  further 
T.vorri).)  An  English  translation  of  the  Jlishna 
has  been  publislied  by  J.  Barclay  (London,  187S). 

MISILMERI,  nu''zel-mri'r*.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  I'alermo,  Sicilv.  10  miles  south  of 
Palermo  (Jlap:  Italy,  H  9).  The  castle,  .sit- 
uated on  a  hill  overlooking  the  town,  commands 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  surrounding  country. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture.    Population,  in   1901    (commune),   12,819. 

MISIONES,  me'sf-o'nas.  A  territory  of  Ar- 
gentina. sitn.Tted  at  the  northeastern  end  of  the 
republic,  between  Paraguay  and  Brazil,  and 
bounded  on  the  southwest  bj-  the  Dep.Trtn\ent  of 
Corrientes  (Map:  Argentina.  G  9).  Its  area  is 
estimated  at  20.000  square  miles.  It  is  watered 
by  numerous  small  affluents  of  the  Paranfi  and 
the  Urugiuiy.  and  is  very  densely  wooded,  only  a 
small  portion  of  its  area  being  under  cultivation. 
Practically  the  only  products  are  yerha  mntf,  or 
Paraguay  tea.  and  cabinet  woods,  though  sugar 
and  tobacco  are  being  more  and  more  cultivated. 
In  the  seventeenUi  century  the  Jesuits  planted 
in  and  around  the  present  territory  over  thirty 
missions.  With  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
their  missions  fell  into  decay.  The  present  popu- 
lation of  the  territory  is  a  little  over  33.000.  The 
chief  town  is  Posadas  on  the  Paranii,  with  a 
population  nf  about  3000. 

MISKOLCZ,  mish'k.Mts.  Tlie  capital  of  the 
County  of  Borsod.  Hungary,  situated  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Szinva,  113  miles  by  rail  northeast  of 
Budapest  (Map:  Hungary,  G  2).  It  has  a  thir- 
teenth-century late  Gothic  chnreh,  a  Jlinorite 
convent,  a  Protestant  g\mnasinm  and  two  lower 
gymnasia,  a  fine  hospital,  and  a  HunL':irinn  the- 
atre. It  is  lighted  by  chMtricity  ami  h;is  a  fine 
municipal  bath.  The  trade  in  wine  and  agricul- 
tural products  is  eonsidirablc.  The  local  manu- 
factures consist  of  flour,  pottery,  ))or<elain  and 
majolica  wares,  and  machinerv.  Poptitation.  in 
1890.  32.2SS:  in  1000.  43,090,' chiefly  Protestant 
Mapj'ars. 

MISNOMER  (OF.  vtmnomer,  mrsnommcr, 
dialect  ii-  I'r.  ini'nomir,  misname,  from  mcs-,  from 
I,af.  viiniin,  less  -|-  nomrr.  name,  from  \.at. 
nriminarr.  to  name,  from  vnmrn.  name).  An 
error  in  naming  n  person  in  a  pleading,  deed,  or 
other  written  instrument.  I'mlcr  the  coinmon- 
Inw  rules  of  pleading,  a  party  intended  as  the 
defend.Tnt  in  an  action  can  take  arlvantnje  of  a 
mistake  in  designating  him  by  an  incorrect  name 
by  a  plea  in  abatement  which  simply  alleges  the 


error  and  stall's  his  true  name.  However,  in 
Kngland  and  the  common-law  jurisdictions  in 
tlie  United  States  tliis  defect  may  now  be  cured 
by  amendment  if  the  person  so  served  apjjcars 
in  the  action,  even  though  he  pleads  the  misno- 
mer. Where  a  person  is  served  with  a  process  in- 
tended for  him  but  not  designating  him  by  his 
correct  name,  he  may  disregard  it.  and  a  "valid 
judgment  cannot  be  entered  against  him.  Under 
modern  codes  of  procedure  the  same  rules  apply, 
except  that  if  a  person  is  served  with  a  summons 
incorrectly  naming  him,  and  he  desires  to  ap- 
pear and  object,  he  nuist  make  .a  motion  to  set 
aside  the  service  on  the  grcnmd  of  mistake.  In 
such  a  case  the  plaintill'  will  be  allowed  to  amend 
his  summons  and  complaint,  usually  upon  terms, 
such  as  the  payment  of  costs.  The  term  misno- 
mer is  less  frequently  but  correctly  applied  to  a 
mistake  in  a  name  in  written  instruments  other 
•tlian  pleadings.  iSee  l.\Ti:i!iMiKTATiox ;  Eqihty; 
Mi.sTAKE:  X.4,MES;  Pleadi.nu;  Wills,  etc. 

MISPICK'EL    (Ger.).     See  Absenopykite. 

MISPRISION  (OF.  mesprision,  misprison, 
mistake,  from  iiicsproidre,  to  mistake,  from  mcs-, 
from  Lat.  minus,  less  -f  prendre,  from  Lat.  pren- 
Here,  prchendere,  to  take).  In  its  general  sense, 
a  crime  under  the  degree  of  a  c;ipital  otTense,  but 
graver  than  an  ordinar)- misdemeanor  (q.v.).  In 
the  earlv  Knglish  law  it  was  more  frequently 
emi)loyecl  in  a  negative  or  passive  sense,  to  de- 
scribe the  omission  to  ])erforni  some  important 
legal  duty,  as  concealment  of  the  treason  of 
others.  It  also  applied  to  certain  ])ositive  acts  in 
the  nature  of  contenq)ts  against  the  dignity  and 
peace  of  the  King  and  his  ollicers.  Misprision  of 
Irea.son  was  the  most  serious  olTense  to  which  the 
term  applied,  and  consisted  in  the  concealment 
of  any  knowledge  which  a  jierson  might  li.ivc  of 
treasonable  acts  or  utterances  against  the  King, 
and  did  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  person 
was  himself  otherwise  implicated  or  involved  in 
the  crime.  It  was  formerly  punishable  with  for- 
feiture of  goods  and  imprisoiunent  for  life,  but  by 
statute  forfeiture  of  gooils  has  been  abolished, 
and  i)enal  servitude  for  life  remains  the  statutorj" 
penalty.  Misprision  of  fi'Iony  is  concealment  of  a 
felony  liy  one  who  did  not  participate  in  its  com- 
missi<m  by  act  or  enomragement.  but  who  has 
learned  of  it  in  some  way.  It  is  still  an  oll'ense 
in  the  English  law,  but  is  rarely  prosecuted.  The 
various  acts  and  omissions,  other  than  the  above, 
which  were  formerly  included  in  the  rather  vague 
term  misprision,  have  been  mostly  classified 
with  the  crimes  with  which  they  were  associated, 
under  the  nanu"  of  accessory  acts. 

The  term  misprision  is  seldom  employed  in  the 
United  .States  except  in  regard  to  treason,  and 
by  an  act  of  Congress  misprision  of  treason  is 
punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  .$1000,  and 
imiuisonment  not  exceeding  seven  years.  See 
AfCKssonY :   CniMi:. 

MISREPRESENTATION.  An  untrue  rep- 
resentation, by  words  or  by  conduct.  wbi<'li  in- 
duces another  to  act  to  his  injury.  When  deliber- 
ately or  recklessly  made  by  one  party  to  a  busi- 
ness trans;iction  concerning  a  matter  of  fact  and 
relied  on  by  the  other  party  to  his  damage,  it 
:uoounts  to  fraud  (q.v.).  and  has  ben  dealt 
with  fully  under  that  heading  and  the  heading  of 
deceit  (q.v.).  \  false  representation,  if  made  by 
an  honest  mistake,  never  svibjects  the  maker  to 
an   action   in   tort.     Whether   it    will   afl'nrd  the 


MISSEPKESENTATION. 


587 


MISSION. 


party  to  whom  it  is  made  a  ground  for  relief  of 
any  "kind  depends  upon  the  cireumstances  of  tlie 
case. 

As  a  rule,  an  innocent  misrepresentation  will 
not  affect  the  validity  of  a  contract  in  connec- 
tion with  which  it  is  mailc,  unless  it  was  the  very 
basis  of  the  contract  or  one  of  its  material 
terms. 

In  certain  classes  of  contracts,  notably  those 
of  marine  and  fire  insurance  (q.v.),  any  misrep- 
resentation or  concealment  of  a  material  fact, 
liowi'Ver  innocent,  renders  them  void.  This  is  due 
lar.uily  to  tlie  fact  that  such  contracts  have  come 
into  Enj,']ish  law  from  the  law  merchant,  and 
that  early  mercantile  usage  put  an  alisohite  legal 
duty  on  the  insurer  to  state  correctly  all  facts 
relating  to  the  thing  insured,  w'hich  would  or- 
dinarily ali'eet  the  insurer's  decision  in  taking  the 
risk.  Courts  of  equity  deal  somewhat  differently 
with  innocent  misrepresentation  from  courts  of 
common  law.  They  will  generally  refuse  a  decree 
for  specific  performance  in  favor  of  one  whose 
claim  rests  upon  a  misrepresentation,  although  it 
is  an  honest  one;  and  in  some  cases  they  grant  a 
rescission  of  a  contract  induced  by  sucli  state- 
ments when  a  court  of  law  would  not.  Consult: 
Anson.  Principles  of  Ihe  Law  of  Contract  (Ox- 
ford, 1900)  :  Burdick.  The  Essentials  of  Business 
Lair  (New  York,  190-2)  ;  Kerr,  A  Treatise  on  the 
Law  (}f  Friiiiil  and  Mistake   (London,   1902). 

MISRULE,  Lord  of.  A  mock  dignitary  who 
presided  over  the  Christmas  revels  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  He  was  assisted  by  a  staff  of  from 
twenty  to  sixty  officials,  and  furnislied  with 
musicians,  dragons,  hobby-horses,  and  other  para- 
plirrnalia  of  fun.  In  Scotland  he  was  sometimes 
known  as  the  .Abbot  of  Unreason,  in  France  as 
r.\hlic'  lie  Liesse.     See  Abbot  of  Jot. 

MISSAIi  (ML.  missale,  from  missalis.  relat- 
ing to  the  mass,  from  missa,  mass).  The  book 
whicli  contains  the  prayers,  lessons,  and  rubrics 
of  the  mass  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
L'ntil  the  Jliddle  Ages  the  various  parts  of  the 
service  were  distriliuted  in  separate  books,  accord- 
ing to  the  part  taken  by  the  assistants;  the  parts 
which  the  celebrant  alone  recited  in  the  mass 
and  other  sacraments  were  contained  in  the  Liher 
Sacranirntorum,  or  sacramentary.  But  when  low 
masses  became  more  frequent,  and  the  celebrant 
had  to  say  practically  the  whole  service,  the  parts 
were  collected  into  one  book  called  Missale  Ple- 
iiorinm.  Tliese  com])lete  missals  have  been  in  use 
since  the  sixth  century.  B.v  the  twelfth,  the 
EoMian  liturg;^-  was  in  use  generally  throughout 
\A"estern  Euro]ie ;  but  a  number  of  provinces  and 
dioceses  had  their  own  missals.  The  disadvan- 
tages of  this  diversit.v  in  liturgical  use  caused 
numerous  requests  to  be  made  to  the  Council  of 
Trent  for  a  reform  in  the  matter.  The  Council 
ap]>ciinfe<l  a  commission  on  the  subject  in  15G2, 
and  as  they  liad  not  concluded  their  labors  by  the 
last  session,  left  the  decision  in  the  hands  of 
the  Po|)e.  Tlie  commissioners,  among  whom  was 
Thomas  Goldwell,  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph  in 
\\'ales.  were  not  instructed  to  compile  a  new  mis- 
sal, but  by  examination  of  ancient  man\iscripts 
to  reconstruct  the  Roman  missa!  according  to  the 
rites  and  customs  of  the  Fathers.  Pius  V.  au- 
thorized the  missal  which  was  the  result  of  their 
work  by  the  bull  Quo  jirinium  of  1.570.  command- 
ing its  universal  use  in  places  which  could  not 
show  a  prescription  of  200  years  for  their  local 
Vol.  XIII.— 3S. 


uses.  Thus  the  older  Orders,  such  as  the  Car- 
thusians and  Uominieans,  preserved  tlieir  tradi- 
tional rites;  and  the  Ambrosian  missal  held  its 
ground  in  tlie  JJiocese  of  Milan.  Further  revisions 
took  place  under  Clement  VI  U.  in  lli04  and  Ur- 
ban VIIL  in  1034;  later  revisions,  as  by  Leo 
XIll.  in  18.S4  and  1898,  have  touched  merely  mat- 
ters of  detail,  principall.y  in  the  rubrics.  Be- 
sides these  and  the  tables  which  are  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  book,  it  includes  tlie  proper  of  the 
seasons,  i.e.  the  service  for  the  Sundays  and 
greater  festivals;  the  proper  of  saints,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  the  civil  calemlar  from  Saint 
Andrew's  Day,  which  regulates  the  beginning  of 
Advent  and  thus  of  the  ecclesiastical  year:  and 
the  common  of  saints,  the  services  for  those  days 
which  have  no  special  mass.  The  central  and 
invariable  parts,  known  as  the  Ordo  and  Canon 
Missw,  come  before  the  service  for  Easter  Day. 
The  older  local  missals,  especially  the  French  and 
English,  are  of  great  interest  to  liturgical  stu- 
dents. No  new  attempts  have  been  made  to  con- 
struct such  books  in  the  Catholic  Church  except 
by  some  French  liishops  under  Jansenist  influence 
about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century;  these 
held  their  own  in  certain  places  even  as  late  as 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  they 
were  all  laid  aside,  largely  through  the  influence 
of  the  celebrated  scholar  Dom  Gueranger.  Con- 
sult authorities  referred  to  under  Liturgy;  and 
for  the  old  English  missals,  Maskell.  The  Ancient 
Lituryii  of  ihe  Church  of  Enr/land,  according 
to  the  use  of  iSarum,  York,  Hereford,  and  Bangor 
{■■id  ed.,  Oxford,  1882).     See  also  Mass. 

MISSI  (Lat.,  those  sent).  Officials  sent  out 
by  the  Frankish  kings  for  special  purposes. 
Under  Charles  the  Great  the  missi  dominiei  were 
the  Emperor's  special  representatives.  The  Em- 
pire was  divided  into  a  number  of  districts;  into 
each  district  each  year  two  m  issi,  one  a  lay  noble, 
the  other  an  officer  of  the  Church,  were  sent  to 
hold  court,  hear  complaints,  redress  grievances, 
and  make  a  special  report  to  the  Emperor.  By 
this  means  Charles  sought  to  control  the  counts 
and  to  centralize  the  government.  The  enrjue- 
teiirs,  emplo.ved  by  Saint  Louis,  had  similar 
functions.  Consult  Adams,  Ciriiization  During 
the  Middle  Ages  (New  York,  1894). 

MISSING  LINK.     A  term  used  to  designate 

the  stage  assumed  to  intervene  in  evolution  lie- 
tween  the  a]5e  and  man.  and  in  a  more  general 
sense  anv  hypothetical  form  intermediate  be- 
tween two  actual  forms  of  life. 

MISSION  (Lat.  niissio,  a  sending,  from  mit- 
tcrc,  to  send).  In  the  singular,  a  term  used  by 
Roman  Catholics  and  Anglicans  to  designate  a 
scries  of  special  services  lasting  usually  for  at 
least  a  week,  intended  to  call  sinners  to  re- 
pentance, and  to  deepen  the  spiritual  life  of 
the  faithful ;  somewhat  analo.gous  to  what  is 
known  as  a  revival  among  Protestants.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  such  work  was  con- 
stantly carried  on  by  some  of  the  most  famous 
saints,  such  as  Francis  of  Assisi,  Dominic, 
Carlo  Borromeo.  Francis  de  Sales,  Vincent  de 
Paul,  and  .Alfonso  Liguori.  The  two  last  espe- 
ciallv  founded  tlieir  congregations  (see  Lazaeists  ; 
Redemptorist.s)  for  such  a  purpose.  In  modern 
times  the  means  employed  and  the  order  of  exer- 
cises have  become  more  systematic.  Fervent 
preaching  by  the  niissioners.  who  arc  usually 
members  of  some  religious  order,  is  the  salient 


I 


MISSION. 


588 


MISSIONS. 


feature;  it  deals  largely  with  sin,  repentance, 
death,  judgment,  heaven  and  hell,  and  its  pur- 
pose i.s  to  bring  the  hearers  to  a  devout  reception 
of  the  sacraments  and  an  earnest  Christian  Hie. 
It  Usually  closes  with  a  solemn  service  of  renewal 
of  baptisnuil  vows,  thanksgiving,  and  consecra- 
tion, and  with  the  proclamation  of  a  special  in- 
dulgence. In  the  last  third  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
lurv  similar  missions,  presenting  no  distinctive 
feature  of  their  own,  were  held  with  increas- 
ing frequency  in  the  Anglican  coniniunion,  espe- 
cially in  High  Church  parishes. 

MISSIONARY    RIDGE,    Battle    of.     Sec 

CllAT'l  ANUOI.A,   liATTI.K  Or. 

MISSION  INDIANS.  A  collective  term  for 
tlie  siii'viving  remnants  of  the  tribes  civilized  and 
Christianized  by  the  ell'orts  of  the  Spanish  Fran- 
ciscan missionaries  in  southern  California  in  the 
latter  i)art  of  the  eighteenth  century.  They  were 
originally  of  many  various  dialects  and  slocks, 
chielly  ."-^hoslioneaii  and  Yuman,  roving  over  the 
desert  and  mountain  region  stretcliing  from  the 
lower  Colorado  River  to  the  I'acitic,  and  in  al- 
most the  lowest  stage  of  culture.  By  the  heroic 
and  persistent  labor  of  Father  .Juntpero  Serra 
and  his  successors,  beginning  in  1770.  they  were 
gathered  into  civilized  communities,  where  they 
supported  themselves  by  farming  and  simple 
mechanical  arts,  and  under  tlie  kindly  suiter- 
vision  of  the  fathers,  reared  those  magnilicent 
mission  structures  which  are  tlie  glory  of  oil 
California.  For  half  a  century  the  missions 
grew  and  flourished,  until  in  1831  they  contained 
19,000  civilized  Indians,  but  with  the  overtlirow 
of  the  Spanish  power  by  the  Mexican  revolution- 
ary government  came  oppression.  s])oliation.  and 
filially  confiscation  and  dcstru<-tion  in  the  ])eriod 
from"  183.5  to  1840.  The  missionaries  were  ban- 
ished, the  missions  plundered  and  h  ft  to  fall  into 
rnin.  and  the  Indians  driven  into  the  desert  and 
the  mountains.  I'nder  the  lat<'r  American  rule 
the  renuiants  of  the  mission  Indians  contiiuied  to 
be  regarded  an<l  treated  as  outcasts  until,  chiefly 
by  the  endeavor  of  Helen  Hunt  .lackson  (q.v.), 
public  attention  was  so  forcibly  directed  to  their 
neglected  and  unfortunate  condition  thai  the 
Government  took  steps  for  their  relief  by  setting 
aside  some  small  reservations  for  their  occupancy 

lid  appointing  an  agent  to  look  after  their  af- 
fairs, together  with  a  good  school  equipment. 
.Since  then  some  |)rogress  has  been  made  toward 
bringing  them  up  to  the  standard  to  which  the'y 
had  attained  under  the  mission  system  more  than 
a  century  ago.  The  two  great  barriers  in  the 
way  are  the  uncertain  tenure  of  their  lands  and 
the  monopoly  of  the  water  supply  by  white  claim- 
ants. At  present  they  occupy  32  small  reserva- 
tions, aggregating  altogether  only  180.000  acres. 
The  total  population  is  3000,  the  largest  settle- 
ments being  Torres,  520;  Morongo,  200;  Potrero, 
225;  Mesa  CJrande.  200;  Temecula.  I!t0.  They 
are  described  as  industrious  and  good  workers 
among  the  whites  during  the  labor  season,  but 
strongly  given  to  drink  and  improvident  of  the 
future,  much  of  which  disposition  their  agent 
attributes  to  discouragement  and  bad  surround- 
ings. 

MISSIONS,  Christian.  The  term  Missions 
as  iiM-d  in  ilii<  article  signifies  Christian  missions 
among  the  peoples  of  non-Christian  countries. 
Christian  missions  proceed  from  the  e.\ample  and 
precepts  of  .lesus  Christ,  from  appreciation  of 
His    teachings    a.s    essential    to    the    world,    and 


from  the  natural  impulse  of  His  followers  to  pass 
on  to  others  that  which  has  benefited  themselves. 
The  object  of  such  missions  is  to  pro]iagate  the 
Christian  religion:  that  is  to  say.  to  make  .lesus 
known  to  tliose  who  do  not  know  Him.  and  to 
persuade  them  to  admit  Him  to  the  control  of 
their  life.  The  history  of  missions  may  be 
divided  into  three  periods:  (1)  The  Early 
Period,  embracing  the  first  seven  centuries  of 
our  era,  until  the  rise  of  Islam.  In  this  period 
missionary  activity  was  generally  unorganized 
and  individual.  (2)  The  Middle  Period,  includ- 
ing nine  centuries,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  to  the  end  of  the  si.xteenlh  century.  Here 
the  Cliurch  as  an  organization  originated  and 
directed  foreign  missionary  activity.  (3)  The 
Modern  Period,  from  the  beginning  of  the  .seven- 
teenth century  until  the  present  time.  In  this 
period  occurred  the  rise  of  Protestant  Foreign 
-Missions,  chiefly  conducted  by  voluntary  so- 
cieties. 

I.      THE   EAHLY    I'ERIOI). 

The  energy  of  the  Apostles  in  winning  men  to 
believe  in  Jesus  Christ  is  a  characleristic  feature 
of  the  New  Testament  narrative  of  the  begin- 
nings of  Christian  history.  Early  traditions  give 
ground  for  belief  that  their  missionary  ojieiations 
were  extended.  Yet  excepting  in  the  case  of  Paul 
and  his  companions  details  are  iiu-.igre.  The  ex- 
planation of  the  rapid  spread  of  Cliri-;tianity 
seems  to  be  that  individual  bcliever.s  taught  it 
wherever  they  went,  whether  for  business,  for 
safety  from  enemies,  or  as  slaves  to  heathen 
masters.  Great  importance  was  attached  also 
to  translating  the  Bible  into  the  language  of 
evcrj-  people  at  this  iieriml.  Exani]des  of  this 
automatic  spread  of  Christianity  may  be  seen  in 
its  ap])e;uaiico  in  Anlioch  before  any  .\po>tlc  went 
there,  its  entrance  into  Italy  before  Paul's  visits, 
into  Britain  by  way  of  Gaul  from  Smyrna  dur- 
ing the  second  century,  along  the  ordinary 
routes  of  trade,  and  into  the  bivouacs  of  the 
Goths  in  the  third  century  through  captive.'^ 
taken  in  war.  By  the  time  that  Constant ine  the 
Great,  early  in  the  fourth  century,  came  in  con- 
tact with "  Christianity  in  Western  Europe, 
shrewdly  cham]iioniiig  it  in  his  struggle  for  -ii- 
preniacy.  groups  of  Christians  were  found  in  all 
parts  of  tlie  Ronniu  Empire,  from  Britain  to 
Persia.  Christians  formed  but  a  small  ])ercent- 
age  of  the  population.  But  they  had  a  high  ideal 
an<l  the  energy  of  as]uration.  This  produced  un- 
flagging activity  in  missions  in  the  West  and  in 
the  East.  The  nionasterics  now  performed  great 
services  for  religious  culture  in  out-ofthe  way 
places.  In  the  fifth  century  the  centre  of  mi' 
sionary  initiative  for  the  West  seems  to  have 
been  in  Central  Gaul.  Thence  bishops  went  over 
into  Britain  to  help  the  Christians  settle  doc- 
trinal ilillienlties.  and  thence  Patrick  took  his 
new-found  knowledge  into  Ireland.  For  the 
East  at  the  same  time  the  centre  of  missions 
seems  to  have  been  in  Mesopotamia,  at  places  like 
Edessa  and  Xisibis.  with  a  long  chain  of  advance 
posts  reaching  into  Central  .\sia  and  India,  and 
with  a  training  school  at  Samarkand.  Toward 
the  north  at  the  same  period  rifilas  (q.v.)  went 
on  a  mission  to  his  heathen  kin  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  Danube,  givin-;  them  an  alpha- 
bet and  a  Bible  in  their  own  tongue.  In  the 
sixth  century  the  initiative  in  the  West  was  fiom 
the  British  Islands  eastward  and  from  France 
northward.     Desire  to  teach   Christ   brought  Co- 


MISSIONS. 


589 


MISSIONS. 


luniba  from  Ireland  to  lona,  wliicli  became  a  won- 
derful centre  of  C'lirislian  eullnre  and  of  mis- 
sionary zeal  in  bolialf  of  .Scotland,  North  Britain, 
and  Central  Europe.  As  to  the  East,  the  line 
of  foreign  missionary  advance  was  among  the 
Tatars  and  in  China,  and  wa.s  carried  on  by 
Xestorians  in  relations  with  the  Churcli  in  Jleso- 
potamia.  At  the  very  end  of  the  sixth  century 
the  bef^inning  of  a  missionary  policy  in  the 
Church  as  an  organization  appeared  in  the  dis- 
patch of  Augustine  and  his  helpers  from  Rome  to 
England,  where  the  Saxon  invasion  had  nearly 
crushed  out  Christianity.  Augustine's  mission 
from  the  Pope  was  to  evangelize  the  pagans  and 
to  win  the  assent  of  the  English  Christians  to 
Roman  ecclesiastical  control.  The  method  of 
operation  of  these  independent  missions  was  an 
adaptation  of  the  monastic  system  w-hicli  found 
vogue  in  the  East  in  the  third  eenturj-.  A  band 
of  Christians  under  a  leader  would  form  a  settle- 
ment in  a  wild  and  savage  region,  where  they 
labored  for  their  own  support.  By  kindness  some 
of  the  barbarians  would  be  drawn  to  settle  near 
the  monastery.  After  the  favor  of  emperors  be- 
gan to  give  the  Church  numerical  [jreponderanee. 
power,  and  wealth,  these  gains  led  to  spiritual 
loss,  and  missions  were  left  to  the  chance  ability 
of  simple-minded  believers  in  remote  regions.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  Christianity 
was  still  an  Oriental  religion.  In  Europe  its 
northern  bounds  were,  in  general,  marked  by  the 
Danube  and  the  Alps,  although  during  the  cen- 
tury iiii-.sionaries  made  inefl'ectual  attempts  at  a 
lodgment  in  Denmark,  and  Columban,  going  forth 
from  lona  with  his  associates,  began  a  fiery  and 
successful  propaganda  among  the  barbarians 
of  Central  Europe.  The  narrow  limits  of 
European  Christendom  at  this  time  should  be 
borne  in  mind  if  we  would  realize  the  full  mean- 
ing to  the  Christian  Church  of  the  Mohammedan 
irruption.  The  Eastern  Church  had  one  mo- 
mentous mission  to  its  credit  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury in  its  dispatch  of  Cyril  and  Methodius  to 
endow  the  Slav  races  with  knowledge  of  .Jesus 
Christ  and  with  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures. 
In  the  far  East  the  Nestorians  also  continued 
their  operations  until  the  Tatars  finally  cast  in 
their  lot  with  Islam,  and  Tamerlane  in  the  four- 
teenth century  destroyed  the  last  vestiges  of  the 
Central  Asian  (^hurch.  But  with  regard  to  the 
t'hurcb  in  general,  from  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century  onward  for  nine  hundred  years  the  only 
Christian  foreign  missions  were  remote  from  the 
touch  of  the  ilohammedan  power,  and  belonged 
to  the  \Vestern  or  Latin  section  of  the  Church. 

TI.      THE   MIDDLE    PERIOD. 

( 1 )  In  Germ.\ny.  The  wanderings  of  the  Ger- 
manic nations  and  the  inroads  of  the  Huns  had 
destroyed  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  the 
flourishing  Christian  communities  of  the  fifth 
century.  It  was  only  after  the  rise  of  the 
Frankish  State  that  efTorts  were  made  to  restore 
the  former  condition  of  Christianity  and  to 
.spread  its  influence  over  all  Central  and  North- 
ern Europe.  From  the  conversion  of  the  Rava- 
rians  to  that  of  tlie  Saxons  (.500  800)  stretches 
a  period  filled  with  spiritual  heroism  on  the  one 
side  and  with  tenacious  resistance  on  the  other. 
The  missionaries  are  mostly  Irishmen  in  the 
first  half  of  the  period,  Anglo-Saxons  in  the 
other.  The  memory  of  the  famous  Saint  Severin 
(died  4S2)  worked  favorably  in  Bavaria;  early 
in  the  sixth  century  the  royal  family  of  the  .Agi 


lulfings  was  Catholic.  Irish  missionaries  worked 
in  the  land  throughout  the  seventh  and  eighth 
I'cnturies.  The  Frankfort  saints  Kutpert,  Em- 
meran,  and  Corhiniau  continued  and  perfected 
their  labors.  The  Irishman  Saint  tiall  (Callech) 
was  the  ajiostle  of  Swabia  and  Helvetia;  from  his 
monastery  by  Lake  Constance  went  out  the  mis- 
sionaries of  these  lands.  At  the  same  time  his 
superior  and  long-time  companion,  Columban 
(died  015),  converted  the  CJerman  Lombards  of 
Italy  to  the  Catholic  faith.  Southern  (ierniany 
owes  the  knowledge  of  the  Christian  faith  to 
other  Irish  missionaries.  Saint  Fridolin,  once 
abbot  at  Poitiers  and  then  founder  of  the  island 
abbey  of  Siiekingen ;  Saint  Trindpert,  founder 
of  the  abbey  of  that  name  in  the  Breisgau ;  Saint 
Pirmin  (died  753),  founder  of  Keichcnau. 
Murbach,  and  Hornbach.  The  Irishman  Saint 
Kilian  (died  689),  with  his  companions  C'oloman 
and  Totnan,  evangelized  Thuringia,  and  founded 
the  See  of  Wiirzburg.  C'ontempoianeously,  Saint 
Willibrord  came  from  the  monastic  schools  of 
Ireland,  to  preach  the  faith  to  the  fierce  Fri- 
sians, and  to  found  the  An-hbishopric  of  Utrecht, 
with  the  authorization  of  Pope  Sergius  I.  (695). 
Before  \A'illibrord,  there  had  worked  along  the 
Rhine  and  the  Moselle  the  holy  man  Goar  in  the 
sixth  century,  and  among  the  Frisians  Saint 
Amand  of  Maestricht  (6G0)  and  the  goldsmith 
Saint  Eloi  (Eligius)  of  Noyon  (659).  All  of 
these  men  came  under  the  intlvience  of  the 
Columban  monastery  of  Luxeuil,  and  were  filled 
with  missionary  zeal. 

The  real  apostle  and  founder  of  German  Chris- 
tendoiu  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  Wynfrith,  or  Boni- 
face. In  716  he  attempted  to  evangelize  the 
Frisians.  In  719  he  received  at  Rome  from 
Gregory  II.  (715-731)  the  authority  to  preach 
among  the  degenerate  Cliristians  and  the  pagan 
inhabitants  of  Germany.  In  turn  he  labored 
throughout  Bavaria,  Hesse,  and  Thuringia.  and 
along  the  Rhine,  founded  the  oldest  and  principal 
sees  of  those  regions,  established  monasteries  like 
Fulda,  and  gathered  about  himself  some  of  the 
noblest  spirits  of  the  age.  The  Carolingians  were 
always  friendlv  and  helpful.  In  union  with  them 
he  held,  between  740  and  750,  four  national 
synods  that  laid  the  basis  of  (Jerman  medisval 
Christian  life.  He  sulTered  martyrdom  .June  5, 
755  (754  ?),  at  the  hands  of  heathen  Germans, 
near  Dockum  in  West  Friesland.  whither  he  had 
gone  with  fifty-two  companions  to  confirm  some 
newly  baptized  converts.  The  solid  mass  of  Saxon 
paganism  had  been  attacked  by  (he  two  Eualds, 
surnamed  the  Black  and  the  White,  like  Willi- 
brord, disciples  of  the  Irish  monastic  .schools. 
They  .sealed  their  ho|)cs  with  their  blond  in  695. 
The  long  wars  of  the  Carolingians  with  the 
Saxons  soon  took  on  a  religions  character.  Com- 
pulsory baptism  and  swift  apostasy  were  the 
rule  throughout  the  eighth  century.  .\  cruel 
slaughter  of  4.500  Saxons  at  Verden  in  7S'2 
stains  the  fair  fame  of  Charlemagne.  The  con- 
quered Saxons  were  exiled,  transplanted,  op- 
pressed by  laws  of  Draconian  severity:  in  7S.5 
the  dauntless  chiefs.  Witikind  and  Alboin.  finally 
yielded,  and  by  804  the  land  was  entirelv 
Christianized,  ilissionaries  soon  overran  Sax- 
ony, and  by  their  virtue,  beneficence,  organizing 
skill,  and  their  monasteries,  soon  established  the 
Christian  faith  on  a  firm  basis.  The  Abbey  of 
Corvei  (822)  was  soon  the  centre  of  their  activ- 
itv. 


MISSIONS. 


590 


MISSIONS. 


(2)  Among  the  Xokthkk.v  Nations.  Another 
period  of  three  huiiilretl  years  (800-1100)  was 
iicifs^ary  for  the  winning  of  the  northernmost 
Germanic  Iritus.  In  8"2()  political  necessity  made 
Harald,  King  of  Denmark,  a  suitor  at  the  Court 
of  tlie  Carolingians.  On  his  return  he  took  with 
him  Ansgar,  a  monk  of  Corvei,  eventually 
the  apostle  of  the  Xorth.  Uis  chief  deeds  were 
the  establislunent  of  the  See  of  Hamburg-Bremen 
(832),  the  )iartial  evangelization  of  Sweden 
(850),  the  building  of  churches,  schools,  mon- 
asteries, and  hosjiitals  tliroughout  his  own  vast 
dioeese.  He  died  in  8(i.">,  and  is  l)uried  at  Bremen. 
The  devastations  of  tlic  pagan  Northmen  and  the 
onslauglit  of  the  Hungarians  withheld  from  the 
northern  missions  the  political  influence  of  Chris- 
tian Gemiany:  after  the  battle  of  Jlerseburg 
(9:i.3)  the  conversion  of  Denmark  went  on,  not 
without  interruption,  from  the  See  of  Saint  Ans- 
gar. The  Danish  conq\iests  in  England  helped 
this  process;  in  1017  both  kingdoms  were  ruled 
by  Canute  the  Great ;  in  1020  he  was  a  pilgrim  to 
Rome,  whence  he  wrote  to  his  peoide  a  noble 
Christian  letter.  In  lOSfl  another  Canute  was  en- 
rolled among  the  Christian  saints.  In  1104  Lund 
was  made  a  metropolitan  see.  Sweden  was  slowly 
won  over  to  the  faith  of  Jesus  Clirist.  chiefly  in 
the  couri^e  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  with  many 
a  reaction  to  pagan  life  and  Ix-lief.  In  1102 
Upsala  became  the  (Tliristian  metropolis  of 
Sweden.  I-ong  ere  this  Norway  possessed  a 
metropolitan  see  at  Trondhjcm  (103.5).  The  land 
was  thoroughly  Clirist  ian  before  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  although  it  received  the  visits  of  mis- 
sionaries after  both  of  these  kingdoms.  Haakon 
the  Good  (e.034-900)  was  an  earnest  Christian 
king,  but  another  did  not  arise  imtil  Olaf 
Trygg\-ason  (nnij-lOOO).  Olaf  Haraldson  (1016- 
28)  sent  German  and  English  priests  throtigh  the 
Kingdom;  his  overstern  and  cruel  policy  created 
a  reaction,  but  the  still  hanler  y<ike  of  Denmark 
favored  the  cause  of  Christianity.  From  103.5 
Norway  may  he  styled  a  (^iristian  kingdom.  Ice- 
land was  tem]>orarily  inhabited  by  Irish  monks 
before  the  year  800;  their  books,  altar-plates,  and 
staves  were  found  In-  th(^  first  Noi  wegian  settlers. 
After  081  Christianity  penetrated  the  masses 
of  the  colonists.  an<\  by  1010  they  had  ac- 
cepted the  Gos])el.  X'nder  its  impulse  this  gifted 
little  people  became  a  living  source  of  learning 
and  piety.  The  scattered  islands  of  the  north- 
ern seas  were  held  during  the  ninth  century 
in  the  grip  of  the  pagan  Vikings,  but  in  the 
course  of  the  tenth  centnrA-  were  made  (Tliristian. 
Before  the  epoch  of  the  Danish  invasions  of 
Ireland,  monks  of  the  Irish  nation  had  visited 
these  islands,  chiefly  out  of  ascetic  fervor  and  the 
desire  to  lead  hermit  lives.  They  were  the  first 
to  bring  Christianity  to  the  dwellers  nf  the  Ork- 
neys, the  TIebrides,  and  the  Shetland  and  Faroe 
islands.  In  the  twelfth  century  Greenland  was 
evangelized,  and  the  See  of  Gardor  established 
on  the  coast;  the  land  w:i<  inhabited  by  (!Tiris- 
tians  until  the  fifteenth  century. 

(3)  CoxvtjjsioN  OF  E.vsti:rn  KfKopE.  Slats 
Asn  Magyars.  As  the  Slavs  had  been,  since  the 
sixth  century,  a  serinus  menaie  to  both  the  East 
and  the  West,  so  the  efforts  to  Christianize  them 
went  out  from  East  and  West.  The  Irishman 
Saint  Cohnnbnn.  of  l,uxe\iil  and  Bobbio,  had 
once  ho])erl  to  begin  the  work:  it  was  certainly 
set  on  foot  from  the  German  See  of  Salzburg  in 
Bavaria,  and  a  beginning  made    (707)    with  the 


Avars,  who  at  this  time  disappear  from  history. 
In  the  course  of  the  ninth  century  the  principal 
Slavic  principality  was  that  centred  along  the 
river  Morava.  hence  called  Moravia.  Both  Ger- 
mans and  B\zantines  sought  to  reserve  this  sphere 
of  influence  and  action  for  themselves.  In  802  the 
Byzantine  Emjieror,  Michael  111.,  was  able  to 
.send  two  missionaries  to  the  ^Moravians.  They 
were  brothers,  known  to  history  as  Saint  Cyril 
(originally  Constantine)  and  Saint  ilethodius. 
They  introduced  among  the  Slavs  an  alpliabet, 
translated  the  Scriptures,  and  wrote  for  them  a 
Slavic  liturgy.  To  these  two  men  the  Slavic  world 
owes  its  first  permanent  elevation  from  idolatry, 
ignorance,  and  serious  moral  corruption.  Jlora- 
via's  chief  sec,  Olmiitz,  dates  from  1003. 

Bohemia    was    fully    opened    to    Christian    in- 
fluences only  about  871,  when  its  King.  Borzivoi, 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Svatopluk  of 
Moravia,  and  together  with  his  Queen,  l.udmilla, 
was     baptized.       Of     his     grandsons,     Boleslas 
cruelly    jiersccutcd    the    Christian    faith,    while 
Wenceslas   remained  faithf\il ;   the   latter   fell   by 
the  hand  of  his  brother   (038).  and  is  honored  as      ; 
a  martyr.     In  the  long  reign  of  the  second  Boles- 
las   (0(17-090)   Christianity  triumphed.     The  See    .' 
of    Prague    was    created    in    073.       The    second 
hisho]).  Saint  Adalbert,  went  to  preach  the  Gospel       , 
among  the  heathen  Prussians,  and  was   put   to 
death  by  them. 

Poland  received  the  missionaries  of  Christian- 
ity through  the  marriage  (90.5)  of  its  Duke  Mic- 
ci.^las  with  the  Christian  daughter  of  Boleslas 
II.  of  Bohemia,  who  soon  won  over  her  husband 
to  the  faith.  The  See  of  Posen  was  established 
in  008.  From  092  to  1025,  Boleslas  Chrobrj-. 
son  of  Jliecislas,  completed  the  conversion  of  bis 
countiy,  by  the  founding  of  the  Archiepiscopal 
See  of  Gnesen  (1000),  to  which  were  made  sul)- 
ject  Posen.  Kolberg.  Breslau,  and  Cracow. 

The  Wends  were  a  Slavic  race,  established  in 
Holstein,  Mecklenburg,  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Oder,  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  and  elsewhere  in 
Saxony  and  Lusatia.  They  were  made  Chris- 
tians bv  the  creation  of  the  border  marches  in  the 
time  of  Henry  I.  and  Olho  I.  (010-073)  and  the 
foundation  of  the  sees  of  Havelberg.  Oldenburg, 
I'lrandenburg.  Magdeburg,  and  others  (040  008). 
The  Wend  Prince.  Gottschalk,  was  after  1045  a 
zealous  protector  of  Christianity,  but  was 
treacherously  slain  in  1000  by  a  heathen  Wend. 
In  the  twelfth  centuiy  the  Wends  fell  under 
German  sway,  and  many  (Jerman  Christian  C(do- 
nists  took  tlicir  lands  and  houses.  The  Wends 
of  Pomerania  owe  (heir  conversion  to  the  Pnlish 
Duke  Boleslas  111.  (1122).  and  to  his  agent. 
Bishop  Otho  of  Bamberg  (1124-28).  Kamin. 
Stettin,  .Tulin.  were  made  Christian  cities,  and 
Saxon  colonists  entered  the  territory:  but  only 
in  1108  were  the  last  remnants  of  heathenism 
abolisbcd  on  the   islanil   of  Biigen. 

The  Scandinavian  Rurik  founded  the  Russian 
State  in  Sfi2 :  soon  Christian  missionaries  from 
Constant ino|de  found  their  way  thither.  The 
widowed  Princess  Olga  was  baptized  at  Con- 
stantinople in  9.5o,  and  thenceforward  labored 
zealously  for  the  conversion  of  her  people.  Her 
grandson.  Vladimir  the  .\pos1olic  (died  1015), 
completed  (he  work.  The  Metropolitan  See  of 
Kiev  was  established  by  him  and  made  the  centre 
of  the  religious  and  eduentional  life  of  Russia. 
The  primacy  was  transferred  to  Moscow  in  1328, 
which  in  turn  was  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of 


MISSIONS. 


591 


MISSIONS. 


Constantinople  until  1.5S0,  when  .Teromias  II., 
the  patriaieh  of  the  latter  see,  was  induced  to  in- 
stall the   Patriarchate  of  Moscow. 

Buljiaria  became  Christian.  804-806.  The  Khan, 
Bogoris.  first  introduced  Greek  missionaries,  and 
then  appealed  to  Pope  Nicholas  I.  The  latter 
sent  hira  the  famous  "Replies  to  the  Consulta- 
tions of  the  Bulgarians."  Nevertheless,  Bulgaria 
soon  came  under  the  sole  jurisdiction  of  Con- 
stantinople; the  land  was  subjected  by  the  By- 
zantine emperors,  and  in  1388-03  the  new  Bul- 
garian realm  was  conquered  by  the  Turks. 

The  hoatlien  J\Ia<i:;v'ars  had  taken  possession 
after  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  of  what  is 
now  Hungary.  All  attempts  at  their  conversion 
were  fruitless  until  the  victon,'  of  Otho  the  Great 
of  Germany  on  the  Lech,  in  0.)5.  Duke  Gcjza 
( 972-997 ) ,  married  to  a  Christian  princess  of  his 
own  race,  asked  Otho  II.  for  missionaries;  the 
bisliops  Pilgrim  of  Passau  and  Wolfgang  of  Ee- 
genslmrg  were  sent  to  him.  Gejza's  son.  Saint 
Stephen  of  Hungaiy  (907-1038),  was  married  to 
Gisela.  the  daughter  of  Henry  II.  He  created  the 
hierarchical  system  of  Hungary,  by  founding 
(1000)  the  Arehicpiscopal  See  of  Gran  with  ten 
sutl'ragan  sees,  as  well  as  many  Benedictine  mon- 
asteries. Pope  Sylvester  II.  (Gerbert)  gave  him 
the  title  of  'Apostolic'  King,  and  is  said  to  have 
sent  him  a  golden  cross  and  cro\vn  (Crown  of 
Snint  Stephen). 

(4)  JIissioNS  i:^  N'oRTnE.\STERN  Europe. 
Political  Conversion's.  The  power  of  Christen- 
dom was  now  too  great  to  be  longer  resisted  by 
the  outlying  heathen  peoples.  From  Sweden 
went  out  at  the  same  time  the  political  subjection 
of  Finland,  and  its  conversion  to  Christianity. 
It  was  only  in  1293  that  the  work  could  be 
looked  on  as  accomplished.  Esthonia.  Livonia, 
and  Courland  saw  Christian  missionaries  during 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  follow  in 
the  tracks  of  the  German  merchants  of  Bremen 
and  Liibeck.  Here  the  heathen  was  fierce  and 
reluctant :  fortified  monasteries  protected  the 
German  Christians  and  the  newly  converted,  un- 
til, in  1202,  was  founded  the  military  order  of 
the  Brothers  of  the  Sword  {t^rhirfrthriifhT) 
or  Knights  Swordbearers.  Its  founder.  Bishop 
Albert  of  Buxhowden,  built  the  city  of 
Eiga  and  set  up  therein  his  see.  In  1237 
the  Brothers  of  the  Sword  were  united  with  the 
Teutonic  Knights  of  .Jerus.alem,  and  for  sixty 
years  both  orders  carried  on  an  unceasing  war- 
fare against  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  the  Baltic 
shore.  Tlieir  most  diiTicult  conquest  was  that  of 
the  Prussians.  This  most  stubborn  of  the  North- 
ern heathen-folk  gave  way  only  before  the  organ- 
ized and  experienced  knights  of  German  Christen- 
dom and  the  moral  and  financial  support  of  the 
Empire.  In  1243  the  Prussian  territory  was  di- 
vided into  four  sees — Kulm.  Ponierania.  Krmland, 
Samland;  in  12,55  they  were  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Arehicpiscopal  See  of  Eiga. 
The  Lithuanians,  temporarily  cimvprtcd  in  12.52, 
relapsed  into  heathenism.  Their  Grand  Prince, 
Jagello,  married  in  13S0  the  Polish  Queen  Hed- 
wig,  by  which  act  Poland  and  Litlniania  were 
shortly  made  one  politically.  .Tagello  was  bap- 
tized, assuming  the  title  of  Ladislas  II.  Vilna 
was  made  an  episcopal  see.  .and  at  a  diet  held 
there  Christianity  was  declared  the  State  religion. 

(ij)  Missions  in  the  Sixteenth  CEXTtnY. 
(a)  In  THE  Orient.  The  Portuguese  sailors  and 
the    merchants    were    alwaj-s    accompanied    by 


missionaries.  As  earl\-  as  I.J33  Goa  was  made 
an  episcopal  see.  The  unworthy  conduct  of  the 
Europeans  "as  no  small  obslacde  for  the  mis- 
sionaries when  confronted  with  such  religious 
systems  as  those  of  the  Brahmans.  Buddhists,  and 
Jlohammedans.  At  the  re(|uest  of  the  King  of 
Portugal,  Saint  Ignatius  of  Loyola  destined  for  (he 
East  Indies  in  1540  Rodriguez  and  Saint  Francis 
Xavier.  The  latter  actually  sailed  in  1541  from 
Lisbon,  an4  after  some  time  spent  in  evangelizing 
the  Europeans  of  Goa,  turned  liis  attention  to  the 
heathen  of  Southern  India.  He  preached  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Travancore,  and  went  thence  to  Ma- 
lacca and  the  Moluccas,  meeting  evervwhere  with 
gi'eat  success.  Soon  his  zeal  urged  him  to  under- 
take the  conversion  of  .lapan,  where  he  spent  two 
years  (1540-51).  In  the  liope  of  hastening  the 
conversion  of  Japan,  he  turned  his  attention  next; 
to  China,  but  died  on  the  way  on  the  island  of  San- 
cian.  in  November  or  December,  1552.  His  labors 
in  the  East  Indies  were  continued  by  his  .Jesuit 
brethren,  especially  by  Robert  Xobili.  after  1606. 
The  latter  made  himself  one  with  the  Indian  aris- 
tocracy, accepted  its  prejudices,  habits,  and  cus- 
toms, as  far  as  seemed  consistent  with  Christian- 
ity, and  enjoyed  a  large  measure  of  success. 

The  Nestorian  missions  in  China  during  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  and  the  Franciscan 
missions  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth,  had 
no  lasting  results.  In  1583  the  .Jesuits  obtained 
entrance,  and  for  over  a  century  exercised  a  moral 
supremacy  in  the  Flowery  Ivingdom.  Matteo 
Rieei  (1552-1610)  rose  to  the  highest  otBcial 
position.  His  teaching,  surveys,  and  maps  were 
the  adniiratioir  of  all  China. 

Adam  Schall  of  Cologne  (1622)  and  Ferdinand 
Verbiest  of  the  Low  Countries  (1659)  won  great 
fame  for  their  Order  as  successors  of  Ricci.  Un- 
der cover  of  their  reputation  for  scholarship,  they 
labored  zealously  for  the  spread  of  Christianity, 
quite  in  the  spirit  and  manner  of  Robert  Nobili. 
The  opposition  to  this  system  of  'accommoda- 
tion' grew  so  strong  that  it  was  condemned  in 
1704,  and  the  condemnation  was  confirmed  forty 
years  later  (1744)  by  the  Holy  See.  The  Chris- 
tian comminiitics  of  .Japan  were  grievously  per- 
secuted in  1587  and  again  from  1506  to  1637, 
when  the  Empire  was  strictly  closed  against  all 
foreigners,  with  the  exception,  of  Dutch  traders. 

(b)  In  America.  The  original  Spanish  eon- 
quistadores  were  very  inhuman  toward  all  na- 
tions with  whom  they  came  in  contact.  The  first 
Catholic  priest  ordained  in  the  New  World  was 
a  young  Spanish  lawyer,  Bartolomeo  dc  las  Ca- 
sas.  He  soon  gave  himself  entirely  to  the  work  of 
saving  the  Indians  from  their  barbarous  oppres- 
sors; and  before  his  death,  in  1506.  he  had  com- 
pelled the  legislation  which  saved  the  remnants 
of  the  aboriginal  tribes,  at  least  on  the  main- 
land. Similarly,  Saint  Peter  Cl.aver  (died  1654) 
was  tireless  in  the  service  of  the  unfortunate 
negro  slaves  of  South  America.  Throughout  the 
sixteenth  century.  Dominicans,  Franciscans.  Ca- 
puchins, and  Augustinians  labored  with  bound- 
less zeal  in  all  the  Spanish  colonies.  The  .Jesuits 
were  already  in  Brazil  (1540).  and  soon  had 
their  missionaries  iu  all  parts  of  South  America. 
The  famous  "Reductions  of  Paraguay"  are  per- 
haps their  greatest  triumph.  One  of  the  most 
picturesque  figures  of  that  period  is  the  Limerick 
Irishman.  Thomas  Filde.  a  .Jesuit,  who  died  at 
.\sunci6n  in  1626.  after  spending  forty  years 
among    the    savages    of    Paraguay.      In    North 


MISSIONS. 


592 


MISSIONS. 


America  the  French  missionaries  followed  the 
Hag  of  France,  and  worked  unremittinjrly  after 
IGIl  throughout  all  the  dominions  over  which  it 
floats.  In  1634  .Jesuit  missionaries  accompanied 
the  first  colonists  of  Maryland. 

III.      THE  MODERN  PERIOD. 

A.  Protesiaxt  Foreigx  Missions  :  ( 1 )  St.\te 
AIlssioNAKY  Enterpkises.  At  the  time  of  the 
Keformation,  Christendom  was  still  bcloapuered 
by  armed  Islam.  Up  to  the  very  end  of  the 
se^•e^lt(•enth  century  a  groat  part  of  llungarj- 
was  in  the  possession  of  Turkey,  and  in  1683 
Vienna  barely  escaped  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  Mussulmans.  Missionary  access  to  Eastern 
Xorth  Africa  and  Western  Asia  was  barred  by 
the  sword  of  Islam.  At  the  same  time  trans- 
marine heathen  lands  were  so  distant  that  Im- 
perial resources  alone  could  reach  them.  Such 
resources  were  all  in  the  hands  of  the  great  Ro- 
man Catholic  powers.  The  conditions  under 
which  the  Reformation  develojjcd  left  to  the 
reformers  no  place  for  planning  foreign  mission- 
ary enterprise.  Luther  and  his  as.sociates  ap- 
preciated the  essentially  missionary  quality  of 
the  Church  of  Christ,  but  limited  its  sphere  of 
action  to  their  own  surroundings.  They  deemed 
that  in  any  case  the  Church  was  helpless  regard- 
ing foreign  missions,  since  such  vast  undertak- 
ings could  be  dealt  with  by  governments  alone. 

The  first  Protestant  foreign  missions,  then, 
were  State  enterprises.  In  1555  Admiral  Coligny 
induced  the  Council  of .  Geneva  to  send  mis- 
sionaries to  Brazil  in  connection  with  a  Hu- 
guenot colony.  But  both  mission  and  colony 
soon  ended  in  bloody  disaster.  In  155!)  (Justavus 
Vasa  of  Sweden  sent  missionaries  to  labor 
for  the  pagan  Lapps  of  his  own  dominions.  But 
this  mission  came  to  naught,  -\fter  the  con- 
quest by  Ilolbincl  of  several  Portuguese  colonics 
in  the  East  Indies,  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany was  formed  in  1602,  and  the  governors  of 
the  various  islands  were  ordered  to  do  all  in 
their  power  to  Christianize  the  natives.  Clergy- 
men were  sent  out  to  Ceylon,  Formosa, 
and  the  Malay  Archipelago  as  missionary 
chaplains,  who.se  duty  included  the  Christian 
instruction  of  natives.  But  the  governors  of 
tlie  colonics  obeyed  their  orders  literally,  and 
'Christianized'  the  natives  without  waiting  for 
the  missionaries  to  instruct  them.  Consequently, 
when  Dutch  govcrnnieni  came  to  an  end  in  Cey- 
lon, some  300.000  ollicially  converted  natives  re- 
turned to  their  former  faith.  In  Formosa  Chris- 
tianity was  extinguished  by  the  Chinese,  when 
they  drove  the  Dutch  from  the  island  in  1661.  In 
.lava,  however,  the  missionary  chaplains  slowly 
translated  the  Scriptures  into  Malayan.  The 
second  of  modern  Bible  translations  into  heathen 
languages  (.lolm  Eliot's  Indian  liiblc.  printed  in 
16S.'?,  being  the  first)  was  thus  produced  by  the 
initiative  and  published  (in  1701)  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Dutch  (Jovernment.  With  all  its  de- 
fects this  State  mission  enterprise  had  permanent 
results.  In  .Java,  the  Moluccas,  and  Celebes  has 
crown  up  a  native  Christian  Church,  numbering 
nearly  250.000  adherents,  with  over  350  i)as- 
tors  .ind  |)rcachers.  s)ipj)ortcd  by  the  Dutch  TIov- 
ernmint.  Of  these  proliably  not  more  than  half 
are  the  fniit  of  later  missionary  efforts.  A  simi- 
lar mission  undertaken  by  Holland  in  Brazil, 
through  the  West  India  Company,  about  the  year 
lfi21.  camp  to  an  end  with  the  expulsion  of  the 


Dutch  about  the  middle  of  the  century.  Such 
missionary  enterprises  undertaken  for  reasons  of 
State,  numned  by  official  appointment,  and  su- 
pervised by  colonial  bureaus  and  chambers 
of  commerce,  were  foredoomed  to  failure.  The 
next  of  the  State  missionary  enterprises 
originating  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  illus- 
trates this  fact.  In  1705  a  woman  whose 
husl)uid  had  betai  killed  by  natives  in  the 
Danish  colony  of  Tranquebar,  in  Soutli  India,  pe- 
titioned King  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  to  send 
missionaries  to  teach  the  people  there.  Tlie  ]ie- 
tition  was  effective.  The  King  endowed  the  mis- 
sion, and,  no  fit  men  being  found  in  Denmark, 
two  Germans  were  appointed  to  go  to  India.  They 
were  of  the  disciples  of  Francke,  the  German  piet- 
ist, who  saw  that  the  highest  form  of  Christian 
fruit  fulness  includes  foreign  as  well  as  home  mis- 
sions, and  whose  encrgj-  formed  scliools  at  Halle 
to  prepare  men  to  serve  Christ  in  the  ends  of  the 
earth.  Tlie  two  young  nuMi.  Ziegenbalg  and  Pint 
.schau,  taught  singleness  of  ])urpose  at  Halle,  and 
sent  out  by  King  Frederick  1\'.  in  170G.  began  the 
first  serious  Protestant  mission  enterprise  in 
India.  Before  his  death,  in  1710,  Ziegenbalg  had 
made  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
the  Tamil  language,  which  became  the  basis  of 
the  existing  Tamil  Bil)le.  and  the  third  modern 
translation  of  the  Serijiturcs  into  heathen  lan- 
guages. Other  missionaries  from  the  same  home 
surroundings  followed  the  two  pioneers  of  this 
Danish  mission.  n<ilably  Schultze  and  his  later 
associate,  Schwartz.  Each  of  these  men  made  a 
permanent  impression  upon  the  people  of  the 
country.  Fifty  thousand  Tamils  became  Chris- 
tians before  the  en<l  of  the  century.  After  the 
death  of  King  Frederick  IV^.  the  English  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Cliristian  Knowledge  as- 
sumed the  whole  support  of  the  Danish  mission 
in  India  until  1824.  when  the  <'ntcrpri.se  was 
passed  over  to  the  Society  for  tlie  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel.  Another  mission  maintained  by 
King  Frederick  IV.  was  that  commenced  by  Hans 
Egede  in  Greenland  in  1721.  It  was  later  trans- 
ferred to  the  Danish  Missionary  Society,  and  the 
whole  Eskimo  population  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  numerous  Danish  trading-stations  was  long 
ago  Christianized. 

The  British  Government  took  steps  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century  for  the  Christianizing  of 
its  colonies.  The  Virginia  Company,  whose  enter- 
prise began  in  1584.  was  directed  by  its  charter 
to  teach  Christianity  to  the  Indians,  and  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  subscribed  one  hundred  jiounds  to 
that  object.  The  same  duty  was  laid  upon  the 
Massachusetts  Colony  by  charter  in  1(')2S.  In 
1646  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  passed  a 
law  for  missionary  work  among  the  Indians. 
This  gave  .State  support  to  the  eti'orts  of  .John 
Eliot  of  Koxbury.  Thomas  Mayhew  of  Martha's 
Vineyard,  and  others.  In  1648  Cromwell  induced 
the  English  Parliament  to  consider  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  Government  foreign  missionary  enter- 
prise. The  renewal  of  civil  war.  however,  put 
an  end  to  the  scheme.  But  the  Corporation  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gosjud  in  Xcw  England, 
formed  in  England  in  1640.  received  a  grant  from 
Parliament  and  aided  Eliot's  mission.  It  still 
exists  under  the  name  of  'The  New  England  Com- 
pany.' and  expends  the  revenue  from  its  endow- 
ment funds  for  the  cdiication  of  Indians  in  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  .Ml  these  efforts  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  several  villages  of  con- 


MISSIONS. 


593 


MISSIONS. 


verted  Indians  in  New  England  before  progress 
was  arrested  by  war.  In  the  East  Indies, 
on  tlie  renewal  of  the  charter  of  tlie  Britisli  East 
India  Company  in  1098,  the  duty  was  iiii])()sed 
upon  the  company  of  maintaining  chaplains  at 
its  stations,  and  later  the  obligation  to  see  that 
its  native  servants  were  instructed  in  Christian 
doctrine.  Discussions  regarding  religious  condi- 
tions in  the  company's  stations  led  to  the  organ- 
ization in  lti!)8  of  tlie  Society  for  the  Promotion 
(if  Chrinlian  Knoiricdge  (S.  P.  C.  K.),  designed 
ii  provide  Christian  schools  and  books  for  neg- 
].  'led  English  connnunities.  This  was  followed 
tliree  years  later  by  the  organization  of  the 
Hociehj  for  the  Propagation  of  the  tloxjiel  in 
Foreign-  Parts  (S.  P.  G.),  designed  to  provide 
chaplains  for  the  religious  culture  of  Englishmen 
in  foreign  lands.  Neither  of  these  societies  aimed 
at  Christianizing  the  heathen.  But  the  S.  P. 
C.  K.  saved  the  Danish  mission  in  South  India 
from  dying  with  its  founder,  and  supported  it  for 
a  hundred  j'ears.  It  has  also  issued  Christian 
literature  in  the  languages  of  various  non-Chris- 
tian peo])les.  Its  issues  of  this  description  in 
1900  anuiunted  to  47..500  volumes.  As  to  the 
S.  P.  G..  it  gradually  took  up  work  among  the 
pagans,  and  in  1001  it  had  744  missionaries  and 
3384  native  workers  in  India,  China.  Japan,  Ma- 
laysia. Africa,  and  the  West  Indies.  In  view  of 
their  later  liistory.  these  two  societies  may  be 
regarded  as  the  earliest  of  the  voluntary  foreign 
missionary  societies  of  Great  Britain. 

(2)  Protestant  Voluntaby  JIlssionary  So- 
CIETIE.S.  Since  the  true  aim  of  missions  is  to 
persuade  men  to  admit  Jesus  Christ  to  the  control 
of  their  lives,  ed'orts  that  tend  to  accomplish  this 
aim  arc  of  equal  interest  to  all  Christians.  From 
this  point  of  view  we  may  note  the  development 
of  the  missionary  spirit  in  Protestant  Christen- 
dom, witliout  pausing  to  follow  into  detail  its 
national  or  denominational  particulars.  In  1709 
the  state  of  the  North  American  Indians  led  to 
tile  formation,  in  Scotland,  of  a  Soeieti/  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge.  The  chief 
present  importance  of  this  society  was  its  employ- 
ment as  a  missionary  (in  1744)  of  David  Brain- 
erd  of  Connecticut.  The  story  of  his  lirief  life 
had  persuasive  influence  on  both  sides  of  the  At- 
lantic in  stimulating  similar  devotion.  A  more 
powerful  influence  of  the  same  nature  was  exer- 
cised by  the  writings  and  the  example  of  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  who  called  themselves  the 
'Unity  of  Bretlircn.'  A  remnant  from  persecu- 
tion, this  little  people  migrated  from  Bohemia, 
and  in  1772  found  asylum  in  Orniany.  They 
were  allowed  to  settle  on  the  estates  of  Count 
Zinzeiidorf.  wlio  was  himself  a  pupil  of  Francke 
of  Halle,  and  who  became  their  leader.  The 
'Brethren'  established  missions  among  the  slaves 
of  the  West  Indies,  in  Greenland,  among  the 
Indians  of  the  North  American  Colonies,  in  South 
Africa,  in  South  America,  and  in  Labrador  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  IMore 
recently  they  liave  opened  missions  in  Australia. 
Alaska',  ami' on  tlie  borders  of  Tibet.  In  1900.  all 
the  Eskimos  at  their  four  stations  in  Greenland 
having  boeome  Christians,  they  transferred  tlieir 
Greenland  mission  to  the  Danish  Chiinb.  In 
their  other  fields  they  now  have  402  missionaries, 
;i~-.i^ted  liy   18(59  native  workers. 

Through  such  influences  and  through  the  writ- 
ings of  Spener  and  Franeke  in  Germany,  and  the 
•earnest  exhortations  of  ^^^litefield  and  Weslev  in 


•e 

I 


England  (who  had  themselves  been  deeply  afl'eet- 
ed  by  the  writings  of  Francke  and  Zinzendorf ) , 
and  of  Jonathan  Edwards  in  America,  a  resusci- 
tation of  personal  religion  \\as  brought  about. 
At  about  tlie  same  time  the  travels  of  Captain 
Cook  revealed  the  innncnse  extent  of  the  heatlien 
world,  while  occurrences  like  the  trial  of  Warren 
Hastings  and  the  anti-slavery  agitation  of  Wil- 
berforce  brought  home  to  the  minds  of  the  Eng- 
lish people  their  responsibility  for  outrages  per- 
petrated by  purely  selfish  men  professing  the 
name  of  Christians.  The  time  was  ripe  for  action 
to  benefit  the  sulTerers  from  such  outrages.  As 
early  as  1779  the  English  Wesleyans  sent  a  num- 
ber of  missionaries  among  the  North  American 
Indians,  and  in  178(1  thev  began  a  mission  in 
tlie  West  Indies.  In  1814  these  beginnings  were 
followed  by  the  organization  of  a  society  which 
has  supervised  the  mission  work  of  that  Church 
up  to  the  present  time.  Its  missions  lie  in  Cey- 
lon, in  other  parts  of  India,  in  South  Africa, 
Oceanica,  and  China.  In  1900  this  society  had  in 
the  field  306  missionaries  of  both  sexes,  aided  by 
9408  native  workers.  In  general,  however,  the 
sudden  development  of  foreign  mission  enter- 
prises about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
turv  did  not  come  from  any  church  organization. 
It  sprang  from  the  awakening  of  isolated  indi- 
viiluals  whom  the  Church  op|)osed  as  unsteady 
enthusiasts.  In  1780  William  Carey,  a  cobbler 
and  a  Baptist  minister  in  England,  surprised  a 
ministers'  meeting  by  proposing  discussion  of  the 
duty  of  foreign  missions.  He  was  frowned  down 
by  his  elders.  In  1792,  however,  he  commanded 
attention  and  won  support.  The  duty  had  be- 
come plain.  In  that  same  year  twelve  men  united 
to  form  the  Baptist  M issionari/  Soeictg,  sending 
Carey  and  Thomas  as  their  first  missionaries  to 
India.  The  East  India  Company  would  not  tol- 
erate missionaries,  but  they  found  a  safe  resi- 
dence in  the  Danish  Colonv  of  Serampore,  near 
Calcutta.  The  influence  of  the  mission  was  im- 
mediate. Carey's  greatest  work  was  that  of  Bible 
translation ;  and  the  Serampore  press,  under  his 
direction,  added  to  the  slender  list  then  existing 
translations  of  Scripture  in  thirty-four  languages. 
The  Baptist  Society  extended  its  work  in  India, 
and  added  to  its  field  Ceylon,  the  West  Indies, 
West  Africa,  and  China.  In  1900  it  had  in  the 
field  263  missionaries,  men  and  women,  with  932 
native  workers.  The  example  of  the  English  Bap- 
tists had  effect  in  all  Protestant  countries.  The 
reading  of  Carey's  first  letters  from  India  led 
in  179.5  to  the  formation  of  the  London  Mission- 
ary Soeiety  (L.  M.  S.),  in  which  Independents, 
Presbyterians,  Methodists,  and  Episcopalians 
united.  Since  the  other  denominations  have  un- 
dertaken missions  of  their  own,  this  society  is 
now  composed  substantially  of  Independents 
alone.  Its  present  fields  are  Oceanica.  South  and 
Central  Africa,  Madagascar,  India,  and  China, 
In  1901  it  had  in  the  fiidd  4.'5.'>  missionaries,  men 
and  women,  and  0203  native  workers.  Nott, 
.fnhn  Williams,  IMorrison.  Medhurst.  Rice.  Mof- 
fat, and  Livingstone  are  names  which  give  spe- 
cial lustre  to  its  roll.  In  1796  two  similar  socie- 
ties were  formed  in  Scntliiml.  which  served  at 
first  as  auxiliaries  to  the  London  soeietv.  Later 
they  did  good  work  by  themselves  in  South  Africa 
and  the  West  Indies,  and  afterwards  became 
merged  in  the  missionary  societies  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  and  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland.     The  formation  of  a  society  in  Hoi- 


MISSIONS. 


594 


MISSIONS. 


land  in  1797  (called  llio  Xvthcilaiids  ilissionary 
Society),  to  aid  in  the  work  of  the  London  So- 
ciety, illustrates  the  solidarity  of  Cliristian  feel- 
ing which  underlies  the  modern  missionary  move- 
ment, and  also  the  failure  at  lirst  to  appreciate 
tlie  extent  of  tlie  worli  committed  to  a  single 
board  of  directors  by  Christians  of  dill'ereut  de- 
nominations and  nationalities.  The  Netherlands 
Missionary  Society  furnished  several  missionaries 
to  the  L.  M.  fS.,  and  afterwards  chose  its  special 
held  in  the  Dutch  Kast  Indies,  where  in  1900  it 
had  11  missionaries.  From  this  beginning  a  score 
of  other  societies  in  Holland  have  sprung  for  di- 
rect and  indirect  foreign  missionary  work,  ilean- 
while,  the  claims  of  freed  slaves  at  the  Sierra 
Leone  colony  were  pressed  upon  the  Church  of 
England.  Pious  men  in  the  eni]doy  of  the  East 
India  Company,  like  Brown  and  (Jrant,  urged 
that  Church  to  labor  among  the  people  of  India. 
Nothing  being  done  by  tlie  Church  in  1799,  twen- 
ty-six of  its  spiritually  minded  members,  among 
whom  were  William  Wilberforce,  .John  Venn,  and 
Charles  Simeon,  organized  the  Church  Misaionary 
Society  (C.  M.  S. ),  at  lirst  known  as  the  Hociety 
for  Mismons  to  Africa  and  the  East.  They  at 
once  encountered  opposition  on  the  ground  that 
such  enterprises  should  be  directed  by  the 
bislKips,  which  made  it  difficult  for  them  to  find 
fit  ministers  to  go  out.  Hence,  the  society  drew 
its  early  missionaries  from  Germany.  Altogether, 
more  than  a  hundred  of  its  missionaries  have 
been  Germans,  many  of  them  of  the  highest  abil- 
ity, like  Krapf,  Rebmann.  Rhenius,  and  Pfander. 
Nearly  half  a  century  passed  before  the  C.  il.  S. 
won  recognition  from  the  episcopate.  The  fields 
of  the  C.  yi.  S.  are  in  India,  Ceylon,  China, 
.Japan,  West  Africa,  East  Africa  and  Uganda, 
Mauritius.  New  Zealand,  Persia,  Palestine,  Egypt, 
and  the  northcn  aiul  western  parts  of  British 
North  America.  In  1901  it  had  in  the  fielil  123S 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  and  7915  native 
workers,  of  whom  375  are  ordained  clergymen. 
The  growth  of  English  interest  in  missions,  com- 
bined with  the  successes  of  the  Halle  missionaries 
in  India,  led  in  1800  to  the  establishment  at  Ber- 
lin of  Jaimiche's  Missionary  School.  This  school 
during  the  next  qviarter  of  a  century  furnished 
some  eighty  missionaries  to  the  English  and  Dutch 
societies,  and  served  to  arouse  furtlirr  interest  in 
missions  in  Germany.  Meanwhile,  the  same  ideas 
were  working  in  .\merica.  They  found  expression 
in  foreign  missions  through  the  devotion  of 
Samuel  J.  Mills  and  other  students  at  Williams 
College,  who  agreed  together  to  give  their  lives 
to  preaching  to  the  heathen.  The  earnestness  of 
these  young  men  led  to  the  I'orninticm.  in  l.Sll,  of 
the  Amrrican  Hoard  of  l^omiiiisxiuiirrs  for  For- 
eiyii  Missions  (A.  B.  C.  F.  M. ),  an  interdenomi- 
national society.  The  first  mis-;iniiarii'S  of  this 
society.  Newell.  .Tudson.  Hall,  Rice,  and  Nntt. 
were  sent  to  India,  and  were  instantly  ordered  out 
of  the  country  by  the  Kast  India  Company.  .lud- 
son  and  Rice  joined  the  Baptists  at  Serampore, 
and  the  others  after  some  trouble  sueeeoded  in 
getting  a  footing  in  Ceylon  and  at  Bombay. 
Within  ten  years  the  soeiety  had  neeupied  other 
fields  in  India,  in  Hawaii,  and  in  Turkey,  .\fler 
.some  forty  years  of  existence  as  an  interdenomi- 
national soeiety  it  rclinipii^hed  some  of  its  field-' 
(in  Inilia.  Persia.  Syria,  and  West  .\fric.T)  to 
the  .\inerican  Dutch  Reformed  and  Presbyterian 
churches,  who  wished  to  conduct  separate  mis- 
sions of  their  own.     It  is  now  chiefly  .supported 


by  Cougregationalists.  The  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  has 
missions  in  China,  India,  Ceylon,  South  Africa, 
West  Africa,  .Jai)an,  Turkey,  and  Uceauica.  In 
1901  the  number  of  its  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  was  549,  with  35SI  native  workers.  Jud- 
son  and  Rice,  of  the  lirst  group  of  missionaries 
sent  to  India  by  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  SI.,  changed  their 
views  on  baptism  before  entering  upon  their 
work,  and  chose  Burma  for  their  iieUl  <jf  labor. 
This  occurrence  led  in  LSI!  to  the  formation  of 
the  American  Baptist  .Missiomiry  i'nion  (A.  B. 
M.  U.)  to  assume  the  support  of  the  two  pioneers 
in  Burma.  Its  present  fields  are  in  Burma,  Siam, 
Assam,  India,  China.  .Japan,  and  the  Congo  Free 
State.  In  1901  it  had  in  the  field  489  mission- 
aries of  both  se.xes,  with  4til3  native  workers. 

Tlie  success  of  the  early  missionaries  of  these 
English  and  American  societies  aroused  an  inter- 
est which  extended  to  the  Protestants  of  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  led  in  IS  15  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  M issionary  Institute  at  Basel,  in 
Switzerland.  The  training  school  for  mission- 
aries with  which  this  institute  began  its  opera- 
tions provided  valuable  men  for  the  English  so- 
cieties. A  magazine  for  missionary  intelligence, 
published  by  the  Institute,  deepened  missionary 
interest  in  Germany  and  other  Protestant  coun- 
tries. In  1822  the  Basel  Institute  began  to  send 
out  missionaries,  one  of  the  earliest  of  whom, 
Zaremba.  labored  ellectively  in  Russian  Armenia 
until  expelled  by  the  Russian  Government  in 
1835.  Its  present  fields  are  in  West  Africa,  India, 
and  China,  and  graduates  of  its  school  are  pas 
tors  of  evangelical  churches  in  Turkey.  In  1900 
it  had  in  tlie  field  381  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  with  1190  native  workers.  The  land  of 
Luther  had  already  contributed  men  and  means  for 
foreign  missions  during  many  years  In^forc  its  first 
foreign  missionary  society  was  formed  at  Berlin 
in  1824  by  ten  men  of  mark,  among  whom  were 
Neander  and  Tholuck.  Following  the  conserva- 
tive usage  of  the  Continental  Protestants,  the 
first  work  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society  was 
to  establish  a  training  school  for  missionaries. 
It  began  to  send  men  abroad  in  1834.  Its  present 
fields  are  in  South  Africa.  German  East  Africa, 
and  China.  It  has  also  done  much  to  draw  Chris- 
tian colonists  to  the  tierman  colonies.  In  1900 
it  maintained  100  men  as  missionaries  in  its  va- 
rious fields.  During  the  first  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  a  considerable  number  of  little 
missionary  a.ssociations  had  been  formed  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  (iermany  to  aid  existing  societies 
at  Basel  and  elsewhere.  Later  these  developed 
into  the  Rhenish,  the  Xorlh  dermnn,  the  />ci/>;iV/, 
the  (io.isner.  and  the  llerniannKhiirg  .Missionary 
Societies,  and  have  finally  won  the  support  of  the 
official  representatives  of  the  Church  to  what  is 
now  a  large  and  important  nii-'sionary  I'litcrprise 
in  .\frica.  India.  China.  Malaysia,  and  .\ustral- 
asia.  The  foreign  missions  of  the  Protestants 
of  France  Ix'gan  in  1818.  with  a  missionary  maga- 
zine intended  to  give  information  of  the  work  of 
missionaries  of  other  nations.  This  was  followed 
in  1824  by  the  organization  of  the  Fianyelical 
Mi.t.iinns  Society  of  Paris,  designed  at  first  to 
aid  existing  missions.  Since  1825  it  has  sent 
mis.;ionaries  of  its  own  to  Central  .\frica  and 
S('ni'V'anil)ia.  besides  replacing,  in  ennsequenec 
of  T'n'neh  national  prejudices,  missionaries  of  the 
I^.  M.  S.  in  Tahiti  and  Madagascar,  and  .\nierican 
missionaries  in  the  French  Congo  region.  It  now 
has  60  missionaries  in  its  service.    The  roots  of 


MISSIONS. 


595 


MISSIONS. 


tlie  existing  uiissiouary  societies  in  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden  also  lie  in  the  first  quarter 
(if  tile  niui'teentli  century.  Tliese  .Seandinavian 
>-ncieties  expanded  during  the  last  quarter  of  tlie 
lentury,  and  in  HKJO  had  between  500  and  (iOO 
missionaries  in  Africa,  Madagascar,  India,  China, 
and  Chinese  Turkestan.  The  intimate  relations 
of  some  of  the  Seandinavian  societies  witli  Ger- 
man, English,  and  American  enterprises,  however, 
make  it  certain  that  some  of  these  missionaries 
are  also  reported  by  societies  in  otlicr  countries. 
In  1824  the  Kstablished  Church  of  Scotland  un- 
dertook missionary  work  in  India  and  among  the 
Kallirs  in  Africa,  one  of  its  early  missionaries 
being  Alexaiuhn-  Dufl',  the  father  of  educational 
missions.  The  disruption  in  1843  caused  the 
resignation  of  all  the  Scotch  Church  missionaries 
in  India  anil  Katlraria.  they  preferring  to  join 
tlie  Flee  Ciiurch,  which  has  since  carried  on 
extendeil  missionary  operations.  In  l'.)00  the  Free 
Church  joined  with  the  United  Presbyterian 
Cliurch  in  forming  the  United  Free  Church  of 
Scotland.  This  body  has  missions  in  India, 
Africa,  Arabia,  SjTia,  Turkey,  China,  West  In- 
dies, and  the  New  Hebrides.  Its  missionaries 
number  403,  men  and  women,  and  its  force  of  na- 
tive workers  is  2824.  As  to  the  Established 
Church  of  Scotland,  after  recovering  from  the 
effects  of  the  disruption,  it  pressed  its  missionary 
enterprises,  and  in  1001  it  had  in  India,  Central 
Africa,  China,  and  Turkey  130  missionaries  of 
both  sexes,  with  ()24  native  workers.  Tliese  Scot- 
tish mission  enterprises  are  carried  on  by  the 
Church  organizations,  and  not  by  independent 
missionary  societies. 

The  Bible  societies  grew  out  of  the  same 
religious  quickening  whii'li  gave  rise  to  the  vol- 
untary missionary  societies  (the  British  and 
Fiireif/n  liihle  Hocictyi.  1804,  the  American  Bible 
!<<irietii.  ISKi,  the  Xcthrrland.'S  Bible  Socicti/,  the 
l<cottish  XatioHul  Bible  Socicli/.  and  others).  So 
far  as  concerns  their  publications  in  the  lan- 
guages of  non-Christian  peoples  these  societies 
iln  foreign  missionary  work  in  the  very  highest 
-i-nse,  since  no  Protestant  foreign  mission  can 
exist  without  the  Bible  in  the  language  of  the 
[iiople  among  whom  it  is  w'orkiiig.  The  Bible 
Siicieties  work  in  harmony  with  each  other  and 
with  the  missions.  Indeed,  missionaries  have 
made  the  greater  part  of  the  translations  of  the 
Bible  now  in  circulation.  In  nil,  the  Bible  has 
been  translated  into  427  languages.  The  Rcli- 
■lions  Tract  Society  of  London  (1799)  and  the 
American  Tract  Society  of  New  York  (1820) 
have  <lone  a  similar  work  for  foreign  missions  in 
aiding  to  provide  general  Christian  literature  in 
the  languages  of  non-Christian  lands. 

While  our  survey  indicates  the  origin  of  the 
Protestant  missionary  movement  in  the  spiritual 
enlightenment  of  the  Christian  Cliurch,  it  cannot 
detail  its  exiiansion  since  the  first  quarter  of  the 
ninctceiitb  century.  In  Ihe  second  quarter  of  the 
century  the  Methodist  Church  and  the  Prestn-te- 
rian  Church  in  the  I'nited  States,  previously  oc- 
cupied with  missions  among  the  American  In- 
dians, began  their  great  missionary  enterprises 
abroad.  In  many  other  denominations  in  the 
T'nited  States.  Oreat  Britain,  and  Europe,  foreign 
missionary  undertakings  have  been  organized. 
Since  the  middle  of  the  century  foreign  mission- 
ary societies  have  been  formed  in  the  colonial 
churches  in  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  India,  Aus- 
tralia,  New   Zealand,    South    Africa,   and   other 


Protestant  colonies.  Since  ISGl,  when  the  first 
Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Union  was  formed 
in  New  York,  Christian  women  in  all  lands  have 
entered  U])on  the  woi'k.  organizing  women's  mis- 
sionary societies,  commonly  more  than  mere 
auxiliaries  to  the  older  enlerpri.ses.  Educational 
and  medical  missionary  enterprises  have  been 
established  in  considerable  number.  Interdi'noini- 
iiational  missionary  societies,  like  the  Clirislian 
and  Missionary  Alliance  of  America  and  the 
China  Inland  ][ission  and  the  Xorth  Africa  Mis- 
sion of  England,  have  umlcrtakcn  extensive  enter- 
prises in  non-Christian  countries.  To  some  extent 
Christian  communities  which  are  themselves  the 
fruit  of  missions  have  undertaken  foreign  mis- 
sions; as  in  India,  Africa,  the  Fiji  Islands,  the 
Hervey  Islands,  and  Hawaii.  In  India,  Ceylon, 
and  South  Africa  the  Salvation  Army  has  estab- 
lished itself,  seeking  to  forward  the  evangeliza- 
tion of  the  heathen  by  mclliods  peculiar  to  itself. 
We  may  also  here  mention  the  Student  ^'oluntcer 
Movement,  organized  in  1880  in  America,  but 
now  found  in  many  other  lands.  It  is  neither  de- 
nominational nor  a  missionary  society,  but  un- 
consciously follows  the  idea  which  led  the  Ger- 
man Baron  von  Welz  in  1033  to  make  his  mis- 
sionary appeal  to  students.  It  has  influence  in 
colleges  and  universities  in  increasing  knowledge 
of  the  claims  and  the  results  of  foreign  missions, 
and  in  providing  the  various  societies  with  can- 
didates for  service  in  the  field. 

According  to  the  statistical  tables  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  J.  S.  Dennis  (in  his  Cetitennial  Surrey  of 
Foreign  Missions,  to  which  we  are  indebted  for 
some  other  statistics  given  in  this  article),  in 
1900  the  total  number  of  societies  directly  or  in- 
directly engaged  in  the  Protestant  missionary  en- 
terprise was  as  follows : 

.\merican  continents 128 

llreat  Britain  and  Ireland 154 

Deuniarli 4 

Finland  2 

France  6 

Gernlan^■  -4 

Holland 22 

Norway 10 

Sweden 10 

Switzerland 4 

Asia :....  117 

.\n9tralasia  and  Oceanica 35 

Africa 42 

Total 558 

These  societies  are  represented  in  the  field  by 
about  1.5.000  missionaries,  men  and  women,  and 
about  77,000  native  preachers,  teachers,  and 
other  laborers. 

The  enormous  increase  of  foreign  missionary 
societies  during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  especially  since  the  work  of  Living- 
stone and  Stanley  culminated  in  the  opening  of 
Africa  to  colonization,  might  seem  to  threaten 
friction  and  confusion  among  these  numerous 
agencies.  This  has  been  largely  averted,  how- 
ever, because  unity  of  aim  develops  a  sense  of  the 
essential  unity  of  all  interests.  In  India,  China, 
and  .Japan,  and  in  some  other  countries,  interde- 
nominational conferences  of  missionaries  are 
regularly  held  for  the  comparison  of  experiences, 
the  improvement  of  metliods,  and  the  promotion 
of  comity.  In  the  Netherlands,  in  Germany,  in 
the  United  States,  and  to  some  extent  in  Great 
Britain,  conferences  between  the  various  Prot- 
estant missionary  societies  are  held  at  regular 
intervals  for  the  same  purpose.  Furthermore, 
general  and  international  missionary  conferences 


MISSIONS.                               596  MISSIONS. 

have  been  held,  of  wliicli  tlic  last,  known  as  the  problem  arises  of  their  orjjanization  and  culture 
Keunienical  ilissionary  Conference  of  1900,  as  a  bod\-  having  self-control,  initiative,  and  the 
brou'dit  together  representatives  of  240  Protest-  power  of  expansion.  The  results  of  missionary 
ant  missionary  societies.  The  harmony  displayed  work  cannot  be  permanent  unless  the  Christian 
at  such  conferences,  representing  many  dcnonii-  Church  becomes  indigenous  on  the  foreign  field, 
nations,  gives  the  impression  that  Protestant  for-  Hence  the  members  of  native  churches  must  early 
cign  missionaries  should  be  considered  as  a  be  accustomed  to  manage  their  own  afTairs  and 
sin'de  force,  and  that  they  stand,  to  quote  the  to  support  their  own  clnirch  institutions  and 
words  of  the  historian  McKen/ic.  "in  the  fore-  their  schools.  Missionaries  rarely  become  pas- 
most  rank  of  powers  destined  to  change  the  face  tors  of  the  local  churches,  and  in  general  avoid 
of  the  world."  settling  local  ecclesiastical  questions  except  in 
(,3)  Methods  and  Prohlems  of  Foreign  JIis-  conjunction  with  the  local  ministers.  The  \inder- 
siON  Work.  As  to  the  methods  used  in  the  taking  of  the  local  church  to  provide  financial 
presentation  of  the  Gospel,  experience  has  dc-  resources  for  its  own  church-work  is  called  By 
veloped  certain  principles,  almost  attaining  to  the  somewhat  ambiguous  term  of  'self-support,' 
the  quality  of  a  science  of  missions.  I'rcachinq  and  is  well  established  m  a  large  number  of 
in  tlie  language  of  the  people  is  the  first  and  missions,  notwithstanding  poverty  among  the 
most    important   method    of   evangelization;    and  church  members. 

the  establishment  of  a  permanent  preaching  Whatever  the  ability  and  common  sense  of  the 
place,  to  which  all  mav  come  if  thcv  choose,  is  a  missionary,  attack  is  probable  upon  him  by 
first  concern  in  every 'missionarv  station.  Xeed  vested  interests  represented  in  the  religion  of 
at  once  appears  to  place  the  Riiile  in  the  hands  the  country  where  he  would  preach.  The  murder, 
of  the  people.  This  fi.xes  lilcrary  trork  as  an-  during  1900,  of  135  British,  Swedish,  and  .\nieri- 
other  method  of  evangelization.  Qualified  mis-  can  missionaries  in  China  was  a  tragedy  of  mis- 
sionaries translate  the  Bible,  set  up  presses  and  «ions  moie  than  once  paralleled  in  quality, 
print  it.  prepare  helps  to  its  study,  tracts,  and  though  not  recently  in  degree.  In  this  connec- 
gcncral  Christian  literature,  and  iii  short  apply  tion  a  problem  arises  as  to  the  right  of  mis- 
the  enormous  inlluence  of  the  i)riiiling-press  to  sionarics  to  ask  Government  protection.  It  is 
tlie  enterprise  of  making  Christ  known.  In  MtOO  generally  held  that  missionaries  should  not  de- 
the  publishing  centres  in  IMotcstant  foreign  mis-  pend  upon  such  protection:  that  they  go  among 
si.m  fields  numbered  148.  with  an  annual  output  savage  tribes  at  their  own  peril,  and  that  in  lands 
of  nearly  3(i.j.000.000  pages  of  Christian  litera-  where  laws  and  treaties  exist  they  must  obey  the 
ture  Desire  that  the  people  shall  read  not  only  laws.  On  the  other  hand,  a  government  jeopar- 
requircs  the  printing  of  primers,  but  the  estab-  dizes  the  right  of  all  its  people  residing  in  any 
lishiuent  of  schools.  But  every  school  gives  unsur-  foreign  country  when  it  neglects  to  defend  such  of 
jiassed  facilities  for  moral  aiid  spiritual  culture.  Uiem  as  arc  maltreated  while  engaged  in  lawful 
and  tliis   in   proportion  to  the   importance  of  its  occupations. 

general  training.  Bence  educdtioiinl  iroil.- hnii  an  (4)  TtEsfLTS  OF  Missions.  Statistical  tables 
rmportance  as  a  method  of  evangelization  which  is  of  Protestant  forei,gn  missions  sufi'er  from  diver- 
iiiuiieasurablc  where  tlie  (|ualitv  of  inslruction  is  sities  of  conception  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
of  the  best  and  the  spiritual  power  of  the  teachers  returns  which  are  due  to  diversity  of  nationality 
is  of  the  highest.  In  inOO  there  were,  under  the  and  ecclesiastical  polity.  Nevertheless,  the  fol- 
direciion  of  Protestant  foreign  missionaries  lowing  may  be  taken  as  a  fairly  accurate  though 
througlumt  the  non-Christian  world.  1S.804  conservative  statement  of  the  number  of  Chris- 
primary  schools  and  kindergartens,  with  009.140  tian  adherents  in  Protestant  missions  throughout 
pupils  of  both  sexes,  and  1(114  higher  educational  the  world  in  1900: 

institutions,    with    142..320    students:    94    of    the  ^he  Amprioan  continents,    including:  Grwnlanrt 

last-named   institutions  are  universities  and  col-  and  the  West  Indips '■"'''SSS 

leges  atten.h.d  by  :io.5:H.  stud-mts  of  both  sexes^  l?Ji:^^l:i''il';^^X:^"''."^'^^'*:::::;::;:::::;::;:;:  \:ZZ 

,]trilir(il    ircirl;    is    another    iiowerful    method    of      oceanica  and  Australasia 300.000 

evangelization.        Protestant    foreign  missions   in 

1900    possessed    ZhlTy    hospitals    and    7r>.S    dispen-  Total 4.11...UW 

saries.    in    which    2.r)79.0:)l    individuals   received  Of  this  number.  1..31S,000  were  communicants, 

treatment   during   the   year.     .\   most    pervasive  and  the  number  admitted  as  communicants  dur- 

method  of  evangelization  is  consistent  Christian  ing  the  year  was  85.000. 

lirinff.  This  includes  not  only  Christian  family  Again,  foreign  missions  have  not  merely 
life,  which  in  itself  is  an  object  lesson  for  non-  planted  Christianity  in  all  the  principal  non- 
Christians,  but  social  intercours<-  with  the  people.  Christian  lands  of  the  world.  They  have  added 
^lissionaries.  both  men  and  women,  find  access  the  Bible  to  the  literature  of  all  the  great  Ian- 
to  the  homes  of  the  jicople,  travel  among  the  guages  of  the  earth,  placing  before  the  eyes  of 
towns  and  villages,  speak  to  the  poor  and  igno-  the  people  the  principles  of  true  manhood  and  its 
rant  perhaps  the  only  sympathetic  words  heard  model  in  the  peerless  figure  of  .Jesus  Christ.  The 
in  a  lifetime,  make  known  to  them  the  Gospel  annual  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  in  foreign 
of  Christ,  and  in  famine  or  pestilence  they  make  mission  fields  is  2.5.35.400  Bibles.  Testaments, 
♦  he  interests  of  the  sufTerers  their  own.  and  help  and  single  CJospels  or  other  jiarts  of  Scripture, 
them  to  endure  and  survive  the  catastrophe.  Itesults  of  missions  visible  to  the  eye  in  non- 
Thi'  effect iveness  of  all  these  methods  of  evan-  Christian  lands,  but  not  capable  of  record  in 
gelizatii>n  depends  largely,  however,  upon  the  statistics,  are  the  overthrow  of  di;;rading  super- 
qualities  of  the  missionaries  themselves.  Too  stitions.  the  limitation  or  extinction  of  immoral 
milch  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that  and  cruel  customs,  the  modification  of  non- 
the  success  or  failure  of  a  mission  depends  upon  Christian  religious  teaching,  the  gradual  eleva- 
men  rather  than  upon  methods.  tion  of  the  standing  of  woman,  the  quickening 
As    soon    as    converts    have    Wen    won.    the  of  general  intelligence,  and  the  wide  introduction 


MISSIONS. 


597 


MISSIONS. 


of  education  among  illiterate  and  degraded  races, 
together  with  the  addition  of  great  territories 
to  the  area  of  the  world's  commerce.  To  this 
nmst  lie  added  the  work  done  hy  missions  in 
charitable  care  for  the  sick,  the  blind,  the  lepers, 
and  outcasts  of  every  class. 

Bini.iooRAriiY.  The  reports  of  the  societies, 
annals  of  particular  missions,  and  lives  of  in- 
dividual missionaries,  constitute  a  great  mass  of 
material.  A  bibliography  of  this  literature  to 
the  end  of  1890  by  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson 
may  be  found  in  Bliss,  Encyclopwdin  of  Missions 
(New  York,  1891),  continued  by  Dennis  in  his 
Foreign  Missions  After  a  Cenlnry  (New  York, 
1893).  For  a  general  view  of  the  missionary 
operations  of  various  societies  and  discussions  of 
the  theory  of  missions,  consult  the  Report  of  the 
Ecumenical  Conference  of  1900  (New  York, 
1900),  which  has  a  good  brief  bibliography 
in  its  appendi.x.  Grudemann's  Missions-Atlas 
(Cahv.  1896)  gives  a  good  series  of  maps  of 
the  operations  of  the  larger  societies  of  Europe 
and  America.  For  the  history  of  Protestant 
missions,  consult :  Blundiardt,  Versnch  finer  all- 
gcnieinen  Missionsfieschichte  der  Kirchv  Christi 
(Basel,  1828-37)  ;  Kalkar,  Geschichte  der  christ- 
lichen  Missirm  unter  den  Heiden  (Giitersloh, 
1879)  :  Warneek,  Abriss  einer  Geschichte  der 
protrstdnfischen  Missionen  von  der  Reformation 
bis  aiif  die  Gef/enivart  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1873: 
Eng.  trans,  by  Robson.  Outline  of  the  History  of 
Prnlrstiint  Missions,  7th  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1901)  ; 
(iiiirge  Smith.  Short  History  of  Christian  Mis- 
sions (Edinburgh.  1890).  For  the  study  of  the 
mission  fields  and  the  results  of  missions,  consult: 
Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress  (3  vols., 
Xi'W  Y'ork,  1900-01)  ;  the  appendix  to  this  work, 
I  ■  iitennial  Survey  of  Foreign.  Missions  (New 
Y'ork,  1901 ) ,  has  a  very  complete  collection  of 
statistics ;  consult,  also.  Bliss,  Encyclopwdia  of 
Missions  (New  Y'ork,  1891).  Gibson,  Mission 
Problems  and  Mission  Methods  in  Sotith 
China  (London.  1901).  gives  a  good  view  of 
mission  methods  illustrated  from  the  field.  For 
more  general  discussion,  consult:  Clarke.  A 
Study  of  Christian  Missions  (New  Y'^ork,  1900)  ; 
Churton,  Foreign  Missions  (London,  1901); 
Pierson.  The  Modern  Missions  Century  (New 
Y'ork.  1901)  :  Hodgkins.  Via  Christi:  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Missions  (New  York, 
1901)  :  Montgomery,  Foreign  Missions  (London, 
1901  )  ;  Lawrence.  Modern  Missions  in  the  East 
(Chicago.  1901)  ;  Hurray,  The  Key  to  the  Mis- 
sionary Problem  (New  Y'ork,  1902)  ;  Speer,  Mis- 
sionary Principles  and  Practice  (New  York, 
1902);  Beach.  Geography  and  Atlas  of  Prot- 
estant Missions  (New  York.  1902-03).  For 
the  spread  of  the  Church  during  the  first 
three  centuries,  the  authoritative  history  is  War- 
neck.  Die  Mission  ttnd  Ausbreitung  des  Chris- 
tenthums  in  den  ersten  drei  Jahrhundcrten 
(Leipzig.  1902).  For  medical  missions,  consult: 
Lowe.  Medical  Missions  (London.  1887)  ;  Pen- 
rose, Opportunities  in  the  Path  of  the  Great 
Physician   (Philadelphia.  1902). 

B.  Roman  Catholic  FoREKi.v  Missions.  (1) 
Central  Administration,  (a)  The  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Propaganda. — In  a  general  way  the 
direction  of  all  Roman  Catholic  missions  is 
vested  by  the  Holy  See  in  the  Roman  Cnncrega- 
tion  De  Propaganda  Fide,  established  in  1022  for 
Roman  Catholic  missions  by  Gregory  XV.  It 
consists  to-dav  of  twentv-five  cardinals,  with  a 


cardinal  prefect  as  their  head,  and  a  number  of 
prelates  and  consulturs  in  charge  of  the  various 
details  of  administration.  The  Congregation  has 
at  Kome  its  own  palace  or  bureau.\,  a  college,  a 
library  and  museum,  a  polyglot  printing-press, 
and  certain  fixed  revenues,  chielly  from  domestic 
or  Italian  sources.  The  various  missions  are 
distributed  by  it  according  to  the  character  of 
its  subjects  and  the  nature  of  the  religious  orders 
to  which  they  belong.  It  settles  finally  all  dis- 
putes between  missionaries,  whether  they  regard 
territorial  jurisdiction  or  the  conduct  of  the 
missionary  work.  The  regular  reports  made  by 
missionary  bishops  or  superiors  to  the  Holy  See 
pass  through  the  Congregation,  and  in  general  it 
acts  as  agent  for  missionaries  in  all  matters  that 
regularly  pertain  to  other  Roman  Congregations; 
e.g.  questions  of  Tridentine  law,  marriage  and 
divorce,  criminal  questions,  and  the  like.  Its 
principal  meeting  is  on  the  first  Monday  of  every 
month.  A  weekly  meeting  is  regularly  held  for 
minor  matters.  Among  the  most  imi)ortant  at- 
tributes of  this  Congregation  is  the  selection  of 
bishops.  \Vhere  there  is  a  regularly  established 
hierarchy,  a  list  of  three  names  is  submitted  to 
the  Propaganda  with  all  the  documents  pertain- 
ing thereto.  These  candidates  are  diseus.sed  in 
the  regular  monthly  assembly  of  all  the  resident 
cardinals,  and  he  who  seems  the  most  worthy  is 
proposed  to  the  Pope.  This  privilege  of  recom- 
mendation, in  whatever  way  it  be  exercised,  dif- 
fers entirely  from  the  election  of  a  bishop,  which 
belongs  to  cathedral  churches  by  virtue  of  the 
regular  canon  law.  In  some  countries,  as  in 
Canada,  and  formerly  in  the  United  States,  the 
provincial  bishops  alone  repommend  the  three 
candidates.  In  other  countries,  as  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  the  clergy  or  the  chapter 
( i.e.  the  canons  of  the  cathedral ) .  as  the  superior 
part  of  the  clergy,  draw  up  a  list  which  the 
bishops  of  the  province  confirm  with  their  appro- 
bation or  reject  with  animadversion  on  one  or 
the  other,  or  all,  of  the  candidates.  Elsewhere, 
as  in  the  United  States  since  1SS4.  and  in  Aus- 
tralia, the  clergy  or  representative  part  of  the 
clergy  recommend  three  names  to  the  bishops  of 
the  province,  who  in  turn  recommend  these  or 
others  to  the  Holy  See.  When  there  is  no  regular 
hierarchy,  vicars  apostolic  are  aj)pointed,  with 
episcopal  character,  from  a  list  of  three  names 
drawn  up  by  the  superiors  of  the  religious  in- 
stitute or  Order  to  which  the  care  of  the  faithful 
*  has  been  already  conniiitted.  In  the  absence  of 
such  action  the  Po|)e  appoints  a  vicar  apostolic  on 
recommendation  of  the  Propaganda.  On  account 
of  the  rapid  growth  of  Catholicism,  chiefly  in 
English-speaking  countries,  (he  ollice  of  Cardinal 
Prefect  of  the  Propaganda  has  become  one  of  the 
most  important  and  resjionsible  of  the  great 
eurial  offices;  he  is  often  called  the  'Red  Pope.' 

The  College  of  the  Propaganda  is  an  institution 
attached  to  the  Congregation  fiu-  the  purpose  of 
training  its  missionaries  from  their  very  youth. 
It  owes  its  first  beginnings  to  the  Spaniard  .lohn 
Baptist  Vives.  who  bequeathed  to  it  his  palace 
at  Rome  and  made  it  his  heir.  Since  1022  the 
original  foundation  has  been  greatly  enlarged. 
L^rban  VIII.  was  a  notable  benefactor  of  the 
work  (1641)  ;  hence  it  bears  the  name  of  Col- 
legium- Urbanum.  Some  canons  of  the  Lateran 
Church  were  the  first  teachers  of  the  young  mis- 
sionaries, but  the  college  soon  passed  into  the 
complete   control   of  the   new   Congregation.     It 


I 


MISSIONS. 


598 


MISSIONS. 


was  endowed  with  many  privileges  by  the  popes. 
They  cxeiu|)ted  it  from  all  ordinary  ecclesiastical 
and'civil  jurisdiction,  and  several  special  distinc- 
tions were  granted  it;  auiouji  otliers.  the  right  of 
giving  degrees  in  thcologj-  and  philosophy.  Its 
present  quarters  were  designed  by  ISeruini.  and 
the  chajM^l  is  the  work  of  Borruniini.  Seven 
months  after  their  entrance  the  candidates  for 
the  missions  are  required  to  take  an  oath  of 
obeilience  to  the  Congregation ;  among  other 
things,  they  promise  to  go  directly  to  their  re- 
spective missions  after  ordination.  Those  who 
remain  as  missionaries  in  Europe  (e.g.  in  the 
British  Isles,  the  northern  kingdoms,  Switzer- 
land) are  required  to  report  annually  to  the 
Prefect  of  the  Congregation;  those  whose  mis- 
sions are  elseivhere  must  write  to  him  biennially. 
Not  a  few  candidates,  especially  from  the  Orient, 
come  at  a  very  early  age.  Such  youths  do  not 
take  the  'missionary-  oath'  until  after  they  have 
reached  their  fourteenth  year.  In  this  college 
the  training  is  the  usual  seminary  training. 
Only,  for  the  l>eginners.  Greek  and  Latin,  and 
especially  the  suitable  Oriental  languages,  make 
up  the  curriculum.  The  college  owns  near  Rome 
its  own  country-seat  or  villegiature,  whither  the 
students  go  during  the  heated  season.  On  Pente- 
cost one  of  the  students  of  the  college  preaches 
before  the  Pope  and  the  cardinals.  Its  students 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  about 
140;  at  present  they  do  not  e.\ci«d  120.  The 
French  Revolution  caused  it  to  close  its  doors; 
but  since  lSOO-17  it  has  been  opened  for  its 
former  work,  and  many  distinguished  men  have 
graduated  from  its  classes.  From  183C  to  1S48 
the  teaching  and  discipline  were  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  .Jesuits.  Since  then  they  are  provided 
for  directly  by  the  Congregation  itself,  which 
names  a  rector  and  vice-reetor  with  other  offi- 
cials, and  provides  for  the  programme  of  studies. 
Several  national  colleges  attend  the  lectures  of 
its  professors — thus,  the  North  American,  Cana- 
dian. Irish.  Greek,  Ruthcnian.  and  other  national 
ecclesiastical  schools  frequent  its  class-rooms. 
Yearly  an  Accndemia  Pohifilotta  is  held  on  the 
first  Sunday  after  Pentecost.  Discourses,  poems, 
and  addresses  are  then  read  in  a  great  variety  of 
languages,  cliictly  Oriental,  and  the  ceremony  is 
graced  by  the  presence  of  many  dignitaries  of  the 
Roman  Court.  Lately  new  and  commodious 
quarters  have  been  secured  for  the  academic 
needs  of  the  college. 

The  Congregation  has  long  owned  and  managed 
a  printing-press  that  is  uniipic  on  aceoimt  of  tho 
many  kinds  of  type  it  possesses  for  the  Oriental 
langliages.  In  the  last  two  centuries  a  multitude 
of  Orirnlal  texts  have  come  from  its  oltiees — 
lit'ir^iral.  ascetic,  literary,  theological,  patristic, 
historicordigious.  There  is  perhaps  nowhere 
else  in  the  world  an  Oriental  printing-press  so 
well  equipped  and  so  scieiitilically  conducted. 
It  issues  regularly  a  catalogue  of  its  pviblica- 
tions.  and  ia  ollieially  known  as  the  Xtamperia  de 
Proiiaganda  Fide. 

The  Congrr'irnt  ion  of  the  Propaganda  governs 
all  Catholic  missions  according  to  the  general  law 
of  tho  Church,  the  decn>es  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  the  decision's  of  other  Rnm.in  Concrega- 
tions.  the  Papal  rescripts,  .nnd  the  coneiliar  legis- 
lation. Hut,  over  anil  abovr  the  ordin.nry  law 
there  is  a  certain  amount  of  special  legislation 
for  the  missions  and  missionaries.  As  early  as 
1669  the  Propaganda  issued  its  Advice  to  Mis- 


sioTiaries,  that  has  been  lately  reprinted  (ilonita 
ad  ilissionarios,  Rome,  1874).  The  details  of  it» 
extensive  legislation  are  to  be  found  in  the  col- 
lection of  its  document  known  as  the  ISullarium 
of  the  Congregation  (Rome,  since  1S39,  5  vols., 
folio;  with  an  index,  1S58).  Another  collection 
is  that  of  Raphael  de  Jlartinls  (7  vols.,  folio, 
Rome,  1880-1900).  The  particular  legislation  of 
the  Propaganda  affecting  the  t)ricntal  missions 
is  found  in  the  work  entitled  Collecliuiea  Con- 
stitutioiiiim,  etc.  (Paris,  1880),  and  in  the  .Ip- 
paratus  Juris  Ecclesiasiici  of  Zepbyrin  Zitclli 
(Rome,  I8SG).  Occasionally  the  Congregation 
issues  a  legislation  that  niodilies  the  regular 
canonical  procedure  in  justice;  e.g.  in  the  trial 
of  matrimonial  cases,  clerical  delicts,  and  other 
judicial  processes.  Such  documents  then  Viecome 
norms  of  ecclesiastical  government  in  the  land 
for  which  they  are  issued.  The  current  public 
documents  of  the  Congregation  may  Ik?  easily 
found  in  the  Roman  canon  law  periodical  entitled 
Acta  Sanclw  jS'edis,  and  those  of  the  Pojje  in  the 
annual  series  of  Pontifical  documents  res|)ect- 
ively  known  as  Acta  Pii  IX.,  Acta  Leonis  Sill., 
etc. 

Usually  the  establishment  of  a  remote  and 
difficult  mission  begins  with  the  sending  of  a  Pre- 
fect Apostolic  by  the  Pofie.  at  the  suggestion  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda.  As  a  rule 
this  missionar\-  is  only  a  priest,  but  he  receives 
certain  special  authorizations  from  the  Holy  See; 
e.g.  the  right  to  administer  c<mtirmation.  As 
soon  as  the  conditions  of  the  missicm  warrant,  a 
vicar  apostolic  is  appointed  to  take  charge  of 
its  interests.  Such  a  missionary'  is  made  a  titular 
bishop;  i.e.  he  is  given  the  'title'  of  some  see, 
extinct  or  suppressed.  No  specific  scat  of  resi- 
dence is  fixed  for  him :  he  organizes  the  mission 
as  best  he  can.  In  time  sees  are  established  with 
territorial  limits,  and  canonical  obligation  of 
residence  for  the  bishop:  thus  a  quasi-normal 
condition  arises  in  which  the  administration  of 
spiritual  affairs  gradually  grows  quite  like  that 
of  the  older  Catholic  States  of  Europe,  and  the 
regular  ecclesiastical  law  tends  to  obtain  as 
against  the  temporary  and  opportunist  ndminis- 
tr.ition  of  an  earlier  date.  Nevertheless,  for  vari- 
ous reasons,  the  Holy  See  often  continues  to  gov- 
ern such  well-developed  churches  through  the 
Congiogation  of  the  Propaganda,  instead  of  in- 
corporating them  in  the  ordinary  system  of  its 
administration.  The  Propaganda  is  thus  one  of 
the  busiest  of  the  Roman  congregations.  There 
come  before  it  all  questions  that  arise  in  'mission- 
ary lands'  concerning  the  creation  of  dioceses, 
their  dismemberment,  division,  union,  and  trans- 
formation: the  nominations  to  episcopal  office; 
the  relations,  in  last  resort,  of  bishop  and  clerg>-; 
all  questions  between  bishops  and  religious  Or- 
ders, and  between  Orders  themselves  in  matters 
of  their  mission  work:  the  discipline  and  super- 
vision of  national  missionary  colleges,  theological 
seminaries  in  missionary  lands:  the  reg\dar  re- 
ports of  its  bishops,  their  special  needs  or  plans, 
and  similar  things.  It  is  in  close  contact  with 
all  other  Roman  congregations,  to  which  it  acts 
as  a  kind  of  clearinghouse  for  the  missions  and 
missionaries.  Its  juridical  decisions  are  final, 
authoritative,  and  reversible  only  by  the  Pope, 
to  whom  they  are  nlwavs  submitted  beforehand 
when  the  gravity  of  the  occasion  or  the  natiire 
of  the  problem  in  question  warrants.  The  Con- 
gregation has  a   permanent  secretary,  generally 


MISSIONS. 


599 


MISSIONS. 


an  archbishop,  who  goes  weekly  to  the  Vatican 
with  tile  ijroeeeJiilj.'s  of  the  Coiij,'regalion,  to  sub- 
mit tlu'iii  to  the  approval  of  tlie  Pope  and  give 
such  explauation-j  as  are  needed.  This  oflice  is 
looked  on  as  'cardinalitial.'  i.e.  as  leading  di- 
nitly  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal — hence  it  is  al- 
ways filled  by  an  ecclesiastic  of  learning  and  ex- 
p.rienee. 

A  large  and  valuable  library  is  connected  with 
the  Congregation,  for  its  own  use,  and  for  the 
needs  of  the  college  and  the  printing-press.  It  is 
especially  rich  in  ancient  theology  and  philos- 
ophy, and  in  all  kinds  of  t)rientalia,  both  printed 
and  manuscript.  It  is  accessible  to  students  and 
writers.  'The  archives  of  the  Congregation  are 
kept  \\  ith  care,  and  are  of  great  value  for  the 
1 '  ilesiastical  and  civil  history  of  the  missionary 
l.inds.  Tbey  are  partially  accessible  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  and  are  now  being  used  by  his- 
tciiians  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries,  especially  for  the  period  of  the 
Counter-Kcformation  in  Germany,  Switzerland, 
and  the  Netherlands. 

Besides  the  institutions  described,  the  Propa- 
ganda posses.ses  a  valuatde  museum,  called  tlie 
Borgian  JIuseum,  after  a  former  Prefect  of  the 
Congregation,  Cardinal  Stephen  Borgia,  who  was 
its  principal  benefactor  in  the  latter  halt  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  This  museum  contains  nu- 
merous rare  and  ancient  charts  and  maps  of  the 
missionary  lands,  ctirios  of  all  kinds,  coins,  docu- 
ments, and  relics,  that  are  often  useful  for  pur- 
poses of  archaeology  or  ethnologj".  ilany  valuable 
manuscripts,  especially  Coptic  and  Arabic,  are 
kept  there.  Since  1882  the  Congregation  has 
recommended  to  its  missionaries,  in  a  very  spe- 
cial way,  the  interests  of  the  museum. 

Until  1862  the  affairs  of  all  the  missionary 
churches.  East  and  \\est,  were  treated  in  one 
and  the  same  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda. 
In  that  year  Pius  IX.  established  a  special  sec- 
tion of  the  Congregation  for  the  administration 
of  the  Oriental  churches  (Sacra  Conf/rrgatio  pro 
Negotiis  Ritus  Orienfalis) .  It  has  its  own  chief, 
a  Cardinalis  Poiiciis.  and  its  own  oflicials  and 
counselors.  To  each  curial  (resident)  cardinal  of 
this  section  is  allotted  the  conduct  of  the  re- 
ligious affairs  of  some  ime  of  the  Oriental  rites 
united  with  the  Holy  See;  he  is  called  the  Car- 
dinalis Relator. 

(2)  X.\TioNAL  Ai^D  Particular  Direction. 
The  principal  national  missionary  enterprises  of 
Eonian  Catholics  are  carried  on  from  Paris  and 
Lyons  in  France.  The  most  venerable  of  them 
is  the  Seminari/  for  Foreign  Missions  (Missions 
Etrmigcres),  founded  at  Paris.  1058-63,  and 
located  in  the  Rue  du  Bae.  Its  missionaries  are 
under  the  guidance  of  33  local  superiors  (bish- 
ops) throughout  China.  Korea,  Tibet.  Turkey, 
Siam,  Burma,  and  Hindustan.  Since  1840  tlie 
Seminary  has  sent  nut  nearly  2000  priests:  at 
present  about  1200  French  priests  carry  on  its 
work,  with  the  aid  of  some  600  native  clergy. 
Between  three  and  four  hundred  mission  candi- 
dates study  in  its  school  at  Paris.  In  twenty 
years  its  personnel  has  increased  from  480  to 
1200 — a  phenomenon  noticeable  in  nearly  all 
other  French  missionary  enterprises.  Iii  the 
Seminary  is  a  curious  and  touching  Musfum  des 
Marfi/rs.  Tlie  annual  departure  of  its  mis- 
sionaries from  Paris  gives  occasion  for  a  remark- 
able popular  ceremony  and  demonstration.  Since 
1822  the  Work  of  tlie  Propagation  of  the  Faith 


((F.urre  de  la  propagation  do  la  foi)  has  been 
administered  from  Lyons.  Its  scope  is  not  to 
send  out  missionaries,  but  to  collect  and  dis- 
tribute to  existing  missions  the  funds  received 
from  private  generosity.  This  is  done  without 
distinction  of  nationality  or  location.  In  1S9S 
the  association  collected  (mostly  in  France) 
nearly  seven  million  francs.  In  fifty  years  it  has 
distributed  over  twenty  million  dollars  for  Cath- 
olic foreign  missions.  The  Work  of  the  Holy 
Childhood  (Q::uire  de  la  sainte  enfancc) ,  a  re- 
lated enterprise,  has  collected  and  sjient  about 
ten  million  dollars.  Oilier  French  associations 
for  missionary  help  are  the  Work  of  the  Oriental 
Schools,  the  annual  collection  on  Ciood  I'riday  for 
the  Holy  Land,  the  Work  of  the  African  Missions, 
the  Anti-Slavery  Association,  the  While  Fathers, 
the  Fathers  of  the  Uoly  Ghost — all  works  estab- 
lished originally  in  France. 

There  are  many  religious  Orders  and  institutes 
in  France  which  send  numerous  members  to  the 
mission  fields;  thus,  there  are  some  750  French 
Jesuits  in  the  Orient,  and  they  carry  on  excellent 
colleges  at  Beirut,  Cairo,  and  Alexandria.  In 
Syria  they  have  some  ISO  .schools  with  13.000 
children.  Similarly  Lazarists,  Dominicans,  As- 
suniptionists,  and  others  have  numerous  mis- 
sionaries scattered  through  the  Orient.  The 
Christian  Brothers  have  many  well-attended 
schools  in  Eg^•pt,  Syria,  A.sia  Minor,  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  in  the  Levant.  Owing  to  colo- 
nial expansion,  Catholic  Ciermany  has  shown 
more  interest  in  missions  during  the  last  three 
decades,  though  the  earlier  French  "Works'  al- 
ways found  sympathy  in  Germany.  The  Boni- 
facius-V erein  (1849)  for  home  missions  has  spent 
in  the  fifty  years  of  its  existence  some  seven 
million  dollars.  The  Ludwigs-V erein  (1839), 
the  Lcopolds-Verein  (1839),  the  Afrika-V erein 
(1894),  the  Association  for  the  Holy  Lund 
(1893),  and  other  enterprises  have  kept  alive 
the  zeal  of  German  Catholics  for  the  conversion 
of  the  heathen.  In  1900  there  were  in  all  some 
1100  Cierman  Catholic  mission.aries,  of  whom  489 
were  .Jesuits.  This  figure  includes  the  304  'Sis- 
ters' who  labored  in  the  same  field.  Within  the 
last  few  years  an  increasing  missionary  activity 
is  manifest,  especially  in  China  and  Brazil,  in 
which  latter  country  the  German  colonists  in- 
crease at  a  rapid  rate. 

The  French  'Sisterhoods'  give  generously  of 
their  members  to  the  Oriental  missions.  Most 
of  the  missionaries  to  the  credit  of  Catholicism 
are  Frenchmen;  a  still  larger  proportion  of  the 
Catholic  'Sisters'  on  these  missions  is  made  up 
of  French  women.  Perhaps  10,000  is  not  too 
high  a  number;  in  1899  they  were  more  than 
9000.  Of  these  the  'Sisters "of  Charity'  alone 
furnished  about  1500.  Of  the  100  to  120' 'congre- 
gations' of  men  and  women  that  labor  in  Catho- 
lic missionary  fields,  over  80  are  of  French 
tongue,  or  have  their  liome  in  France. 

While  the  Spanish  missionaries  have  nearly  all 
taken  their  way  to  the  Phili])pines,  the  Italian 
missionaries  carry  on,  in  an  hereditary  way.  cer- 
tain lines  of  work  in  the  Orient,  notably  in  the 
Levant.  Statistics  of  their  number  and  work 
are  not  easily  reached.  The  Salesian  Fathers 
(Turin)  of  Don  Bosco  turn  their  energy  toward 
South  America,  and  the  society  founded  by  Bish- 
op Scalambrini,  of  Piaeenza,  is  especially  in- 
terested in  the  Italian  population  of  South 
America  and  our  North  American  cities.   Holland 


MISSIONS. 


600 


MISSIONS. 


has  had  a  house  for  foiiijjn  missions  at  Stcyl  since 
1875.  with  about  120  missionaries.  At  Mill  Hill, 
in  England,  the  English  Catholics  support  a 
seminary  for  missions  among  the  blacks.  The 
College  of  All  Hallows  at  Dublin  draws  its  mis- 
sionaries from  Ireland ;  many  of  them  come  to 
the  United  States  and  merge  into  the  American 
clergy;  Ireland  makes  provision  also  fin-  a  few 
missions  in  Africa  and  India.  The  Calliulios  of 
the  United  States  have  supported  in  part  the 
missions  for  Inilians  and  negroes  by  an  annual 
collection  since  ISS4.  H  readies  yearly  a  figure 
of  sixty  to  seventy  tliousand  dollars. 

As  to  the  civil  relations  of  the  Catholic  missions 
in  the  Orient.  France  is  still  their  official  inter- 
mediary with  tile  local  governments.  This  an- 
cient privilege,  wliicli  begins  to  be  contested  by 
Germany  and  otlicr  powers,  is  still  in  force,  and 
is  recognized  by  late  acts  of  the  Prefect  of  the 
Propaganda  and  the  Holy  Father.  It  was  also 
recognized  anew  by  tlie  Chinese  Emperor  in 
March,  1890.  Among  the  notable  acts  in  the 
history  of  Oriental  C*atholic  missions  is  the  es- 
tablishment by  Leo  XIIT.  of  a  regular  hierarchy 
in  India    (1880)   and  in  .Japan    (1891). 

The  support  of  Catholic  missions  comes  al- 
most entirely  from  private  sources.  The  money 
salary  of  each  missionary  is  a  very  inndest  one. 
The  Work  of  the  Pro])iigation  of  the  Faith  at 
Lyons  allots  annually  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  dollars  to  each  missionary 
that  it  supports.  Nearly  all  the  money  comes 
from  small  contributions,  but  through  a  well 
organized  system  of  collection. 

In  all,  there  are  32  'congregations'  of  men  de- 
voted to  the  Catholic  missions,  with  some  12.000 
members,  not  to  s])eak  of  native  clergy  and 
helpers.  Aliout  5000  'Brothers'  are  engaged  as 
teachers  and  catechists,  mostly  in  the  Orient; 
44.000  'Sisters'  are  occupied  with  works  of  cli:ir- 
ity  and  teacliing.  It  is  calculated  that  the 
wiiole  army  of  Catholic  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  now  reaches  the  figure  of  00.000.  and 
that  few  areas  of  heathendom  remain  unvisited 
by  them. 

(3)  Some  Impoutaxt  Evk.nts  and  Facts  in 
THE  History  of  ^Modkrn  Roman  Catholic  Mis- 
sions. As  a  result  of  the  loss  of  its  East  Indian 
possessions,  the  Crown  of  Portugal  became  in- 
volved, during  the  last  century,  in  long  and  seri- 
ous conflict  with  the  Holy  See.  F'rom  1834  to 
1838  tlie  latter  cut  off  frcmi  the  original  Portu- 
guese Arehdioeest-  of  Ooa  four  Vicariates  Apos- 
tolic, that  coincided  with  English  territory. 
Though  .absolutely  just  and  necessary,  this  act  of 
Gregory  XA'.  was  resented  bv  Portugal.  A  schism 
followed  wliich  lasted  more  or  less  acutely  and 
Clint iniiously  until  1880.  when  peace  was  brought 
about  by  Leo  XIII.  <ioa  was  made  a  titular 
patriarchate  with  four  sufl'ragans,  namao.  Arch- 
bishop also  lid  hiinorem  of  Crangaror.  Cochin, 
Saint  Thomas  of  Meliapiir,  and  Macao.  Elsewhere 
in  India,  (lie  former  Vicariates  .\postolic  of  .\gra, 
Bombay.  Varapoli,  Calcutta.  Madras.  Pondiehery, 
and  Colombo  (Ceylon)  were  raised  to  llie  archi- 
episco|ial  rank  ami  freed  from  all  subjection  to 
the  ,\rihliisliopric  of  Goa. 

During  the  whole  nineteenth  century  the  Cath- 
olic missions  in  Tongking  and  Annam  sull'ered 
very  frequently  from  pojiiilar  uprisin;;s  and  gov- 
ernment persecution,  until  the  establishment  of 
the  French  civil  protectorate  in  1885-80. 

Until  1880  the  Catholic  missions  in  Korea  were 


almost  continuously  the  object  of  similar  mal- 
treatment; nevertheless,  they  now  number  36,- 
000  Catholics  in  28  districts;  they  have  one 
bishop,  31  missionaries,  and  554  chapels.  In 
1839  three  French  bishops  were  put  to  death 
as  mart.vrs,  and  in  1800  nine  bishops  suffered 
the  same  fate. 

The  modern  Catholic  missions  in  .Japan  began 
tentativelv  in  1832-58.  An  im])etiis  was  given 
bj'  the  discovery  of  a  number  of  crypto-Catholics 
(1858-72),  who  had  retained  some  souvenirs  of 
the  faith  as  preached  to  their  ancestors  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  With  the 
gradual  enlargement  of  religious  liberty  since 
1872  the  disestablishment  (188G)  of  Shintoism 
and  Buddliism,  and  the  proclamation  of  a  con- 
stitutional monarcliy  (1889),  the  conditions  liave 
been  more  favorable  lor  tlie  Catholic  missions. 
In  1891  Leo  Xlll.  cstalilislied  a  regular  hierarchy 
in  .Japan,  with  one  archliishop  at  Tokio.  The 
three  suffragans  are  at  Nagasaki,  Osaka,  and 
Hakodate.  There  were  in  1899  112  missionaries, 
26  native  priests,  and  284  lay  catechists.  The 
Catholic  population  is  53,872. 

The  labors  of  the  Catholic  missionaries  in 
Cliina  during  the  last  century  were  largely  di- 
rected to  gathering  back  into  the  Christian  fold 
the  families  scattered  liy  tiie  former  ])ersccutions. 
The  opium  war.  tlie  Taiping  rebellion,  political 
manu'iivres.  tlie  weakness  of  tlic  central  author- 
it.v,  and  the  native  hatred  of  the  Chinese  for 
■foreifjii  devils'  cau.sed  the  destruction  of  many 
promising  Christian  communities  in  spite  of  the 
treaties  of  1844-45  and  1858-00.  In  1898  there 
were  in  China,  according  to  the  almanac  of 
the  Propaganda  (Missioiics  C'atliolicw) ,  532.448 
Catholics,  with  39  bishops,  739  missionaries 
(.Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Lazarists), 
and  373  native  priests  distributed  over  40  missions. 

In  Central  Africa  the  most  important  event.s 
have  been  the  labors  of  Fr.  Lilicrmann  and  his 
society  (t'lilhris  of  Die  lloli/  (Ihost)  since  1840. 
and  the  foundation  of  the  Pin  s  ISInncs  of  Cardi- 
nal Lavigerie.  The  African  missions  have  been 
hel|)cd  lately  by  the  formation  of  anti-slaverv 
societies.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  Catlio- 
lic  missionaries  in  Africa  was  F'ather  Daniel 
Comboni.  In  Ethio]iia  the  central  figure  has 
been  the  late  Cardinal  Massaia.  a  venerable 
Capuchin,  who  devoted  thirty  years  of  his  life  to 
the  work.  In  Frencli  .Africa  the  See  of  Algiers 
was  founded  in  1838.  and  in  18(>7  became  an 
archbishopric,  with  Constantine  and  Oran  for 
suffragans.  The  French  protectorate  over  Tunis 
(1881)  brought  with  it,  in  1884.  the  restoration 
of  the  famous  ancient  See  of  Carthage.  Since 
1885  the  French  protectorate  over  iLadagascar 
has  affected  somewhat  favorably  the  Catholic 
missions  among  the  Malagasies. 

In  .South  America  there  are  nearl,v  ten  million 
Indians  in  the  various  Catholic  missions,  with 
some  three  million  moie  unconverted.  The  se])a. 
ration  from  Spain,  the  abolition,  of  slavery  in 
Brazil  (1888).  the  fienuent  violent  ex))ulsion  of 
various  religious  Orders,  the  movement  of  im- 
migration from  Europe,  and  the  Palagonian  mis- 
sions of  the  Salesian  Fathers  since  1875,  have 
been  among  the  principnl  events  that  affected  (lie 
missionary  work. 

Throiishout  the  islands  of  Polynesia  there  are 
about  180.000  Catholics,  with  13  bishops,  259 
priests,  and  419  churches  or  chapels. 


MISSIONS. 


601 


MISSIONS. 


In  ISS.T  Ai-chbi»lio|i  Moiaii.  of  Sydney,  was 
made  a  cardinal,  and  in  tlie  same  year  he  licld 
the  first  council  in  Australia.  There  are  in  Aus- 
tralia at  present  0  archbishops,  10  bishops,  about 
I'.ilO  priests,  and  nearly  800.000  Catholics. 

In  1800  there  were  subject  to  the  authority  of 
(lie  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  10.107,723 
Catholics  in  America,  .\sia,  .\frica.  and  Oceanica, 
a-  against  l.i.208,400  in  180.5.  These  figures  in- 
clude only  Catholics  of  the  Latin  rite.  At  the 
same  period  ( 1899)  there  were  subject  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  Propaganda  5,511,782  Catholics  of 
these  Oriental  rites  that  recognize  the  juris- 
diction of  Rome.  Of  this  number  .30.000  were 
Ethiopians,  20,500  Copts,  107,000  Armenians, 
1.048,710  Greek-Rumanians,  3,54.3,5!)3  Greek- 
Kuthenians.  13.000  Greek-Bulgarians.  2.50  Hel- 
lenes. 22.700  Syrians,  72,000  Svro-Chaldeans, 
277,000  Maronites,  200,329  Syro-Malabars,  110,- 
700  Greek-Melehites. 

In  Asiatic  territory,  the  Catholics  of  Latin  rite 
are  divided  as  follows:  Asiatic  Turkey,  120,080; 
Hindustan,  1,178,325:  Indo-China."  827.030; 
Malay  Archipelago.  .50.280:  Chinese  Empire, 
532,048:  Korea,  30,000;  .Japan,  53,872.  In  Africa 
the  missions  to  the  savages  count  458,170  converts. 

The  most  active  missionary  body  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  is  the  Society  of  .Jesus.  A  quasi- 
official  statement  found  in  the  hettres  des  mis- 
sionnaires  jesuites  (Paris.  1903)  gives  the  exact 
number  of  Jesuit  missionaries  at  3249.  The  fol- 
lowing distribution  by  nationalities  is  given  in 
the  same  source,  with  an  indication  of  the  coun- 
tries for  which  each  nationality  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed. There  are  790  Frenchmen,  working  prin- 
cipally in  Madagascar,  Egypt,  Armenia,  Syria, 
China,  Ceylon,  and  India ;  222  Belgians,  in  India, 
Ceylon,  and  the  Congo  region :  53.5  Germans  and 
Austnans,  in  India  and  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica;  05  Dutchmen,  in  .Java.  Sumatra,  and  Flores; 
09  Americans,  in  Jamaica.  British  Honduras,  and 
among  the  North  American  Indians:  590  Italians, 
in  Inilia,  Brazil,  and  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States :  785  Spaniards,  in  Cuba,  South 
America,  and  the  Philippines;  41  Portuguese,  in 
Goa,  Macao,  and  the  Zambezi  country:  152  Eng- 
li.shmen  and  Irishmen,  in  South  Africa.  British 
Guiana,  and  Australia.  These  numbers,  of  course, 
only  include  those  .Jesuits  who  are  engaged  in 
strictly  missionary  work.  The  A  nnre  de  I  Efjlisc 
(Paris,  annually)  gives  similar  details  not  only 
for  the  Society  of  Jesus,  but  also  for  the  foreign 
missions  of  the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Laza- 
rists,  and  the  Picpus  Society.  The  annual  statis- 
tics of  the  Heminaire  des  Missions  Elrangirts  are 
likewise  published  in  it.  Besides  tlie  Lvltrcs 
quoted  above,  the  .Jesuits  have  published  at  Frei- 
burg since  1873  a  periodical  entitled  Oic  kiilhu- 
lisrhen  Missionen,  which  gives  full  details  of  their 
iiwn  work  in  this  direction. 

l!iBLiOGR.\pnY.  There  does  not  exist  any  single 
work  which  gives  a  satisfactory  view  of  the  vast 
and  complicated  field  of  Roman  Catholic  missions. 
The  following  works  are  suggested  as  guides 
rather  than  as  an  exhaustive  literature.  For 
the  Propaganda:  O.  Meyer  (Protestant).  Die 
Propafianda  (Giittingen,  1852)  ;  Bangen  (Catho- 
lic), Die  rrimische  Curie  (Miinster,  1854); 
Phillips,  KirchenrecJit.  vol.  vi.  (Regensburg, 
1804)  ;  Humphrey.  U»'6.s  et  Orbis.  or  tlie  Pope 
as  Ptishop  and  as  Pontiff  (London.  1899).  For 
general  statistics:  The  latest  and  most  reliable 
ecclesiastical    geographies,    with    admini-^trative 


divisions,  sulidivisions,  maps,  and  summaries  of 
statistics,  are  those  of  U.  Werner.  S.  J.,  Orbis 
Terruruni  Catholicus,  etc.  (Freiburg,  1890); 
Atlas  des  missions  eatholiques  (ib.,  1880): 
Katholiseher  Kirclienatlas  (ib..  1.S88).  In  the 
«ork  of  Louvet,  Lrs  missions  eatholiques  au 
XlXime  siicle  (Paris,  1898),  are  to  be  found  an 
outline  history  and  statistics  of  all  Catholic 
missions  during  the  last  century,  {.'onsult.  also. 
Oudin.  in  sirric  ( 1800-1900) ."  pp.  401-73.  790- 
810  (Paris.  1901).  Marshall.  Catholic  .Missions 
(London,  1S02),  is  of  a  polemical  character. 
Die  katholisehe  Kirche  (Leo-Ciesellschaft.  Vienna. 
1898,  et  seq. )  is  a  work  in  several  volumes,  now 
in  coui'se  of  publication,  destined  to  exhibit  a 
general  view  of  the  entire  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Consult,  further:  Neher,  Der  Missions- 
verein,  oder  diis  Werk  der  (Haubensverbreitung, 
etc.  (Freiburg.  1894)  :  Govau.  he  Vatiean 
(Paris,  1898).  The  names  of" the  principal  offi- 
cers of  the  Roman  Church  may  be  founcl  in  La 
gerarchia  eattoliea  (Rome,  annually,  official). 
Consult,  also,  L'annuaire  pontijical  eatlioliijue 
(Paris,  annually).  Catholic  Directories  and 
Almanacs:  Most  Catholic  national  churches 
have  official  or  quasi-official  publications  known 
as  directories  or  almanacs.  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland  have  each  a  Catholic  Dircctoiy  or 
Register.  For  the  United  States  there  arc  Hoff- 
man's Catholie  Directory  (Milwaukee)  and  tS'nrf- 
lier's  Catholie  Directory  (New  York).  The  ec- 
clesiastical statistics  of  France  are  found  in  the 
annual  compilation,  he  clerg6  frangais  (Paris)  ; 
those  of  Canada  in  Le  Canada  ecclcsiastique 
(Montreal)  ;  for  Italy  one  may  consult  the 
Anmiario  ecclesiastico  (Rome)  and  the  (luida 
ecclesiastiea  d'ltalia  (Savona,  1885)  :  for  Spain. 
the  Guida  del  estado  ecelesiastieo.  published  from 
time  to  time  at  Madrid.  The  iitatesman's  Year 
Book  (London)  and  Whit  taker's  Almanack  (ib.) 
may  be  consulted  with  profit. 

French  Missions:  The  best  account  of  the 
missions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
France  is  that  of  Kannengiesser.  Les  mis- 
sions eatholiques:  France  et  AUemagne  (Paris, 
1900).  For  a  sununary  of  this  work,  con- 
sult Shahan.  "The  Catholic  Missionaries  in 
France  and  Germany."  in  the  Catholie  World 
(New  York)  for  October.  1900.  Before  tlie  |)ub- 
lication  of  this  work.  Keller,  Les  congregations 
religieuses  en  France  (Paris,  1880),  was  the 
standard  work  on  the  details  of  the  missionary 
labors  of  the  congregations.  Piolet,  Les  missions 
eatholiques  frangaises  au  XlXeme  siecle  (Paris, 
1900-03 ) ,  may  also  be  consulted. 

German  Missions:  The  work  of  Kannengiesser 
gives  the  statistics  of  German  Roman  Catholic 
missions  to  1900.  Consult,  also,  the  f^cheniatis- 
mus  der  riiniisch-katholisehcn  Kirche  des  driit- 
schen  Reiehes  (Freiburg,  annually);  and  for 
Austria,  Hehematismus  des  gesammten  kalho- 
lischen  Reiehes  Oesterreieh-Vngarns  (Vienna)  ; 
also  the  Kloster-f?ehematis>nus  fiir  das  deutsche 
Reich  (.3d  ed..  Paderborn,  1899);  Goyau.  ^.'4?- 
lemagne  religieuse  (Paris.  1899):  and  Kamieu- 
giesser,  Les  eatholiques  allcmnnds  (Paris.  1893). 

Mission  Periodicals:  The  Congregation  of  the 
Propaganda  publishes  from  time  to  time  (1880- 
98)  the  ilissiones  Cnlholicw.  containing  official 
statistics  of  its  missions.  The  Wtn'k  of  the 
Propaganda  of  the  Faith  publishes  frequently 
each  year  the  Annates  de  la  propagation  de  hi  foi 
(Paris),  and  a  similar  Annates  is  publi-ihed  by 


MISSIONS. 


602 


MISSISSIPPI. 


the  Work  of  the  Holy  Childhood  (Lyons).  For 
the  African  missions  there  are  the  liuUetin  des 
viissions  d'Afrirjue,  and  the  fiocii'ii-  aiifiescla- 
vat/isle,  hoth  published  annually  at  Paris.  The 
details  of  Roman  Catholic  ediu-ation  in  the  Ori- 
ent are  found  in  the  ])?rioilical  (Eiirrcs  dcs 
EcoJes  de  I'Orient  (Paris,  annually).  An  illus- 
trated monthly  entitled  Ciitholic  Missions  ap- 
pears in  Kn-ilish.  Kreneh.  and  German,  and  oflers 
popular  information  concerning'  all  Catholic  mis- 
sionary work  (London).  The  Annde  de  I'Eglise 
(Paris,  annually)  frequently  gives  a  summary  of 
the  events  connected  with  the  Catholic  missions. 

L'nitcd  States  Missions:  The  statistics  of 
the  native  Roman  Catholic  missions  are  foimd 
since  18G4  in  the  Reports  of  the  Commission  for 
ycijro  and  Indian  Missions  (15altimore,  annual- 
ly). Previous  to  that  year  the  voluminous  work 
of  O'Shea.  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
Cnilcd  States  (New  York,  188G  sqq.),  may  be 
consulted;  also  the  same  author's  Uistori/  of  the 
Catholic  Missions  Among  the  Indian  Tribes  [1592- 
1854]  (ib.,  1S7G),  and  his  Discovery  and  Explo- 
ration of  J/ie  .lfississi;);)i(ib.,  1858),as  well  as  the 
numerous  writings  of  Father  de  Smedt,  a  Belgian 
missionary  among  the  Indian  tril)es  of  the  Far 
West.  Their  bibliography  is  to  be  found  in  O'Shea, 
irrs/roi  Missions  and  .Missionaries  (Xew  York, 
1878).  Consult,  also.  O'Oorman.  History  of  the 
Iloman  Catholic  Church  in  America  (ib.,  1895), 
and  En;.'elhardt,  The  Franciscans  in  California 
(ib.,  1887). 

For  the  Farther  Orient,  consult:  Launay,  Atlas 
des  missions  de  la  Sociitd  des  Missions  Etran- 
gires  (Paris,  1890)  ;  id.,  J^'os  missions,  album  des 
missions  cutholiques  (Lyons,  1900)  ;  De  I'Huys, 
"Le  Christinnisnie  au  Tonkin."  in  he  Correspon- 
dant  (Paris)  for  November  10,  1889.  On  the  late 
troubles  in  China  consult  articles  in  Lc  Corre- 
spondant  for  July  2.)  and  August  10,  1900: 
Lamy,  "La  Chine,  I'Europc.  et  le  Saint-Sifege;" 
Cochin,  "La  Chine  et  le  gouvernement  fran<;ais;" 
Fauvel,  "Xos  missionaircs  patriotes  et  savants 
en  Chine."  All  the  details  of  the  'Boxer'  move- 
ment from  the  Bomau  Catholic  standpoint  may 
be  seen  in  the  current  Annalcs  de  la  Sainte  En- 
fance,  those  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith 
in  the  pages  of  Catholic  Missions.  For  details  of 
earlier  Catholic  missions  in  China  one  may  con- 
sult the  .\hl>e  Hue.  Lc  Chrislianismc  en  Chine,  en 
Tatarie  et  en  Thibet  (Paris,  1859).  It  covers 
the  period  from  1772  to  the  Peace  of  Tien-tsin 
(1858).  The  work  of  Iliibncr.  Ein  fipaxiergang 
iim  die  Welt  (Leipzig,  1875),  contains  details  of 
the  Catholic  missionary  life  in  the  East.  On 
Catholic  missions  in  Australia,  consult  Leraire, 
I.r  CilhiiVuixme  en  Aiistralie   (Paris,   1900). 

MISSIS'AGA.  An  Algonquian  tribe  residing 
east  and  south  from  Lake  Ontario,  Ontario,  Can- 
ada. They  are  closely  connected  with  the  Ojibwa, 
of  whom  they  are  an  olTshoot.  The  name  is  said 
to  mean  'great  mouth.'  referring  to  the  month  of 
the  Missisaga  Biver,  but  an  educated  member  of 
the  tribe  says  that  if  refers  to  an  eagle,  claim- 
ing that  the  Missisaga  are  derived  principally 
from  the  Kagle  clan  of  tlie  Ojibwa.  .\t  a  treaty 
in  1704  they  signed  with  an  eagle  as  their  tribal 
mark.  When  first  known  to  the  French,  early 
in  the  seventeenth  century-,  the  Missisaga  were 
living  upon  the  lower  part  of  the  river  which 
hears  their  name  and  tipon  the  adjacetit  Mnnitoti- 
lin    Island.      Soon   afterwards   thev   moved   east 


and  south  into  the  country  left  unoccupied  by  the 
dispersion  of  the  Huron  and  Ottawa,  and  soon 
spread  over  the  whole  peninsula  of  Lower  Ontario. 
At  the  close  of  the  Revolution  they  c^en  bad  one 
village  on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Erie  in  what  is 
now  Ohio.  The  land  on  which  the  lroq\iois  are 
now  settled  on  Grand  River.  Ontario,  was  bought 
from  the  ilissisaga.  In  1740  they  were  admitted 
as  the  seventh  tril)e  of  the  Iroquois  confederacy, 
being  then  settled  in  live  villages  near  Detroit, 
but  the  alliance  lasted  (mly  until  the  outbi-eak 
of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  a  few  years  later. 
On  account  of  the  former  loose  distinction  be- 
tween the  ^Missisaga  and  Ojibwa,  it  is  impossible 
to  give  exact  figures  of  population.  Those  now 
officially  classed  as  Missisaga  number  about  7.")0, 
on  small  reservations  at  New  Credit.  Alnwick, 
ilud  Lake.  Bice  Lake,  and  Scugng.  Province  of 
Ontario,  Canada.  They  are  all  members  of  the 
Methodist  Church,  and  support  themselves  by 
farming,  fishing,  trapping,  gathering  wild  rice, 
basket-making,  and  outsi<le  labor.  They  are  gen- 
erally prosperous  and  comfortable  and  are  uni- 
versally commended  by  their  agents  for  industry, 
morality,  sobriety,  and  general  progress.  The 
statistics  show  them  to  be  a  healthy  people. 

MISSISSIPPI.  One  of  the  South-Central 
States  of  the  American  Union.  It  lakes  its 
name  from  the  river  which  forms  its  western 
boundary  for  a  distance  of  about  500  miles, 
and  separates  it  from  the  States  of  Louis- 
iana and  Arkansas.  It  lies  between  Tennessee  on 
the  north  and  Louisiana  on  the  south,  being 
separated  from  the  former  by  the  thirty-fifth 
parallel  of  north  latitude  and  from  the  latter 
by  the  thirty-first  parallel  from  the  Mississippi 
Biver  to  the  Pearl  Biver,  a  distance  of  110  miles. 
Thence  following  the  Pearl  Biver  southward,  the 
boundary  line  is  completed  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Tennessee  River  cuts  of!  a 
small  portion  from  the  northeastern  corner,  but 
the  eastern  Ijoundary  separating  the  State  from 
Alabama  runs  southward  in  a  nearly  straight 
line  to  the  Gulf.  Mississippi  has  an  extreme 
length  of  330  miles  and  an  extreme  width  of  188 
miles,  and  comprises  an  area  of  40.810  square 
miles,  of  which  water  occupies  470  square  miles, 
the  land  amounting  to  40.340  square  miles.  Mis- 
sissippi includes,  in  addition  to  the  mainland  ter- 
ritory, the  islands  Ship,  Horn,  Cat,  Petit  Bois. 
and  others,  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
Mississippi  Sound. 

Topography,  The  highest  ridges  in  the  north- 
east reach  an  altitude  of  about  1000  feet. 
Throughout  most  of  the  State  the  elevations 
range  from  500  to  600  feet  down  to  150  feet  n  few 
miles  from  the  Gulf.  A  moderate  uplift  of  the 
region  has  allowed  the  rivers  to  carry  the  work  of 
dissection  to  maturity,  all  gradients  now  being 
low,  nearly  or  quite  at  base  level,  the  streams 
having  their  lower  courses  in  valleys  opened 
wide,  from  a  few  himdrcd  yards  to  several 
miles,  and  wandering  in  simious  courses  upon 
silted  bottoms.  These  river  bottoms  cover  a 
total  of  7500  square  miles,  or  over  one-sixth 
of  the  entire  State.  Of  this  the  Yazoo  bot- 
toms occupy  the  greater  part.  The  flood 
plains  of  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  rivers  are 
lined  on  the  east  by  blufls  from  100  to  .'JOO 
feet  in  height,  caused  by  the  lateral  corrosion  of 
the  swinging  meanders  of  the  great  river.  These 
WulTs  are  capped  throughout  with  a  deposit  of 


ARIiA  AND  POPULATION  OF  MISSISSIPPI  BY  COUNTIES. 


Connty. 

Map 
Index. 

Connty  Seat. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Population. 

1890. 

1900. 

C  8 
H  1 
D8 
G4 
C  1 

D  3 
G3 
E  4 
G  3 
G4 

D  7 
H6 
H3 
D2 
D7 

F  7 
E  1 
D8 
H8 
P  3 

G  9 
H9 
E  6 
E  4 
D5 

J  2 
J  9 
G  6 
C  7 
G  7 

n5 

G2 
H6 
E  7 
F  5 

H2 
E  3 
D7 
J  4 
E  5 

F  8 
F  1 
H3 
F3 
G5 

G  6 
U4 
H4 
E  8 
P  9 

G8 
E  3 
G  2 
H  1 
E2 

E  6 
F  6 
D5 
E  7 
F  7 

D4 
E  3 
E  1 
HI 
E  8 

E  1 
G  1 
D  6 
D4 

n7 

G3 
C  8 
G  4 

F  8 

F  5 

428 
402 
708 
707 
409 

913 
588 
612 
507 
372 

505 
664 

399 
.592 
748 

57r 
551 
5.-55 
819 
435 

611 
982 
847 
825 
473 

536 
1,073 
647 
619 
674 

704 
673 
677 
638 
661 

449 

578 
574 
504 
714 

1,095 
707 
762 
391 
543 

561 

659 
435 
699 
663 

1,091 
697 
496 
420 
409 

777 
584 
438 
578 
610 

703 
6.36 
407 
456 
433 

449 

418 
601 

985 
788 

409 
664 
677 

501 

1,018 

26,031 
18,115 
18,198 
22,213 
10,585 

29,980 
14.688 
18,773 
19,891 
10,847 

14,516 
15,826 
18,607 
18,342 
30,233 

8,299 

24,183 
10,421 

3,906 
14,974 

8,318 
12,481 
39,279 
30,970 
12,.318 

11,708 
11,251 
14,785 
18.947 
8,333 

17,961 
20,653 
29,661 
18,318 
14,803 

80,040 
16,869 
17,912 
37.047 
27,381 

9,532 
26.043 

30,730 
14,459 
11,146 

16,625 
27.338 
17,694 
26,977 
2,9.57 

6,494 
21,203 
14,940 
13,679 

3,286 

17,923 
11,740 
8,388 
10,1:J8 
10,635 

9,384 
14,361 
19,253 
12,951 

9,302 

12,158 
15.606 
33,164 

40,414 
9,817 

12,060 
17,!>92 
18,089 
16,629 
36,.394 

30,111 
14  987 

Alcorn 

Corinth 

Amite 

Liberty.  .. 

20  708 

Attiila 

Kosciusko. . 

26  248 

10,510 

35,427 
16,512 
22,116 
19,892 
1.3,036 

20  787 

Bolivar 

Rosedale . . 

Pittsboro 

Vaiden 

Choctjiw 

Chester 

Port  Gibson . . . 

Claiborne  

Clarke         

Quitman . 

17  741 

Clay        

Westpoint 

19,563 
26,293 
34,395 

13,076 

24,751 

Clarksdale  . . 

Williamshurg 

Leakesville 

6  795 

14,112 
11.886 

Bay  St.  Louis 

Harrison   

Mississippi  citv 

Raymond  &  Jackson . . . 

Lexington 

Mayersville 

21  002 

Hin-ls 

Holmes 

Issaquena 

53.577 

36,828 
10.400 

Fulton 

13,544 
16  513 

Jackson  

Scranton    . . 

15,394 

Jefferson 

Fayette     . . 

21  292 

Ellisville 

Dekalb 

17,W6 

20.492 

22,110 

Meridian 

;J8,150 

15,103 

Carthage 

17,360 

Lee 

21,956 

Leflore 

Greenwood 

a3,a34 
21,552 

Lincoln 

Brookiiaven 

29,095 

Madison 

Canton 

32,493 

Purvis  &  Columbia 

Hoilv  Springs 

13,501 
27,674 

Marshall 

31,216 

16.536 

12,736 

Newton .' 

Decatur 

19,708 

Nosuljee        

Macon  . 

30,846 

Oktiljlieha 

Starkville 

80.183 

Panola 

Sardis  &  Batesville 

Poplarville 

flattiesburg  &  Augusta. 
Magnolia 

29,027 

6,697 
14,682 

Pike 

27  545 

18,274 

Prentiss 

Booneville 

15,788 

Helen 

5,435 

Rankin 

20,955 

Scott 

Forest 

14,316 

Sliarkey 

18,178 

Simpson 

Westvflle 

12,800 

Smith 

Raleigh 

13,055 

Sunflower 

16,084 

Tallahatchie 

Charleston 

19,600 

Tate 

20,618 

Ri[)ley ... 

12,983 

10,134 

Tunica 

Tunica 

New  Albany 

16,479 
16,522 

Warren 

40.912 

Washington 

Wayne 

49,316 

Waynesboro. .          

12,539 

Webster 

Walthall  

13,619 

21,4.53 

Winston     

Louisville 

j  Coffeeville  & (. 

/  Water  Valley ) 

14,124 

19,742 

Yazoo 

43,948 

r 


^ 


r 


MISSISSIPPI. 


603 


MISSISSIPPI. 


loess.  Extending  thiouyli  the  middle  of  the 
Vazoo  bottoms  is  a  Hat  ridge,  standing  above 
flood  level,  and  this  and  the  banks  of  the  various 
streams  are  available  for  t-ultivation,  being  the 
best  cotton  lands  in  the  world.  The  bottom  is 
being  steadilj-  reclaimed  for  plantations.  The 
swamp  and  marsh  area  is  oceujjied  by  cypress 
trees  very  valuable  as  lumber,  while  the"  drier 
hinds  are  covered  with  cane  brakes  and  rich 
forests  of  many  species  of  timber  trees. 

HvDRociK.vpuY.  The  principal  rivers  of  the 
State  are  the  Mississippi,  flowing  the  entire 
length  of  the  western  margin,  the  Tombigljee,  Big 
Black,  and  Pearl.  The  Yazoo  River  is  a  dis- 
tributary of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  whole  area 
of  its  bottoms  is  a  mesh  of  interlacing  streams, 
bayous,  and  oxbow  lakes.  About  one-half  the 
area  of  the  State  drains  directlj'  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  The  bottom  lands  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  other  rivers  are  liable  to  overflow 
when  the  rivers  are  Hooded.  To  guard  against 
this,  levees  or  artificial  banks  are  built  to  re- 
strain the  rivers.  Occasional  breaks  or  'crevasses' 
occur,  causing  nuich  damage  to  the  plantations, 
and  in  times  of  exceptional  high  water  whole 
counties  may  be  flooded.  The  injury,  however, 
is  alleviated  by  the  fact  that  a  layer  of  rieli  silt 
is  left  over  all  the  bottom  by  the  receding  flood. 
The  levees  are  built  by  the  State  partly  from  a 
fund  derived  from  a  special  ta.x  on  the  land,  and 
partly  with  moneys  derived  from  the  sale  of 
swamp  lands  set  aside  for  the  purpose  by  the 
General  Government.  See  Levee,  and  Missis- 
sippi River. 

C'liii.\te.  Mississippi  lies  in  the  semi-tropical 
tlimaiic  belt  and  its  clinuite  is  strongly  influenced 
by  reason  of  its  proximity  to  the  Gulf.  The  aver- 
age Januarj'  temperature  is  55°  F.  in  the  isl- 
ands oft'  coast,  50°  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
mainland,  and  40°  near  the  northern  boundary. 
The  average  July  temperatures  range  from  82° 
to  80°.  The  average  maximum  shade  tempera- 
ture is  100°,  while  occasional  anticyclones  of 
winter  bring  a  minimum  temperature  of  10°  F. 
to  the  southern  portion,  and  zero  weather  reaches 
below  the  northern  qmxrter  of  the  State.  Such 
cold  weather  is.  however,  very  transient.  The 
frost-free  growing  season  lasts  seven  months 
in  the  north  and  ten  months  in  the  south.  This 
is  of  the  very  greatest  importance  to  many 
of  the  crops,  especially  cotton.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  for  the  whole  State  is  over 
50  inches.  The  southern  quarter  has  over  60 
inches,  tliis  distribution  being  largely  due  to 
the  prevailing  soutliwestern  winds,  and  to  the 
influence  of  the  Gulf.  The  heaviest  rains  occur 
in  late  winter  or  early  spring,  wlien  the  warm  Gulf 
winils  meet  the  cold  north  winds,  but  on  the 
wliole  the  precipitation  is  quite  evenly  distributed 
through  the  year.  There  is  a  slight  snoAvfall  as 
far  south  as  Natchez.  The  atmosphere  is  humid 
at  all  seasons,  the  average  annual  relative  hu- 
midity being  7iot  far  from  70  per  cent,  in  the 
northern  lialf  of  the  State  and  from  70  per  cent, 
to  75  per  cent,  in  the  southern  half.  The  average 
wind  velocity  for  the  whole  year  is  seven  miles 
per  hour.  The  prevailing  wind  for  .January  is 
north,  while  it  is  south  fnr  .Tuly.  The  cyclonic 
belt  lies  far  to  the  north,  and  generally  does  not 
touch  the  State. 

Flora..  The  result  of  the  rather  large  annual 
r^iinfall  and  of  the  equable  distribution  through 
the  year  is  best  seen  in  the  luxuriant  forests, 
Vol.  XIII.— 39. 


largely  of  deciduous  trees.  Over  120  species  of 
forest  trees  are  known.  There  are  15  species  of 
oak,  including  the  live  oak.  Cypress  predomi- 
nates on  the  bottom  and  swamp  lands.  The  long- 
leafed  jiine  is  the  chief  forest  tree  of  the  soutliern 
half  of  tlu>  State.  Tupelo,  .sycamore,  persimmon, 
magnolia,  holly,  cucumber  tree,  sweet  gum,  black- 
walnut,  and  various  species  of  hickory,  elm,  and 
maple  are  also  present. 

Geology.  The  Cumberland  Ridge  just  reaches 
the  northeast  corner  of  the  .State  with  its  outly- 
ing undulations,  thus  bringing  a  small  outcrop  of 
subearlKir.ifennis  rocks  into  its  borders.  From 
this  corner  as  a  focus,  the  younger  strata  dip 
away  gently  to  the  west  and  south.  Cretaceous 
beds  cover  a  belt  radiating  about  25  miles 
west  and  75  miles  south  of  the  northeast  cor- 
ner. The  four  prominent  menfljers  of  the  Cre- 
taceous outcrop,  in  series  from  the  oldest  up, 
are  the  Cofi'ee,  Tonfl)igliee,  Rotten  Limestone, 
and  Ripley.  The  total  thickness  of  these 
beds  in  the  State  is  2000  feet.  At  the  close 
of  Cretaceous  time  there  was  a  deep  gulf  ex- 
tending north  to  Cairo,  111.,  which  was  slowly 
filled  by  tluvial  and  olf-shore  deposits.  These 
beds  are  the  Eocene  and  Neocene  outcrops,  cover- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  State  and  extending 
from  the  Cretaceous  on  the  northeast  to  the 
Yazoo  bottoms  and  almost  to  the  Gulf  on  the 
south. 

Mineral  Resoltsces.  Clay  deposits  are  found 
widely  distributed  in  Alississippi,  and  are  utilized 
to  some  extent  for  brick.  The  total  value  of  clay 
products  in  1901  was  ,$456,473.  Marl  and  phos- 
phatic  rock  are  found  extensively  in  many  comi- 
ties, but  are  used  only  locally.  Hydraulic  lime- 
stone and  coal  are  found  in  Tishomingo  County 
and  gypsum  in  Rankin  County,  but  none  of  these 
minerals  are  worked.  Potable  waters  are  found 
everj'where,  except  on  river  bottoms;  even  in 
tlie  Rotten  Limestone  region  artesian  wells  sup- 
lily  good  water  from  the  underlying  Cofl'ec  series, 
ilineral  springs  are  very  numerous  and  are 
largely  chalybeate.  In  some  localities  all  the 
springs  and  wells  are  highly  mineralized.  The 
blufi's  of  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  rivers  have 
many  springs,  the  supply  flowing  through  ochor- 
ous  earths  and  pyritous  clays,  whence  it  is  so 
strongly  charged  with  iron  sulphate  as  to  make 
its  use  very  deleterious.  Many  mineral  s]iringa 
are  used  locally  in  a  medicinal  way  and  a  few 
have  become  well  known  resorts,  as  Ocean 
Springs,  in  .Jackson  County,  and  luka  Springs  in 
Tishomingo  County. 

Fisheries.  The  fisheries  of  Mississippi,  never 
important,  have  decreased  in  recent  years.  In 
1S!(7.  tlie  last  vear  fur  which  statistics  were  com- 
piled, the  total  value  of  the  catch  reported  was 
$102,204,  of  which  $110.9tU  represented  the  value 
of  the  oyster  fisheries.  Shrimp  fishing  is  becom- 
ing more  im])ortant.  In  the  year  mentioned  2565 
men  were  engaged  in  the  fishing  industry. 

AcRicuLTiHE.  The  predominant  industry  in 
the  State  is  agriculture  and  it  is  highly  favored 
both  by  the  nature  of  the  climate  and  the  soil. 
There  is  n  variety  of  soil,  including  tli<'  bmwn 
loam  of  the  central  tableland,  the  ricli,  l)lack, 
calcareous  soil  of  the  prairie  region,  the  extreme- 
Iv  fertile  alluvium  of  the  bottom  lands,  the  sandy 
lonni  with  a  clayey  or  sandy  subsoil,  south  of  the 
central  ridge,  and  the  yellow  loam  of  the  north- 
east. They  are  all.  except  the  last  two,  unusual- 
ly rich.     The  most  desirable  regitm  is  included 


MISSISSIPPI. 


604 


MISSISSIPPI. 


between  the  Yazoo  and  tlie  Mississippi  rivers. 
\iTy  I'.Mfiisive  areas  are  still  covered  with  for- 
ests, but  it  is  nearly  all  susceptible  of  cultiva- 
tion. In  moo  there  were  18,240.7:J(i  acres,  or  G1.5 
per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  included  in  farms.  Of 
this  41.0  per  cent,  was  improved,  the  improved 
area  having  increased  about  1,500.000  acres  since 
1800,  while  the  unimproved  area  remains  about 
the  same.  The  change  in  the  system  of  agricul- 
ture incident  upon  the  cessation  of  slavery  has 
decreased  tlic  average  size  of  farms  from  309.7 
acres  in  1800  to  82.0  in  1000.  The  number 
of  colored  farmers  in  ^lississippi  ( 128,67!) 
in  1000),  amounting  to  .58.3  ])er  cent,  of 
the  total  number  in  the  State  (tilling  about 
32.4  per  cent,  of  the  farm  acreage),  is  much 
greater  than  in  any  other  State.  How- 
ever, only  14.3  per.  cent,  of  these  own  their 
farms,  as  against  02.5  per  cent,  for  the  white 
farmers.  The  cash  rent  system  is  rapiilly  in- 
creasing, the  farms  rented  according  to  this 
system  already  exceeding  the  number  rented  on 
the  share  system.  Nearly  twotiftlis  of  the  farms 
of  the  State  are  between  20  and  50  acres  in  area, 
this  size  of  holding  being  very  common  among  the 
negro  cotton  farmers.  In  no  other  State  is  cotton 
so  dominant  as  in  Mississippi.  In  1890  the 
acreage  of  cotton  was  over  half  of  the  total  crop 
acreage  and  contributed  03. G  ])er  cent,  of  the 
value  of  farm  crops.  The  State  ranks  third  in 
the  i>roduction  of  cotton.  It  was  not  until  the 
last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however, 
that  its  cultivation  regained  the  importance  it 
held  prior  to  the  Civil  War.  The  greatest  pro- 
duction was  reached  in  1S97-98,  when  tlie  output 
amounted  to  1.000.000  bales,  and  only  once  in  that 
decade  did  the  production  fall  below  1,000.000 
bales.  Aside  from  cotton  the  agricultural  inter- 
est of  the  State  is  almost  wholly  centred  in  corn. 
The  acreage  of  this  crop  in  1899  constituted  95.9 
per  cent,  of  the  total  area  devoted  to  cereals.  The 
acreage  increased  33.4  per  cent,  in  the  last  census 
decade.  The  production  of  oats  decreased  de- 
cidedly during  the  same  period.  Wheat  had  ac- 
quired some  importance  before  the  war,  but  its 
cultivation  has  almost  wholly  ceased.  There  are 
extensive  alluvial  areas  that  could  be  easily  ir- 
rigated and  devoted  to  rice  culture,  but  little  at- 
tention tia-i  been  given  to  it.  Compared  with  its 
sister  State  across  the  Mis-;issippi  River,  re- 
markably little  attention  i-;  paid  to  the  growing 
of  sugar  cane,  anil  the  crop  of  late  years  is  almost 
wholly  converted  into  syrup  and  molasses.  Small 
fruits  and  orchard  fruits  are  not  extensively 
raised.  In  the  decade  18901900,  however,  the 
number  of  trees  almost  flouhled.  In  the  latter 
year  the  peach  trees  numlnTed  1. 850. 748.  which 
was  iSS  per  cent,  of  the  total  numlier.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  acreage  of  the  leading 
crops  for  the  census  years  indicated: 


1900 

1890 

Com 

2.270.313 

H7.n«i 

,3K.lfi9 

W.'Jfil 

2.M>7.9'iO 

69,490 

1  70fi  3"t2 

0«t» 

Hrtv  nnd  fornKe     

66.189 
2.883.278 

riitton  

Peiwe 

and  the  gain  since  1870  is  very  marked.  As 
compared  with  the  latter  year  tlie  liorscs  and 
mules  have  increased  in  number  about  2'i  times, 
and  swine,  dairy  cows,  and  other  neat  cattle 
have  also  gained.  The  decade  18901900  is 
characterized  by  a  marked  falling  off  in  the  num- 
ber of  sheep,  and  by  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
horses  and  mules.  The  following  table  gives  the 
number  of  domestic  animals  on  farms  for  the 
vears'  indicated: 


Dairy  cows 

other  neat  cattle. 

Horses 

Mutes  uud  at«ses.. 

.Sheep 

Svriue 


299,318 

310,159 

674,U38 

C04.1119 

229,311 

15r>.IJ,iO 

21l>.U32 

156.755 

236.470 

451.779 

1,290.498 

1.163,141 

Stock-raising.  As  in  other  States  where 
cotton  is  predominant,  stockrai-<ing  does  not  re- 
ceive much  attention.  Tlie  total  number  of  do- 
mestic animal.s  has  greatly  increased  over  18.50, 


^Manufactures.  The  manufacturing  industry 
is  probably  less  develoj)ed  in  Mississippi  than  in 
any  other  of  the  older  States  of  the  .Union.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  rate  of  the  recent  increase 
has  been  greater  than  that  of  most  of  the  other 
States.  Prior  to  1837  some  prominence  had  been 
attained  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  leather, 
liquor,  and  Hour;  but  the  tinaneial  panic  of 
that  year  left  these  industries  in  a  bad  condition. 
There  was  a  decided  revival  in  the  decade  lol- 
fowing  1850;  but  because  of  the  Civil  War  and 
the  depression  following  it,  manufacturing  re- 
mained almost  stationary  for  twenty  years.  In 
the  decade  18801890  the  value  of  the"  manufac- 
tured product  increased  148.8  per  cent,  and  in 
the  decade  1890-1900  increased  110. 1  per  cent. 
Tlie  value  of  the  product  in  1900  was  $40,431,- 
000,  and  2(i,4l8  wage-earners,  or  1.7  per  cent,  of 
the  population,  were  engaged.  Having  no  large 
transportation  centre,  and  the  water  po^ver  and 
mineral  resources  being  of  little  consecpu'nee.  the 
Slate  is  at  a  comparative  industrial  disadvan- 
tage. But  the  products  of  her  cotton  fields  and 
forests  supply  an  abundance  of  raw  materials. 
The  recent  development  is  largely  in  response 
to  the  encouragement  extended  by  the  State,, 
through  a  law  passed  in  1S82  exempting  machin- 
ery of  factories  from  taxation  for  ten  years. 

From  the  table  ajipcnded  the  importance  of 
the  industries  deiienilent  upon  cotton  may  be 
seen.  The  largest  of  these — the  manufacture 
of  cottonseed  nil  and  cake — experienced  an  in- 
crease during  the  decade  of  177.0  per  cent.  Tlie 
State  contained  the  first  mill  of  this  kind  erected 
in  the  United  .States.  A  less  absolute  but  much 
larger  per  cent,  of  increase  was  nuidc  in  cotton- 
ginning.  The  largest  increase  in  the  cotton  goods 
product  was  in  the  period  1870-90;  the  value  in 
1870  was  only  $234,400. 

FoHESTS  AND  KoREsT  PRoni'CT.s.  The  state's 
timbered  area  in  1900  was  estimated  at  32.300 
square  miles,  or  seven-tenths  of  its  area.  The 
southern  third  and  a  narrow  strip  extending 
northward  consists  of  pine,  the  Yazoo  bottom  of 
cypress,  and  most  of  the  remaining  portion  of 
hard  woods.  Very  little  progress  had  been  made 
in  the  exploitation  of  these  forests  until  the  last 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  in  which  period 
the  value  of  lumber  and  timber  products  in- 
creased 171.3  per  lent.  (See  table  below.)  In 
1900  over  three-fourths  of  the  cut  consisted  of 
yellow  jiinc.  oak  being  the  most  important  of 
the  hard  woods.  The  Pascagoula  River  and  Han- 
cock County  (tistricts,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 


MISSISSIPPI.  G05  MISSISSIPPI. 

Comparative  Summary  of  Eight  Leading  Industries 


INDUSTRIES 


Total  for  selected  iudustries  for  State.. 


Increase.  1890  to  1900.. 
Percent,  of  iucrease..., 


Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  industries  in  State.. 


Oil,  cottonseed  and  cake '. 

Cotton,  ginning* 

Cotton  goods 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Lumber,  planing  mill  products,  including  sash,  doors  and  blinds. 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by  steam  rail- 
road companies 

Turpentine  and  rosin 


Number  of 
establish- 
ments 

Average 

Value  of  prod- 

Tear 

number 
wage- 

ucts,  including 
custom  work 

earners 

and  rejtairing. 

1900 

3.205 

20.072 

$31,372,422 

1890 

963 

9,584 

12.638.534 

2,242 

10,488 

$18,733,908 

232.8 

109.4 

14S.2 

1900 

67.2 

76.0 

77.fi 

1890 

66.7 

60-3 

67.6 

1900 

41 

1,521 

J6.681.121 

1890 

13 

891 

2.406.628 

1900 

1,901 

2,422 

2.214.949 

1890 

130 

547 

130.387 

19U0 

6 

1,675 

1.472.835 

189U 

9 

1,154 

1.333.398 

1900 

225 

208 

932.816 

1890 

408 

777 

1.249.669 

1900 

844 

9,676 

15.656.110 

1890 

306 

4.427 

6.770.387 

1900 

34 

748 

1.315.775 

189U 

8 

92 

136,450 

1900 

9 

1.634 

1,326,40) 

1890 

5 

1,076 

1,329.649 

1900 

145 

2,288 

1.772.435 

1890 

■24 

620 

282,066 

*  Does  not  include  many  ginneries  operated  in  connection  with  saw.  grist,  and  cottonseed  oil  mills,  or  for  the  use 
exclusively  of  plantations  on  which  they  are  located. 


State,  showed  most  activity.  The  manufacture  of 
tur])entine  and  rosin  was  not  important  prior  to 
the  last  decade  of  tlie  nineteenth  century,  but 
made  large  gains  during  that  period,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  above  table. 

Transpoutatiox.  The  railroad  mileage  in- 
creascil  from  802  miles  in  18(50  to  1127  in  1880; 
to  2470  in  18110,  and  to  2034  in  1900.  Among 
the  important  lines  are  the  Illinois  Central,  the 
Southern,  the  Louisville  and  Nashville,  the  Mo- 
bile and  Ohio,  the  New  Orleans  and  Northeastern, 
and  the  Queen  and  Crescent.  There  is  a  board 
of  railroad  commissioners  which  is  empowered  to 
revise,  ti.x,  regulate,  and  approve  the  rates  of 
charges  of  railroad  companies.  Having  a  con- 
siderable Gulf  coast  line  and  being  bordered  upon 
one  side  by  the  Mississippi  River,  the  State  has 
the  advantages  of  navigation  afforded  by  these 
waters.  Of  the  two  customs  districts.  Pearl 
River  and  ^'icksburg,  the  former  only  is  impor- 
tant in  regard  to  foreign  trade. 

Banking.  The  Bank  of  ilississippi  at  Natchez 
was  chartered  in  1809.  In  1818  it  was  created  a 
State  bank,  with  a  capital  of  $.3,000,000,  the 
State  participating  in  its  nianagciuent,  and 
pledging  to  it  a  monopoly  of  the  hanking  busi- 
ness of  the  State  until  1840.  In  18.30,  however, 
the  Legislature  broke  the  pledge  by  establishing 
the  Planters'  Bank  of  Mississippi,  with  a  capital 
of  .$.3,000,000.  and  making  it  the  financial  agent 
of  the  State.  This  forced  the  first  bank  into 
liquidation.  For  a  few  years  the  Planters'  Bank 
had  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  banking,  but 
from  183.5  new  banks  followed  in  rapid  succes- 
sion. The  most  daring  venture  was  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Jlississippi  I'nion  Bank  in  1838, 
Willi  a  capital  of  .'?1.5.. 500.000.  which  made  it  the 
largest  State  bank  in  the  I'nitcd  States  at  that 
time.  These  bold  undertakings  in  the  very  midst 
of  a  financial  crisis  could  but  lead  to  one  resiilt. 
There  were  numerous  failures  in  1838-45;  in 
18.55  there  was  but  one  chartered  bank  in  the 
State.  A  revival  came  in  the  eighties,  when  na- 
tional banks  were  introduced.     Stringent  banking 


laws  have  given  to  the  State  banks  the  confidence 
of  the  people,  and  their  nimiber  has  increased 
tenfold  since  1888,  In  1902  there  were  17  na- 
tional banks  with  a  capital  of  .$1,530,000,  sur- 
plus $549,000,  cash,  etc.,  $501,000,  loans  $4,957,- 
000,  and  deposits  $5,257,000;  92  State  banks  with 
capital  of  $5,408,800,  surplus  $971,857,  cash,  etc., 
$1,.550.929.  loans  $19,407,101.  and  deposits  $16,- 
297,325.  There  are  no  savings  banks  in  the 
State. 

Finance.  The  early  financial  history  of  Mis- 
sissip])i  is  closely  connected  with  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  banks  in  the  State.  A  large  State 
debt  of  $2,000,000  was  created  in  1830  in  order 
to  acquire  shares  in  the  Planters'  Bank  and  in 
183S  $5,000,000  for  shares  of  the  Union  Bank  of 
Mississippi.  The  financial  crisis  of  the  thirties 
brought  the  banks  to  insolvency  in  1840:  this  in- 
volved the  State  in  an  enormous  debt.  Infringe- 
ments upon  the  Constitution  in  the  floating  of 
the  debt  led  to  its  repudiation  by  a  popular  vote 
in  1852.  which  was  finally  disposed  of  by  a 
clause  in  the  Constitution  "of  1875.  The  Civil 
War  again  involved  the  State  in  serious  financial 
difficulties  and  also  reduced  the  general  economic 
condition  of  the  State.  The  "carpet  bag'  regime 
which  followed  aggravated  the  situation:  the  ex- 
(lenditures  grew  from  about  $.500,000  in  1807-09 
to  more  than  $1,500,000  in  1871-75.  ;ind  the  tax 
rate  was  increased  in  these  years  proportionately 
from  1  mill  to  14  mills.  An  organizeil  protest 
from  the  taxpayers  in  1874  was  the  result,  and  a 
gradual  diminution  of  the  State  debt,  expendi- 
tures, and  rate  of  taxation  followed.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1901.  the  payable  debt  was  $070,799  and  the 
non-payable  debt,  for  the  interest  on  wliich  alone 
the  State  is  responsible,  was  $2,210,227.  making 
the  total  indebtedness  $2,887,020.  Total  receipts 
for  the  year  ending  September  30.  1901,  were 
$2,430,048:  total  dislmrsements.  $2,229,990,  leav- 
ing a  surplus  of  $200,052,  and  the  cash  balance 
was  .$828,453.  The  main  source  of  income  was 
a  direct  State  property  tax  which  yielded  almost 
85  per  cent,  of  the  total  income;  of  the  disburse- 


MISSISSIPPI. 


606 


MISSISSIPPI. 


ments  30  per  cent,  were  for  common  school  pur- 
poses and  15  jwr  cent,  for  redemption  of  the 
State  debt. 

PoPiL.MioN.  Tlie  following  figures  show  the 
growth  of  population:  1800,88,50;  1830.  13(i.(i21; 
1850,  600.527;  18U0,  701,305;  1870,  8:27.022; 
1880,  1.131.507:  1800.  1.2S0.U00;  1000.  1.551.270. 
The  rank  of  the  State  was  advanced  from  20  in 
1810  to  14  in  18IJ0.  and  receded  to  20  jn  1000. 
The  greatest  absolute  gain  was  made  in  tlie 
decade  1870-80.  In  the  last  decade  the  increase 
was  20.3,  or  nearly  the  same  as  for  the 
United  States.  The  foreign-born  population  in 
1000  numbered  only  7081,  or  less  than  tliat 
in,  any  other  State  except  the  two  C'arolinas. 
The  colored  population  in  1000  numbered 
007.030.  or  about  58  per  cent,  of  the  total  jiopu- 
lation.  wliicli  is  a  larger  per  cent,  tlian  is 
found  in  any  other  Stale,  although  Georgia  con- 
tains a  larger  absolute  numlter.  The  per  cent,  of 
increase  for  the  decade  1800-1900  was  22.2  for  the 
negroes  and  17.7  for  the  whites.  The  negroes 
are  most  numerous  in  the  western  or  Mississippi 
Valley  counties,  in  some  of  which  they  are  five 
times  as  numerous  as  tlie  whites.  The  Indians 
number  about  2200;  they  are  of  the  Choctaw 
tribe.  Only  10  phiees  in  the  State  exceed  4000 
in  population,  and  together  constitute  but  5.3  per 
cent,  of  the  total  number  of  inhabitants,  being 
the  smallest  per  cent,  of  url)an  population  fcnind 
in  anv  State.  The  largest  towns  in  1000  were: 
Vicks'burg,  14.834;  Jleridian,  14.050;  and 
Xatchez.  ,12.210. 

Educatio.n.  In  184li  a  law  providing  for  a 
public  scliool  system  was  passed.  Although  edu- 
cational matters  have  shown  signs  of  improve- 
ment of  late,  they  still  sutler  from  causes  pe- 
culiar to  the  South,  and  the  present  facilities  are 
far  from  ad<M|uate.  Like  most  Southern  States, 
Mississippi  has  no  com]iulsor,v  attendance  law, 
and  there  is  a  complete  separation  of  the  races. 
The  census  of  1000  gives  Mississippi  a  total 
school  population  (five  to  twenty  years  of  age) 
of  633.020,  including  379.873  colored.  The  il- 
literate population  amoiinted  to  351.461,  or  32 
per  cent,  of  tlie  total  iiopulation  of  the  State 
ten  years  of  age  and  over,  the  native  whites  num- 
lieriiig  36.038.  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  total  native 
white  pop\ilalion.  and  tlie  colored  314.617.  or  40.1 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  colored  pop\ibition.  The 
total  enrollment  in  1900  was  about  387.500.  and 
tlie  average  attendance  258.90:5—133.098  wliites 
and  125,897  colored,  the  proportion  of  school 
attendance  to  school  population  in  the  case  of 
the  whites  and  the  colored  being  about  53  and  33 
per  cent,  respectively.  The  length  of  the  school 
term  in  1000  was  105  davs,  as  compand  with 
about  86  days  in  1889-90.  Out  of  the  8515  teach- 
ers employed  in  tlie  public  schools  in  1000.  5147 
were  white  and  3368  colored.  The  proportion  of 
male  teachers  fell  olf  from  61.2  per  cent,  in  1879- 
80  to  39.4  in  1808-90.  The  State  Roard  of  Edu- 
cation is  composed  of  the  Secietarj-  of  State. 
Attorney-General,  and  tlie  Superintendent  of 
Education.  This  board  and  the  Senate  appoint 
school  superintendents  in  each  county.  Before 
1886  licenses  to  teach  were  trrnnted  practic;illy 
without  any  examination^^.  In  that  year  a  law 
was  passed  providing  for  uniform  State  ex- 
aminations, payment  of  salaries  according  to 
licenses  held  by  the  teachers,  and  for  the  est;il>- 
lishment  of  teachers'  institutes.  The  maintenance 
of   the   public   school   system    in    1900   cost    the 


State  $1,472,432,  or  05  cents  per  capita  of  popula- 
tion. The  State  ta.xes  wliich  formerly  yielded  the 
bulk  of  the  revenue  for  school  purposes  have  been 
decreased  and  now  amount  only  to  aliout  one-half 
of  the  total  revenue,  the  rent  being  derived  chiefly 
from  local  taxes.  In  1800-1000  there  were  40.52 
secondary  students  (including  304  colored)  at- 
tending the  public  high  schools;  in  the  same 
,vear  1977  students  (including  166  colored)  were 
in  private  high  schools.  The  chief  higher  educa- 
tional institutions  of  the  State  besides  tlie  State 
University,  near  Oxford,  and  the  Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  College  at  Agricultural  College, 
are  the  Mississipjii  College  (Baptist)  at  Clinton, 
Millsaps  College  (Methodist)  at  .Jackson,  Whit- 
worth  Female  College  at  Brookhaven.  and 
Woman's  College  at  (Oxford.  The  principal  high- 
er educational  iiistit  ill  ions  for  the  colored  youth 
are  Tougaloo  University  ;it  Tougaloo,  near  Jack- 
son. Rust  University  at  Holly  Springs,  the  States 
Normal  School  at  Holly  Springs,  and  Alcorn 
Agricultural  and  Jlechanical  College  at  Westside. 
CH.\KnAULE  .\.Nn  I'enai.  Ix.sTniTiONS.  The 
State  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  (white 
and  colored)  is  located  at  .lackson ;  and  the 
school  for  the  blind  (white)  is  also  at  that  place. 
There  are  two  State  hospitals  for  the  insane,  one 
at  .lackson  and  tlie  other  at  .Meridian.  The  State 
aids  in  the  support  of  lios])itals  at  Vicksliurg 
and  Natchez.  The  penitent iaiy  is  located  at 
.lackson.  Most  of  the  prisoners  are  employed 
in  farm  labor,  or  in  the  production  of  articles  of 
necessity  in  the  prison  administration.  Some  of 
the  prison  farms  are  owned  by  the  State,  otiiers 
are  rented.  The  farm  labor  system  is  considered 
very  .satisfactorv  and  does  not  incur  any  financial 
loss.  Prisoners  committed  to  the  county  jails 
are  also  put  to  labor  upon  farms. 

Rei.ioiox.  Over  half  of  the  Church  population 
of  the  State  belong  to  the  Baptist  Church,  and 
the  majority  of  the  remainder  to  the  Methodist. 
Of  the  lesser  denominations  the  more  important 
are  the  Presbyterian,  Catholic,  Christian,  and 
Protestant  Episcopal. 

(Government.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  1890.  If  two-thirds  of  the  members 
of  each  House  vote  each  day  for  three  several 
days  in  favor  of  a  proposed  amendment,  the  same 
will  be  submitted  to  tlie  (leople  of  the  State,  and 
it  becomes  a  part  of  the  Con-titution  if  approved 
by  a  majority  of  the  qualified  electors  voting. 
Voters  must  have  resided  in  the  State  two  years, 
in  the  election  district  one  year  (six  months  for 
ministers  of  the  Gospel),  and  have  paid  taxes 
legallv  required.  Registration  is  necessary,  and 
the  would-be  voter,  in  order  to  register,  must  be 
"able  to  read  an.v  section  of  the  Constitution  of 
the  State;  or  he  must  lie  able  to  understand  the 
same  when  read  to  him,  or  give  a  reasonable  in- 
terpretation thereof." 

l.Eoisi.ATivE.  Rcjiresentatives  and  Senators  are 
elected  for  terms  of  four  years.  The  regular  ses- 
sion of  the  Legislature  meets  on  the  first  Tues- 
day after  the  first  Momlay  of  .Tanuary,  every 
fourth  year  after  1892  ;  special  sessions  of  the  Leg- 
i-laliire  are  held  on  the  corresponding  day  everv 
fourth  year,  beginning  with  1894.  unless  sooner 
<oiiviikcd  by  the  Governor.  Special  sessions  can- 
not continue  longer  than  thirty  days  unless  the 
Governor  extends  them  by  proclamation.  Com- 
pensation is  prescribed  by  law.  but  at  the  special 
session  not  more  than  .*5  )ier  day  and  mileage  can 
be  allowed.     Revenue  bills  and  bills  providing  for 


MISSISSIPPI. 


607 


MISSISSIPPI. 


the  assessment  of  propeity  for  taxation  shall  not 
become  laws  exi'i'|il  by  a  vote  of  at  least  tlirco- 
fifths  of  the  members  of  each  House  jjiesent  and 
votiii"^.  Vetoed  bills  or  parts  of  appropriation 
bills  may  be  carried  over  the  Governor's  head  by 
a  two-thirds  vote.  General  elections  of  State  and 
county  ollieers  are  held  on  the  first  Tuesday  after 
the  first  .Monday  in  November. 

Mississi]ipi  sends  eight  members  to  the  United 
States  ilou^c  of  Representatives.  Tlie  capital  is 
Jackson. 

ExEciriVE.  The  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor arc  elected  for  four  years,  and  the  former 
cannot  be  his  own  successor.  The  president  of 
the  Senate  pro  trm.  and  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
are  in  the  line  of  succession  to  the  Governorship 
in  case  of  vacancy  in  that  office.  The  .Secretary 
of  State,  Treasurer,  and  Auditor  are  elected  for 
terms  of  four  years,  and  the  two  last  named 
cannot  immediately  succeed  themselves  or  each 
otlier. 

•Iiuici.\RY.  The  Supreme  Court  consists  of 
three  judges  who  are  appointed  by  the  Governor 
and  the  Senate  for  terms  of  nine  years.  .Judges 
of  the  Circuit  Courts  and  Chancery  are  similarly 
appointed  for  terms  of  four  years.  A  clerk  of 
the  Supreme  Court  and  an  Attorney-General  are 
elected  for  terms  of  four  years.  A  district  at- 
torney for  each  Circuit  Court  district  is  selected 
as  determined  by  law  for  a  term  of  four  years. 

Local  Government.  In  each  county  an  asses- 
sor, surveyor,  coroner,  sheriff,  and  treasurer  are 
elected  for  four  j-ears,  the  two  latter  not  being 
eligible  to  succeed  themselves  or  each  other. 
Each  county  is  divided  into  five  districts,  in  each 
of  which  a  resident  freeholder  is  selected  as  a 
member  of  the  board  of  supervision  of  the 
county.  This  board  has  jurisdiction  over  roads, 
ferries,  and  bridges.  .Tustices  of  the  peace  and 
constables  are  elected  in  each  district  for  terms 
of  four  years. 

Militia.  According  to  the  census  of  1900  the 
population  of  militia  age  in  the  State  amounted 
to  289,599.  The  aggregate  strength  of  the  militia 
in  1901  was  1373  men. 

History.  In  1539  Hernando  de  Soto,  with  a 
band  of  Spanish  adventurers,  crossed  the  north- 
eastern part  of  what  is  now  the  State,  and  in  the 
early  part  of  1541  reached  the  Mississippi  River, 
near  the  present  site  of  Memphis,  Tenn.  In  1073 
the  French  explorers  .Joliet  and  JIarquettp,  pass- 
ing down  the  ^lississippi,  sailed  as  far  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  In  1081-82  La  Salle 
sailed  down  the  river  to  its  mouth,  and,  taking 
formal  possession  fen-  the  King  of  France,  Louis 
XIV.,  named  the  country  Louisiana  after  him. 
The  first  attempt  to  found  a  colony  was  made  in 
1699  by  Iberville,  who  brought  200  immigrants 
from  France  to  Biloxi.  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Bay  of  Biloxi.  This  was  the  germ  of  the  subse- 
quent settlement  of  New  Orleans  (1718).  In 
1710  Iberville  and  Bienville,  with  a  large  body  of 
immigrants  and  a  military  force,  ascended  the 
Mississippi  to  the  present  site  of  Natchez,  where 
they  founded  a  settlement  named  Rosalie,  in 
honor  of  the  Countess  of  Pontchartrain.  At- 
tempts to  plant  colonies  w'ere  soon  after  made  at 
Saint  Peter's  (on  the  Yazoo),  at  Pascagoula,  and 
elsewhere.  The  small  colonies  in  ^lississippi, 
however,  grew  but  slowly.  New  Orleans  attract- 
ing many  of  the  settlers.  Lender  Bienville,  who 
was  Governor  of  Louisiana  from  1718  to  1724, 
friendly    relations   with   the    Indians    were   pre- 


served; but  under  his  >uccessor,  Perriez,  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Natchez  Indians  was  awakened.  In 
1729  a  sudden  assault  was  made  on  the  line  of 
French  posts.  At  Fort  Rosalie  200  persons  were 
killed  and  more  than  500  were  taken  prisoners. 
In  the  smaller  settlements  many  of  the  in- 
habitants were  butcliered.  Retribution  followed 
swiftly.  Aided  by  the  Choctaw  tribes,  the  French 
succeeded  in  defeating  the  Natchez,  the  greater 
part  of  whom  fell  in  battle,  while  most  of  the 
survivors  were  sold  as  slaves.  When  Bienville  be- 
came Governor  again  in  1733  he  found  the  col- 
ony at  war  with  the  Chickasaws,  allies  of  the 
English,  and  tlie  conflict  continued  for  several 
years.  There  was  a  peace,  fcdlowed  in  1752  by 
another  Indian  war,  instigated,  it  was  said,  by 
English  adventurers.  The  French  commander 
sought  to  retaliate,  but  witlrout  much  success. 
Under  French  rule  the  country  failed  to  prosper, 
and  the  number  of  inhabitants  at  the  end  of  the 
period  was  less  than  one  thousand.  In  1703 
France  ceded  its  possessions  east  of  the  Missisippi 
to  Great  Britain,  which  received  also  Florida 
from  Spain.  Immigrants  flocked  thither  in  con- 
siderable numliers  from  the  English  colonies  on 
the  Atlantic  Coast  as  well  as  from  Scotland. 

That  part  of  the  territory  south  of  a  line 
drawn  through  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River 
eastward  to  the  Chattahoochee  had  been  erected 
into  the  Province  of  West  Florida  soon  after  the 
establishment  of  English  rule  in  17C3.  In  1781 
West  Florida  was  conquered  by  Spain,  and  passed 
under  Spanish  rule.  By  the  Peace  of  Paris,  in 
1783,  the  thirty-first  parallel  of  latitude  was 
recognized  as  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
Tjnited  States,  and  Spain  was  therefore  consid- 
ered as  an  intruder  in  that  part  of  Mississippi 
to  the  north  of  the  line.  By  the  treaty  of  1795 
between  the  L'nited  States  and  Spain,  Spain 
ceded  her  claims  to  the  disputed  territory, 
but  continued  to  occupy  it  until  1798. 
In  1798  the  Territory  of  Mississippi  was 
extended  to  Tennessee,  and  in  1813  the  dis- 
trict south  of  31°  and  east  of  the  Pearl  River, 
taken  from  Spain,  was  annexed.  At  first  a  Gov- 
ernor and  three  judges  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent were  the  chief  authorities  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Territory,  but  in  1800  provision  was 
made  for  a  legislature,  the  Lower  House  consisting 
of  nine  members  representing  the  three  counties 
into  which  the  Territory  was  then  divided.  In 
1802  Washington  became  the  capital  of  the  Ter- 
ritory. In  the  Creek  War  Mississippi  took  a 
conspicuous  part,  .several  hundred  inhabitants  of 
the  Territory  being  massacred  at  Fort  Mims 
(q.v.).  In  the  War  of  1812  the  Territory  was 
well  represented  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans. 
In  March,  1817,  Congress  passed  an  enabling 
act  for  the  admission  of  Mississippi  to  the  Union, 
and  the  State  was  formally  admitted  December 
10,  1817.  The  most  notable  features  of  the  first 
Constitution  of  Mississippi  were  the  high  prop- 
erty qualifications  for  holding  office,  the  short 
tenures  of  offices,  and  the  large  apjjointing  power 
of  the  Governor  and  Legislature.  The  first  Gov- 
ernor was  David  Holmes,  and  during  his  admin- 
istration the  capital  w'as  permanently  located  at 
•  Faekson.  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Pearl  River. 

P.y  the  treaties  of  1830  and  1832.  with  the  Choc- 
taw and  Chickasaw  Indians,  who  inhabited  all 
(he  northern  part  of  the  State,  the  lands  occupied 
by  those  tribes  were  incorporated  into  the  State. 
subjected  to  its  jurisdiction,  and  thrown  open  to 


MISSISSIPPI. 


608 


MISSISSIPPI. 


settlement  by  the  whites.  In  1832  a  new  Consti- 
tution was  adopted  for  the  State.  Its  most  nota- 
ble foatuii's  wore  the  aliolitimi  of  property  ijiuili- 
fications  for  ollice-holdiny,  the  reqiiireniciit  that 
all  ollieers,  both  State  and  county,  including  the 
judges,  should  be  chosen  by  the  people.  It  also 
created  a  High  Court  of  Errors  and  Appeals  and 
abolislied  the  ollice  of  Liouti'uant-liovernor.  Dur- 
ing the  "flush  times'  of  this  period  Mississippi, 
like  man,v  other  Southern  and  Western  States, 
fell  a  vittini  to  financial  extravagance  and  specu- 
lation, one  of  tlie  results  of  which  was  tlie 
repudiation  by  the  State  of  five  million  dollars  in 
bonds  wliich  it  had  issued  for  the  piir[K)si'  of 
acquiring  stock  in  the  Tnion  Bank.  The  Supreme 
Court  of  tlie  State  decicU-d  in  favor  of  the  liability 
of  the  State  for  the  pa3inent  of  the  bonds,  but  the 
people,  in  an  election  in  wliich  this  was  the  main 
issue,  decided  otherwise,  and  the  Legislature 
refused  to  make  any  appropriation  for  tlie  pur- 
pose. A  little  later  two  million  dollars  of  the 
Planters'  Bank  bunds  were  repudiated  under 
similar  circumstances.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
Mexican  War  Mississippi  was  called  upon  to 
furnish  one  regiment  of  volunteers,  but  more 
than  enough  men  for  two  regiments  responded. 
The  iirst  regiment  was  commanded  by  Col. 
Jefferson  Davis,  who  won  great  distinction  at  the 
battle  of  Buena  Vista.  In  1851  occurred  the  first 
important  struggle  in  Mississippi  over  the 
slavery  question,  which  had  become  serious  on 
account  of  the  enactment  by  Congress  of  the  so- 
called  Compromise  Measures  of  1850.  The  Demo- 
cratic Party  in  Mississippi  adopted  a  platform 
favoring  secession  and  nominated  Jefferson  Davis 
for  Governor,  while  the  Whigs  declared  their 
attachment  to  the  Union  and  nominated  Uniteil 
States  Senator  Foote  as  their  standard-bearer. 
The  Union  Party  won  a  substantial  victory  and 
the  slaveiy  question  rested  until  185G.  when  the 
question  of  secession  was  again  agitated  on  ac- 
count of  the  fear  that  Fremont  would  be  elected 
President.  The  news  of  Jolin  Brown's  raid  in 
1850  led  the  Ix-gislature  to  appropriate  $150,000 
for  the  purchase  of  niilitan.'  stipplies  and  for  the 
organization  of  the  militia.  It  was  left,  however, 
for  the  election  of  Lincoln  to  bring  the  secession 
movement  to  a  head.  An  ordinance  of  secession 
was  passed  on  .lanuarv  0,  1801,  by  a  convention, 
by  a  vote  of  84  to  15.  and  the  State  Constitution 
was  amended  to  bring  it  into  conformity  with  the 
Constitution  of  the  Confederate  States.  During 
the  Civil  War  the  people  of  Mississippi  suffered 
greatly,  and  in  ISO.'i  and  lS(i4  especially,  a  large 
part  of  the  Slate  was  devastated  b.v  the  contend- 
ing armies.  Almost  all  semblance  of  govern- 
ment had  disappeared.  (For  the  military  opera- 
tions in  Mississippi,  see  Civil  Wab;  Ivka;  Cor- 
inth; VuK.sniRc..)  In  June,  1805,  Governor 
Clarke  was  removed  and  a  provisional  Gov- 
ernor was  appointed  by  President  .lohnson. 
On  .July  21st,  slavery  was  aliolished  by  a  State 
convention,  and  on  the  following  day  the  ordi- 
nance of  secession  was  repealed.  In  December 
the  State  Government  was  given  over  into  the 
hands  of  the  dul.y  elected  officers,  who  pro- 
ceeded to  reorganize  the  State  militia  for  the 
public  defense,  a  course  in  which  they  were  up- 
held by  the  President.  Limited  civil  rights  were 
conferred  on  the  freedman.  but  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  was  rejected  in  .Taniiary.  1807.  anil 
in  March  the  State  came  imder  militarj'  govern- 
ment. 


In  Januarj',  1868,  a  convention  framed  a  new 
Constitution,  conferring  the  suffrage  on  negroes. 
The  conservative  element  vehcmenth'  opposeil  the 
Constitution  because  of  the  severe  penalties  it 
imposed  on  members  of  the  Govcviiuienl  and 
armies  of  the  Confederac.v,  and  brought  about  its 
rejection  at  a  popular  election.  Resubmitted  in 
Xovember,  1800,  with  the  test  oath  and  dis- 
franchisement clauses  to  be  voted  on  separately, 
the  Constitution  was  adopted  almost  unanimously, 
while  the  independent  clauses  were  as  unanimous- 
ly rejected.  In  .Januar,v,  1870,  the  Fourteenth 
and  Fifteenth  Amendments  were  ratified,  and  on 
February  17,  1870,  the  State  was  readmitted  into 
the  I'niim.  The  period  before  1875  was  marked 
by  a  spirit  of  bitter  hatred  between  the  old  Demo- 
crats and  the  newly  enfranchised  negroes,  to- 
gether with  their  leaders,  the  white  Republicans. 
The  feeling  of  animosit.v  was  intensified  b.v  the 
unhappy  financial  condition  of  the  State,  and  b.y 
the  dishoncst.v  and  incapacity  of  its  officers,  very 
man.y  of  whom  were  ignorant  negroes,  the  tools 
of  scheming  politicians.  Blood.y  collisions  be- 
tween whites  and  negroes  were  frequent  in  1874 
and  1875.  in  one  of  which,  at  Vicksburg,  29  ne- 
groes and  several  whites  were  killed.  The  desper- 
ate attempts  of  the  'conservatives'  to  restore  the 
supremacy  of  the  white  population  proved  finally 
successful  in  1875.  when  the  Democratic  Party 
captured  the  Legislature.  The  Republican  Gov- 
ernor and  Lieutenant-Governor  and  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Education  were  driven  from  office  by 
impeachment  or  tlireats  of  impeachment,  and 
since  then  the  Democratic  Party  has  retained  an 
overwhelming  predominance.  The  twenty  years 
after  1805  were  a  period  of  economic  depression, 
the  result  of  the  havoc  wrought  by  the  war  and 
of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  readjusting  pro- 
duction to  the  new  conditions  of  labor,  but  later 
the  rise  of  manufactures  marked  the  beginning  of 
a  bright  era.  The  racial  problem  assumed  a  mo- 
mentous aspect  in  1844.  when  a  vast  migration  of 
colored  men  into  the  swamp  lands  of  Mississipjii 
seemed  to  threaten  the  rise  of  a  negro  State  within 
the  State  of  Mississippi.  The  policy  of  forlifyln,s 
the  white  race  in  power  was  continued.  By  the 
Constitution  of  1800  the  suffrage  was  restricted 
to  those  able  to  read  a  section  of  the  Constitution, 
or  to  interpret  any  pa.ssage,  if  read  aloud,  a 
provision  aimed  against  the  negro  voter,  and 
sufficientl.y  successful  in  attaining  its  aim.  In 
national  elections  Mississippi  has  been  a  Demo- 
cratic State  with  the  exception  of  the  year  1840. 
when  it  voted  for  the  Whig  candidate,  and  of 
1872.  when  its  vote  was  given  to  Grant.  In  1804 
and  1808  its  vote  was  not  counted.  The  Gov- 
ernors of  Mississippi  have  been  the  following: 

TEBRITORIAL 

Wiiithrop  .^ariwnt 1798-lROI 

.Icihll  St^'elf,  net.  gov ISIll 

Wllllniii  c.  c.  rialborne 1801^)3 

fate  Wi'st.  net.  jrov.  and  governor  ad  Int 1S04 

Unl>..rt  Wininnir. Isn.lJW 

Dnvlil  Uoliii.'s 18011-17 

STATE 

Dnvlil  HolmPH Demorrnt-Uepubllcan 1817-SO 

(ieoriri'  I'nlnilexter Democrat I82i)-iK> 

Walter  I-enke "         182;-i'i 

Oeranl  ('.  Hranilon  (adiof.).  •'  ih**.", 

Ilavlil  Hiilini'B  (Hillnt.) "  1826 

(leranl  C.  Urnnilon "  1827 

Ceranl  I',  llrftiiiloii "  1828-3> 

Aliram  M.  Si-ott "  WT.'-M 

I'hnrli's  I,Tnoh  (arf/ot.) "  lKt:i 

IIIrMin  (!.  RiinnplH "  ifa^.3li 

Jiihii  A.  Quitman _..  Whig IMS 


MISSISSIPPI. 


609 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


Charlps  Lynch Democrat 1836-38 

AlesanJerO.  MeXutt "         1838-12 

Tllfc'hiiiali   M.  Tucker "         1842-44 

Albert  U.  Browu "        1844-48 

Joseph   VV.  Matthews "        1848-50 

Juhu  A.  Quitman •'        1850-')1 

Jolin  J.  Guion  (ad  int.) "        1851 

Jame.s  Wliittteld  (!»(/ jot.)....         "       1851 

Henrv  S.  Foote Union  Democrat 1852-54 

J.ihn'  J.  Mcnae Democrat 1854-58 

William  McWillie '■        1858-60 

John  J.  Pettus ••        1860-64 

Charles  Clarke "        1864-65 

W.  L.  Sharkey (provisional) 1865 

Benjamin  G.  Humphreys Democrat ; 1865-fi8 

Adelbert  .\mes (provisional)  1868-70 

James  L.  Alcorn Kepublican 1870-71 

liidKlev  C.  Powers  (acting)  "  1871-74 

Adelbert  Ames "  1874-76 

John  M.  Stone Democrat 1876-82 

K.ibert  Lowrv "        1882-90 

John  M.  Stone "         1890-96 

Anselm  J.  McLaurin "        1896-1900 

A.  H.  Longino "        1900  — 

BiBLiOGKAPHY.  Wailes,  Report  on  the  Agricul- 
ture and  (leologtj  of  Mississippi  (Jackson,  1854)  ; 
Hilgard,  Report  on  the  Geology  and  Agriculture  of 
Missis.'iippi  (Jackson,  18(i0)  ;  C'liapman.  Flora  of 
the  Southern  United  States  (Xew  York,  1860)  ; 
^\■all,  TIic  State  of  Mississippi :  Resourees.  Con- 
ditions, and  Wants  (Jackson,  1879)  ;  Hurt.  Mis- 
sissippi: Its  ('liinate.  Soil,  Productions,  and  Agri- 
cultural Capabilities  (Washington,  1883)  ;  Davis, 
Reeolleelions  of  Mississippi  and  Mississippians 
(Boston,  1889);  Goodspeed,  Biographical  and 
Historical  Memoirs  of  Mississippi  (Chicago, 
1891);  Winsor,  The  Mississippi  Basin  (Boston, 
1S95)  ;  Muckenfuss,  Ilistory  of  Scientific  Indus- 
tries in  Mississippi  (Jackson.  1900)  ;  Garner, 
Ileconstruction  in  Mississippi  (New  York,  1901)  : 
Flint.  Ilistory  and  (jeography  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  (Cincinnati,  18.32);  Jlonctte,  History  of 
the  Discorery  and  Settlement  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi  (New  York,  1848)  ;  French,  Histori- 
cal Collections  of  Louisiana  (New  Y'ork,  1851)  ; 
(iayarr^.  Uis^tory  of  Louisiatia  (New  York, 
1854)  ;  Claiborne,  Mississippi  as  a  Province,  Ter- 
ritory, and  State  (Jackson,  1880)  ;  Rozier,  His- 
tory of  the  Earlij  Settlements  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  (Saint  Louis,  1890)  ;  Riley,  School  His- 
tory of  Mississippi  (Richmond,  1900);  Mont- 
gomery. Reminiscences  of  Mississippi  (Cincinnati. 
1901)  ;  Mayes,  Educational  History  of  Mississippi 
(.Jackson,  1891)  ;  Lowry  and  McCardle,  History 
of  Mississippi  (Jackson.  1891);  Duval,  History 
of  Mississippi  (Louisville,  Ky.,  1892)  ;  Tracy, 
Mississippi  as  It  Is  (Jackson,  1805)  ;  Owen, 
"Bibliography  of  Mississippi,"  in  American  His- 
torical Association  Report  for  ISflf)  (Washington, 
1900)  :  Publications  of  ilississippi  Historical  So- 
ciety, 0  vols.   (Oxford,  1900-03). 

MISSISSIPPI,  UxiVEEsiTT  OF.  A  state  uni- 
versity cliartered  in  1844  and  opened  in  1848, 
at  Oxford.  Miss.,  and  maintained  until  1880  by 
annual  grants  by  the  Legislature.  From  1801  to 
1805  exercises  were  suspended  owing  to  the  resig- 
nation of  the  faculty.  In  1872  the  policy  of 
separate  schools,  with  optional  studies  and  with 
courses  leading  to  other  degrees  besides  that  of 
B.A.,  was  adopted.  The  work  of  the  university 
is  organized  in  seven  undergraduate  courses, 
partially  elective.  leading  to  the  bachelor's  de- 
gree in  arts,  science,  pedagogy,  philosophy,  min- 
ing, and  both  civil  and  electri<'al  engineering. 
The  university  also  maintains  a  law  school  and  a 
summer  school,  and  confers  the  degree  of  M.A. 
and  Ph.D.  In  1894  the  preparatory  education 
■was  discontinued  at  the  university;  and  the  re- 


quirements for  admis.^ion  are  those  adopted  by 
the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory 
Schools  of  the  Southern  States,  of  which  the 
university  is  one  of  the  original  members.  Stu- 
dents from  approved  high  schools  are  admitted 
without  examination.  Since  1882  women  are 
admitted  to  the  classes,  but  are  not  permitted  to 
lodge  on  the  campus.  The  faculty  consisted  in 
1902  of  20  instructors,  and  the  students  num- 
bered 243.  Tlie  library  contained  19.000  volumes. 
Tlie  total  endowment  was  .'?7S0.000.  with  a  gross 
income  of  !i<47,040.  The  buildings  and  grounds 
were  valued  at  .$250,000.  the  total  value  of  the 
property  being  $1,070,000. 

MISSISSIPPI  AGRICULTURAL  AND 
MECHANICAL  COLLEGE.  A  State  institu-, 
tiou  at  Agricultural  College,  Miss.,  founded  in 
1880  on  the  Federal  land  grant  of  1802.  It  has 
a  prejiaratory  department  and  three  courses  of 
instruction,  agricultural,  mechanical,  and  textile, 
with  provision  for  graduate  work  and  summer 
sessions.  It  confers  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  and 
Master  of  Science,  and  the  honorary  degree  of 
Master  of  Progressive  Agriculture.  Tuition  is 
free  to  students  residing  in  the  State:  others 
pay  an  annual  fee  of  $20.  The  college  has  a 
military  organization,  and  all  students  are  re- 
quired to  wear  a  prescribed  uniform  within  five 
miles  of  tlie  college  buildings.  The  attendance  of 
Avonien  is  permitted.  In  1902  the  faculty  and 
oflicers  of  administration  numbered  41.  and  the 
attendance  was  250  in  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment and  354  in  the  academic.  Tlie  library 
contained  8958  boimd  volumes.  The  total  value 
of  the  college  property  in  1902  was  $455,335,  and 
its  income  from  all  sources  was  $196,841. 

MISSISSIPPIAN  SERIES.  A  group  of  lime- 
stones outci-opping  in  tlie  upper  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, and  also  in  Arkansas  and  Texas.  It  is  the 
equivalent  of  the  Lower  Carboniferous  in  the 
Appalachian  States.  See  Carboniferous  Sys- 
tem. 

MISSISSIPPI  CATFISH.  The  largest  of 
North  American  cattish  {Ainriurus  lacuslris,  or 
Ictalurus  ponderosus),  whicli  may  reach  150 
pounds  in  weight,  is  sold  in  all  the  markets  of 
its  region,  and  is  regarded  by  many  as  good  food. 
It  inhabits  the  Great  Lakes,  and  all  the  larger 
waters  of  the  Saskatchewan,  Mississippi,  and 
Missouri  valleys.  In  color  it  is  greenish  slate, 
growing  darker  with  age,  the  sides  paler,  without 
spots.  (See  Catfish.)  Among  its  many  local 
names  in  the  South  are  'llannel-mouth'  and 
'mud   cat.'  ' 

MISSISSIPPI  COLLEGE.  An  institution  of 
learning  at  Clinton,  iliss.,  founded  in  1820.  It 
has  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department 
with  an  attendance  in  1902  of  202  students  and  a 
faculty  of  nine  instructors.  The  library  con- 
tained aliout  3000  volumes.  The  college  buildings 
were  valued  at  $40,000,  and  the  property  of  the 
institution  at  about  $110,000.  The  enciowment 
was   $62,000,  anil   the  gross   income  $12,000. 

MISSISSIPPI  RIVER  (  Algonquin  Missi  Scpe, 
great  river:  literally,  father  of  waters).  The 
principal  river  of  the  North  American  continent; 
counting  as  a  part  of  it  tlie  longest  branch  of 
the  drainage  system,  the  Missouri,  which  far  over- 
tops the  central  stem,  it  is  the  longest  river  in  the 
world.  Its  course  is  entirely  within  the  I'nited 
States.  Popularly,  the  name  is  applied  to  the 
main  north  and  south  stem  of  the  system,  which 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


610 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


rises  in  the  highlands  of  Minnesota,  in  Elk  Lake, 
just  south  of  Lake  Itasca,  in  latitude  47°  10'  X., 
longitude  05°  10'  \V.  Its  sources  are  14t!2  feet 
above  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  into  which  it  empties. 
Its  {."pneral  course  is  southerly,  with  numerous 
\vin(lings,  giving  it  a  length  of  about  2.J00  miles 
to  its  mouth  in  latitude  20'  X.,  longitude  80° 
15'  \V.  Following  up  the  Missouri  branch,  and 
the  .lelVerson  to  its  head  in  southwestern  Mon- 
tana, the  total  length  of  the  Mississippi-Missouri, 
from  its  source  to  the  Gulf  of  ilexico,  is  fully 
4200  miles.  The  Mississipid  and  its  branches 
jlrain  the  entire  western  slope  of  the  Appa- 
lachian, and  nearly  the  whole  eastern  slope  of 
the  Kockv  ilountain  system  within  the  United 
,  States,  its  drainage  basin  covers  an  area  of  about 
1,257.000  square  miles,  or  over  two-fifths  of 
the  total  area  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of 
-Maska.  It  is  navigable  to  the  Falls  of  Saint 
-Anthony  at  Minneapolis,  2161  miles,  and  by 
smaller  boats  above  the  falls.  Its  tributaries 
large  enough  to  be  mapped  on  a  chart  of  com- 
paratively small  scale  number  240.  among  which 
are  45  at  present  navigable.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  its  tributaries  navigable  by  large  or 
small  boats  are  the  ilissouri,  navigable  to  the 
Great  Falls  in  ilontana,  2.300  miles;  the  .\r- 
kansas,  navigable  to  Wichita,  Kan,;  the  Red 
River,  navigable  to  Gainesville,  Tex.;  the  Ohio, 
navigable  to  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  903  miles.  The  total 
navigable  length  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  trib- 
utaries is  over  14,000  miles  following  the  river 
windings,  and  9000  miles  measured  in  straight 
lines.  The  river  forms  a  [jortion  of  the  bound- 
aries of  ten  States,  having  the  southern  part  of 
Minnesota,  and  the  States  of  Iowa.  Missouri, 
Arkansas,  and  most  of  Louisiana  on  the  west 
bank;  and  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Mississippi  on  the  east,     Twenty-ono 

'  States  and  Territories  are  intersected  by  the 
navigable  waters  of  this  great  system.  The  chief 
cities  situated  on  its  banks  are  Xew  Orleans, 
Natchez,  Vicksburg,  Memphis,  Cairo,  Saint 
Louis.   Quincy,   Burlington,   Kock   Island,  Daven- 

,  port,  Dubuque,  Saint  Paul,  and  Minneapolis. 
Description  of  X.vtik.\l  Fe.^tikes.  The 
sources  of  the  river  are  in  Lakes  Klk,  Itasca, 
Beniidji,  Cass,  W'innibigashish,  Fishing,  Leech, 
and  Mud,  lying  among  hills  of  drift  and  boulders, 
in  the  midst  of  pine  forests  and  marshes.  From 
Lake  Ita.sca  to  Beniidji  the  stream  is  about  12 
feet  wide  and  2  feet  deep.  It  issues  from  the 
latter  120  feet  wide,  flowing  to  Cass  Lake,  which 
it  leaves  with  a  width  of  172  feet,  contracting 
.nnd  deepening  below  as  it  Hows  through  marshes 
till  it  conies  to  a  junction  witli  Leech  River, 
where  it  has  rapids  of  20  feet,  called  the  Falls  of 
Pokegama.  270  miles  from  the  source.  To  this 
point  small  steamers  navigate.  The  total  de- 
scent to  this  point  is  .'i24  feet.  Thence  to  the 
mouth  of  Crow  Wing  River,  247  miles,  the  river 
falls  about  one  foot  per  mile.  It  is  narrow 
through  this  distance  and  winds  through  oak 
and  maple  forests,  marshes,  and  sandy  hills, 
where  the  formation  of  rock  is  overlaid  with  the 
gravel  and  boulders  of  the  drift  perioil.  Below, 
the  river  passes  tlirough  a  priurie  country  down 
to  Klk  River,  and  is  stained  slightly  with  the 
brownish  color  given  by  piney  and  marshy  vege- 
tation; 1.1.3  miles  below  the  Crow  Wing  are  the 
Sauk  Rapids,  one  mile  long',  where  Potsdam 
sandstone  first  outcrops  on  its  banks  and  extends 
from    that   point   down    to    Dubuque    and    Rock 


Island.  The  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  at  ^linne- 
apolis  are  18  feet  high,  with  a  breadth  of  1200. 
Up  to  this  point  the  river  is  navigable  for  com- 
mercial  purposes,  though  practically  Saint  Paul 
is  the  head  of  navigation.  The  river  widens 
below  Saint  Paul  into  what  is  called  Lake 
Pepin,  studded  with  islands.  From  the  Falls- 
of  Saint  Anthony  to  tile  junction  with  the 
Missouri,  near  .Saint  Louis,  the  river  flows 
through  a  valley  of  great  beauty  and  uniform 
fertility.  Cliffs  and  rocky  bluffs,  from  200  to 
300  feet  high,  give  a  picturesque  character  to 
that  part  of  the  valley  below  Rock  Island,  where 
it  strikes  the  Carboniferous  strata,  the  geological 
formation  of  the  valley,  to  about  100  miles  below 
the  Missouri.  At  Rock  Island.  381  miles  below 
Minneapolis,  there  is  a  small  fall,  but  the  river 
is  navigable  between  the  right  bank  and  tlie 
island  3  miles  long  with  the  aid  of  a  canal  con- 
structed by  the  Government.  Similar  improve- 
ments have  been  made  at  the  rapids  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Des  iloines  River,  so  that  the 
navigation  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  is  uninter- 
rupted below  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony.  The 
surging,  muddy,  eddying  waters  of  the  Missouri, 
for  a  long  distance,  How  side  by  side  with  the 
clearer  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  joining  but  not 
blending,  till  thrown  together  by  many  a  crook 
and  turn  and  eddy  between  the  bluffs  of  the  great 
valley.  Before  the  Ohio  River  joins  them,  the 
union  is  complete:  but  the  waters  remain  turbid 
to  their  junction  with  the  sea,  and,  where  joined 
liy  the  currents  of  the  Arkansas  and  Red  rivers, 
take  a  more  reddish  color. 

From  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  downward 
level  Mood  ]ilains  or  bottom  lands  begin  to  appear 
adjacent  to  the  river  on  one  or  both  sides,  be- 
coming gradually  lower  as  we  proceed  down  the 
stream.  This  vast  flood  jilain  lies  from  300  to 
500  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  bordering  up- 
lands. Above  Cape  Girardeau.  Mo.,  30  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  these  flood  plains  are  still 
clearly  above  the  level  of  the  river,  though  they 
are  sometimes  subject  to  inundations.  These 
bottom  lands,  both  high  and  low.  are  of  the 
highest  order  of  fertility,  those  farthest  north 
being  used  for  cereals.  Some  of  the  largest  have 
been  reclaimed  from  liability  to  overflow  by  dikes 
across  the  water-channels  by  which  they  were 
inundated.  Sny  Island,  in  Pike  County,  111., 
so  reclaimed,  is  40  miles  in  length,  'fhe  Ameri- 
can Bottom  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Missouri  00  miles  down  the  river  on  the  east  side 
with  an  average  breadth  of  0  miles.  Below  Cape 
(iirardeau.  on  the  west  side,  the  whole  coimtry 
down  to  the  Gulf  is  bottom  land  for  an  average 
width  of  50  miles.  But  throughout  this  stretch, 
from  Cairo,  at  the  moutli  of  the  Ohio,  to  tlie  (Julf, 
the  river  flows  in  a  cliiiiimd  on  tlie  suiimiit  of  a 
low  ridge,  the  land  sloping  gradually  away  from 
the  banks  on  either  side,  so  that  the  whole  or  the 
greater  part  of  the  bottom  lands  lie  below  the 
level  of  the  river  surface.  Kver>'  watereoursi* 
in  this  bottom  land,  whether  stream  or  bayou, 
flows  in  .a  similar  channel,  on  a  ridge  created  by 
its  own  deposits.  The  slopes  of  these  ridges  are 
the  cuKivalile  lands  of  this  region.  The  inter- 
vening areas  are  mainly  marshy,  and  in  Louisi- 
ana are  entirely  marsh,  rising  but  a  few  feet 
above  the  fJulf  level.  From  Cairo.  111.,  as  far  south 
as  Memphis,  Tenn.,  the  river  impinges  on  the 
east  bank,  leaving  its  bottom  land  on  the  west 
side.    Thence  southward  as  far  as  Xatchez.  Miss,, 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


611 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


there  is  a  broad  extent  of  bottom  land  on  the 
east  side,  known  as  the  Vazoo  Bottoms,  which 
are  intersected  by  many  bayous,  the  chief  of 
whicli  is  the  Yazoo.  On  the  west  side  is  also  a 
wide  bottom  land,  which  extends  almost  con- 
tinuously to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  widening  south- 
ward. On  the  east  side  the  river  impinges 
against  the  bluffs  for  some  distan<'0  soiitli  of 
Natchez,  but  below  the  boundary  between  Mis- 
sissippi and  Louisiana  bottom  land  apjiears 
again  on  this  side  of  the  river  and  rapidly  widens 
toward  tlie  Gulf.  The  entire  valley  of  the  lower 
section  of  the  river  is  margined  by  bayous  or 
arms,  wliich  leave  the  main  stream  to  rejoin  it 
farther  down,  and  considerable  parts  of  Louisi- 
ana. Mississippi,  and  Arkansas  are  intersected  by 
them. 

Another  characteristic  feature  of  the  adjacent 
bottom  lands  are  the  countless  crescent-shaped 
lakes,  oxbows,  as  they  are  called,  which  line  the 
river  on  either  side,  but  are  partly  or  wholly 
separated  from  it.  These  are  formed  by  cut-offs. 
The  river  Hows  in  great  curves,  which  constantly 
tend  to  increase  in  diameter.  Thus  they  en- 
croach on  one  another,  and  finally  at  flood-time, 
when  the  impact  of  the  current  becomes  strong- 
est, cut  through  the  narrow  neck  separating 
adjacent  curves,  thus  shortening  the  course,  and 
leaving  the  loop  as  a  crescent-shaped  lake. 

Below  the  mouth  of  Red  River,  tlie  ilississippi 
divides  into  branches,  the  Atchafalaya.  Plaque- 
mine,  and  Lafourche  bayous  being  examples  of 
such  distributaries.  In  the  lowlands  near  its 
mouth  below  New  Orleans  it  divides  still  further, 
entering  the  Gulf  by  means  of  several  passages 
known  as  passes,  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
Southwest  and  South  Passes  and  the  Pass  a 
rOutre.  At  the  mouth  of  each  of  these  passes, 
except  the  South  Pass,  where  jetties  have  been 
built  to  prevent  it,  is  a  bar  formed  by  the  deposit 
of  silt  from  the  river  on  meeting  the  quiet  waters 
of  the  Gulf.  The  quantity  of  sediment  brought 
down  by  the  river  is  enormous,  being  below  the 
Missouri  .0035  of  the  volume  of  water,  which 
latter  amounts  to  145  cubic  miles  per  annum. 
The  area  of  the  delta  of  the  river  is  estimated 
at  over  12.000  square  miles.  It  is  everywhere 
threaded  with  interlacing  bayous  and  navigable 
channels,  placing  every  cultivable  acre  of  its 
lands  near  to  steamboat  navigation,  one-tenth 
of  tlie  laml  being  estimated  as  taken  up  by  such 
water  surfaces  or  channels.  The  timber  in  the 
delta  region  is  mostly  sycamore,  cypress,  and 
oak — the  sj'camore  margining  the  streams,  the 
cypress  occupying  the  swamps,  and  the  oaks  the 
lands  not  liable  to  frequent  inundation. 

The  climate  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  ranges 
from  semi-arctic  to  semi-tropical.  At  the  Falls 
of  Saint  Anthony,  and  above,  spirit  thermometers 
must  be  employed  to  register  the  extrcuie  low 
temperature  in  winter,  which  often  touches  40° 
r.  below  zero :  and  yet  the  extreme  of  summer 
heat  is  but  a  few  degrees  less  at  Saint  Paul  than 
at  New^  Orleans,  97°  to  104°.  The  range  between 
the  extremes  is  about  05°  more  at  the  source 
tlian  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  annual  mean 
temperature  at  New  Orleans  is  69°  ;  at  Cairo, 
45°. 

Floods.  The  mean  annual  precipitation  over 
the  entire  basin  is  estimated  by  Humphreys  and 
Abbot  at  20.8  inches.  The  estimated  discharge 
of  the  river  is  010,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
second.     The   precipitation,   however,   is   subject 


to  great  variations  at  different  seasons — which 
fact,  together  with  the  sudden  melting  of  the 
stored-up  snow  in  the  spring,  causes  considerable 
variations  in  the  volume  of  the  various  tribu- 
taries. Fortunately,  all  are  not  at  their  highest 
at  any  one  time :  for  if  they  were,  probably  noth- 
ing artificial  could  resist  the  force  of  the  accumu- 
lated waters.  The  regions  from  which  the  floods 
come  are  so  far  apart  and  differ  so  widely  in  cli- 
mate that,  as  a  rule,  one  flood  jjasscs  before  an- 
otlier  comes.  As  it  is,  the  volume  of  the  floods 
that  come  is  sutlicient  to  make  ,1  variation  of  over 
fifty  feet  between  high  and  low  water  marks. 
The  greatest  difference  recorded  at  Cairo  is  53.2 
feet,  and  at  Vicksburg  there  has  been  known  to 
be  a  difference  of  55  feet.  At  flood  times  the 
water  at  Cairo  is  320  feet  above  the  mean  tide- 
water at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  At  low  water 
it  is  274  feet  above  mean  tide.  This  fall  in  a 
channel  1097  miles  long  fully  accounts  for  the 
great  velocity  of  the  current,  which  varies  from 
three  to  six  feet  a  second,  according  to  existing 
conditions.  In  high  floods  the  river  formerly 
overflowed  nearly  all  the  surface  between  the 
mouth  of  the  C»hio  and  the  Saint  Francis  River 
in  southeastern  Missouri  and  eastern  Arkansas, 
filling  the  lakes  and  lagoons  of  that  region,  and 
then  flowing  by  numberless  channels  to  the 
White  River  and  Arkansas,  the  Bayou  Macon, 
Washita,  Red,  and  Atchafalaya  rivers  into  the 
Gulf.  Even  since  the  levees  have  been  built 
(see  below),  the  river  sometimes  breaks  through 
these ;  its  waters  then  flow  down  the  slope  of 
its  ridge,  and  collect  in  the  lowlands,  forming 
lakes.  These  rise  gradually,  extending  up  the  slope 
of  the  ridge,  and  so  flooding  the  farms  and  planta- 
tions. In  the  spring  of  1897  a  flood  created  many 
crevasses  in  the  levees  an<l  swept  over  a  great 
tract  of  territory,  causing  heavy  losses  in  stock, 
crops,  and  other  property.  On  March  14th  the 
water  reached  the  highest  point  ever  recorded  at 
Memphis,  Tenn.  On  April  5th,  according  to  an 
official  statement  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, the  total  area  under  water  was  15,800  square 
miles,  the  submerged  land  being  for  the  most  part 
in  Missouri,  Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and 
Louisiana.  Further  damage  was  subsequently 
caused  b}'  breaks  in  the  levee  at  Biggs  and  La 
Fourche  Crossing,  La.,  which  resulted  in  the 
flooding  of  large  tracts  of  land  below  Vicksburg, 
Miss.  It  was  estimated  toward  the  close  of  April 
that  20,000  square  miles,  containing  46,930 
farms,  according  to  the  census  of  1890,  were 
under  water.  According  to  some  estimates,  from 
50,000  to  60.000  persons  suffered  serious  losses, 
from  the  floods.  The  Citizens'  Relief  Committee 
of  Memphis  cared  for  large  numbers  of  the  refu- 
gees. The  destitution  was  so  widespread,  how- 
ever, that  President  McKinley  sent  a  special 
message  to  Congress,  which  appropriated  $200,000 
for  the  immediate  relief  of  the  sulVcrcrs. 

Early  ^Measures  of  Relief.  Tlie  first  attempt 
to  guard  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  against  the 
river  floods  was  made  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  the  French  Governor.  De  la  Tour, 
ordered  embankments  for  the  protection  of  New 
Orleans.  In  the  old  slave  days,  when  labor  was 
cheap,  each  planter  erected  barriers  on  or  near 
the  river  front  of  his  own  ground.  These  were 
called  Icrertt.  and  were  simply  artificial  mud 
banks,  sometimes  strengthened  with  ribs  or  foun- 
dations of  timber,  sometimes  not.  So  long  as  they 
were  watched  carefully  and  kept  in  good  repair. 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


612 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


they  alTordcd  comparative  safety  to  the  grounds 
behind  them,  e.xcept  in  the  highest  iloods,  and  as 
time  went  on  tlie  common  interest  of  tlie  Valley 
States  dictated  harmonious  action  all  along  both 
sides  of  the  river.  The  development  of  the  levee 
system  brought  about  the  enactment  of  such  local 
laws  as  were  best  calculated  to  sene  the  public 
interest,  and  gradually  tlie  levees  became  recog- 
nized factors  of  public  welfare  and  were  jealously 
guarded.  The  most  reckless  and  negligent 
planter  was  forced  to  keep  his  own  levees  in  re- 
])air,  an<l  in  places  where  private  interest  was 
nut  sulliciently  strong  to  force  tlie  building  of 
these  earthworks,  the  town  or  the  Slate  assumed 
the  burden.  In  182S  the  State  of  Louisiana  be- 
gan to  take  vigorous  action  for  the  more  complete 
protection  of  its  delta  lands.  In  1830  and  1838 
several  of  the  great  side  channels  by  which  inun- 
dations had  come  were  closed  at  the  expense  of 
the  counties,  and  the  question  of  the  closing  of 
all  the  overllow  channels,  so  as  to  gonfine  the 
stream  to  one  bed  in  all  stjiges  of  water,  was  the 
subject  of  much  e.xcitcd  dill'erence  of  opinion. 
The  closure  party  prevailed,  and  one  by  one  the 
side  outlets  of  the  Mississippi  were  cut  off  by 
levees,  so  that  by  1844  every  old  bayou  outlet 
for  000  miles  up  the  west  hank  had  been  effectu- 
ally (dosed.  The  results  were  even  more  satis- 
tory  than  had  been  expected,  so  that  the  levee 
system  was  entered  upon  with  increased  spirit 
by  the  States  bordering  the  river,  and  the  aid  of 
the  (leneral  Government  was  invoked  to  unify 
the  work.  Congress,  in  1850,  ordered  thorougli 
topograi)liical  and  hydrographic  surveys  of  the 
whole  of  tlie  lower  Mississippi  Valley  under  the 
direction  of  Capt.  A.  A.  Huni])hieys  and  Lieut. 
H.  L.  Abbot,  who  began  work  immediately;  but 
the  report  was  not  submitted  until  August,  1801. 
It  recommended  confining  the  river  to  a  single 
channel  and  making  the  levees  higher  at  all 
points,  and  estimated  the  cost  of  carrying  out 
this  recommendation  at  .$17,000,000. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  these  levees 
were  in  better  condition  than  ever  before.  Sub- 
stantial levees  bad  Iieen  constructed  on  the  east 
side  up  to  the  northern  line  of  the  State  of 
Mississippi,  including  one  of  great  magnitude 
across  the  Yazoo  Pass — the  largest  of  all  the  out- 
lets closed.  On  the  west  side  the  levees  had 
been  completed  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas. 
Louisiana  alone  had  expended  up  to  that  time 
$18,000,000  on  the  levees  of  the  main  river; 
.$.5,000,000  more  on  its  great  side  outlets,  the 
Atcluifalaya.  I'laqueniine.  and  La  Fourche;  and 
§1.000.000  on  the  shore  of  the  Red  River.  The 
State  of  Arkansas  had  spent  .$1,000,000;  Mis- 
sissippi, on  her  water-front  of  444  miles.  $14,- 
500.000:  and  the  Sl^ite  of  Missouri,  on  her  front 
of  140  miles,  $1,040,000.  The  total  expenditure 
by  individuals,  parishes,  and  States  up  to  that 
time,  on  about  2000  miles  of  the  river  shore,  is 
estimated  by  C  (i.  Forshey,  of  New  Orleans,  at 
upward  of  $41,000,000.  without  counting  the  cost 
of  maintenance.  Reforc  the  four  years'  strug- 
gle began  to  draw  to  n  close,  however,  the  levees 
had  fiillen  into  decay.  There  were  breaks  here 
and  there  that  destroyed  the  system,  and  the 
planters  were  too  poor  to  hire  the  necessary 
labor  to  rebnilil.  Something  had  to  be  done 
to  meet  the  dilliculty,  and  tliat  too  before  dire 
disaster  had  fallen  upon  the  people  living  in  the 
valley. 


The  Mississippi  Riveb  Commission.  A  com- 
mission under  this  name  was  created  by  act  of 
Congress  of  .June  28,  1870,  and  consists  of  seven 
persons,  three  of  whom  are  ami}-  olTicers  selected 
from  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  one  from  the  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Surve.v.  and  two  civil  engineers  and 
a  lawyer  from  civil  life.  The  commission  was 
directed  by  the  act  to  complete  surveys  of  the 
entire  river,  from  headwaters  to  mouth,  and  to 
take  into  consideration  such  plans  and  estimates 
as  will  correct,  permanently  locate,  and  deepen 
the  channel  and  protect  the  river  banks.  The 
prevalent  idea,  therefore,  that  the  work  of  the 
commission  is  confined  to  the  lower  river  is 
erroneous.  For  the  expenses  of  the  surveys,  ex- 
aminatiims.  and  investigations  conducted  by  the 
commission  for  the  first  ten  years  of  its  work, 
considcrablv  over  a  million  dollars  were  appro- 
priated and  expended.  This  is  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  appropriations  made  for  the 
actual  works  of  improvement,  which  were  begun 
in  1881,  and  which  have  cost  thus  far.  in  round 
numbers,  uvcr  $14,000,000.  In  the  various  ap- 
propriation bills  for  this  juirpose  the  commission 
has  been  restricted  carefull,v  in  the  scope  of  the 
work  to  the  exact  purposes  defined  in  the  creating 
act.  In  making  the  preliminary  survevs  ordered 
by  Congress,  the  conniiission  found  it  had  to 
deal  with  a  work  of  most  extraordinary  diHicul- 
ties.  The  main  portion  of  its  labor  wiis  called 
on  for  the  lower  river;  that  is.  from  Cairo  to  the 
Gulf.  The  distance  in  a  .straight  line  is  less  than 
Ot)0  miles,  but  b,v  the  windin;;s  and  twislings 
of  the  river  it  is  .some  500  miles  longer.  Forever 
l>ringing  down  its  own  obstructions  and  drop- 
ping them  in  its  own  path,  the  river  is  forever 
attacking  or  running  around  those  same  obstruc- 
tions, changing  its  course  continualh".  The  diffi- 
cultv  due  to  the  enormous  amount  of  detritus  in 
the  river  ma,v  be  realized  when  it  is  said  that  the 
amount  of  sediment  brought  down  annually  is 
estimated  by  C.  C.  Bahb  at  400.280.000  tons,"and 
other  geologists  have  made  similar  estimates. 
Straightening  the  river,  as  has  been  at  various 
times  jKipularlv  suggested,  would,  on  account  of 
the  huge  volume  of  water,  turn  it  into  an  un- 
controllable torrent.  Dredging  is  not  practicable, 
as  the  river  frequently  deposits  as  much  as  fifteen 
feet  of  silt  in  one  place  in  the  course  of  a  single 
year,  and  as  frequently  removes  it  in  the  course 
of  a  single  week  or  less.  The  quality  of  the  soil 
itself  also  makes  diking  and  revetting  peculiarly 
dillicult.  The  force  of  the  tremendous  current 
of  the  river  directed  against  the  foundation  of 
any  work  that  may  he  ])laccd  on  its  banks  is 
likel.v  at  any  time  to  remove  that  foundation. 
When  the  report  of  the  commission  was  made  in 
1880  it  was  decided  to  combine  the  jetty  and 
levee  s.vstems.  There  were  few  natural  advan- 
tages to  be  utilized,  and  it  was  recognized  that 
nothing  could  be  done  that  could  be  declared 
absolutely  permanent,  and  that  the  actual  river 
bed  could  never  be  made  to  hold  all  the  Hood 
waters  that  were  certain  to  come  down.  What 
has  lieen  al templed,  anil  in  some  measure  accom- 
plished, is  to  take  advantage  of  the  river's  own 
[icculiarities.  and  by  strengthening  natural  ob- 
structions, here  and  there,  rather  than  by  re- 
moving obstacles,  to  persuade  the  stream,  instead 
of  forcing  it.  to  follow  a  given  route. 

.lETTlKS  OR  ('l)NTRAtTION  WoRKs.  The  system 
\vill  be  given  more  in  outline  than  detail,  as  the 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


013 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 


latter  arc  far  tuu  nuiiieruus  to  be  more  than 
barely  iiieiilioneJ.  The  natural  banks  of  the 
river,  in  those  places  where  the  current  sets 
against  them,  and  is  likely  to  wear  them  away, 
are  strengthened  by  revetment  work.  The  char- 
acter of  this  revetment  varies  somewhat  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  but,  generally  speaking,  is 
of  two  kinds.  The  first  is  a  kind  of  soft  bottom 
put  on  the  bed  of  the  stream  at  the  point  of 
greatest  erosion.  This  consists  of  what  are  called 
mattresses  or  hurdles,  wliich  are  constructed  of 
mats  of  Ijrusli  woven  and  fastened  together  with 
wire  strengtliened  with  a  sort  of  latticework 
of  heavy  timbers  placed  on  the  banks  and  se- 
cured l\v  a  sulistantial  ballast  of  rubl)le-stones. 
A  crib  of  timbers  is  first  constructed  in  sections, 
amounting  in  all  to  dimensions  sufficient  to  cover 
the  place  which  is  to  be  protected.  Over  this  is 
laid  a  carpet  of  heavy  brush,  with  the  twigs  of 
fibre  running  generally  in  parallel  lines.  Over 
this  is  laid  another  carpet  of  similar  construc- 
tion, with  its  fibres  crossing  that  of  the  first  at 
an  angle  usually  less  than  a  right  angle,  and 
the  two  are  knitted  or  .sewed  together  with  strong 
wire.  Sometimes  a  third  carpet  may  be  laid, 
with  the  brush  lying  at  still  another  angle.  Then 
another  crib  or  lattice-work  of  heavy  timber  is 
laid  on  these  carpets,  and  the  whole  is  bound  to- 
gether with  wire,  or  another  series  laid  on  top 
if  extra  strength  and  weight  are  needed.  The 
entire  contrivance  is  then  placed  in  position, 
covering  the  bottom  of  the  river  from  the  centre 
of  the  channel  to  the  margin  of  the  bank.  As  a 
matter  of  course  it  is  necessarily  handled  in 
sections,  but  the  sections  are  placed  and  fastened 
li>;rether  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  carpet  when 
laid,  and  they  are  then  heavily  ballasted  with 
rubble-stone,  laid  .systematically  to  form  an  un- 
cemented  pavement  over  the  carpet.  It  is  found 
that  this  practically  secures  the  mattress  in 
position  for  a  considerable  time  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  and  actually  prevents  the  eating 
away  of  the  banks  by  diverting  the  course  of  the 
current  back  to  the  desired  channel.  Generally  it 
occurs  that  the  action  of  the  river  before  this 
treatment  is  applied  to  it  has  made  the  bank  un- 
even. Sometimes  it  will  even  overhang  the  river 
a  little,  and  it  is  necessary  to' smooth  the  surface 
to  afford  an  even  bed  or  fioor  on  which  to  lay  the 
mattress.  Instead  of  digging  this  away,  the 
familiar  method  of  hydraulics  is  utilized.  With 
a  powerful  engine  a  stream  of  water  is  pumped 
through  a  hose,  and  the  soft  earth  is  readily 
washed  into  shape.  Tile  ultimate  purpose  of 
tliese  mattresses  and  other  devices  is  to  secure 
an  approxinuitely  uniform  width  between  the 
banks  of  about  .3000  feet.  When  this  is  done  it 
is  believed  that  the  bottom  will  be  scoured  out 
by  the  current,  .so  that  a  depth  of  not  less  than 
sixteen  or  eighteen  feet  will  be  secured  through- 
out the  lower  river.  The  permeable  dike  is  a 
contrivance  used  in  many  places  where  it  would 
be  impossible  to  lay  mattresses,  where  there  may 
be,  in  fact,  no  bank  to  lay  them  on,  biit  a  wide 
stretch  of  slack  water  reaching  out  into  a  lagoon. 
These  dikes  are  of  simple  construction,  consisting 
of  rows  of  piles  driven  as  firmly  as  may  be  in  the 
soft  bottom.  The  piles  are  placed  from  two  to 
five  feet  apart,  and  between  the  rows  ouantities 
of  brush  are  placed  ami  fastened.  Tlie  water 
passes  through  these  works  freely  at  first,  but 
being  checked  by  the  partial  obstruction,  it  drops 


the  sediment  with  which  it  is  su  heavily  charged, 
and  itself  completes  llie  dam  which  confines  its 
cour.se.  These  dikes  are  found  to  be  very  efi'eelive 
substitutes  for  complete  dams,  and  are  put  where 
it  would  be  ditiicult,  if  not  impossible,  to  build 
a  solid  dam  in  the  first  place.  ..More  substantial, 
or  ratlier  more  compactly  built  dams  are  placed 
at  some  points  where  there  is  a  tendency  on  the 
part  of  the  river  to  form  cut-offs.  (See  section 
Descripiiun  of  XaftirnI  Fcaliircs.)  This  ten- 
dency is  perhaps  the  thing  most  dreaded  and 
most  carefully  guarded  against. 

Levees.  It  has  been  found  that,  in  order  to 
meet  the  whole  question  scientifically,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  build  a  doulile  line  of  levees  on 
each  side  of  the  river.  The  inner  line  is  built  to 
define  the  course  of  the  channel  and  to  prevent 
floods;  the  outer  line,  which  is  located  far  down 
the  river  ridge,  is  designed  to  protect  the  farms 
and  plantations  from  the  invasion  of  the  back 
water  in  case  the  front  levee  is  broken.  The  levee 
is  in  certain  places  the  only  possible  safeguard. 
Cairo.  111.,  afi'ords  a  conspicuous  instance  of  this. 
No  revetments  or  dikes  could  possibly  guide  the 
current  so  that  it  would  flow  past  the  city  with- 
out overflowing  it,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
city  is  below  high-water  mark.  It  is  of  neces- 
sity entirely  surrounded  by  a  levee  that  rises 
some  fifty-five  or  sixty  feet  above  low- water  mark, 
or  'zero,'  as  it  is  called  on  the  Government 
records.  The  keeping  of  the  works  in  repair  is  a 
matter  of  vital  importance;  constant  watching 
and  constant  .strengthening  are  the  only  things 
that  can  successfully  combat  the  action  of  the 
rushing  stream. 

Other  Problem.s.  The  characteristics  of  the 
banks  are  so  difl'erent  that  the  various  localities 
offer  special  problems  in  themselves,  and  must 
be  handled  without  reference  to  conditions  that 
obtain  elsewhere.  The  blufl's  are  threatened  in 
one  place,  while  in  another  the  opposite  low  bank 
is  attacked,  and  the  river  devotes  its  energies 
toward  cutting  a  new  channel.  Revetments  are 
sometimes  on  the  bluff'  side,  then  again  on  the 
opposite;  basins  are  occasionally  cut  in  the  soft 
bottom  ground  w'liere  the  old  river  bed  used  to  be, 
and  spur-dikes  are  in  other  places  the  only 
remedy. 

The  mouth  of  the  Red  River  brought  several 
vexed  questions  before  the  commission,  and  the 
practical  result  of  their  conclusions  will  not  be 
known  until  the  works  now  in  progress  are  com- 
pleted. It  is  feared  that  the  bed  of  the  Atcha- 
falaya,  the  present  main  outlet  of  the  Red  River, 
will  enlarge  sufficiently  to  convert  the  entire 
country  between  it  and  the  Mississippi  into  an 
arm  of  the  sea.  The  only  safeguard  seems  to  be 
by  a  series  of  dikes  and  submerged  dams  to 
turn  the  low-water  flow  of  the  Red  River  all  into 
the  Mississippi. 

Another  serious  problem  was  presented  by 
the  bars  at  the  mouths  of  the  delta,  which  have 
been  a  serious  obstacle  to  vessels  entering  the 
river.  This  was  solved  by  the  celebrated  engi- 
neer James  B.  Eads.  He  selected  the  South 
Pass,  and  by  the  construction  of  jetties  which 
narrowed  the  channel  at  its  mouth,  and  thus  in- 
creased the  velocity  of  the  current,  he  made  the 
river  oit  its  own  bar  away,  and  obtained  a  depth 
through  the  bar  and  throughout  the  pass  of  .34 
feet,  with  width  adequate  for  all  purposes  of 
navigation.     This   improvement  has   resulted   in 


MISSISSIPPI    KIVER. 


614 


MISSOLONGHI. 


establishing  New  Orleans  as  the  leading  seaport 
of  the  South.     See  the  section  Jetties. 

It  is  well  understood  tliat  the  whole  work  of 
regulating  the  river  is  likely  to  prove  a  slower 
process  than  was  at  first  supposed,  and  that  to  be 
etlicient  it  can  only  l)e  gradual  and  progressive. 
It  is  a  work  of  great  niagnitu<le :  it  is  sup- 
posed that  not  less  than  $7.5,000.000  will  be 
needed  to  put  it  even  in  approximately  good 
shape.  The  work  has,  however,  sull'ered  greatly 
from  inade(iuate  and  intermittent  appropriations, 
which  have  interfere  with  a  systematic  and 
economical  administration  of  its  affairs. 

For  the  history  of  the  discovery  and  first  set- 
tlements of  the  "Mississippi,  see  De  Soto.  Her- 
nando; Hennepin,  Louis;  Iberville,  Pierre; 
.JoLiET,  Loris;  La  Salle,  Ren^;  Marquette, 
Jacque.s  ;  Schoolcraft,  Henry  R.  ;  New  Or- 
leans: Saint  Louis;  Saint  Paul,  etc.  For 
shipping  statistics  of  the  Mississippi  see  the 
article  United  States,  section  on  Shipping  on 
the  Mississippi  Sijstem.  See,  also,  articles  on 
the  principal  tributaries. 

I'.iiu.UHMtAPHY.  Humphreys  and  Abbot,  Report 
on  Physics  (uid  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi 
Jiircr  (Philadelphia,  ISOl):  Eads,  Physics  and 
Hydraulics  of  tlic  Mi^-fissippi  Hirer  (New 
Orleans,  187C)  ;  Ellet,  On  liidiixlrics  of  the  Delta 
of  the  Mississippi  (Philadelphia,  n.d. )  ;  Glazier, 
Down  the  Urcat  Hirer  (ib.,  1888);  Corthell, 
History  of  the  Jetties  at  the  Mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  Hirer  (New  York,  ISSO)  ;  .Johnson, 
"Protection  of  the  Lower  Mississii)pi  Valley  from 
Overfiow"  and  "Great  Floods  on  the  Lower  Missis- 
sippi," in  Journal  of  the  Association  of  Enr/ineer- 
ing  Societies,  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  (Philadelphia, 
1885)  ;  Ockerson  and  Stewart,  Mississippi  River 
from  Saint  Louis  to  the  Sea  (Saint  Louis,  1802)  ; 
Levasseur,  La  question  des<  sources  du  Missis- 
sippi (Paris,  1894)  ;  Brower,  The  Missouri  Rirer 
and  Its  Utmost  Source  (Saint  Paul,  1897)  ;  Ock- 
erson. The  Mississippi  Rirer:  Some  of  Its  Phys- 
ical Characteristics'  (Paris,  1900);  and  the  An- 
nual Reports  of  the  Mississippi  River  Commis- 
sion   (Saint    l.imis,    jSTdi.t   scq. ) . 

MISSISSIPPI  SCHEME.  A  gigantic  bank- 
ing and  connnercial  scheme  projected  in  France 
by  tlie  celebrated  Scotch  financier  John  Law 
(q.v.),  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV.  The  prin)arv  object  of  the  scheme  was  to  re- 
suscitate the  French  finamcs  l)y  removing  some 
of  the  debt  and  disorder  which  had  followed 
on  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV.  Money  was 
to  flow  into  France  by  develojiing  the  re- 
sources of  the  Province  of  Louisiana  and  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Mississippi — a  tract  at 
that  time  believed  to  abound  in  the  precious 
metals.  The  company  was  incoriiorated  in  1717, 
under  the  designation  of  the  rompagnic  d'Occi- 
denl.  and  started  with  a  large  capital.  Two  hun- 
dred thousand  shares  were  placed  on  the  market 
an<l  eagerly  bought  up.  The  conipany  obtained 
exclusive  privileges  of  trading  to  the  Mi-^^iissipi^i 
for  twenty-five  years,  of  fanning  the  taxes,  and 
of  coining  money.  In  1719  it  obtained  a  mo- 
nopoly of  trading  to  the  Fast  Indies,  f'hina.  the 
South  Seas,  and  nil  the  possessions  of  the  French 
East  India  Company,  and  the  brilliant  vision 
opened  up  to  the  public  gnze  was  irresistible. 
The  Compagnie  des  Indes.  as  it  was  now  called, 
created  fifty  thousand  additional  shares;  but 
there  were  nt  least  three  hundred  thousand  appli- 


cants for  these,  and  consequently  shares  rose  to 
an  enormous  premium.  The  public  enthusiasm 
became  absolute  frenzy,  and  while  confidence 
lasted,  a  fictitious  impulse  was  given  to  trade  in 
Paris;  the  value  of  manufactures  was  increased 
fourfold,  and  the  demand  far  exceeded  the  sup- 
ply. The  population  of  Paris  is  said  to  have 
been  increased  by  hundreds  of  thousands, 
many  of  whom  were  glad  to  take  shelter 
in  garrets,  kitchens,  and  stables.  Hut  the 
Regent  Orleans  .  had  meanwhile  caused  the 
paper  circulation  of  the  national  bank  to  lje 
increased  as  the  Mississippi  scheme  stock  rose  in 
value,  and  ])a]ier  currency  to  the  face  value  of 
2,700.000,000  livres  tlood'ed  the  country.  The 
result  was  that  many  wary  speculators,  foresee- 
ing a  crisis,  secretly  converted  their  i)aper  and 
shares  into  gold,  which  they  transmitted  to  Eng- 
land or  Belgium  for  security.  The  increasing 
scarcity  of  gold  and  silver  in  France  becoming 
felt,  a  general  run  was  made  on  the  national  bank, 
which  in  March,  1720,  had  been  incorporated 
with  the  Compagnie  des  Indes.  On  May  21.st  the 
Government  issued  an  edict  which  reduced  the 
value  of  bank  notes  and  of  shares  in  the  company 
by  one-half.  Law  was  now  controller-general  of 
finances,  and  he  made  several  unavailing  attempts 
to  mend  matters.  Those  suspected  of  having  more 
than  a  limited  amount  (fixed  by  a  law  passed 
at  the  time)  of  gold  and  silver  in  their  posses- 
sion, or  of  having  removed  it  from  the  coun- 
tiy,  were  punished  with  the  utmost  vigor.  The 
final  crisis  came  in  .luly,  1720,  when  tlie  bank 
stopped  payment,  and  Law  was  compelled  to  flee 
the  country.  A  share  in  tlie  .Mississip|ii  scheme 
now-  with  dilliculty  lirought  24  livres.  An  exami- 
nation into  the  state  of  the  accounts  of  tlie  com- 
pany was  orilered  by  Government ;  much  of 
the  paper  in  circulation  was  cam'cled ;  and  the 
rest  was  converted  into  'rentes'  to  an  enormous 
amount. 

MISSISSIPPI  SOUND.  A  lagoon-like  -strait, 
8  to  14  miles  wide,  washing  the  coasts  of  Ala- 
bama and  ilississippi  from  Mobile  Bay  to 
the  entrance  of  Lake  IJorgne,  a  distance  of  about 
90  miles  (Map:  Mississippi.  H  10).  It  is  formed 
and  separated  from  the  (Uilf  of  Mexico  by  several 
long  and  narrow  islands  or  sand  liars,  one  of 
which  is  fortified.  It  is  moderately  deep,  gen- 
erally tranquil,  and  is  navigated  cliielly  by  tlio 
steamers  and  coasting  vessels  running  between 
Mobile  and  New  Orleans  by  way  of  Lake  Pont- 
chartrain. 

MISSOLONGHI,  misso-lon'g.V  or  Mesolon- 
Olll.  One  of  the  principal  towns  of  Western 
Greece,  the  capital  of  the  Nomarchy  of  Acarnania 
and  -Etolia  (Map:  Greece,  C  .1).  It  is  situated 
on  the  north  shore  of  the  C,\tU  of  Patras,  in  a 
hiw,  marshy,  and  unhealthful  locality.  The  har- 
lior  is  shallow  and  inaccessible  for  large  vessels. 
The  town  is  the  seat  of  an  archbisho))  and  of  a 
high  school.  It  has  a  statue  of  Lord  I'.yron,  who 
died  here  in  1824.  and  a  mausoleum  uliiih  con- 
tains the  heart  of  the  poet-hero.  Popiihitioii,  in 
1891!.  8:!94.  The  town  is  famous  as  the  cliief 
western  stronghold  of  the  Greek  patriots  during 
the  war  of  lllieration  (IS22-2fi).  It  withstood 
two  prolonged  sieges  by  the  Turks  imtil  .\pril, 
182(1.  when  the  survivors  of  the  garrison  dc- 
stroved  the  town  and  cut  their  war  llirough  the 
Turkish  lines.,  In  May,  1829.  the  town  was 
evacuated  by  the  Turks  and  restored  to  Greece. 


MISSOULA. 


C15 


MISSOURI. 


MISSOULA,  ml-zuo'la.  A  city  and  the  coun- 
ty-seat uf  Missoula  County,  Mont.,  125  miles 
west  by  north  of  Helena ;  on  the  Hell  Gate 
Kiver,  and  on  the  Xorthern  Pacific  Railroad 
(Map:  Montana,  C  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  tlie 
Statu  University,  and  lias  a  public  library  and 
hospitals,  one  maintained  by  the  Northern  Pa- 
cific Kailroad.  The  city  is  in  a  farming  and 
fruit-growing,  lumbering,  and  mining  region,  for 
which  it  is  an  important  distributing  centre,  and 
controls  a  considerable  trade  in  grain,  fruit,  and 
produce.  There  are  a  brewery  and  bottling  works, 
.Tnd  railroad  shops  of  the  Northern  Pacific, 
founded  in  1864,  Missoula  was  first  incorporated 
in  1887.  the  charter  of  that  year  now  operating 
to  provide  for  a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and  a 
luiicameral  council.  Population,  in  1890,  3426; 
in   IDOn.  4:i06. 

MISSOURI, miz-zoo'ri,  local  pron.  miz-zoo'ru. 
A  central  State  of  the  American  Union,  situ- 
ated about  midway  between  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  midway 
between  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  the 
(iulf  of  Mexico.  It  lies  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  which  separates  it  from  Illinois, 
Kentuckv.  and  Tennessee.  Iowa,  separated  bv 
the  parallel  of  latitude  40°  30'  N.,  is  on  the 
north,  and  Arkansas,  separated  by  the  parallel  of 
latitude  36°  30'  N.,  except  for  a  small  projection 
of  Missouri  between  the  Mississippi  and  Saint 
I'rancis  rivers,  which  extends  34  miles  south  be- 
tween Tennessee  and  Arkansas,  is  on  the  south. 
( )n  the  west,  Jlissouri  is  separated  from  Indian 
Territory  and  Kansas  by  the  line  of  longitude 
114°  43'  W..  as  far  north  as  the  junction  of  the 
Missouri  and  Kansas  rivers,  from  which  points 
the  Missouri  River  completes  the  western  bound- 
ary, separating  Jlissouri  from  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska. The  distance  between  the  northern  and 
southern  boundaries  is  285  miles,  and  the  great- 
est extension  from  east  to  west  is  slightly  more. 
It  contains  a  total  area  of  69.415  square  miles,  of 
which  water  comprises  680  square  miles  and 
hind  68,735  square  miles.  It  ranks  fifteenth  in 
size  among  the  United  States. 

TopoGR.\PHY.  The  northern  portion  of  the 
State  was  covered  by  tlie  glacial  ice  slieet,  the 
southern  limit  of  which  was  bounded  by  the  line 
of  the  .Missouri  River.  It  is  a  wide  expanse  of 
gently  rolling  plains,  generally  of  treeless  prairie, 
belts  of  timber  occurring  only  along  the  streams. 
South  of  the  Missouri  the  land  rises  gradually  to 
the  broad  Hat  dome-like  elevation  of  the  Ozark 
Mountains.  This  range  extends  in  a  southwesterly 
direction  and  rises  to  a  height  of  1700  feet  in  the 
west,  and  in  the  east  to  1800  feet  in  the  peaks  of 
Pilot  Knob  and  Iron  Mountain.  The  uplands  are 
marked  liy  a  series  of  escarpments  of  harder 
strata  standing  out  in  prccipitovis  bluffs  from 
200  to  300  feet  high,  but  sloping  otT  gently  on 
the  opposite  sides  in  the  direction  of  the  dip  of 
the  strata.  The  lower  groiuid  between  represents 
the  softer  strata  which  have  worn  down  to  the 
lower  level  since  the  post-Cretaceous  iiplift. 
West  and  north  of  the  broken  and  rugged  Ozark 
Plateau  extends  prairie  country,  and  prairie 
areas  are  also  foimd  scattered  through  the  east- 
ern part.  The  southeastern  portion  is  bottom 
land,  marshy  in  character.  Here  the  levees  along 
the  Jlississippi  are  required  to  protect  the  low- 
lying  land  from  inundation. 
Hydrography.     The    whole   State   is   drained 


into  the  Mississippi,  either  directly  or  through 
its  tributary,  the  Missouri,  which  traverses  tlie 
State  from  west  to  east.  Through  the  extreme 
southern  portion  Hows  the  White  River,  which  en- 
ters the  Mississippi  in  the  State  of  Arkansas;  the 
southwestern  corner  drains  westward  into  the 
Arkansas  River.  The  importance  of  (he  large 
rivers,  with  regard  to  navigation,  however,  is  not 
conunensurate  with  their  size.  The  river  beds  of 
the  Ozark  region  were  worn  to  base-level  during 
Cretaceous  time.  At  the  close  of  that  period  the 
region  was  uplifted,  and  the  meandering  rivers 
lowered  their  gradients  in  situ,  so  tliat  they  now 
cross  and  recross  the  ridges  regardless  of  struc- 
ture. The  Osage  River  is  a  classical  instance  of 
entrenched  meanders. 

CnM.\TE.  Missouri  lies  in  the  milder  half  of 
the  warm  temperate  zone.  Being  far  inland, 
the  State  is  subject  to  the  extremes  of  a  conti- 
nental climate,  which  are  all  the  more  accen- 
tuated by  the  fact  that  it  is  in  the  path  of  fre- 
quent cyclonic  storms.  The  average  .January 
temperature  ranges  from  35°  F.  in  the  south- 
eastern to  20°  in  the  northwestern  corner.  For 
July  the  average  temperature  is  80°  in  the 
extreme  .south  and  75°  in  the  exti'eme  north. 
The  southwestern  winds  from  the  arid  plains  in 
sununer  sometimes  send  the  mercury  up  to  105°, 
while  the  anticyclones  of  winter  carry  a  mini- 
mum of  10°  below  zero  to  the  southern  border, 
and  20°  below  to  Saint  Louis,  thus  giving  that 
city  an  annual  range  of  125°.  The  southeastern 
extremity  of  the  State  has  not  a  day  in  the  year 
with  tlie  average  temperature  l)elow  freezing,  but 
the  record  rises  rapidly  northward,  there  being 
30  such  days  at  Springfield,  60  at  .JeiTerson  City, 
and  00  at  Rockport.  'The  summers  are  ))leasantiy 
tempered  in  theOzarkPlateau.  The  rainfall  ranges 
from  35  inches  per  year  in  the  north  tofiO  inches  at 
the  Arkansas  line.  While  this  is  well  distributed 
through  the  year,  there  is  a  marked  minimum  in 
the  winter  season,  and  maximum  in  the  summer 
season.  Droughts  lasting  thirty  days  sometimes 
occur.  Snow  falls  on  the  average  to  the  depth 
of  20  inches  in  the  latitude  of  Saint  Louis,  and 
less  than  10  inc-lics  at  the  Arkansas  line,  thougb 
it  rapidly  disappearsandseldoin  covers  the  ground 
many  days.  'The  average  relative  humidity  for 
the  year  is  less  than  70  per  cent,  over  the  whole 
State.  The  prevailing  winds  are  west  and  north- 
west in  .Tanuary.  and  south  in  .Tuly.  There  are 
on  the  average  30  thunder  storms  in  the  year, 
with  a  maxinunu  frequency  in  .Jvuie.  The  north- 
ern part  of  the  State  is  in  the  area  of  maximum 
tomailo  frequency,  and  very  severe  and  destruc- 
tive tornadoes  occasionally  occur. 

Geology.  The  geological  history  of  Missouri 
covers  a  lapse  of  time  from  Algonquian  into  late 
Carboniferous,  giving  surface  outcrops  of  Algon- 
kian,  Cambrian,  Ordovician,  Silurian,  Devonian, 
Subcarboniferous,  and  Carboniferous,  with  a 
subsequent  absence  of  <lcposits  until  Pleistocene 
time.  The  old  land,  which  now  oiitcrops  in  the 
southeastern  onarter  of  the  State,  in  Saint  Fran- 
cis, Iron,  Madison,  Wayne,  and  Reynolds  coun- 
ties, is  made  up  of  iiorphyritic  erujitives,  but 
with  lavas  often  bedded;  the  elastics  are  some- 
times porphyrv  conglomerates,  the  materials  of 
which  have  evidently  been  derived  from  the  un- 
derlying porphyry  flows.  At  Pilot  Knob  the  iron 
ores  are  associated  with  the  conglomerates.  These 
old  lands  show  analogies  with  the  Upper  Huro- 


MISSOURI. 


616 


MISSOURI. 


nian  of  the  Lake  Suporinr  rpjiion,  tliouj.'!)  they 
may  represent  an  erosion  period  hetueen  Upper 
Huronian  and  Keweenawan  (Vanllise).  Around 
tliis  old  island  the  Cambrian  seas  made  tlieir  de- 
posit.*, and  in  wider  circles  the  later  Ordovician 
and  Silurian  beds  were  laid  down,  until  the  De- 
vonian shore  line  lay  roughly  from  Saint  I.ouis 
along  the  Jlissouri  River  to  .Jefferson  and  on  to 
Sedalia,  and  thence  south  into  Arkansas.  There 
are  scant  deposits  of  the  Devonian  age,  and  the 
Carboniferous  seas  and  later  marshes  had  about 
the  same  marfrin,  leaving  the  area  to  the  north 
and  west  of  tlie  line  described  as  an  outcrop  of 
the  coal  measures.  From  a  period  late  in  the 
Carboniferous  time,  the  whole  State  seems  to 
have  remained  alxive  tlie  sea  continuously  to  the 
present  time. 

Soil.  Over  all  of  the  glaciated  area  and  for 
some  miles  south  of  the  Missouri  River,  the  sur- 
face is  covered  with  loess,  which  caps  the  bluffs 
and  the  country  adjacent  with  a  coating  many 
feet  in  thickness,  furnishing  a  soil  of  great  fer- 
tility. The  soils  of  the  State  outside  of  the 
glaciated  area  are  largely  residual,  their  qual- 
ity determined  by  the  character  vt  the  country 
rock  and  its  slopes.  The  hard  ridges  have  a  thin 
soil,  unsuitable  for  agriculture ;  but  the  inner 
low  lands,  on  the  softer  limestone,  and  the 
Hood  plains  of  the  rivers,  have  a  soil  of  great 
fertility. 

Forests.  The  State  north  of  the  ^lissouri 
River  is  essentially  a  rolling  prairie  with  timber 
lands  mostly  restricted  to  the  river  valleys.  The 
woodland  of  the  State,  including  >tump  land,  in 
lS!)fl  occupied  41.000  sijuare  miles,  or  (ill  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  area.  Tlic  State  south  of  tbe  Mis- 
souri River  is  normally  a  forest  area,  thinning 
out  westward.  Wing  occupied  most  largely  by 
mixed  hard  woods,  cypress  dominating  in  the 
Mississippi  bottom  lands  at  the  southeast. 

For  Falxa,  see  paragraph  under  United 
States. 

MiXERAL  Resoirces  .\xd  Minixg.  The  prin- 
cipal mineral  deposits  of  Missouri  are  zinc  and 
lead.  These  minerals,  usually  occurring  together, 
aiv  confined  to  the  area  south  'of  tlie  Missouri 
River  and  the  zinc  is  (jpnfined  to  the  Oalena-.Jop- 
lin  District,  covering  about  a  dozen  counties  in 
the  southwestern  corner  of  the  State,  and  extend- 
ing westward  into  Kansas.  Lead  is  also  found  in 
a  large  area  about  .Tefferson  City,  and  in  an- 
other about  the  old  lands  of  the  Pilot  Knob  re- 
gi<m.  The  lead  ores  are  galena  anil  lead  carbo- 
nate; the  zinc  ores  are  calamine  and  smitbsonitc. 
They  all  occur  in  the  joints  of  limestone  rocks, 
chiefly  of  the  Cambrian  system,  and  in  cavities 
where  the  limestone  has  been  dissijlved  out.  The 
origin  of  the  nietal^  is  in  doubt,  with  some  evi- 
dence, however,  suggesting  a  deep-seated  source 
in  volcanic  rocks. 

The  output  of  zinc  rose  from  2.500  short  tons 
in  1S82  to  19,.'j3.3  short  tons  in  18!IS.  but  it 
fell  to  1.3,0S."?  in  1001.  Missouri  is  tbe  third 
zinc-producing  State,  being  exceeded  by  Kansas 
and  Illinois.  The  zinc  is  largely  .smelted  in  tbe 
pas  belt  of  Kansas,  and  from  there  transported 
to  the  fJulf  ports.  Tbe  output  of  lead  ore  in 
moi  was  over  20.000  short  tons,  and  the  total 
value  fif  the  zinc  anil  lead  output  of  the  State 
for  that  year  was  nearly  .$7,000,000.  Missouri  is 
believed  to  have  considerable  coal  deposits,  but 
it,s  output  is  kept  within  narrow  limits  by  the 


competition  of  neighboring  coal  fields.  The  coal 
output  shows  an  increase  from  7.S4.000  sliort 
tons  in  1873  to  :5.S02.O8S  in  1001.  The  product 
is  used  ])rincipally  for  local  consumption.  Tbe 
output  of  iron.  gold,  and  manganese  is  insig- 
nificant, but  during  the  third  quarter  of  the  nine- 
tcentli  century  the  deposits  of  Iron  Mountain 
iq.v. )  were  famous  for  their  large  output  of 
hematitic  ore,  which  has  up  to  the  present 
amounted  to  5,000.000  tons.  Limestone  was  ob- 
tained in  lltOl  to  tlie  value  of  .$1,302,272,  and 
the  products  of  clay  (chiefly  brick  and  tiles)  in 
the  same  year  were  wortli  .*4,474,5.')3. 

Agricultire.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry. In  1000,  .■j;j. 007.873  acres,  or  77.3  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area,  was  included  in  farms.  In 
every  decade  from  18.50  to  1000  there  was  a  de- 
cided gain  in  the  farm  acreage,  the  increase  since 
18(j0  being  wholly  in  the  acreage  of  improved 
land,  whicli  in  1000  amounted  to  C7.4  per  cent,  of 
the  total  farm  area.  The  average  size  of  farms 
decreased  from  215.4  acres  in  1800  to  110.3  in 
inOO.  In  the  latter  year  31.1  per  cent,  of  the 
farm  acreage  was  included  in  farms  ranging  in 
size  from  100  to  174  acres.  The  per  cent,  ot 
farms  rented  was  slightly  greater  in  1000  than 
in  the  jircceding  census  years,  the  farms  leased 
on  the  share  system  being  10.5  per  cent,  of  all 
farms,  and  those  rented  for  cash  11  per  cent.  The 
crop  [)roiluction  is  characterized  by  the  great  at- 
tention given  to  corn,  whicli  constitutes  over  71 
per  cent,  of  the  total  cereal  crop,  and  places  Mis- 
souri among  the  leading  corn  States.  The  area 
devoted  to  corn  increased  continuously  from  1870, 
the  increase  in  the  acreage  during  the  decade  1890- 
1900  being  22.3  per  cent.  Wheat  is  tlie  next  most 
important  of  the  cereals.  Its  production  had 
increased  steadily  until  about  1880,  but  since 
then  the  acreage  has  remained  almost  stationary. 
The  acreage  of  oats  continued  to  gain  until  1800, 
but  in  the  following  decade  it  decreased  45.4  per 
cent.  The  production  of  rye  decreased  over  one- 
half  between  1880  and  lOOO,  while  barley  and 
buckwheat  have  become  quite  unimportant.  A 
largely  increasing  acreage  is  devoted  to  hay  and 
forage,  which  together  rank  next  to  corn  in  area. 
A  great  deal  of  fiax  is  raised  near  the  western 
border  of  the  State  south  of  the  Missouri  River, 
and  the  acreage  devoted  to  this  crop  increased  78.9 
per  cent,  between  1800  and  1000.  In  the  lowlands 
in  the  southeast  corner  of  the  State  cotton  is  the 
leading  crop.  Potatoes  and  sorghum  cane  are 
grown  throughout  Missouri.  The  State  ranks 
third  in  the  production  of  watermelons,  ami  is 
prominent  also  in  the  production  of  tomatoes, 
cabbages,  and  other  vegetables.  The  tobacco 
croj)  has  ilecreased  every  decade  since  1800.  and 
between  1800  and  1000  it  decreased  Cl.ti  per  cent. 
Broom  corn  and  castor  beans  receive  some  at- 
tention. Both  small  fruits  and  orchard  fruits 
are  grown  in  abundance.  In  1000.  7404  acres  were 
devoted  to  strawberries  alone.  In  the  same  year 
there  were  over  20.000.000  apple  trees,  these  con- 
stituting 75.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of 
fruit  trees  and  exceeding  the  number  in  every 
other  State.  Between  1800  and  lOOO  the  number 
nf  apple  trees  increased  145.0  per  cent.,  peach 
trees  127.0  per  cent.,  and  most  other  varieties 
a  still  greater  per  cent.  The  gain  in  apjile  and 
peach  culture  was  greatest  in  the  southwestern 
corner  of  the  State.  The  following  table  of  acre- 
ages is  self-explanatory: 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  MISSOURI  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 


Adair 

Andrew . . 
Atchison . 
Audrain.. 
Barry  . . . . 


Barton 

Bate.** 

Benton . 
Bollinger. 
Boone. . . . 


Buchanan . 

Butler 

Caldwell  . . 
Callaway.. 
Camden . . . 


Cape  Girardeau  . 

Carroll 

Carter 

Cass 

Cedar 


Chariton.. 
Christian. 
Clark  .... 

Clay 

Clinton  . . 


Cole 

Cooper. . . . 
Crawford  , 
Dade.... 
Dallas 


Daviess  . , 
Dekalb.. 

Dent 

Douglas.. 
Dunklin . 


Franklin  , .. 
Gasconade . 

Gentry 

Greene 

Grundy  . . . 


Harrison . 
Henry  .  . 
Hickory.. 

Holt 

Howard. . 


Howell.   . 

Iron 

Jackson.. 
Jasper , . . 
Jefferson. 


Johnson. .. 

Knox 

Laclede  . . . 
Lafayette  . 
Lawrence  . 


Lewis 

Lincoln 

Linn 

Livingston  . 


Map 
Index. 


D  1 

B  2 

A  1 

E  2 

C  5 

B  4 
B  3 
C  3 
F  4 
D2 

B  2 
F  5 
B  2 
D  3 
D  3 

G  4 

C  2 

E  5 

B  3 

B  4 

C  2 

C  5 

E  1 

B  3 

B  2 

D  3 

D  3 

£!  4 

B  4 

C  4 

B  2 

B  2 

E  4 

D  5 

F  5 

E  3 

E  3 

B  1 

C  4 

C  1 

B  1 

C  3 

C  4 

A  1 

D  2 

D  5 

F  4 

B  3 

B  4 

F  3 

C  3 

D  1 

D  4 

B  2 

B  4 

E  1 

E  2 

C  2 

C  2 


County  Seat. 


Kirksville. 
Savannah  . 
Rockport. . 

Mexico 

Casaville . . 


Lamar 

Butler 

Warsaw... . 
.Marblchill. 
Columbia  . 


St.  Joseph... 
Poplarblufl.. 
Kingston, . . 

Fulton 

Linncreek.* . 


Jackson 

Carrollton  ... 
Vanburen  . . 
Harrisonville 
Stockton .  . . 


Heytesville. 

Ozark 

Kahoka .... 
Liberty  .  . . 
Plattsburg.. 


Jefferson  City. 

Boonville  

Steelville  

Greenfield 

Buffalo 


Gallatin  . . 
Maysville. 

Salem 

Ava 

Kennett.. . 


Union ...... 

Uerniann. . . 

.\lbany 

Springfield. 
Trenton 


Bethany 

Clinton. . . . 
Hermitage. , 
Oregon .... 
Fayette 


W'estplains 

Ironton 

Independence. 

Carthage 

Hillsboro 


Warrensbnrg,.. 

Edina 

Lebanon  

Lexington 

Mount  Vernon  . 


Monticcllo  . 

Troy  

Linneus , . . . 
Chillicothe . 


Area  in 
square 
miles 


56t 
420 
582 
680 
T90 

590 

874 
820 
610 
680 

4ir 
702 
426 
8.30 
702 

570 
686 
.506 
712 
491 

740 
.551 
504 
407 
417 


562 
;'47 
493 
530 

531 
420 
768 
809 
531 


518 
492 
668 
4:32 

730 
740 
408 
460 
450 

907 
555 
607 
0.32 
687 


501 
739 
604 
612 

500 
613 
620 
533 


Population. 


1890. 


17,417 
16,000 
15,533 
22,074 
22,943 

18,501 
32.223 
14,973 
13,121 
26,043 

70,100 
I0.16J 
15.152 
25,131 
10,040 

22,060 
25,742 
4.659 
a3,.301 
15,020 

26,254 
14.017 
15,126 
19,856 
17,138 

17,281 
22,707 
11,961 
17,526 
12,647 

20.456 
14.539 
12.149 
14,111 
15.085 

28,056 
11.706 
19.018 
48,616 
17,876 

21,033 
28.235 
9,4.58 
15.169 
17,.371 

18.618 

9.119 

160.510 

50,500 

22,4&4 

28,132 
13,.->01 
14.701 
.30.184 
26,228 

15,9.35 
18.346 
24.121 
20,668 


1900. 


21,728 
17,332 
16,501 
21,160 
25,5-32 

18,2,53 
30,141 
16,556 
14,650 

28,642 

121,838 
16,769 
16,656 
25,984 
13,113 

24,315 
25,455 
6,706 
23,630 
16,923 

26,826 
16,939 
15,383 
18,9u3 
17,36.1 

20,.578 
22,.532 
12,959 
18,125 
13,903 

21,325 

14,418 
12,986 
16,802 
21,700 

30,581 
12,298 
20,.544 
52,713 
17,832 

24,.398 

28,054 
9.985 
17,083 
18,337 

21,834 

8,716 
195,193 
84.018 
25,712 

27,84:1 
1:3,479 
10.523 
31,079 
31,662 

16,724 
18,352 
25,503 
22.302 


^ 


D 


FOLDOUT  BLANK 


AREA    AND    POPULATION  OF    MISSOURI  BY  COUNTIES. 

( '  '<iitli lined.) 


County. 

Map 
Index. 

fcunty  Si-iit. 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Population. 

1890. 

1900. 

McDouald           .... 

B  5 

]}  2 
F  4 
1)  3 
E  a 

C  1 

1)  3 
G  5 
U  3 
7)2 

E  2 

C  3 
G  5 
B  5 
A  1 
E  5 
1)  3 

1)5 
(i  5 
G  4 
C  3 

E  4 
E  2 
B  2 
(;  4 
1)  4 

C  I 
E  2 
1)  2 
B  2  . 
F  4 

F  5 
F  3 
B  3 
F  4 
F  4 

F  3 
F  3 
V  2 
I)  1 
])  1 

G  4 
E  4 
])  2 
F  5 
C  5 

C  1 
C  5 
1)  4 
.B  4 
E3 

F  4 
F  4 
(■  4 
B  1 

:,4 

Pineviell 

523 

828 
495 
5:i0 
432 
451 

597 
417 
410 
660 
514 

012 

0.>l 
(129 
8114 
787 
t)05 

747 
.109 
408 
085 

077 
020 
410 
(!»} 
532 

518 
■180 
489 
.lOl 
830 

623 
450 
705 
403 
460 

483 
61 
820 
302 
453 

416 

993 
.109 
8:« 
509 

648 
048 
1,1. 17 
8.39 
410 

744 

no 

.179 
264 
073 

11,283 

30,575 
9.268 
8,000 

ao,2;a 

14,581 

14,102 
10,134 
15,0;iO 
20.790 
16,8.10 

12,311 
9,317 
22,108 
30,914 
10,467 
13,080 

9,795 
.1,975 
13,237 
31,151 

12.686 
20,321 
10.248 
20,:W9 
9,387 

15,305 
12,S!I4 
24.893 
24,215 
0.803 

8.512 
22.iVr7 
10.747 

9.883 
,17.347 

30.307 
451,770 
a3,702 
11,249 
12,074 

11,228 
8.898 
15.612 
17„'K7 
7,090 

19,000 
7,!(73 
19,4(10 
81.505 
9,913 

13,1.13 
11.927 
15.177 
8,7.38 
14,484 

13,574 

Macon 

33,018 

9,975 

Miirifi* 

^'ie^lla 

9.616 

26,331 

14,706 

XilUr 

15,187 

MiH>;iF8ippi 

]\Ii>iiiti'aii 

Charleston 

California 

Parie . 

11, aw 

15,931 

19,716 

16,571 

12,175 

New  Madrid 

New  Madrid 

11.280 

Newton 

Neosho 

Maryville    

27.001 

32.938 

Ort'gon 

Alton 

13,906 

14,096 

12,145 

IVniiscolt 

IVrrv 

Pettis 

Plielps 

CJ^rlItll(■rs^ille  

Perrvville 

Sedalia 

Holla 

Bowling  (Jreen 

Platte  City 

Bolivar 

Wayneaville 

Unionville 

12,115 
1.1,134 
32,438 

14,194 

Pike 

25.744 

Platte        

10,193 

Polls 

23,255 

Pulaski 

10,394 

16,688 

lillllK 

12.287 

Randolpii 

Hiiy 

Reynolds ...        ... 

Huntsville 

Richmond 

24,442 

21.805 

Ccntcrville 

Doniplian 

St.  Charles 

Osceola 

8,101 

Ripley 

1.3,180 

St.  Chiirk's 

24,474 

St.  C'luir                    

17.907 

Ste.  Genevieve 

Ste.  Genevieve 

Farniington 

Clayton 

St.  Louis 

Marsliall 

10,359 
24,081 

St.  TvOiiis 

St.  Louis  C'ily 

50,040 
575,2.38 

Saline        . .            

33.70:1 

Lancaster ...   . 

10.840 

Scotland 

Scott 

Memphis 

Benton 

Eminence 

13,232 
13,092 

Shannon 

11.247 

Shelljv 

10.167 

Stoddard 

BInoinfleid 

24.(k')9 

Galena 

Milan 

9,892 

20.282 

Taney 

Forsylli 

Houston    

Nevada  

Warreiiton 

10.127 

Texas  

22,192 

31,619 

Warren 

9,919 

Wnttliington    

Potoei 

Greenville 

Marstilield 

14,263 

M'livne 

Welwter 

15.:)09 
10.64(1 

Worth 

9,8;12 

Wricllt         

Ilartville 

17,519 

MISSOUKI. 


617 


MISSOURI. 


Corn 

Wheat 

(iat» 

Kye 

Klax 

Hu.v  and  Jorage.. 

Cotton 

PotntofH 

Surylium  cane 


1900 


1R90 


7,4'23,(;83 

6,072.121 

2.066,219 

1,940,785 

916.178 

1,076,7UU 

21,233 

24,283 

100,952 

56,421 

3,481,506 

2.870,602 

45.69C 

57,260 

93,915 

96,356 

30,997 

36,280 

STOCK-RAISING.  The  number  of  horses  and 
mules  has  increased  in  eveiy  decade  since  1850. 
The  number  of  dairy  cows  liad  gained  steadily 
until  ISIK),  but  decreased  in  the  following  decade. 
The  number  of  other  cattle  was  greater  in  I'JOO 
than  in  any  other  census  year.  Missouri  is  one 
(if  the  largest  swine-raising  States,  but  the  nuiu- 
lier  of  swine  fell  oflf  somewhat  between  1890  and 
lyOO.  The  number  of  sheep  has  decreased  over 
one-half  since  1880.  The  milk,  butter,  and  cheese 
product  in  IS'.l'.l  was  valued  at  .$15,042. .■JliO,  of 
which  amount  34.9  per  cent,  was  received  from 
sales.  Probably  no  State  exceeds  Missouri  in  the 
extent  of  its  poultry  industry.  The  value  of 
the  eggs  produced  in  1809  was  estimated  at  .$8,- 
305..371.  The  following  table  shows  the  number 
of  domestic  animals  on  the  farms: 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

I'.HJO 

IS'.IU 

Dairv  cows 

765.386 
2,213,203 
967.037 
292,296 
663,703 
4,621,664 

851,076 

2,118,640 

946  401 

Horses ..        

Mnlps  and  asses 

251  714 

9.)0,j(12 

Swine 

4,987  4:r2 

Manufactures.  Missouri  is  the  leading  manu- 
facturing State  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
develojiiiient  in  this  direction  has  been  favored 
by  the  variety  and  e.Ktent  of  its  resources — agri- 
cultural, mineral,  and  forest — and  by  its  loca- 
tion on  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  The 
industry,  however,  has  been  of  a  fluctuating 
character.  In  1850  2.3  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion engaged  in  manufactures.  At  the  end  of 
each  subsequent  decade  the  per  cent,  of  population 
engaged  was  respectively  1.7,  3.8,  3,  4.6,  and 
(1900)  4.3.  In  the  decade  1880-90  the  actual 
number  increased  94.1  per  cent.;  in  the  following 
decade  the  gain  was  only  8.7  per  cent.  The  value 
of  all  products,  including  custom  work  and  re- 
pairing, in  1900  was  $385,492,000.  Of  this,  52.8 
per  cent,  was  included  in  the  fourteen  leading  in- 
dustries, as  shown  in  the  table  appended.  The 
manufactures  depertdcnt  on  agricultural  produce 
stand  (Jut  ]iromincntly  in  relative  importance. 
Slaughtering  and  meat-packing  products  attained 
tile  greatest  value,  and  represented  the  highest 
per  cent,  of  increase  (134.9)  between  1890  and 
1900.  The  industry  is  centred  principally  in 
Saint  .Joseph  and  Saint  Louis.  The  growing  of 
tobacco  in  the  State  gives  rise  to  extensive  manu- 
factures of  this  product,  especially  chewing  and 
smoking  tobacco  and  snufT.  The  industry  is  al- 
most wliolly  confined  to  Saint  Louis,  and  is  also 
in  a  flourishing  condition.  The  other  two  lead- 
ing industries — the  manufacture  of  flour  and 
grist-mill  products,  and  of  liquor — though  im- 
portant, are  declining  in  value.  The  decrease  in 
the  case  of  the  latter  is  due  to  the  depreciation  of 
price.  The  increase  of  tlour-milling  in  the  South- 
west has  notably  reduced  the  patronage  of  Saint 
Louis  by  that  section.  The  forest  resources  of 
the   State  are  being  more   heavily   drawn   upon 


than  ever  before,  and  the  aliundanee  of  supply 
constitutes  an  important  source  of  wealth.  In 
the  swampy  region  in  the  s(nilheast  cypress  pre- 
vails, but  elsewhere  hard  wouils  arc  prednmiiiant. 
There  is  a  larger  cut  of  white  oak  than  of  any 
other  one  species.  There  was  between  1890  and 
1900  an  increase  of  33.7  per  cent,  in  the  value 
of  the  lumber  and  timber  products. 

The  influence  of  the  coal  resources  of  the  State 
is  reflected  in  the  establishment  of  foundries  and 
machine  shops.  The  railroad  interests  have  de- 
veloped a  rapidly  increasing  industry  of  car 
construction,  etc.  The  manufactures  of  clotliing 
and  boots  and  shoes  are  also  prominent,  the  lat- 
ter being  a  comparatively  new  industrv,  but  al- 
ready raising  the  State  to  the  eiglitii  rank  among 
the  boot  and  shoe  manufacturing  States.  The 
printing  and  publishing  industry  is  also  promi- 
nent. The  three  largest  manufacturing  centres  are 
Saint  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  Saint  .Joseph,  the 
former  on  the  Mississippi  and  tlie  two  last  on  the 
^Missouri.  .The  manufactured  products  of  Saint 
Louis  in  1900  amounted  in  value  to  GO. 6  per 
cent,  of  the  total  for  the  State,  but  the  increase 
during  the  last  decade  was  only  2.0  per  cent. 
Saint  Joseph,  on  the  contrary,  made  an  increase 
of  101.9  per  cent.  The  increase  in  the  manufac- 
tures of  Kansas  City  was  largest  on  the  Kansas  side 
of  the  line,  and  is  therefore  credited  to  that  State. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  shows  the 
relative  importance  of  the  fourteen  leading 
branches  of  manufacturing. 

Transportatio.n  AM)  (  (iM.MERCE.  A  network 
of  railroads  covers  the  northern  half  of  the  State, 
in  contrast  with  the  southern  half,  where  the 
mileage  is  small  and  a  number  of  counties  have 
no  rail  communication.  The  northern  half 
has  the  advantage  in  that  it  lies  in  the  course 
of  some  of  the  great  transcontinental  lines,  and 
furthermore  is  less  broken  than  the  southern  part 
of  the  State.  A  large  number  of  lines  cross  the 
Mississippi  at  Saint  Louis,  while  Kansas  City 
and  Saint  Joseph  on  the  western  border  are  also 
large  railroad  centres.  In  1800  there  were  817 
miles  of  railroad  in  the  State;  in  1880,  39G5 
miles;  in  1890.  0142  miles:  and  in  1900.  GS87 
miles.  Some  of  the  leading  lines  in  Missouri  are: 
The  ^Missouri  Pacific,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe,  the  Saint  I-ouis  and  San  Francisco, 
Saint  Louis  Southwestern,  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton and  Quincy,  Chicago  and  Alton,  the  Wabash, 
the  Saint  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern. 
In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  marked  develop- 
ment in  the  railways  connecting  the  State  with 
the  Southwest  and  the  Gulf.  The  State  has  a 
board  of  railroad  commissicmers,  who  hear  and 
determine  complaints  against  the  railroads;  but 
their  decision  is  subject  to  revision  by  the 
courts.  The  water  traflie  between  Saint  Louis, 
the  terminal  for  the  larger  river  steamers,  and 
the  Gulf  is  large.  Before  the  building  of  rail- 
roads the  Missouri  River  was  important  as  a 
means  of  transpoi-tation ;  but  in  recent  years  the 
trans-State  traffic,  which  is  extensive,  is  almost 
wholly  by  rail.  The  grain  and  animal  produce 
of  the  \A"est  reaches  its  market  in  great  part  by 
way  of  ^Missouri. 

B.\N"K.s.  The  Bank  of  Saint  T^ouis.  chartered 
in  1813  and  opened  in  I81G,  was  the  first  in  the 
State.  It  went  into  licpiidation  in  1819.  Next 
came  the  Bank  of  Missouri,  which  opened  in 
Saint  Louis  in  1817  and  failed  in  1822.  This 
left  the  State  without  any  chartered  banks  until 


MISSOURI. 


618 


MISSOURI. 


INDUSTRIES 


Total  for  selected  industries  tor  State.. 


Increa.-ie.  IfiOO  to  1000.. 
Per  cent,  of  iucrease... 


Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  indiiHtrit's  iu  State.. 


•Slaughtering:   Total 

Tobacco :  Total 

Flouring  aud  grist-mill  products 

Liquors,  malt 

Lumber  aud  timber  products 

'Carriages  and  wagons ,.. 

Foundry  and  machine  shop  products... 


■Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by  steam  rail- 
road companies 

Cars,  steam  railroad,  not  including  operations  of  railroad  com- 
panies  

Clothing,  men's,  factory  product 

Boots  and  shoes,  factory  product 

Printing  and  publishing:  Total 

Coffee  and  spices,  roasting  and  grinding 

Confectionery 


NuinlHT  of 

establish- 

mentH 

Average 

Value  of  prod- 

Year 

number 
wage- 

ucts,  iucludiug 
cuMtom  work 

earners 

and  repairing 

1900 

5.139 

69,057 

$203,494,824 

1890 

3,667 

50.674 

155.920.549 

1,472 

8.383 

$47,574,275 

40.1 

16.6 

30.5 

1900 

27.4 

43.8 

62.8 

1890 

26.1 

40.8 

48.0 

1900 

37 

3,102 

$43,040,885 

1890 

08 

1.2M 

18,320,193 

1900 

60'2 

5,231 

27.847.4.32 

1890 

430 

4-,4U 

17,583.046 

1900 

1,14.-) 

1,654 

2t>,:'.93.92« 

1890 

710 

3,011 

34,486,795 

1900 

49 

3.150 

13.776.9115 

1890 

30 

2,834 

10.9.54.137 

1900 

1,197 

0,043 

11.177,.VJ9 

1890 

830 

6,703 

8,359,925 

1900 

377 

2,583 

6,683.364 

1890 

4J5 

3,026 

5,2.13,324 

1900 

261 

7.084 

16.073,005 

1890 

186 

0,754 

13,680,773 

1900 

43 

5.581 

0,524,121 

1890 

27 

2,859 

2,890,642 

1900 

4 

2,772 

7,722.708 

1890 

S 

1,854 

3,974,173 

1900 

148 

6,129 

8,925,088 

1890 

59 

0.113 

8,113.8.'i2 

1900 

60 

5,915 

11,253.202 

1890 

29 

2,716 

4.841,004 

1900 

1,100 

7,256 

15,355.949 

1890 

778 

7,423 

13,UI4,440 

1900 

27 

499 

6,206,264 

1890 

15 

252 

3,892,792 

1900 

99 

2.058 

6,554,384 

1890 

75 

1,454 

3,584.953 

1829,  wlicn  the  United  States  Bank  oi^ened  a 
branch  in  Saint  Louis.  Tlie  branch  was  discon- 
tinued iu  1833.  The  Bank  of  the  .State  of  .Mis- 
souri, chartered  in  1837,  was  a  larpe  institution 
with  five  branches  in  the  State,  and  was  liotli  a 
bank  of  issue  and  discount.  For  twenty  years  it 
had  almost  a  monopoly  of  the  banking  business, 
but  its  circulation  was  insullicicnt  and  in  1857 
seven  more  banks  of  issue  were  chartered.  Many 
more  followed.  All  were  forced  to  conform  to 
the  law  which  allowed  the  issue  of  only  three  dol- 
lars for  every  dollar  of  specie.  The  law  of  1857 
provided  also  for  a  bank  commissioner,  who 
should  visit  and  examine  the  vari(ms  institutions. 
This  ollice  was  soon  abolished,  and  there  sprani.' 
up  a  number  of  small  speculative  banks,  all  of 
whidi  collapsed  in  the  panic  of  1S73.  The  system 
of  national  hankinf;  extended  very  slowly,  but  the 
largest  institutions  sooner  or  later  bceame  na- 
tional banks.  In  1808  tlie  Saint  Louis  C'lcarinj; 
House  Association  was  orjianized  with  S.l  mem- 
bers. Trust  eomi)anies  were  first  f(umed  in  18Sn, 
and  became  very  popular.  There  always  have  been 
many  banks  bearing  the  word  'savings'  in  their 
titles,  lint  none  of  them  confcunied  to  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  a  savings  b.irik.  This  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  all  the  bardis  usually  pay  inter- 
est on  deposits. 

The  condition  of  banks  in  the  State  in   1902 
is  .shown  in  the  followinf;  table: 


Nntlnnal 
Banks 

State 
Hanks 

Trust 
Co.'s 

PriTato 
Banks 

Nuuilier  of  hauks 

77 

589 

16 

46 

Cnpltiil 

In 

$21,54.1 

10.267 

24,164 

146,918 

02,038 

tliouso 

$18,332 

6,436 

7.506 

88,099 

104,070 

nds   of  d 

$19,150 

14.715 

933 

67.450 

64,601 

ollars 

$SIU 

StirpIUH 

2rji 

799 

16,6.'« 

Deposit* 

7.647 

(lOVERXMENT.  The  ])resent  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  1875.  A  proposed  amendment  be- 
comes a  part  of  the  Constitution  if  approved  by 
a  majority  of  the  members  elected  to  each  House, 
and  in  turn  by  a  majority  of  the  (lualilied  voters 
of  the  State.  The  (ieneral  Assembly  may  at  any 
time  authorize'  by  law  a  popular  vote  upon  the 
question,  "Shall  a  Constitutional  Convention  be 
held  to  revise  and  amend  the  Constitution?" 
If  a  majority  of  tlie  popular  vote  api)roves,  the 
convention  will  be  held.  Voters  must  have  re- 
sided in  the  State  one  year,  and  in  the  county, 
city,  or  town  sixty  days.  General  elections  are 
held  biennially  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first 
Monday  in  November  of  even  years.  The  State 
is  rei)rescnfed  in  the  National  House  of  Kepre- 
sentatives  by  10  members.  The  capital  is  Jef- 
ferson  City. 

Legislative.  Jlembers  of  the  Senate  (34)  are 
elected  for  four  years,  and  Representatives  for 
two  years.  The  Legislature  meets  on  the  first 
Wednesday  after  the  first  day  of  .January  of  odd 
years.  Compensation  of  members  includes  mile- 
age, and  not  exceeding  $5  per  day  for  the  first 
seventy  d.ays  of  the  session,  and  .$1  piT  day  for 
the  remainder  of  the  session,  A  two-thirds  vote 
of  all  the  members  elected  to  each  House  over- 
rides the  Oovernor's  veto.  The  power  of  im- 
lieachment.  rests  with  the  House,  and  the  trial 
of  impeachment  with  the  Senate. 

KxiociTlvE.  A  (iovernor,  Lieutenant-novernor, 
Secretary,  .\uditor.  Treasurer.  .Attorney-General, 
and  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools  are  elected 
for  terms  of  four  years  each.  The  Governor  and 
Treasurer  cannot  succeed  themselves  in  office. 
Tlie  Lieutenant-Governor,  president  of  the  Sen- 
ate, and  Speaker  of  the  House  are  in  the  line  of 
succession  to  the  Governorship  in  ease  of  va- 
cancy. 


Missotrm. 


619 


MISSOURI. 


Jt'DiciAL.  Tlie  Suiiremu  Court,  consisting  of 
seven  judges,  ek'tled  for  ten  years,  is  divided 
into  two  divisions,  wliieli  sit  separately.  Kan- 
sas City  and  Saint  Louis  each  have  appellate 
courts,  eousisting  of  three  judges,  who  are  elected 
for  terms  of  twelve  years.  Judges  of  the  Circuit 
Courts  are  elected  for  six  years.  Criminal  courts 
may  be  established  in  counties  having  a  popula- 
tion exceeding  50,000.  Each  county  has  a  pro- 
bate and  a  county  court.  Justices  of  the  peace 
are  elected  in  the  smaller  civil  divisions. 

Local  f ^overxme.nt.  A  county-seat  may  be  re- 
moved with  the  consent  of  two-thirds  of  the  quali- 
fied voters.  Xo  new  comity  can  be  created  with 
less  than  410  square  miles.  The  transference  of 
a  portion  of  one  county  to  an  adjoining  county 
must  first  have  the  approval  of  a  majority  of  the 
electors  in  the  counties  alTectcd.  The  General 
Assembly  provides  for  the  organization  and  classi- 
fication of  cities  and  towns,  but  the  Constitu- 
tion places  a  maximum  limit  of  four  to  the  num- 
ber of  classes  that  may  be  created.  Sheriffs  and 
coroners  are  elected  for  terms  of  two  years,  and 
are  not  eligible  for  more  than  four  years  in  any 
period  of  six  years.  Under  certain  conditions 
cities  having  over  100,000  inhabitants  may  frame 
charters  for  their  own  government. 

Fix.i^'CES.  The  first  public  debt  Mas  created 
for  the  sake  of  acquiring  stock  in  tlie  banks  of 
the  State.  In  1835  it  amounted  to  $1,307,000, 
against  which  the  State  held  .*1.:250.000  of  bank 
stnck.  Missouri  was  more  fortunate  than  many 
other  States,  its  banking  enterprises  not  involv- 
ing it  in  any  financial  ditTiculties.  L'p  to  1850 
Missouri  remained  free  from  the  general  ten- 
dency toward  expensive  public  improvement,  but 
■when  the  era  of  speculative  railroad  construction 
came,  was  no  exception  to  the  rule.  Within 
eight  years  many  railroads  were  chartered  and 
received  from  the  State  loans  in  the  shape  of 
guaranteed  bonds  amounting  to  about  $24,000.- 
0011.  The  roads  were  expected  to  pay  the  interest, 
but  almost  all  failed  to  do  so,  and  the  State  be- 
came bound  for  the  entire  debt,  which  in  1802 
was  $-37,370,000.  L'ntil  ISSO  it  remained  above 
twenty  millions,  but  since  then  was  reduced  by 
skillful  man.agenicnt  to  $12,213,000  in  1800,  and 
to  .•j;(').2S0.830  in  1000.  Jlost  of  the  bonds  have 
been  acquired  by  the  school  fund  and  other 
funds. 

The  payment  of  interest  on  the  large  debt 
and  into  the  sinking  funds  was  a  heavy  burden 
on  tlie  budget,  and  constituted  a  large  part  of 
the  expenditure  between  1870  and  1000.  The 
revenue  of  the  State  is  derived  partly  from  a 
tax  on  property,  and  partly  from  special  taxes 
on  railroads,  various  public  franchises,  and  cor- 
porations. For  the  two  years  ending  December 
31,  1000,  the  total  receipts  were  $4,040,751  for 
the  State  revenue  fund.  $2,022,002  for  the  State 
interest  fund,  and  various  sums  for  the  numer- 
ous funds.  The  balance  in  the  treasury  in  1001 
was  $1,078,931. 

Militia.  In  1000  the  men  of  militia  age 
numbered  CC2.028.  The  militia  in  1001  num- 
bered 2677. 

PopfLATiox.  The  population  by  decades  has 
been  as  follows:  1810.  20,845;  "l820,  60.586; 
1830.  140,455;  1840.  383.702;  18.50.  G82.044; 
ISnn.  1.182.012;  1870.  1.721.205:  1880.  2.1C8,- 
380;  1800,2.670.184:  1000.3.106,665.  The  rank 
of  the  State  rose  rapidly  until  1870,  when  it 
reached  fifth,  at  which  point  it  has  since  stood. 
Vol.  XIIl.— to. 


The  increase  between  18!I0  and  1000  was  a  little 
less  tliaii  for  either  of  the  four  preceding  decades, 
and  amounted  to  16  per  cent.,  as  compared  with 
20.7  for  the  United  States.  The  negro  jiopula- 
tion,  which  is  largely  confined  to  the  ilissouri 
River  counties,  amounted,  in  1900,  to  161,234. 
The  foreign-born  population  numbered  216,370 — 
the  largest  for  any  of  the  States  which  are  usual- 
ly classed  as  Southern.  Saint  Louis  was  an  early 
centre  of  German  immigraticm,  and  the  Germans 
still  constitute  over  one-half  of  the  total  foreign 
born.  In  1000  there  was  an  average  of  45.2  peo- 
ple to  the  square  mile — a  greater  density  than 
is  shown  in  any  other  State  west  of  the  ilissis- 
sippi.  Jlissouri  contains  the  largest  centre  of 
population  located  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
the  percentage  of  urban  population  is  therefore 
higli.  In  1900  the  35  places  having  more  than 
4000  inhabitants  each  contained  collectively  34.9 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 

Cities.  In  1000  the  six  largest  cities  were: 
Saint  Louis,  575,238;  Kansas  City,  103,752; 
Saint  Joseph,  102.079;  Joplin;  2G.023;  Spring- 
field, 23.267;    Sedalia,  15.231. 

Religiox.  The  two  leading  denominations,  the 
Methodists  and  the  Baptists,  are  of  almost  equal 
strength.  The  Catholics  also  have  a  strong  rep- 
resentation. Probably  the  most  rapidly  develop- 
ing denomination  is  that  of  the  Disciples  of 
Christ.  It  ranks  third  among  Protestant  denomi- 
nations. The  largest  of  the  remaining  denomina- 
tions are,  in  the  order  named,  the  Presbyterians, 
Lutherans,  Protestant  Episcopalians,  and  Con- 
gregationalists. 

Education.  In  1900  6.4  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation ten  years  of  age  and  over  were  illiterate. 
The  percentage  of  illiteracy  for  the  negroes  alone 
was  28.0  per  cent.,  which  was  a  decided  decrease 
from  1890,  when  the  corresponding  per  cent,  wag 
41.7.  Although  the  Constitution  of  1820  pro- 
vided for  a  public  school  system,  it  was  not  until 
1833  that  a  school  was  organized  which  could 
legally  enforce  support.  The  office  of  State  Su- 
perintendent of  Common  Schools  was  created 
in  1839.  The  State  Board  of  Education  consists 
of  the  Ciovernor.  Secretary  of  State,  Attorney- 
General  and  Superintendent  of  Education.  As 
is  common  in  States  which  have  a  large  rural 
population,  the  country  schools  are  often  in  a 
very  backward  condition,  in  marked  contrast 
with  the  town  schools,  Mliicli  are  generally  very 
efficient.  In  many  districts  there  has  been  a  de- 
crease in  the  rural  population,  restilting  in  an 
increasing  number  of  very  small  schools.  The 
wealth  of  many  districts  is  too  small  to  sup- 
port a  long  term  school.  Short  terms.  inelTicient 
teaching,  irregularity  of  attendance,  and  lack  of 
gradation  and  superintendence,  therefore,  char- 
acterize many  country  districts.  However,  the 
average  length  of  the  school  term  for  the  State — 
144  days  in  1900 — compares  favorably  with  the 
corresponding  term  in  the  neighboring  States.  In 
1900  the  number  of  children  between  the  ages  of 
five  and  eighteen  was  966.400,  the  number  en- 
rolled in  the  public  schools,  719,817,  and  the 
average  attendance  for  the  school  year,  460,012. 
The  State  has  no  compulsory  attendance  \a\v. 
The  attempt  to  articulate  the  high  schiiols  with 
the  university  has  necessitated  the  appointment 
of  an  inspector  to  examine  the  work  of  the  high 
schools.  In  1900  about  70  of  these  schools  were 
upon  the  approved  list  of  the  universities,  but 
there  are  in  all  about  500  schools  doing  from  two 


MISSOURI. 


620 


MISSOURI. 


to  four  Years  of  liij;li  slIiuuI  wurU.  lii  lUOO  there 
were  10,201  teacliers,  of  wlioiu  10.104  were  fe- 
males. The  State  maintains  norma  1  sehools  at 
Kirksville,  Warrcnsburg,  Cape  Girardeau,  and 
at  Lincoln's  Institute  in  .Jellerson  City.  The 
public  school  fund  was  befiun  with  the  Congres- 
sional donation  to  tlie  tStale  of  saline  funds  in 
1S12.  The  original  sum  has  been  increased  by 
additions  from  various  sources  until,  in  1000,  the 
total  school  fund  amounted  to  $12,548,00.').  The 
total  receipts  for  schix)!  purposes  in  1000  were 
$0..5.54.3S4,  over  two-thirds  of  which  was  from 
railroad  district,  back  taxes,  and  tuition  fees. 
The  amount  paid  for  teachers'  wages  for  that 
year  was  $4,084,250.  the  incidental  expenses 
amounted  to  $1,204,784.  and  the  money  used  for 
building  purposes  $1.8:17.014.  The  average  State 
levy  upon  $100  valuation  for  school  purposes  was 
51  cents.  Higher  education  is  alforded  by  the 
State  at  the  L'niversity  of  ^Missouri,  located  at 
Columbia.  This  institution  includes  among 
other  departments  those  of  law,  medicine,  agri- 
culture, and  mechanic  arts,  and  mines  and  metal- 
lurgy. There  are  within  the  State  also  a  very 
large  number  of  private  and  denominational  in- 
stitutions which  bear  the  name  of  college  or  uni- 
versity, but  the  enrollment  at  most  of  these  is 
very  small.  Washington  University,  at  Saint 
Louis  (non-sectarian),  has  the  benefit  of  a  large 
endowment,  and  the  Saint  Louis  l'niversity 
(Roman  Catholic)  also  has  a  large  endowment. 
Lincoln  Institute  is  a  well-equipped  manual 
training  school  for  the  colored. 

CllAKITABLE  AND  PeNAL  Ix.STITUT10XS.  The 
state  maintains  insane  hospitals,  located  re- 
spectively at  Karniington.  Saint  Joseph.  Fulton, 
and  Nevada.  There  is  also  a  colony  for  feeble- 
minded at  Marshall.  A  State  Federal  soldiers' 
home  is  located  at  Saint  .James,  and  a  State  Con- 
federate home  at  lligginsville.  The  State  school 
for  deaf  and  dumb  is  at  Ffllton,  and  the  school 
for  the  blind  at  Saint  Louis.  A  hoys'  reform 
school  is  located  at  Boonville,  a  girls'  reform 
school  at  Chillicothe,  and  the  State  prison,  for 
both  men  and  women,  at  .JefTcrson  City.  A  large 
number  of  prisoners  are  employed  imder  the  con- 
tract system,  but  their  work  is  confined  within 
the  prison  walls.  In  some  of  the  counties  male 
prisoners  within  the  county  jails  are  worked  on 
the  public  roads  or  at  ciuarrying  stone. 

History.  Missouri  was  part  of  the  vast  area 
of  Louisiana  claimed  by  the  French  on  the 
groimd  of  the  discoveries  of  La  Salle,  who  de- 
scended the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth  in  1681-82. 
A  few  years  before  La  Salle,  in  107.'?,  Marquette 
and  .Toliet  had  sailed  down  the  river  as  far  as 
the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  The  territorv"  iu- 
eluded  within  the  present  State  was  traversed  be- 
fore 1720  by  parties  of  French  exjilorers  in  search 
of  mines  of  lead  and  silver,  and  in  1723  a  certain 
Lieutenant  Kenaud  receiveil  the  grant  of  a  large 
tract  of  land  in  that  region.  The  foundation  of 
Sainte  Genevieve  is  sometimes  placed  in  the 
year  1735.  The  second  settlement  within  the 
State  was  Saint  Louis,  established  as  n  trading- 
post  in  1764.  a  year  after  the  cession  of  Loui- 
siana to  Spain  by  the  Peace  of  Paris,  ilany 
French  resiilents  removed  from  the  villages  east 
of  the  Mississippi  to  Saint  Louis,  which  became. 
)inder  the  Frendi  ami  the  Spanish,  a  prosperous 
little  capit.nl.  The  colonization  of  the  region  was 
preatly  accelerated  by  the  ordinance  of  1787. 
which,  in  excluding  slavery  from  the  Northwest 


Territory,  diverted  the 
gration    to    Missouri, 
couraged    immigration 
bounties    to    settlers, 
retroceded   to  France, 
it  onlv    three   vears. 


stream  of  southern  immi- 
The  Spaniards  also  en- 
by  the  oiler  of  liberal 
In  1800  Louisiana  was 
which,  however,  retained 
After  the  acquisition  of 
Louisiana  by  the  United  States,  in  1803,  the 
entire  territory  was  divided  into  two  by  the  line 
of  the  .'i.'id  i)aralU'l  of  latitude,  the  nurtlicrn  ]iart 
being  known  as  the  District  and  Territory  of 
Louisiana  till  1812,  and  sulisequently  as  the 
Territory  of  ilissouri.  At  that  time  the  po])u- 
lation  was  over  20,000,  and  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  inhabitants  were  agriculture,  fur-trading, 
and  mining.  The  mass  of  the  people  were  sturdy 
and  unrefined;  the  rough  backwoodsman  and  the 
fighting  Mississippi  boatman  were  picturesque 
types  of  the  society  of  the  period.  After  1815  the 
vohune  of  immigration  increased  markedly.  In 
1820  tlicre  were"  60,000  inhabitants  within  the 
present  limits  of  the  State,  of  whom  about  10.000 
were  slaves.  The  Indian  titles  to  the  land  were 
extinguished  rapidly.  Between  1800  and  1824 
the  Osages  and  Sacs  and  Foxes  ceded  almost  all 
their  lands,  though  it  was  not  till  1837  that  the 
area  of  the  State  was  rounded  out  by  the  so- 
called  Platte  Purchase. 

In  1817  the  Territorial  Legislature  applied  to 
Congress  for  permission  ti>  prepare  a  State  Con- 
stitution. (For  the  struggle  in  Congress  con- 
cerning ilissouri.  see  L'-nited  States  and  ilis- 
SDiiu  Compromise.)  In  .June,  1820,  a  con- 
vention framed  a  Constitution  which  Sanctioned 
slavery  and  forbade  any  free  negro  or  nnilat- 
to  to  take  up  his  residence  in  the  State;  but 
Missouri  was  admitted  (August  10,  1821)  only 
after  the  Legislature  had  taken  a  pledge  that 
the  anti-freedmen  clause  should  never  be  en- 
forced. The  period  after  1820  was  one  of  rapid, 
if  not  entirely  sound,  development.  An  era  of 
wild  speculation  in  lands  set  in,  accomiianied  by 
the  usual  inllation  of  the  currency  (the  Hank  of 
Saint  Louis  had  been  established  in  18101.  ami 
the  inception  of  an  elaborate  system  of  internal 
improvements,  \\itliin  twenty  years  after  1835 
the  State  pledged  its  cre.lit  "foV  $28,000,000  to 
various  railroad  companies,  and  found  itself  sad- 
dled with  a  debt  of  over  twenty  millions.  The 
system  of  public  education  was  quite  incllicicnt 
before  the  Civil  War.  though  Saint  Louis  Uni- 
versity had  been  incorporated  in  1832,  and  the 
State  University  at  Cohnnbia  eight  years  later. 
Respect  for  the  law  was  often  sadly  wanting  in 
the  western  part  of  the  State,  as  was  shown 
in  the  history  of  the  Mormons.  They  had  settled 
at  Independence  in  .lackson  County,  an<l  hiiil 
made  the  beginning  of  a  prosperous  community, 
when  they  were  driven  oiit  by  mob  violenei'.  for 
which  it  is  probable  they  were  less  re-.ponsible 
than  their  enemies.  They  established  themselves 
anew  in  Caldwell  County:  but  there,  too.  they 
came  into  conflict  with  the  authorities  ami  the 
inhabitants,  who  force<l  them  to  de])art  once 
more  in  a  destitute  condition,  leaving  valuable 
farms  and  other  property  behind  them.  See 
Mormons. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  Mis- 
souri, though  a  slave  State,  was  not  an  ardent 
defender  of  slavery,  and  a  very  large  proportion 
of  its  citizens  were  interested  in  movements  look- 
ing toward  the  grailual  emancipation  of  th<? 
slaves.  With  the  rise  of  the  abolitionists,  how- 
ever,   Missouri    became    dcciiledly   a    pro-slavery 


MISSOTJRI. 


621 


MISSOURI. 


State.  It  favored  tlip  aniipxation  of  Texas  in 
1845,  and  took  a  very  prominent  share  in  tlie 
Mexican  War.  (General  Kearny's  army  of  inva- 
sion consisting  largely  of  Missourians.  In  184'J 
the  Legislature  adopted  tlie  >ocalled  Jackson 
Resolutions,  in  which  tlie  right  of  Congress  to 
regulate  slavery  in  the  Territories  was  trenchant- 
ly denied,  and  the  principle  of  squatter  sov- 
ereignty was  asserted.  The  Jackson  Resolutions, 
however,  did  not  represent  the  unanimous  feeling 
in  the  State,  when  they  covertly  tlircatened  se- 
cession. In  the  election  of  18(i0  the  vote  in  the 
State  for  Douglas  and  for  Bell  was  nearly 
equal,  while  Breckenridge  and  Lincoln  received 
a  far  smaller  vote  than  the  others.  The 
Legislature  thereupon  issued  a  call  for  a  con- 
vention to  consider  the  relation  of  the  State  to 
the  Union.  In  the  elections  for  the  convention, 
the  secessionist  delegates  were  defeated  by  a  pop- 
ular majority  of  80,000,  and  wlien  the  convention 
met — Februarj'  to  April,  1801 — it  declared  tliat 
it  could  find  no  cause  to  dissolve  the  connection 
between  the  State  and  the  Federal  L'nion,  and 
expressed  the  hope  that  some  eompronii.se  might 
be  effected  between  the  Xorth  and  the  South.  In 
reply  to  President  Lincoln's  call  for  troops.  Gov- 
ernor Jackson,  who,  with  the  rest  of  the  State 
Government,  was  in  favor  of  secession,  refused 
to  participate  in  the  'unholy  crusade,'  and  sum- 
moned the  State  militia  to  arms.  Between  the 
State  militia  and  the  Federal  troops,  under 
t'olonel  Lyon,  aided  by  the  volunteer  bands 
whicli  the  loyalists  of  .Saint  Louis  had  organized, 
civil  war  ensued.  The  Governor,  together  with  a 
majority  of  the  Legislature,  tied  to  the  southern 
part  of  the  State,  and  the  supreme  power  was 
assumed  by  the  convention,  which  declared  all 
the  offices  vacant  and  proceeded  to  install  a  pro- 
visional government.  The  fugitive  Legislature 
responded  by  declaring  Missouri  a  member  of 
the  Southern  Confederacy.  (  For  military  opera- 
tions in  Jlissouri.  see  Civil  War.)  In  186,3  the 
convention  passed  an  ordinance  of  emancipation 
of  doubtful  legality,  which  was  to  go  into  effect 
in  1S70.  With  the  fall  of  the  Confederate  power 
in  Missouri  the  regular  State  Government  was 
reorganized  (1864),  and  in  January,  1865,  a  con- 
stitutional convention  controlled  by  the  radical 
union  party  assembled  in  Saint  Louis.  The  new 
Constitution  provided  for  the  immediate  emanci- 
pation of  the  slaves  and  imposed  severe  political 
disabilities  on  all  who  had  pai'tici[)ated  in  the  re- 
bellion; all  teachers,  physicians,  lawyers,  and 
ministers  were  required  to  take  a  searching  oath 
of  loyalty.  The  qualifications  for  the  franchise 
deprived  a  vast  proportion  of  the  citizens  of  the 
right  to  vote  and  continued  in  force  till  1871, 
when  a  more  liberal  registration  law  was  adopted, 
A  thinl  constitution  went  into  effect  in  1875, 
Since  the  war  the  prosperity  of  the  State  has  been 
greatly  increased  by  the  development  of  its  min- 
eral industries  and  the  growth  of  railroads.  The 
improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Missouri  was  carried  on  actively  for 
many  years.  In  the  matter  of  public  educa- 
tion there  has  been  exceedingly  rapid  progress, 
the  school  fund  of  the  State  being  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  Union.  Treparations  are  now 
(1IM):S)  nearly  completed  for  an  exposition  to  be 
held  at  Saint  Louis  to  commemorate  the  one 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  accjuisition  of 
Louisiana.    See  Saint  Louis  World's  Fair, 


From  1824  to  the  Civil  War  Missouri  was 
always  Democratic,  but  the  Whig  minority  was 
very  strong.  From  1864  to  lS7'i  the  Republi- 
cans were  in  power,  but  the  defection  of  a  large 
body  of  Liberal  Republicans  wlio  were  opposed 
to  the  vindictive  policy  pursued  against  those 
who  had  participated  in  the  Rebellion  led  to  the 
reestablishment  of  Democratic  supremacy,  which 
has  remained  unbroken  since,  save  for  the  election 
of  1894,  when  the  Republicans  secured  a  majority 
in  the  Legislature  and  the  Congressional  delega- 
tion. The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Governors 
of  the  State  with  their  party  affiliations: 


Alexander  McXair Democrat.. 

Frederick  BatPs " 

Abraham  J.  Williams  (acting)  ■■ 

Jolin  Miller "' 

Daniel  Dunklin *• 

Lilburn  W.  Bot^^H " 

Thomas  Keyn<ilds " 

M.  M.  Marmaduke  (acting)....  " 

John  C.  Edwards " 

Austin  A.  King " 

Sterling  Price *' 

Trusten  Polk 

Hancock  Jackson *' 

Bobert  M.  .Stewart *• 

Claiborne  F.  Jackson.. 


,  1820-24 

.  1824-25 

,  1825 
1823-32 

,  1832-36 
1830-40 

,  1840-44 

.  1844 
1844-48 
1848-52 
18.52-66 
1856-57 

.  1857 

,  1857-61 

.  1861 


Hamilton  K.  Gamble (Provisional) 1861-64 

\Villard  P.  Hall  (acting) 1864-65 

Thomas  C.  Fletcher Republican 1865-69 

Joseph  \V.  McClurg '•  1869-71 

B.  Gratz  Brown. ...Liberal  Republican  and  Democrat  1871-73 
Silas  Woodson....        ••  "  "  "  1873-75 

Charles  H.  Hardin Democrat 187S-77 

John  S.  Phelps '"         1877-81 

Thomas  T.  Crittenden "         1881-85 

John  S.  Marmaduke "         1885-87 

A.  P.  Morehou.se "  1887-89 

David  It.  Francis "         1889-93 

William  J.  Stone "         1893-97 

Lou  V.  Stephens ■'         1897-1901 

Alexander  M.  Dockery "         1901  — 

Bibliography.  Missouri  Geological  Survey 
Annual  Reports  (.Jefferson  City,  1853  et  seq.)  ; 
Waterhouse,  T)ie  Jicsoiirces  of  ilissouri  (Saint 
Louis,  1867);  Switzler,  Early  History  of  Mis- 
souri (Columbia,  Mo.,  1872)  ;  Davis  and  Durrie, 
History  of  Missouri  fi'om  IS.'/l  to  ISTd  (.Saint 
Louis,  1876)  ;  Carr,  Missouri  a  Bone  of  Conten- 
tion (Boston,  1888);  Coues,  History  of  the  Ex- 
pedition Under  the  Command  of  Lewis  and 
Clark  to  the  Source  of  the  Missouri  River  (New 
York,  1893)  ;  Missouri  Historical  Society  Publi- 
cations (Saint  Louis)  ;  Snead,  The  Fight  for 
Missouri    (XewYork,   1886), 

MISSOTJRI,  miz-zGC're,  A  small  tribe  of 
Siouan  stock.  When  first  known  to  the  whites 
they  occupied  the  territory  about  Grand  River, 
a  northern  affluent  of  the  Missouri,  in  what  is 
now  the  State  of  Missouri,  and  contiguous  to 
the  Iowa  and  Oto  (q.v, )  on  the  north  and  west, 
all  three  tribes  speaking  the  same  language. 
Their  popular  name  is  of  .\lgonquian  origin,  and 
is  said  to  mean  'great  muddy,'  referring  to  the 
Missouri  River,  They  call  them.selves  Niutachi 
or  Xudaclia,  'those  who  come  to  the  mouth'  (of 
the  river).  According  to  tlieir  tradition  the 
tliree  tribes  migrated  together  from  the  vicinity 
of  Green  Bay,  Lake  Michigan.  The  ^Missouri 
are  named  npon  JIarquette's  map  of  1673,  and 
some  years  afterwards  a  French  fort  was  estab- 
lished in  their  territory.  Throughout  tlie  colo- 
nial period  they  were  generally  on  the  French  side, 
as  opposed  to  the  English,  although  on  one  occa- 
sion they  attacked  and  massacred  the  French 
garrison.  In  1725  a  numlier  of  their  chiefs 
visited  France  and  attracted  much  attention.  At 
one  time   in   the  eighteenth   century   they  were 


MISSOtTRI. 


622 


MISSOURI  COMPROMISE. 


estimated  at  from  10i)0  to  l:iO();  Lat,  after  being 
greatly  rcduceil  by  smalljinx.  tliey  were  attaeked 
by  tlie  Sa\ik.  who  compelled  them  to  abandon 
their  territory  about  17!tS  and  take  refuge  west 
of  the  Missouri.  In  1805  they  were  living  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Platte  River  and  numbered  about 
300.  In  1823  they  were  again  so  deeimatcd  by 
smallpox  that  the  remnant,  about  80  persons,  in- 
corporated with  the  kindred  Oto.  The  confed- 
erated tribes  removed  in  1882  from  Nebraska  to 
a  reservation  in  Oklahoma,  wliere  they  now  re- 
side, numbering  altogether  only  :i(JO.  They  are 
still  steadily  decreasing,  and  their  agent  reports 
that  they  have  practically  ceased  all  effort  at  self- 
support,  owing  to  the  money  they  receive  in  the 
shape  of  treaty  and  lease  payments. 

MISSOURI,  UxiVER.siTY  OF.  A  State  institu- 
tion ol  learning  founded  in  1839  at  Columbia, 
Mo.  Academic  work  began  in  1841.  In  1807  a 
department  of  education  was  established,  to 
which  women  were  admitted  in  181)0.  and  soon 
after  all  departments  were  opened  to  them.  The 
university  comprises  a  graduate  de|)artment,  es- 
tablished in  ISOG,  an  academic  ileparlnient,  and 
departments  of  education,  law  (1872),  medicine 
(1873).  military  science  and  tactics  (18',t0l.  a 
College  of  Agriculture  and  Meclianic  Arts  (1S70), 
embracing  a  school  of  agriculture,  an  experi- 
ment station  (18881,  a  school  of  engineering 
(1877).  and  a  school  of  mines  and  metallurgy-, 
situated  at  Rolla  (1870).  The  university  con- 
fers the  bachelor's  and  master's  degrees  in  arts, 
law,  and  science,  the  doctor's  degree  in  medi- 
cine and  pliilosophy,  and  the  degrees  of  civil, 
electrical,  mechanical,  and  sanitary  engineer  and 
engineer  of  mines.  The  only  honorary  degree 
conferred  is  that  of  Doctor  of  Laws.  The  univer- 
sity accepts  the  certificate  of  approved  schools 
for  admission.  Tlie  faculty  in  1002  numbered 
102.  The  enrollment,  including  du]ilicates.  was 
1286,  of  whom  303  were  women.  The  campus 
includes  32  acres  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
town,  and  near  it  are  the  experiment  farm,  of 
618  acres,  and  the  horti<ullural  groimds.  of  30 
acres.  The  grounds.  l)uildings.  and  equipment 
were  valued  at  over  .^l.OOO.OOO.  The  endnwrnent 
was  about  .'7!2..'>00.O00.  The  university  library, 
inclmling  the  departmental  libraries,  contained 
about   .")0.000  volumis. 

MISSOURI  COMPROMISE.  In  American 
history,  an  arrangiMiicut  Ijctnccn  the  free  and 
slave  States,  embodied  chiefly  in  an  act  of  Con- 
gress approved  March  0,  1820,  which  provided 
for  the  admission  of  the  Slate  of  Missotiri  into 
the  Union  with  a  constitution  which  allowed  slav- 
ery, but  which  forever  prohibited  slavery  in  all  the 
rest  of  the  Louisiana  territory  lying  north  of  lat- 
ittule  W  30'  X..  that  being  the  southern  bound- 
ary line  of  Missouri.  To  balance  the  adTuission 
of  Missouri  as  a  slave  State.  Maine  was  admitted 
as  a  free  Stalo  at  the  same  time.  In  February, 
1810,  in  the  debate  in  Congress  on  the  hill  to 
admit  .Missouri  into  the  Union,  .Tames  \V.  Tall- 
mailge.  of  Xew  York,  moved  to  ameml  the  Mis- 
souri bill  to  the  efTeet  "that  the  further  introduc- 
tion of  slavery  or  involuntary  servitude  be  pro- 
hibited, ami  that  all  children  of  slaves  born  within 
the  State  after  the  ailniission  thereof  in  the 
Union  Khali  be  free."  The  admission  of  .\labama 
in  the  same  year  without  any  prohibition  against 
slavery  made  the  niunber  of  'slave'  States  and  of 
'free'  States  equal.    The  admission  of  Missouri  as 


a  'free'  State,  therefore,  would  di-turb  the  equi- 
lil)rium.  The  bill  with  the  Tallniadge  amendment 
l)a>sed  the  House  February  17.  ISIH,  by  a  vote 
of  87  to  70.  On  March  2d  the  Senate  passed  the 
bill  without  the  Tallmadge  amendment.  Two  days 
later  Congress  adjourned  and  the  question  of  ilis- 
souri  went  over  to  the  next  session.  In  De- 
cember, 1810,  another  bill  for  the  admission  of 
Missouri  was  introilueed.  whereupon  .lohn  W. 
Taylor,  of  Xew  York,  otTercd  an  ameiidnienl  in 
the  Mouse  which  provided  that  as  a  condition  of 
admission  the  State  should  be  rcipiireil  to  adopt 
a  constitution  forever  prohilnting  slavery  within 
its  limits.  This  gave  rise  to  a  prolonged  and  vig- 
orous debate  on  the  power  of  Congress  to  impose 
conditions  upon  the  admission  of  a  State  into  the 
Union.  Those  wlio  upheld  the  power  of  Con- 
gress in  the  premises  based  their  argument  on 
the  provision  of  the  Constitution  which  empowers 
Congress  to  admit  new  States,  the  implication 
being  that  it  may  admit  under  any  conditions 
which  it  nuiy  see  fit  to  impose.  Their  opponents 
relied  chiefly  upon  the  (hx'triiu?  of  the  equality  , 
of  the  States  in  the  Federal  system,  and  declared  i 
that  Congress  had  no  constitutional  power  to-  ; 
destroy  that  equality  by  attaching  onerous  condi 
tions  to  admission  of  tlu-  new  States.  ^Meautinn 
tlie  situation  was  complicated  by  the  apjdication 
of  ilaine  to  be  admitted  with  a  constitution 
])roliibiting  slavery.  Tlie  House  of  Representa- 
tives promptly  jiassed  a  bill  for  this  purpose, 
and  when  this  bill  came  up  for  discussion  in 
the  Senate  in  .January,  1820,  the  friends  of 
slavery  in  Missouri,  who  were  in  a  majority  in 
the  Senate,  coupled  the  Maine  bill  with  the  bill 
to  admit  Missouri  with  slavery,  and  the  Senate 
steadily  refused  to  disconnect  the  two  measure-. 
In  this  situation  the  substance  of  the  coniiim- 
mi.se  was  proposed  by  Senator  Thomas,  of  Illi- 
nois, in  an  amendment  whi<'li  provided  that  Mis- 
souri should  be  ailmitted  with  a  constitution  al- 
lowing slavery,  but  tliat  in  all  the  rest  of  tlir 
Louisiana  territory  north  of  latitude  30°  30'  N 
slavery  or  involuntary  servitude  should  be  for- 
ever prohibited.  The"  bill  with  this  amendment 
finally  passed  the  Senate.  February  18.  1S20. 
The  bill  thus  amended  was  coujded  with  the 
bill  to  admit  ilaine.  and  in  this  shape  was 
sent  to  the  House  for  concurrence.  The  House 
refused  to  agree  to  the  combination,  and  the 
matter  was  then  referred  to  a  conference  com 
mittee  of  the  two  Houses,  which  reiommended 
that  ihe  ilaine  bill  be  passed  separately,  and 
that  the  Missouri  bill  should  be  passed  with  the 
Thomas  amendment.  To  this  report  the  Ilon-e 
agreed.  The  separation  of  bills  as  distinct  sub 
jects  was  thus  secured,  and  recognition  was  given 
to  the  claim  of  the  Southerners  that  Congre-- 
had  no  power  to  impose  such  limitations  a- 
it  saw  fit  upon  any  Slate  as  a  con<liliou  of  il- 
admission  to  the  Union.  President  Monroe  ap 
proved  the  JIaine  bill  on  March  3.  and  the  Mis- 
souri bill  on  March  fi.  1820.  Henry  Clay,  who 
was  Sjieaker  of  the  IIou.se,  exerted  his  inlluener 
to  bring  about  this  result.  In  Ihe  next  session 
the  Constitution  of  Missouri,  including  a  jiara- 
graph  making  it  Ihe  duty  of  the  Legislature  to 
prevent  the  immigration  of  free  negroes  into  Ihe 
State,  was  |>resented  to  Congress  for  approval. 
This  provoked  a  heated  debate  concerning  the 
duly  of  the  Federal  (lovernmenl  to  prolecl  Ihe 
citizens  of  each  Slate  in  the  exercise  of  their 
civil   rights  of  citizenship  in  every  other  .State. 


MISSOUKI  COMPROMISE. 


623 


MISTASSINl. 


Aiier  piutrai-tfd  negotiation,  in  wliiuli  Henry 
Clay  took  a  leading  part,  a  bill  was  linally  in- 
troduced providing  thai  Missouri  should  he  con- 
sidered admitted  as  a  State  only  after  its  Legis- 
lature had  declared  that  no  law  would  ever  be 
passed,  nor  any  construction  placed  upon  the  ob- 
noxious paragraph  which  would  justify  any  law 
which  might  abridge  within  Jlissouri  the  rights 
guaranteed  to  all  citizens  by  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution. Tlie  bill  involving  this  second  compro- 
mise was  approved  March  2,  1821,  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  its  terms  Missouri  became  a  Com- 
nKmwealth.  Consult:  }iuTgess,  The  It iddle  Period 
(Xew  York,  1897);  Carr,  Missouri  (Boston, 
1888)  ;  Dixon,  History  of  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise (Cincinnati,  1899);  and  Woodbura,  "The 
Historical  Significance  of  the  Jlissouri  Compro- 
mise," in  the  Report  of  the  American  Historical 
Socicti/  for  1803  (Washington,  1894).  See 
United  States;  Slavery. 

MISSOURI  RIVER.  The  principal  affluent 
of  the  ilississippi  and  the  longest  river  of  the 
United  States  (Map:  United  States,  G  3).  It 
is  formed  in  southwestern  Montana  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  JelTerson,  iladison.  and  Gallatin 
rivers.  The  longest  branch,  the  JelTerson,  has  its 
farthest  source  in  Red  Rock  Creek,  which  rises 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Red  Rock  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  iladison  County,  jlontana,  a  few 
miles  from  the  headwaters  of  the  North  Fork  of 
the  Snake.  The  middle  and  largest  brancli,  the 
Madison,  rises  in  the  Yellowstone  Park  near  the 
source  of  the  Y'ellowstone  River.  From  the 
junction  of  the  three  forks,  the  Missouri  flows 
north  and  east  across  Montana  into  North  Da- 
kota, where  it  describes  a  long  curve  toward  the 
southeast  and  then  crosses  the  whole  width  of 
South  Dakota.  After  reaching  the  Nebraska 
boundary  it  divides  this  State  from  Iowa  and  Mis- 
souri, forms  the  northeastern  boundary  of  Kansas, 
and  finally  takes  an  easterly  course  across  Jlis- 
souri,  joining  the  ilississippi  20  miles  above  Saint 
Louis.  Its  length  to  the  source  of  the  .Jefferson  is 
about  29,50  miles,  and  to  the  source  of  the  Madi- 
son about  2910  miles.  With  the  lower  Mississippi, 
the  river  has  a  total  length  of  about  4200  miles, 
which  is  equaled  by  no  other  river  in  the  world. 
The  Missouri  is  a  swift  and  turbid  stream,  navi- 
gable only  by  flat-bottomed  steamboats.  Dur- 
ing the  flood  period  in  early  summer  it  can  be 
ascended  to  Great  Falls.  Mont.,  about  2300  miles 
from  the  mouth,  but  in  low  water  navigation  is 
suspended  above  the  junction  of  the  Y'ellowstone. 
At  Great  Falls  the  Missouri  passes  over  a  scries 
of  cataracts,  descending  a  vertical  distance  of 
3.50  feet  in  16  miles.  The  highest  falls  are  87 
feet.  About  145  miles  above  this  point  is  the 
Gate  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  a  narrow  rock 
gorge  12  miles  in  length,  whoso  perpendicular 
walls  rise  1200  feet  above  the  river.  Tlie  lower 
course  of  the  Missouri,  lying  within  the  great 
plains,  has  been  graded  so  as  to  offer  no  inter- 
ruptions. In  this  part  it  is  often  a  mile  or  more 
wide.  The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Milk  and 
Yellowstone,  in  ilontana ;  Little  Jlissouri,  in 
North  Dakota;  Cheyenne.  James.  White,  and 
Big  Sioux,  in  South  Dakota :  Niobrara  and 
Platte,  in  Nebraska  :  Kansas  and  Osage,  in  Kan- 
sas and  Missouri.  It  drains  the  greater  part 
of  the  territorv  between  tlie  ^fissis^ippi  and  the 
sununits  of  the  Rocky  ^Mountains.  The  ,\rkansas 
.ind  Red  rivers  are  the  onlv  other  large  streams 
in  this  region  that  contribute  their  waters  di- 


rectly to  the  Mississipjii.  The  area  of  the  basin 
exceeds  500.000  square  miles.  A  number  of  thriv- 
ing cities  are  located  on  the  Missouri,  including 
Kansas  City,  Leavenworth,  Atchi.son.  Omaha, 
Siou.x  City,  Piene,  Bismarck,  and  Great  Falls, 
the  last  being  the  centre  of  a  great  copper- 
smelting  industrv  which  utilizes  the  power  of  the 
Falls. 

MISSOURI  SUCKER,  or  Goirdseed.  See 
Black  IIokse,  and  Plate  of  Suckers. 

MISSOURI  VALLEY.  A  city  in  Harrison 
County.  Iowa,  21  miles  north  of  Council  Bluffs, 
on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Fremont, 
Elkhorn  and  ilissouri  Valley,  and  the  Sioux  City 
and  Pacific  railroads  (Map:  Iowa.  E  3|.  It  has 
a  public  library  of  about  1900  volumes,  and  the 
fair  grounds  of  the  County  Agricultural  Society. 
The  industrial  interests  are  represented  by  ex- 
tensive railroad  machine  shops,  stock  yards,  and 
manufactories  of  flour,  machine-shop  products, 
bricks,  coffins,  creamery  prodiu'ts,  etc.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  bv  the  municipal- 
ity.    Population,  in  1890,  2797;  in  1900,  4010. 

MIST.     See  Fog. 

MISTAKE.  An  erroneous  mental  conception 
affecting  the  will,  and  hence  leading  to  or  pre- 
venting some  act.  The  im])ortance  of  the  mis- 
take in  legal  contemplation  is  its  effect  upon  the 
act.  In  general  a  mistake  of  law  produces  no 
legal  effect  upon  an  act  influenced  or  induced  by 
it.  Tlius  one  is  without  remedy  who  has  entered 
into  a  contract  without  knowing  or  tinderstand- 
ing  the  legal  effect,  or  who  has  voluntarily,  and 
with  full  knowledge  of  the  facts,  paid  a  claim 
not  well  founded  in  law.  The  full  acceptance  of 
the  doctrine  is  due  to  a  misapplication  of  the 
measure  Jynorantia  juris  non  rxriisat  ( "ignorance 
of  tlie  law  does  not  excuse"),  which  is  applicable 
only  in  the  criminal  law  or  under  statutes 
imposing  quasi-criminal  penalties  where  sound 
policy  requires  that  ignorance  of  law  should  not 
excuse  one  charged  with  a  crime.  (.See  Ixtext. ) 
Mistake  of  fact  has  a  direct  legal  effect  on  many 
acts,  and  the  law  in  many  cases  affords  a  remedy 
to  one  who  has  done  a  prejudicial  act  induced  by 
mistake  of  fact. 

The  effect  of  mutual  mistake  as  to  a  material 
term  of  a  contract  is  to  prevent  the  meeting  of 
the  minds,  and  thus  prevent  the  fonuation  of  a 
contract  (q.v. ).  The  effect  of  mutual  mistake  of 
fact  in  case  of  sale  is  to  prevent  passing  of 
title,  and  one  who  has  given  up  the  possession 
of  personal  property  under  mistake,  preventing 
the  passing  of  title,  may  recover  the  specific 
property  by  an  appropriate  action,  or  its  value 
in  an  action  of  trover.  In  general,  whenever 
money  or  property  is  delivered  to  another  under 
material  mistake  of  fact,  its  value  may  be  re- 
covered in  an  action  based  on  the  theory  of 
quasi-contract    (q.v.). 

In  the  law  of  tort,  the  effect  of  mistake  of 
fact  varies  considerably  with  the  different 
branches  of  the  subject.  In  the  law  of  trespass, 
one  is  required  to  know  his  own.  and  he  inter- 
feres with  the  property  of  another  at  his  peril; 
hence  mistake  of  fact  does  not  affect  his  lia- 
bility.     The  same   is   true   of   liliel   and   slander. 

Fquity  has  jurisdiction  to  relieve  one  from 
the  consequences  of  his  mistake  of  fact,  by  com- 
pelling a  reformation  or  rescission  of  a  contract. 

MISTASSINl,  mis'tas-se'ne.  A  large  lake  in 
the  Ungava  district.  Northwest  Canada,  latitude 


I 


MISTASSINI. 


624 


MISTRAL. 


50°  X.,  longitude  72°  to  74°  W.  (Map:  Canada,  Q 
6).  In  lt)72  French  Jesuit  missionaries  visited 
it.  The  Indians  claimed  an  extravagant  lengtli 
for  the  lake,  saying  tliat  three  days  were  em- 
ploj'ed  in  crossing  the  narrowest  part  from  island 
to  island,  but  an  estimate  based  on  surveys  gives 
tlie  length  at  120  miles  and  the  actual  width  at 
20  miles  in  the  widest  parts.  Krom  the  northeast 
and  southeast  it  receives  the  drainage  of  a  chain 
of  smaller  lakes,  and  discharges  its  own  sur- 
plus into  .James  Bay,  the  southern  arm  of  Hud- 
son Hay.  by  the  Rupert  River,  120  miles  long. 
The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  has  a  post  on  Lake 
Mistassini,  333  miles  north  of  Montreal.  The 
lake  is  of  great  depth  and  abounds  in  fish ;  the 
surrounding  country  is  level  and  well  fitted  for 
agriculture,  while  the  woods  are  full  of  game. 
The  winters  are  clear  and  cold,  and  the  sum- 
mers warm  and  short. 

MISTELI,  mls-ta'le. Franz  Josef  ( 1841-1903 ) . 
A  Swiss  pliih>logist.  He  was  born  at  Solothurn; 
studied  at  Zurich  and  Bonn;  taught  at  Saint  Gall 
and  Solothurn;  and  in  1S74  became  professor 
of  coni]);irative  linguistics  at  Basel.  A  follower 
of  Steinthal,  whose  Cliaractenslilc  der  hauptsiich- 
llchslen  Typen  des  liprachbaucs  he  reedited  in 
1893,  Misteli  contributed  to  Kuhn's  Zeitschrift 
and  to  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Volkerpsychologie; 
and  wrote  Ueber  griechische  Betonung  (1875) 
and  KrUiuterungcn  zur  allgenieinen  Tlicorie  der 
griechischcH  Betonung  (1875).  He  was  an  au- 
thority on  the  (lialccts  of  the  I'ral  and  Altai. 

MISTLE  THRUSH,  ..r  MISSEL  THRUSH. 
One  of  the  most  familiar  and  admired  of  Kuru- 
pean  thrushes  \Turdus  rixcirorus) .  named  from 
its  fondness  for  mistletoe  berries,  which  are  re- 
jected by  the  majority  of  small  birds.  It  is  the 
largest  and  one  of  the  most  numerous  of  British 
thrushes,  and  is  also  well  known  throughout  the 
Mediterranean  region  and  Western  ami  Northern 
Asia.  Everywhere  it  is  migratory,  and  is  noted 
for  its  loud  and  pleasant  song,  which  begins  first 
of  all  bird-notes  in  the  spring  and  lasts  f:ir  into 
the  summer:  its  habit  of  clieerfully  singing  on 
cold  or  rainy  days,  when  most  other  birds  are 
quiet,  has  given  it  the  sobriquet  'stormcock.' 
Its  ]»lnmage  is  soft  grayish  brown  above  and 
white  below,  the  breast  and  abdomen  thickly  and 
sharply  spotted.     See  Thrisii. 

MISTLETOE,  mIs"l-to  (AS.  mistcltun,  mis- 
tillihi.  Ircl.  iiii.stiltcinn,  from  AS.  mistcl,  bird- 
lime, mistletoe,  basil,  Icel.,  OHG.  mistil,  Ger. 
Mistcl.  mistletoe  +  AS.  tun,  twig).  A  genus 
iVisciim)  of  small  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Loranthacete.  This  order  contains  more  than 
400  known  species,  mostly  tropical  and  parasitic. 
The  leaves  are  entire,  almost  nerveless,  thick, 
fleshy,  and  without  stipules.  The  (lowers  of  many 
species  are  showy.  The  common  mistletoe 
(Vi.srMni  album),  a  native  of  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  grows  on  many  kinds  of  trees,  particu- 
larly on  the  apple,  and  its  close  relatives,  the 
service  ami  hawthorn;  sometimes,  also,  on  syca- 
mores, limes,  po|)lars,  locust  trees,  and  firs,  but 
rarely  on  oaks  (contrary  to  the  common  belief). 
It  is  very  plentiful  in  some  parts  of  the  south  of 
England,  its  evergreen  leaves  giving  a  peculiar 
appearance  to  the  orchards  in  winter,  when  the 
clusters  nf  mistletoe  are  very  conspicuous  among 
the  naked  branches  of  the  trees.  The  stems  di- 
vide by  forking:  the  leaves  are  opposite,  of  a 
yellowish-green  color,  obovatc-lanceolate,  obtuse. 


The  flowers  are  inconspicuous,  and  grow  in  small 
heads  at  the  ends  and  in  tlie  divisions  of  the 
branches,  the  male  and  female  flowers  on  sepa- 
rate plants.  The  berries  are  about  the  size  of 
currants,  white,  translucent,  and  full  of  a  very 
viscid  juice,  which  serves  to  attach  the  seeds  to 
branches,  where  they  germinate,  and  take  root, 
the  radicle  always  turning  toward  the  branch, 
whether  on  its  upper  or  under  side.  The  mistle- 
toe derives  its  nourishment  from  the  juices  of 


VISCrM    ALBUM. 

the  tree  on  which  it  grows,  and  from  which  it 
seems  to  spring  as  if  it  were  one  of  its  own 
branches.  The  mistletoe  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  many  of  the  superstitions  of  tlie  an- 
cient Germans  and  the  British  Druids.  In  tlie 
northern  mythology.  Balder  is  said  to  have  been 
slain  with  a  spear  of  mistletoe.  Among  the  Celts 
the  mistletoe  which  grew  on  the  oak  was  in  pe- 
culiar esteem  for  magical  virtues.  Traces  of 
the  ancient  regard  for  the  mistletoe  still  remain 
in  some  old  Knglish  and  Germnn  customs,  as 
kissing  under  the  mistletoe  at  Cliristmas.  The 
mistletoe  was  at  one  time  in  high  repute  as  a 
remedy  for  epilepsy  and  c<iiivulsioiis,  but  it  seems 
to  possess  no  decided  medicinal  pro|x^rties.  I,o- 
ranthus  F.urop;pus.  a  shrub  very  similar  to  the 
mistletoe,  but  with  fiowers  in  racemes,  is  plenti 
ful  in  some  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and 
very  frequently  grows  on  oaks.  T.oranlhus  odo- 
ratiis.  a  Nepalese  species,  has  very  fragrant 
flowers.  In  the  United  States  the  mistletoe  is 
Phoradendron.  a  gepus  of  ]ilants  closely  allied 
to  and  greatly  resembling  \'iscuni.  Tlie  com- 
nion  species  in  the  Eastern  States  is  Phoraden- 
dron flavescens.  It  occurs  upon  various  species 
of  deciduous  trees  from  New  .Jersey  to  Missouri 
and  southward.  In  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
United  Slates  and  in  California  are  still  other 
specie-.    See  Colmi'il  rbilc  nf  Parasitic  Plants, 

MISTLETOE  BOUGH.  The.  A  pathetic 
song  by  Thomas  Haynes  Bayly,  based  on  a  legend 
connected  with  various  localities.  The  story  is 
that  of  the  young  bride  of  Lord  Lovel.  who  (lis. 
appears  during  the  Christmas  festivities  at  her 
father's  castle  after  proposing  a  game  of  hide 
and  seek.  The  mystery  is  solved  only  after  many 
years  when  her  skeleton  form  is  found  in  an  old 
oaken  chest  which  had  closed  with  a  s|)ring  and 
entombed  her. 

MISTRAL,  mA'stral'.  or  MAESTRAL,  mft'- 
str:ir  ( Prnv..  master-wind  I .  The  I'invcncal 
name  for  the  cold  northwest  wind  on  the  south- 


MISTRAL. 


625 


MITCHEL. 


ern  coast  of  FraiKc  ami  in  oUier  parts  of  tlic 
Meditonaneau  coast  region.  Tliis  wind  is  iden- 
tical in  origin  with  tlie  Bora  of  the  Casqjian  Sea 
and  of  Austria,  Turkey,  and  Sovitliern  Russia. 
Jl  is  also  [jcrfectly  analogous  to  the  strong  north- 
west winds  of  the  United  States.  In  both  cases 
the  atmosphere  over  a  great  extent  of  country 
is  circulating  about  a  region  of  low  pressure  or 
a  so-called  storm  centre,  moving  along  over  tlie 
surface  of  the  earth  usually  toward  the  east  or 
northeast.  When  such  a  storm  centre  passes  over 
Southern  Europe,  the  cold  -winds  from  Russia 
sweep  southward  with  great  force  toward  it.  The 
warm  southerly  siroccos  give  place  to  cold  north- 
erly Boras  and  Mistrals,  which  are  very  drj' ;  the 
cloudy  hazy  skies  are  replaced  Ijy  cloudless  trans- 
parent air.  During  the  first  few  hours  the  wind 
seems  to  come  in  descending  and  viident  gusts; 
afterwards  it  becomes  more  moderate,  but  is  still 
very  strong.  When  it  descends  over  moimtain 
slopes  upon  the  water,  as  it  does  along  the  coast 
of  France.  Italy,  and  Austria,  it  makes  naviga- 
tion difficult  and  even  dangerous  to  small  craft. 

MISTRAL,  Frederic  (1830-).  A  French 
poet,  the  leader  of  the  modern  Provencal  revival 
in  Southern  France.  He  was  born  at  Jlaillane, 
Bouches-du-Rlione,  September  8,  18.30,  and  went 
to  school  in  Avignon.  Here  he  came  under  the 
iiilluence  of  Joseph  Roumanille  (q.v. ).  who  had 
already  conceived  the  idea  of  raising  the  native 
speech  to  higher  uses.  Roumanille's  Provencal 
poem  /,(  Mcirriaridcto  fired  tlic  youth's  enthu- 
siasm, and  when  lie  returned  to  Maillane.  at  tlie 
■end  of  his  school  days,  he  wrote  a  poem  in  four 
cantos,  Li  ilrissoun,  the  best  parts  of  which  he 
has  preserved  by  insertion  into  his  riper  works. 
His  father,  seeing  his  intellectual  superiority, 
had  him  study  law  at  Aix.  Mistral,  however,  did 
not  practice  law,  but  gave  himself  up  heart  and 
soul  to  the  work  of  creating  a  literature  in  Pro- 
vencal. With  six  friends  he  founded  the  society 
of  the  Felibres  in  18.54,  and  contributed  to  their 
annual  organ.  L'AniKina  ProuroiQau.  The  i)ubli- 
eation  in  18.39  of  Mircio  is  the  most  im|)ortant 
€vent  in  ^Mistral's  life  and  in  the  history  of  the 
movement.  It  was  a  revelation  to  the  Felibres, 
and  through  the  enthusiastic  praise  of  Lamartine 
it  obtained  a  national  success.  Mireio  is  a  narra- 
tive pastoral  poem  in  twelve  cantos,  a  wonder- 
ful expression  of  what  is  most  chai'acteristic  and 
best  in  the  rural  life  of  Provence.  The  language 
is  the  dialect  of  Saint-Remy,  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  literary  language  by  a  process  of  puri- 
fication and  enrichment  strictly  in  accord  with 
its  genius.  At  tliis  time  also  Mistral  publislied 
some  of  his  best  lyrical  poems,  notably  one  called 
The  Cotintcss,  a  vigorous  protest  against  the  cen- 
tralization prevailing  in  France.  In  18fi7  he 
published  a  second  long  poem.  Caletirlnu  (French, 
CnJrndiil)  ;  it  treats  of  mediaeval  legends  and 
traditions,  and  abounds  in  symbolism.  In  1875 
appeared  his  only  volume  of  lyrics.  lAsi  Ixclo  tl'or. 
In  1870  the  Felibrige  was  formally  organized  into 
a  great  ass<iciation  with  Mistral  as  Copoiilir  or 
chief.  He  next  published  Xertn,  a  fantastical 
tale  in  verse,  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  at 
Avignon,  in  the  days  of  the  popes.  Later  he 
brought  out  his  monumental  dictionary  of  all 
the  dialects  of  the  Laiiptie  d'oc,  Lou  trcsor  dou 
Fflihrifje.  In  18fl0  appeared  La  R&ino  Jano 
(Queen  .Joanna),  which  be  calls  a  Provencal 
tragedy.     It  is  brilliant  in  language,  but  of  little 


dramatic  power.  In  tlie  same  year  he  founded 
the  quarterly  L'A.u>li.  In  1S!)7  appeared  a  third 
long  narrative  poem,  Lou  poucmo  dou  rose,  his 
best  work  after  Mircio.  It  is  a  singularly 
felicitous  combination  of  fanciful  legends  and 
realism.  Consult:  Gaston  Paris,  Pcnscurs  et 
jiortcs  (Paris,  ISDti)  ;  Welter,  Frederic  Mistral, 
drr  Dichter  dcr  Prorcncc  (Marburg,  1899)  :  Dow- 
ner, Frederic  Mistral  (New  York,  1901).  The 
best  English  translation  of  Mireio  is  that  of  Har- 
riet Preston  (Boston,  1872).  There  are  prose 
translations  in  French  by  Mistral  of  all  his 
works,  and  these  translations  accompany  the 
original  text  in  all  editions.     See  Fklibrige. 

MISTRETTA,  me-stret'ta.  A  town  of  Sicily, 
50  miles  northwest  of  Catania  (Map:  Italy,  J 
10).  It  is  situated  in  one  of  the  most  fertile 
sections  of  the  island,  and  is  devoted  to  farm- 
ing and  cattle-raising.  Lignite  is  mined  in  the 
vicinity.   Population,  in  1901   (commune) ,  13, 48L 

MISTRIAL.  An  invalid  or  illegal  trial  of 
an  action,  the  result  of  which  is  without  legal 
etTect  on  the  cause  of  action,  and  which  leaves 
the  parties  in  the  same  position  as  if  there  had 
been  no  attempt  to  try  the  case.  Where  the 
prosecution  of  a  person  charged  with  a  crime 
results  in  a  mistrial,  the  accused  maj'  be  again 
tried,  and  cannot  plead  the  constitutional  de- 
fense that  he  has  been  twice  in  jeopardy,  as  that 
can  be  true  only  where  the  proceedings  against 
him  are  valid  and  legal.  See  Tri.\l;  and  com- 
pare NoxsriT. 

MITANI,  me-til'ne.     See  Am.\r.\a  Letters. 

MITAXJ,  nif'tou.  The  capital  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  Courland,  Russia,  situated  in  a  low 
region  on  the  Aa,  25  miles  southwest  of  Riga 
(Map:  Russia,  B  3).  It  has  an  immense  palace 
erected  by  Biron  in  1738  on  the  site  of  an  older 
ducal  palace  and  now  used  as  a  Government 
building.  Two  gymnasia,  a  provincial  museum 
with  a  library,  and  a  theatre  are  the  jirincipal 
educational  establishments  of  the  town.  The  in- 
dustries of  Mitau  arc  unimportant ;  the  chief 
manufactures  are  spirits,  flour,  chocolate,  oil 
cloth,  ink,  and  iron  products.  The  trade  in  grain 
and  lumber  is  rather  extensive.  Population,  in 
1897,  35.011,  about  50  per  cent.  German,  30  per 
cent.  Lettish,  15  per  cent.  Russian,  and  the  re- 
mainder Jewish.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Protestants.  Mitau  was  founded  by  the 
Knights  Swordbearers.  in  the  second  halt  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  became  a  cit\'  in  1435. 
In  15(;i  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Duchy  of 
Courland.  and  in  1795  it  was  annexed  to  Russia. 

MITCH'AM.  An  important  railway  junction 
and  suliurli  of  Lomlon.  F.nghind.  in  Surrey,  four 
miles  northAvest  of  Croyilon  (Map:  London.  GO). 
It  is  noted  for  its  extensive  gardens,  the  soil  of 
which  is  especially  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of 
roses,  lavender,  peppermint,  and  other  medicinal 
herbs,  which  in  the  manufacture  of  essential  oils 
and  perfumes  yield  superior  products.  Mitcham 
Common,  covering  480  acres,  is  a  favorite  recrea- 
tion trround.  especiallv  for  golfers.  Population, 
in   1901.  14.904. 

MITCH'EL.  .Tonx  (1815-75).  An  Irish  Xa- 
tionalist  agitator.  He  was  born  in  Dungiven. 
Ireland :  was  educated  at  Trinity  College.  Dub- 
lin; and  studied  and  practiced  law.  Through 
his  Life  of  Hur/h  O'XriL  Prince  of  Vlstcr  (1845), 
he  gained  a  rejiutation  as  a  writer  and  a  Nation- 


MITCHEL. 


626 


MITCHELL. 


alist.  He  became  a  cdiitributor  to  the  Irish 
Xation,  and.  alter  the  death  of  Thomas  Davis, 
was  its  chii'f  editor.  He  withdrew  from  the  .Ya- 
tion  in  1S4S,  and  established  the  United  Irish- 
man. In  the  same  year  he  was  arrcsttd  under  the 
Treason-Felony  Act,  was  convicted  and  sentenced 
to  transportation  for  fourteen  years,  and  was 
sent  to  Bermuda  for  one  year  and  then  to  Tas- 
mania. Escapini;  from  the  convict  colony  in 
1853.  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  in 
tlie  following  year  established  at  New  York  the 
Citizen.  He  removed  to  Kno.willc,  Tenn.,  in 
1857,  started  the  Sautliirn  Citizen,  and  advo- 
eateil  in  its  columns  the  revival  of  the  slave  trade. 
He  lived  in  Paris  in  18nO-G2.  then  returned  to 
America,  and  for  a  time  edited  the  Richmond 
Enquirer.  He  afterwards  came  back  to  Xew 
Y'ork  and  in  18G7  started  the  Irish  Citizen, 
which  had  only  a  short  career,  being  discon- 
tinued in  1872.  Returninf;  to  Ireland  in  1874, 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  from  Tipperary, 
but  was  declared  ineligible  and  denied  his  seat 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  a  convicted  felon. 
He  was  elected  .a  second  time,  but  died  be- 
fore his  case  could  be  tested.  Besides  the  work 
already  mentioned,  he  published  The  Last  Con- 
quest of  Ireland  {perhaps)  (18(i0),  and  History 
of  Ireland  from  the  Treat;/  of  Limerick  (18(18)  ; 
and  edited  The  Poems  of  Tliomati  Daris  (1856) 
and  of  James  C.  ilangun-  (1859).  with  biogra- 
phies. For  his  life,  consult  Dillon  (London, 
18S8). 

MITCHEL,  ORMsnYMc-KxiGiiT(lS10-G2).  An 
American  astronomer,  educator,  and  soldier.  He 
was  born  in  Union  County,  Ky..  was  a  ch-rk  for 
some  time  in  a  country  store,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  182!1.  From  1S21I  to  1S31  he  was 
assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  West* 
Point,  and  in  1832  lie  resigned  from  the  service. 
He  practiced  law  in  Cincinnati  from  1832  to 
1834.  and  for  the  next  ten  years  was  professor  of 
mathematics,  philosophy,  and  astronomy  in  the 
Cincinnati  College.  In  1830-37  he  was  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  Uittle  Miami  Railroad.  He  was  an 
enthusiastic  student  of  astronomy,  and  took  an 
important  part  in  procuring  the  erecticm  of  an 
observatory  in  Cincinnati,  of  which,  when  it  was 
completed,  he  bei'ame  the  director,  conjtiining 
with  this  position  in  lS5tl  tlic  directorship  of  the 
Dudley  Observatory  in  Albany.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  entered  the  Federal  Army, 
was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  August.  18(il.  an<l  from  September  lOth 
to  November  15th  commanded  the  Department  of 
the  Ohio.  In  .\pril.  18(12.  he  was  promoted  to  a 
major-generalship  of  volunteers  in  recognition  of 
a  i)rilliant  movement  into  northern  .\labania. 
whereby  he  secured  the  control  of  120  miles  of 
railway.  On  S<'ptemlicr  17.  18(i2.  he  was  |ilaced 
in  command  of  tlie  Department  of  the  South,  but 
before  he  had  time  to  l>egin  active  operations  he 
was  attacked  by  yellow  fever  and  died.  He 
made  several  important  astronomical  discoveries, 
including,  with  exactness,  that  of  the  period  of 
rotation  of  the  planr^t  Mars.  He  edited  the  NiV/e- 
rrnJ  Mrsurnqrr  from  1840  to  1848.  and  published 
n  number  of  works  on  astronomical  subjects,  in- 
cluding The  I'Innrlnrif  and  Stellar  Worlds  (1848) 
and  The  Orh.i  of  Hearen  ( 1851 ).  The  Aatronomii 
of  the  Hihie  was  published  posthumously  in  1803. 
Consult  the  biogrnpliy  by  Frederick  A.  MItchel 
(Boston.  1887). 


MITCH'ELL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Davison  County.  S.  D.,  70  miles  west  by  north  of 
Sioux  Falls:  the  terminus  of  tlie  Chicago,  Saint 
Paul,  Minneapolis  and  (Jniaha  Railroad,  and  on 
two  divisions  of  the  Chicago.  Milwaukee  and 
Saint  Paul  Railroad  (Map:  South  Dakota.  GO). 
It  is  the  seat  of  Dakota  University  (Methodist 
Episcopal),  established  in  1888.  The  centre  of 
a  fertile  agricultural  region,  Mitchell  exports 
grain  and  live  stock;  it  has  a  creamery,  railroad 
and  machine  shops,  grain  elevators,  brick  and 
lumber  yards,  etc.  Settled  in  18711.  Mitchell  was 
incorporated  in  1883  and  is  governed  under  a 
charter,  secured  by  general  legislative  act  of 
18110,  which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  every 
two  years,  and  a  city  council  of  which  the  execu- 
tive is  a  member.  There  are  numicipal  water- 
works.    Population,  in  1890,  2217;  in  1900,  4055. 

MITCHELL,    ilou.XT.      See     Bl.vck     .Molx- 

TAl.NS. 

MITCHELL,  Ale.x.\>-i>er  (1S17-87).  An 
Amerieau  linancicr  and  railroad  president,  born 
at  Kllon.  Al)erdcenshire,  Scotland.  In  1839 
he  came  to  the  United  States  at  the  request  of 
George  Smith,  a  Scotchman  who  was  interested 
in  the  development  of  the  Wi'st,  and  was  made 
president  of  the  Wisconsin  .Marine  and  Fire  In- 
surance Company,  at  the  new  town  of  Milwaukee. 
Mitchell  settled  in  Jlilwaukee.  and  his  name  is 
inseparably  connected  with  the  development  of 
that  city  and  region.  In  1804  Jlitchell  effected  a 
comhination  of  several  roads  into  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad  Company, 
of  which  he  was  president  from  its  organization 
until  his  death.  He  was  a  Kepuliliean  until 
after  the  war,  but  left  the  party  on  the  recon- 
struction issue,  in  1808  was  elected  to  Congress 
as  a  Democrat,  and  served  until  1875. 

MITCHELL.  Alkxa.niikr  Fehrikh  (1822  99). 
A  Scottish  divine  and  scholar,  the  historian  of 
the  Westminster  Assembly.  He  was  l)orn  at 
Brechin  in  Forfarshire,  September  10,  1822,  and 
after  graduating  from  the  University  of  Saint 
Andrews  he  hec:ime  minister  at  Dunniehen  I  1S47- 
48).  He  resigned  to  accept  the  professorship 
of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Saint  Andrews. 
In  1808  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of 
ecclesiastical  history  and  divinity.  He  held  some 
of  the  highest  ollices  in  the  Cluirch  of  Seotlan<l, 
and  was  an  active  memln'r  of  the  Scottish  Text 
and  History  societies.  Among  his  publications  are: 
The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  (1800); 
Minutes  of  the  General  .Issembh/  /C }'/-.'/.9(  1874)  ; 
The  Westminster  A-tsfmbh/ :  Its  Historii  and 
Standards  (1883;  new  ed,  1895)  ;  Catechisms  of 
the  Second  Ifeformation  (1880);  and  Ileiirint. 
jrith  Introduction,  of  the  I'irst  Protestant  Trea- 
tise in  Scottish  Dialect  (.1888).  He  died  Marcli 
22,  1899, 

MITCHELL,  DoN.u.i)  Gr,\xt  (1822—),  An 
.\mevican  autlior,  well  known  l)y  his  pseudonym 
Ik  Marvel.  He  graduated  from  Vale  College 
(1841).  In  1844  he  went  to  Kurope.  bringing 
out  on  his  return  French  llleaniniis.  or  a  yen- 
Sheaf  from  the  Old  Fields  of  Continental  Fnrope 
(  1847),  and  in  1850  The  Ilattle  Snmmer.  sketches 
reminiscent  of  the  ontlireak  in  Paris  two  years 
before.  In  18.50  he  produced  The  r.nrpnette.  i,r 
Studies  of  the  Toirn.  a  series  of  mildly  satiric.il 
papers  in  the  manner  of  Irving's  Sahnnqundi. 
The  same  year  and  the  following  year  he  wrote 
the   books   most   popularly   associated   with    his 


MITCHELL. 


627 


pseudonym,  A  Bachelor's  lieicries  (more  recent- 
ly renamed  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor)  and  Dream 
l.ifc.  In  1853  Mitchell  became  L'nited  States 
Consul  at  Venice.  On  his  leturn.  in  185.5,  he 
ljuut;ht  a  farm  (known  as  "Edgewood")  near  New 
Haven.  Conn.  Fi'om  this  place  lie  has  issued  books 
dealini;,  in  an  agreeable  mixture  of  philosophy, 
farming,  and  anecdote,  with  the  joys  of  country 
life:  My  l-'arm  of  Edgen-ood  ( 18(i3)  ;  Wet.  Dai/sat 
Edyewood  (18t!5)  ;  Kural  HtudieK,  icith  Hints  for 
Country  Places  (IStiT);  a  novel  of  a  religious 
sort.  Dr.  Johns  (1866);  and  several  books  of 
travel  and  sketches,  such  as  Keren.  Ktories,  irith 
Basement  and  Attic  (1864)  ;  and  Enejlisli  Lands, 
Utters,  and  Kings   (1889). 

MITCHELL,  EiJsii.\  (1703-1857).  An  Amer- 
ican scientist,  born  in  Washington,  Conn.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1813,  and  was  ordained 
into  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in  1821.  After 
teaching  in  Yale  he  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy  at  the  University 
of  North  Carolina  in  1817,  aiid  in  1825  professor 
of  chemistrj',  mineralogy-,  and  geology'  at  the  same 
institution.'  In  the  capacity  of  State  Surveyor 
he  ascended  a  number  of  the  North  Carolina 
mountains,  and  was  finally  killed  by  a  fall  from 
■I  |)recipice  on  a  mountain  (now  Jlount  Mitchell) 
which  he  had  just  ascertained  to  lie  the  highest  in 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Rockies.  This  sum- 
mit is  called  Mitchell's  Peak,  or  Beach  Dome, 
and  the  discoverer's  body  is  buried  on  the  sum- 
mit. His  works  include  a  series  of  reports  on  the 
geology  of  North  Carolina  (1826-27)  ;  Elements 
(}f  Geology  xrith  an  Outline  of  the  Geology  of 
\orth  Carolina  (1842);  and  various  articles 
which  he  contributed  to  scientific  publications. 

MITCHELL,  Henry  (1830—).  An  Ameri- 
can hydraulic  engineer.brother  of  Maria  Jlitchell, 
the  astronomer  (q.v.).  He  was  born  in  Nantucket, 
was  educated  in  private  schools,  anil  early  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  tides  and  river  currents, 
being  first  employed  by  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey  to  report  on  the  waters  about  Nantucket 
and  jiartha's  Vineyard.  After  assisting  the  com- 
missioners on  harbor  encroachments  in  New  Y^ork 
City  and  discovering  the  underflow  of  the  Hudson 
(1859),  Mitchell  was  consulting  engineer  to  the 
United  States  Commission  on  Boston  Harbor 
(18G0-67),  and  member  of  the  commission:  in 
1867  was  sent  to  study  the  decline  of  Greytown 
harbor,  Nicaragua;  and  in  1874  was  appointed  a 
niemlier  of  tlie  board  of  engineers  to  improve 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1879  he  visited 
the  Suez  Canal  and  reported  on  it.  Mitchell  was 
elected  to  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1885,  and  in  1888  retired  from  active  business. 
His  papers  on  phvsieal  hydrology  mostly  ap- 
peared in  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  Re- 
ports. 

MITCHELL,  Hinckley  Gilbert  (1846—). 
An  .\merican  Orientalist,  born  at  Lee,  N.  Y.,  and 
eilueated  at  \\esleyan  University  (1S73)  and 
the  Divinity  School  of  Boston  University  (1876). 
After  studying  at  Leipzig,  he  jireached  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church  at  Fayette.  N.  Y., 
tauL'ht  at  Wesleyan  (1880-83).  and  in  1883  went 
to  Boston  University  as  instructor  and  (1884) 
nrofessor  of  Heb*ew  and  Old  Testament  exegesis. 
He  lieeame  one  of  the  foremost  scholars  of  the 
Methodist  Church.  His  publications  include: 
Hebrew  LessmiS'  (1884  and  1897)  :  .4mo.s  (1893), 
a  translation  of  Piepenbring's   Theology  of   the 


MITCHELL. 

Old    Testament    (1S93);    and    Isaiah,   chapters 
i.-xii.    (1900). 

MITCHELL,  .John  (M768).  An  Anglo- 
American  physician.  He  .settled  at  Urbana,  \'a., 
about  17U0,  and  gained  recognition  as  a  botanist. 
It  was  after  him  that  the  Milehella  repens  was 
named  by  Linnieus.  He  wrote,  among  various 
works:  Xova  Plantarum  Genera  (17-tl);  and 
an  Essay  on  the  Causes  of  Different  Colors  of 
People  in  Different  Climates  (1744);  but  his 
name  is  best  known  in  connection  with  A  Map 
of  the  British  and  French  Dominions  in  North 
America  (1755),  which  was  credited  to  him  and 
was  once  standard. 

MITCHELL,  John  Ke.\rsley  (1798-1858). 
An  American  physician,  born  in  Shepherdstown, 
Va.  He  went  to'Scotland  as  a  child  and  studied 
in  Ayr  and  Edinburgh.  After  his  return  to  the 
United  States  he  graduated  at  the  iledieal  Col- 
lege of  the  Univefsitv  of  Pennsylvania  in  1819. 
Before  he  settled  in  Philadc-l|ihia  in  1822  as  gen- 
eral practitioner  he  made  three  voyages  to  the 
Far  East  as  ship's  surgeon.  In  1820  he  became 
professor  of  medicine  and  physiology-  at  the  Phil- 
adelphia Medical  Institute,  and  in  1833  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  Franklin  Institute.  From 
1S41  to  1858  he  was  professor  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine  in  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege. Besides  contributions  to  scientific  and  med- 
ical periodicals  his  works  include:  Saint  lldcna, 
a  Poem  by  a  Yankee  (1821);  On  the  Wisdom, 
Goodness  and  Poicer  of  God  as  Illustrated  in  the 
Properties  of  Water  (1834)  ;  Indecision,  a  Tale 
of  the  Far  We.st,  and  Other  Poems  (1839)  ;  On 
the  Cryptogumous  Origin,  of  Malarious  and  Epi- 
demic Fevers  (1849);  and  the  posthumous  Five 
Essaysi  on  Variou.i  Chemical  and  Medical  Suh- 
jects  (1858),  brought  out  by  his  son.  S.  Weir 
Mitchell   (q.  v.). 

MITCHELL,  Maegaret  Julia  (popularly 
known  as  :\Ia(;gie  Mitchell)  (1832—).  An 
American  actress.  She  was  born  in  New  Yrork, 
and  when  very  young  went  upon  the  stage.  She 
made  her  first  regular  appearance  as  Jvilia  in 
The  Soldier's  Daughter  at  tlie  Clumibers  Street 
Theatre,  New  York,  in  1851.  In  1868  she  mar- 
ried ^Ir.  Paddock,  her  manager.  Her  favorite 
roles  w-ere  Jane  Eyre,  ilignon.  Little  Barefoot, 
and  Fanchon  the  Cricket,  in  wliieh  last  she 
achieved  a  notable  success. 

MITCHELL,  Maria  (1818-89).  An  Ameri- 
can astronomer,  born  at  Nantucket,  Mass.  Her 
father,  a  school  teacher  in  Nantucket,  gave  much 
attention  to  astronomy,  in  which  subject  she 
herself  at  an  early  age  became  greatly  interested. 
She  devoted  herself  especially  to  the  stud.v  of 
nebulie  and  comets,  and  in  1847  published  an 
account  of  the  discovery  of  a  new-  telescopic 
comet,  for  w-hich  she  received  a  gold  medal  from 
the  King  of  Denmark.  During  the  next  ten  years 
she  was  employed  by  Ihe  Coast  Survey  and  as- 
sisted in  eomiiilin.L'  the  Nautical  .Mmanac.  In 
1857  she  traveled  in  Europe,  visiting  the  prin- 
cipal observatories  and  meeting  the  principal 
astronomers;  and  in  1865  she  became  professor 
of  astronomy  in  Vassar.  She  was  a  member  of 
the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,  and  also  of  the  American  Academ.v  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  of  which  she  w-as  the  first 
female  member  admitted.  Her  numerous  scien- 
tific papers  still  remain  uncollected. 


MITCHELL. 


628 


MITCHILL. 


MITCHELL,  Peteb  (1824—).  A  Canadian 
lM)lilician.  lie  was  born  in  Newcastle,  New 
Brunswick,  Canada,  was  educated  there,  and  in 
1848  was  called  to  the  bar.  He  served  two  terms 
(five  years)  in  the  Provincial  Parliament,  and 
was  appointed  life  member  of  the  Legislative 
Council.  In  1858  he  became  a  member  of  the 
executive  Government  of  New  Brunswick,  and  in 
1865  suffered  defeat  with  liis  Government  on  the 
question  of  a  federal  union  of  all  British  Amer- 
ica. In  1SG5,  associated  with  R.  D.  Wilmot, 
Maj'or  of  Saint  .Tohn's,  he  formed  an  administra- 
tion in  order  to  test  tlie  opinion  of  tlie  province 
on  the  question  of  confederation,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  executive  committee.  When  the  vote 
was  taken,  confederation  was  carried  by  33  to  8. 
In  1867  he  was  appointed  Senator,  but  in  1874 
resigned.  He  was  Minister  of  JIarine  and  Fish- 
eries in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Dominion  Government 
in  1867-73,  and  in  1882  was  elected  representative 
in  the  Dominion  Parliament  for  Northumberland 
County,  N.  B.  In  1885  he  ])urchased  the  ilon- 
treal  Herald,  whidi  he  conducted  for  some  years. 
He  was  in  18!I7  ajjpointed  Inspector  of  Fisheries 
for  the  Atlantic  provinces.  His  publications  in- 
clude: A  lievieio  of  President  Grant's  Recent 
Message  to  the  United  States  (.'ongress,  Relative 
to  the  Canadian  Fisheries  and  the  Xarigatinn  (if 
the  Saint  Laurence  River  ( 1870)  ;  and  Notes  of  a 
Holiday  Trip   (1880). 

MITCHELL,  S.\iuEL  Augustus  (1792-1808). 
An  American  geogiapher.  He  was  born  in  Bris- 
tol. Conn.,  but  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where 
for  forty  years  he  devoted  himself  to  cosmo- 
graphical  researcli.  lie  prepared  te.xt-books  of 
geography  for  the  use  of  spliools.  as  well  as  majis 
anil  treatises,  wliich  were  considered  superior  to 
all  others  of  their  date.  lie  published  flrncral 
Viea-  of  the  World  (1840);  Traveller's  Guide 
Through  the  United  Stales  (1850);  Universal 
Alias  ( I85I ) ,  and  many  other  works. 

MITCHELL,  (Stlas)  Weir  (1820-).  A  dis- 
tingui^lied  .Vnicrican  neurologist  and  man  of  let- 
ters. He  was  liorn  in  \'irginia.  the  son  of  .Tohn 
Kearsley  Mitdiell.  a  noted  Philadelpliia  physi- 
cian. After  receiving  his  baccalaureate  degree 
at  the  X'niversity  of  Pennsylvania,  he  was  grad- 
uated in  medicine  in  1850  at  .Jefferson  Medical 
College.  Philadeljihia.  After  a  few  years  s])ent 
in  general  practice.  Milchell  turned  his  attentiim 
almost  entirely  to  diseases  of  the  nervous  system, 
a  field  in  wliidi  he  early  achieved  eminence.  His 
special  title  to  fame  is  derived  from  his  elal)0- 
ration  of  the  system  of  '"Ri'st  Treatment"  wliich 
has  torne  liis  name  for  many  years  ami  has  been 
adopted,  with  modifications,  the  woild  over.  His 
earliest  work  of  importance  consisted  of  re- 
searches upon  the  chemical  composition  and 
pliysiological  action  of  the  venom  of  snakes,  in 
ISOfi.  and  later.  He  was  assistant  surgeon  to 
the  I'.  8.  Hos|)ital  for  Nervous  Diseases  (hiring 
the  Civil  War,  and  from  that  time  he  lias 
been  a  prolitie  contributor  to  medical  litera- 
ture. His  scientific  literary  productions  com- 
prise more  than  125  essays  ami  monographs  upon 
toxicology,  coimiarative  physiolog\-,  anil  clinical 
medicine.  Besides  these  productions,  which  were 
contributed  to  medical  journals,  he  has  published 
the  following  books  or  i)aMiphlets:  "Researches 
upon  the  Venom  of  the  Rattlesnake."  in  Smith- 
sonian Con trihul inns  to  Knoulrdge  (I860):  In- 
juries of  Xerres  and  Their  Conse(iucnccs  (1872)  ; 


M'car  and  Tear,  or  Hmls  for  the  OverworkedHth 
cd.  1874)  ;  Fat  and  Jituud,  and  Hotv  to  ilulce 
Them  (4th  ed.  1885)  ;  Lectures  on  Diseases  of 
the  \ervous  Si/steni.  Fspecialli/  in  ^Vonnn  (2d 
ed.  1885)  ;  A  Doctor's  Century  (1887)  ;  Doctor 
and  I'aticnt  (1887)  ;  Clinical  Lectures  on  Ner- 
vous Diseases   (18'.)7). 

Dr.  Jlitchell  first  turned  his  attention  to  fic- 
tion and  general  literature  during  the  Civil  War, 
when  he  wrote  The  Children's  Hour,  to  be  sold 
during  the  great  fair  of  the  Sanitary  Commission 
in  Pliiladelphia.  Among  other  pieces  of  juvenile 
fiction  was  Tiic  Wonderful  Stories  of  Fuz-hus, 
the  Fly.  and  Mother  Grabcni,  the  Spider  (  1867). 
Of  his  short  stories,  the  most  notable  was  The 
Case  of  George  Dedlow  (1803).  His  first  nov- 
els were  He/ihzibali  Guinness  (1880).  Thee  and 
Thou,  and  .1  Draft  on  the  Bank  of  Spain  (pub- 
lished in  the  same  year).  Others  followed, 
including:  In  War  Time  (1885):  Roland  lilake 
(1SS6);  Far  in  the  Forest  (1889);  Character- 
istics (1892)  :  117ic;i  .4//  the  Woods  Are  Green 
(  1894)  ;  Hugh  Wynne.  Free  Quaker  (1897)  ;  The 
Adventures  of  Francois  (1899)  ;  Dr.  North  and 
His  Friends  (1900)  ;  and  Circumstances  (1901). 
These  stories  deal  with  different  historical  and 
contemjiorary  types  of  character,  and  are  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  popular  novels  of  their 
class  by  rather  more  insistence  than  is  common 
on  psychological  and  pathological  analysis. 
Hugh  Wynne  is  generally  conceded  to  rank 
among  the  best  stories  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion yet  written. 

MITCHELL,  Sir  Thomas  Livingstone  (1792- 
ls5.")i.  An  Kiiiilish  explorer.  He  was  born  in 
Stirliiigsliire.  Scotlanii,  began  his  service  in  the 
British  Army  in  the  Pi'iiinsular  campaign  of 
1808,  ami  in  1826  was  promoted  to  be  major.  He 
was  then  sent  to  make  surveys  and  plans  of  the 
Peninsular  battle-fields.  In  1827  he  published 
Outlines  of  a  System  of  Surreying  for  Geograph- 
ical and  Military  Purpo.ics.  anil  was  iinule  Deputy 
Surveyor-General  of  New  South  Wales.  Besides 
attending  to  the  routine  work  of  this  ollice  he  led 
a  number  of  exploring  expeditions  into  the  in- 
terior of  Australia.  In  1835  he  traced  the 
course  of  the  river  Darling,  wliich  he  followed, 
in  1836,  as  far  as  the  .Murray  River,  with  which 
it  unites.  In  the  same  expedition  he  tullowed 
the  (ilenelg  River  to  the  ocean.  He  gave  the 
world  the  results  of  his  explorations  in  his  Three 
Fxprdilions  Into  the  Interior  of  Eastern  Aus- 
tralia (1839).  He  went  to  England  in  1839,  and 
on  his  return  to  .\ustralia  conducted  a  fourth 
exploring  expedition,  in  which  he  vainly  at- 
tempted to  reach  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  In 
1S5()  he  piiblishcil  a  school  gcograpliy  for  use  in 
New  Soutli  Wales  under  the  name  of  Australian 
Grographg.  and  in  1854  The  Lusiad  of  Camocna 
Closely   Tra  nslafed. 

MITCH'ILL,  Samuel  Latham  (1764-1831). 
An  .\iiieriiaii  scientist,  born  at  North  Hempsteail, 
Long  Island.  N.  Y.  He  grailuatcd  in  medicine 
at  the  I'nivcrsity  of  Kdinbiirgh  in  1786.  and  was 
ap]iointed.  in  1792.  |irofessnr  of  chemistry,  nat- 
ural history,  and  philoso])hy  in  Columbia  f^ollege. 
In  1796  he  made  a  (.'eological  and  mincralogical 
(our  nlonir  the  Hudson.  .loinUy  with  Dr.  Ed- 
ward Aliller  and  Elisha  II.  Smith  he  established 
the  quarterly  Medical  Repository,  of  which  he 
was  for  eighteen  years  the  editor.  He  several 
times  respresented  liis  district  in  the  State  Legis- 


MITCHILL. 


629 


MITE. 


lature  and  in  Congit-so,  and  in  1S04  was  elected 
United  States  Senator.  In  180S  lie  became  \no- 
fessur  of  natural  history  and  in  1S20  of  botany 
and  materia  medica  in  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons.  He  was  called  the  'Nestor  of 
American  Science.'  His  researches  embrace  a 
wide  variety  of  seientifie  and  philosophical  sub- 
jects, and  he  published  a  large  luimbcr  of  papers 
and  several  larjjcr  works.  Consult  "ilcmorable 
Kvents  and  Occurrences  in  the  Life  of  Samuel 
L.  -Milchill,  of  Xew  York,  from  the  Year 
178(i  to  1827,"  by  himself  and  Dr.  Francis,  con- 
tained in  Gross's  American  Medical  Biography. 

MITE  (AS.  mite,  OHG.  mixa,  mi^^o,  Ger. 
Miiic:  probably  connected  with  Goth,  maitan, 
OHG.  ntci-an.  to  cut).  Any  one  of  the  Acarina, 
an  order  in  the  class  Arachnida.  They  may  be 
distinguished  from  other  arachnids  by  their 
small  size;  by  the  unsegmented  body,  without  a 
constriction  between  the  anterior  portion  or 
cephalothorax  and  the  posterior  portion  or  ab- 
domen; and  by  the  lack  of  median  eyes.  There 
are  exceptions,  however,  to  all  these  characteris- 
tics, and  certain  forms  have  been  misplaced  even 
by  naturalists.  The  mouth-segments  have  become 
luiited  to  form  a  beak  or  rostrum,  but  this  char- 
acter is  not  easily  recognized.  The  young  mite, 
on  hatching  from  the  egg.  is  not  ])rovidcd  with 
eight  legs  as  are  other  arachnids,  but  with  only 
four  or  .six,  except  in  the  case  of  Ptcroptus.  In 
size  mites  vary  from  tinj-  creatures,  invisible  to 
the  naked  e.ye,  to  certain  tropical  forms  fully 
half  an  inch  long. 

Typically,  mites  have  four  pairs  of  legs,  ar- 
ranged more  or  less  definitely  in  two  gi'oups.  Tlie 
two  hinder  pairs  are  apparently  attached  to  tlie 
abdomen,  while  the  anterior  pairs  are  close  to 
the  mouth-parts,  which  consist  of  mandibles  of 
varied  character,  palpi,  and  maxilla>.  The  man- 
dibles are  tvpically  chelate,  but  in  several  fami- 
lies they  are  reduced  to  needle-like  piercing- 
organs.  In  the  case  of  certain  ganiasid  mites  the 
mandibles  are  nearly  as  long  as  the  entire  animal, 
and  can  be  wholly  retracted  within  the  body,  or 
suddenly  extruded  to  seize  the  prey.  The  palpi 
are  of  four  kinds.  Simple,  filiform  palpi,  which 
have  a  tactile  function,  are  found  in  many  fami- 
lies. In  some  parasitic  forms  the  palpi  are  re- 
duced in  size  and  united  to  the  rostrum.  In 
many  predatory  mites  the  palpi  are  modified 
for    raptorial    organs.      In    some   of   the    water- 


A  MITE  OR  RED  spiRER  {Tetrauycbas  bimaculatus). 

mites  the  palpi  have  become  organs  for  holding 
the  mite  to  other  objects.  The  legs  of  mites  are 
composed  of  from  five  to  seven  segments,  and 
commonly  terminate  in  from  one  to  tlirce  claws. 
In  nuiny  genera  a  cup-shaped  sucking-disk  or 
ambulacrum  is  attached  to  the  tarsus  or  last 
segment.  The  reproductive  organs,  as  in  other 
arachnids,  open  on  the  imder  side  of  the  abdo- 
men near  its  base.  The  body  and  legs  are  more 
or  less  thickly  clothed  with  bristles,  hairs,  or 
scales,   which   are   of  characteristic   nature   and 


arrangement  in  each  sjiecies.  In  many  of  the 
soft-bodied  species  there  are  chitinous  jdates  or 
shields,  sometimes  so  large  or  numerous  as  al- 
most completely  to  cover  the  mite.  In  the  ticks 
the  body  is  flat,  and  of  a  tough,  leathery  con- 
sistency. 

The  sense  organs  are  few  and  of  simple  nature. 
JIanj'  mites  have  no  eyes,  but  in  some  there  are 
yne  or  two  ocelli-like  spots  on  each  side  of  the 
cephalothorax.  A  few  families  have  what  are 
considered  organs  of  hearing.  With  the  tieka 
this  organ  is  a  mendjrane-covcred  pit  in  the 
anterior  tarsi;  in  the  beetle-mites  it  is  a  pore 
on  the  posterior  margin  of  the  cephalothorax, 
from  which  arises  a  bristle.  The  sense  of  touch 
is  supposed  to  reside  in  some  of  the  hairs  of  the 
body  or  legs.  In  many  mites  there  is  a  consider- 
able difference  in  appearance  between  the  two 
sexes,  although  there  is  not  often  much  differ- 
ence in  size. 

Centralization  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of 
the  anatomy  of  mites.  The  various  organs  are 
more  crowded  togetlier  than  in  other  arachnids. 
The  digestive  system,  when  complete,  consists  of 
the  pharynx,  or  sucking-organ,  the  oesophagus,  the 
ventriculus  or  stomach,  with  its  ca-ca,  the  hiud- 
gut,  and  the  Malpighian  vessels.  The  a'sophagus  is 
a  long,  simple  tube  extending  through  the  centre 
of  the  brain.  The  stomach  is  of  varied  size,  ac- 
cording to  food-habits ;  in  some  forms  it  is  very 
small,  while  the  ca'ca  are  numerous  and  long. 
The  hindgut  or  intestine  is  a  short  tube  ending 
in  the  rectum.  The  Malpighian  vessels,  when 
present,  are  two  in  number,  and  enter  the  intes- 
tine near  its  end.  In  some  mites  there  is  a  well- 
developed  dorsal  pulsating  organ  or  heart,  but 
in  others  it  is  not  present.  The  nervous  system 
consists  of  one  ganglionic  mass  surrounding  the 
oesophagus,  from  which  all  the  principal  nerves 
arise.  Many  mites  have  an  elaborate  system  of 
trachea>  by  which  they  breathe  and  which  open 
in  various  parts  of  the  body,  in  many  common 
species  near  the  mandibles,  but  in  the  ticks  and 
gamasids  they  open  by  stigmata  near  the  hind 
legs.  A  great  number  of  mites,  however,  have 
no  internal  respiratory  system  whatever.  In 
these  the  skin  is  soft  and  they  absorb  oxygen  by 
osmosis. 

Life  History.  Nearly  all  mites  deposit  eggs, 
frequently  of  large  size.  In  a  few  forms  the 
larvfe  issue  from  the  parent,  but  in  some  cases 
it  is  rather  from  the  egg  within  the  body  of 
the  dead  mite.  In  many  cases  the  hard  external 
skin  or  chorion  of  the  egg  sjilits  into  halves  and 
exposes  the  lining  vitelline  membrane;  this  per- 
mits the  maturing  egg  to  increase  in  size,  which 
is  then  called  a  'dcutovum.'  The  young  larvse 
on  hatching  commonly  have  six  legs,  but  the  gall- 
mites  have  but  four.  During  the  nymphal  stage 
the  mite  feeds  until  it  attains  adult  size.  In 
many  cases  the  nymph  moKs  directly  into  tlie 
adult  mite,  but  in  several  families  the  nymph 
often  transforms  into  a  creature  entirely  difTer- 
ent  from  both  the  nymph  and  the  adult — the 
hypopial  stage  or  'Hypopus,'  long  supposed  to  be 
a  distinct  genus  of  mites.  On  its  ventral  or 
under  surface  is  an  area  of  sucking-disks,  by 
which  the  Hypopus  attaches  itself  to  an  insect  or 
small  mammal,  and  is  transported  to  some  new 
and  suitable  locality,  where  it  falls  from  its 
carrier,  molts  into  an  octopod  nymph,  begins 
feeding,  and  in  due  time  becomes  ,an  adult  mite. 
Tlie  Hypopus  is,  therefore,  not  a  parasite,  but  a 


I 


MITE. 


630 


MITE. 


commensal,  making  ii»e  of  the  carrier  only  for 
transportation;  anil  in  certain  ganiasids  ( L'ro- 
poda)  tlie  mite  in  this  migratorial  stage  is  at- 
tached by  a  thread  of  hanlened  excrement  to  its 
host. 

In  some  families  (as  the  Trombidiidte)  the 
larval  and  nymphal  stages  are  attached  to  vari- 
ous insects  and  feed  thereon,  while  the  adult  is 
free.  In  some  of  the  bectle-niites  the  nymph  car- 
ries on  its  back  old  nioltwl  skins,  egg-sliclls,  anil 
otlicr  debris.  In  these  mites  tliere  is  a  consid- 
erable resting- period  while  tlie  nymph  is  chang- 
ing to  the  adult,  a  period  when  iiuicli  of  the 
internal  anatomy  is  entirely  changed;  and  it  has 
been  observed  that  wlien  the  adult  emerges  its 
legs  are  not  withdrawn  from  the  legs  of  the 
nymph,  but  from  beneath  tlie  body.  In  the  bird- 
mites  there  is  a  transition-form  between  the 
liyni]ili  and  the  adult  female,  known  as  tlie 
nymphal  female.  Tlie  adult  male  mates  with 
this  nymphal  form,  and  when  the  real  adult 
emerges,  an  egg,  already  of  considerable  size,  is 
seen  in  her  body.  Parthenogenesis  has  been  ob- 
served in  a  number  of  mites.  As  a  rule,  mites 
possess  no  special  accessory  sexual  organs,  com- 
parable to  those  of  spiders,  but  in  some  male 
gamasids  the  mandibles  carry  the  globule  of 
.sperm  cells  and  insert  it  in  the  female  vulva.  In 
many  species  the  males  have  one  pair  of  legs 
enlarged  and  modified  to  act  as  claspers  for  hold- 
ing tlie  female.  The  eggs  are  usually  deposited 
singly,  but  many  gall-mites  and  harvest-mites 
place  them  in  clusters. 

H.\i!rrs.  The  habits  of  mites  are  very  diverge. 
Host  mites  ordinarily  move  quite  slowly  and  de- 
liberately; very  few  mites  are  fitted  for  leaping. 
The  spinning  mites  or  "little  red  spiders'  (Te- 
tranychus)  produce  a  tiny  thread  wherever  they 
go,  the  accumulated  threads  of  many  individuals 
making  a  whitish  mesh  or  web.  More  than  one- 
half  of  the  known  mites  are  jiarasitie,  at  least 
during  part  of  their  life.  Tlie  ticks  are  well 
known  to  infest  various  mammals,  birds,  and 
even  snakes  and  turtles.  They  have  mnulli-parts 
especially  lilted  for  cutting  into  the  skin  of  the 
host  and  sucking  up  the  blood.  (See  Tick.) 
One  group  of  the  gamasids  is  parasitic  on  bats, 
birds,  and  small  mammals.  Tlie  bird-mites  live 
upon  tlic  skin  and  feathers  of  birds,  but  as  they 
feed  upon  epidermal  scales  and  loose  bits  of 
feathers,  they  do  not  injure  their  hosts,  but  are 
rather  of  service  in  keeping  the  skin  and  feath- 
ers clean.  The  itch-mites  burrow  within  the 
skin  of  man  and  other  mammals.  Dtlicr  species 
live  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  birds.  A  few  occur 
in  the  tracheal  passages  of  seals,  and  one  has 
been  found  living  in  the  lung  of  a  monkey.  JIany 
species  feed  on  living  plants,  and  the  gall-mites 
produce  deformations  on  the  leaves  and  twigs  of 
plants.  .Siiifc  these  gall-mites  are  invisible  to 
the  unaided  eye,  the  deformations  were  fnrmerly 
supposed  to  be  fungi.  Many  of  the  bcclle-mites 
feed  on  fungi,  lichens,  and  other  low  vegetation.  .\ 
large  number  of  mites  are  predneeous  and  attack 
other  mites  and  small  insects.  There  is  a  large 
family,  the  water-mites,  living  in  fresh  water, 
sometimes  as  conmiensals  within  the  gills  of 
bivalve  mollusks;  another  group  lives  in  the 
oeenn,  even  at  n  considerable  depth.  In  recent 
years  investigators  have  found  n  number  of  mites 
nssoclaterl  with  ants. 

In.urie.s.  The  injuries  eatrsed  by  mites  are 
arranged  in  two  classes:    injuries  to  man  and 


domestic  animals,  and  injuries  to  cultivated 
plants  and  stored  food.  The  most  notable  of  the 
former  class  are  the  ticks.  The  famous  miana 
hug  (if  I'ersia  is  a  tick  of  the  genus  Argas,  which 
inhabits  houses,  and  the  early  travelers  in  tiiose 
regions  declared  that  its  bite  or  puncture  would 
produce  convulsions,  delirium,  and  even  death. 
Specimens  kept  in  Europe,  however,  have  proved 
to  be  comparatively  harmless.  The  moubata  bug 
of  Africa  is  a  similar  tick  with  a  similar  reputa- 
tion. An  allied  species,  the  chieken-tiek  {Aii/as 
niinidtd) .  iloes  considerable  damage  to  poultry  in 
the  Southern  States.  The  cattle-tick  (llwjpliiliis 
hovis)  is  the  most  injurious  of  all  mites,  as  it 
occurs  in  nearly  all  warm  countries,  and  is  the 
means  of  spreading  the  Texas  or  Southern  cattle 
fever.  The  itch-mites  that  cause  a  disgusting 
scaling  of  the  skin  were  formerly  not  uncommon, 
but  modern  cleanliness  has  largely  abolished 
them  in  the  case  of  man.  A  species  known  as  the 
sheep  seab-mite  (I'.ioropIcK  communis)  'is  the 
cause  of  much  injury  to  sheep,  both  In  flesh  and 


CLOVER  MITE  (Br^obhi pratensis). 


wool.  The  red  spider  (Tetranychus)  is  a  peren- 
nial source  of  trouble  to  greenhouse  and  out- 
door plants,  while  the  'elovcr-mite'  is  a  i)est 
of  fruit  trees  in  the  West,  and  a  related  form 
(StignLTiis)  injures  pineapples  in  Florida.  To 
the  family  of  cheese  or  Hour  mites  ( Tyro- 
glyphidic)  belong  a  number  of  injurious  species. 
The  true  cheese  or  fiour  mites  (Tyroglyphus  and 
Alenrobius)  feed  on  a  great  variety  of  stored 
products:  cheese,  flour,  hams,  cereals,  drugs, 
seeds,  and  dried  fruits,  .\ltliough  they  are  very 
small,  they  multi])ly  so  rapidly  that  attacked 
materials  are  completely  overrun  with  them  in 
a  few  days.  Some  species  infest  mushroimis  and 
are  a  serious  hindrance  to  their  cultivation.  The 
bulb-mite,  m-  eueharis-mite  (  Khizoglyiihus ) .  bur- 
rows within  bulbs  and  the  roots  of  jdaiits,  there- 
by giving  entrance  to  destructive  fungi;  the  bulbs 
of  lilies  and  orchids  are  jiartieularly  subject  to 
their  ravages.  A  few  species  of  gall-mites  arc 
of  great  economic  importance,  especially  the  pear- 
leaf  blister-mite  { IC rioph i/rx  pi/ri).  which  is  n 
notorious  enemy  of  pear  culture  in  the  United 
States.  Certain  species  of  Tarsonemidiv.  living 
in  enormous  numbers  in  the  heads  of  grasses,  are 
kown  to  cause  a  whitening  of  the  grass,  called 
'silver-to]).' 

Comparatively  few  mites  are  beneficial  to  man. 
One  of  the  harvest-mites  is  known  to  destroy  the 
eggs  of  grassho]i]iers.  and  various  speries  of 
Cheyletus  prey  on  the  flour-mites  and  other  in- 
jurious forms.  Several  species  have  been  found 
feeding  on  scale-insects. 

Ci.AssiFTrATioN.  The  mites,  formerly  all  kept 
in  one  family,  have,  in  recent  years,  bicn  divided 
into  from  ten  to  thirty  families,  accordiiii.'  to  the 
author.     The  leading  families  are  the  following: 


MITE. 


631 


MITHRAS. 


Trombidiida;  and  Rli\iK-liuloplud;L>,  or  harvest- 
liiitL-.;  many  of  large  size  and  briylit  red  color. 

Kiipudidie,  consisting  of  many  .small,  soft- 
bodied  species  that  occur,  ou  moist  soil. 

letranychida',  spinning  mites,  red-spiders,  and 
clover-mites. 

i!ilellid;e,  or  snouted  mites,  from  the  long,  pro- 
jecting mandibles;  predaceous. 

Cheyletid.-e,  mites  with  .stout,  spin\'  palpi;  pre- 
daceous or  parasitic. 

Uribatida-,  or  beetle-mites;  so  called  from  their 
hard  and  often  shining  bodies;  very  nuniei'ous, 
but  of  little  economic  importance. 

(ianiasidaN  many  predaceous,  and  lurking  com- 
monly under  fallen  leaves  and  in  moist  places. 

IxodidiC,  or  ticks,  all  parasitic. 

Tarsonemids,  soft-bodied,  and  of  curious  struc- 
ture. 

Tyroglyphidte,  cheese  and  flour  mites,  soft- 
bodied  forms,  in  which  the  'H^vpopus'  stage  is 
very  common. 

Hydrachnidae,  or  fresh-water  mites;  and  Hala- 
carida-.  or  marine  mites. 

Sarco])tid;c,  or  itch-mites;  and  Analgesidfe,  or 
bird-mites. 

Kriophyidie,  or  gall-mites,  remarkable  for  their 
min\ite  size,  tapering,  annulate  body,  and  pos- 
sessing (inly  four  legs. 

MITE,  Sir  JIatthew.  In  Foote's  i^lay  The 
Xabob,  a  wealthy  and  dissolute  character,  who 
has  made  his  fortune  as  a  merchant  in  India, 
and  squanders  it  in  objectionable  ways  on  his 
return. 

MIT'FOED.  .Tonx  (1781-1859).  An  English 
autliur  and  divine,  born  at  Richmond,  in  Surrey, 
August  13,  1781.  He  graduated  E.A.  from  Oriel 
College.  O.xford.  in  1804.  Five  years  later  he 
took  orders  in  the  English  Church  ;  and  in  1810 
he  received  from  Lord  Redesdale  the  vicarage 
of  Benhall  in  Suffolk.  A  few  years  later  he  ob- 
tained two  other  livings  in  the  same  shire.  At 
Benliall  he  built  a  parsonage,  collected  a  choice 
library,  and  amused  himself  in  gardening.  He 
took  jiernianent  lodging  in  London,  where  as 
time  went  on  he  came  to  live  for  most  of  the 
year.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Samuel 
Rogers,  of  Charles  Lamb,  and  of  other  literary 
men.  From  1834  to  18.50  he  edited  the  GenUe- 
waii'f!  Mfir/azine,  to  which  he  contriljuted  largely. 
He  died  at  Benhall,  April  27.  18.50.  IMitford 
wrote  considerable  verse,  of  which  may  be  cited 
Afiiics,  the  Indian  Captive,  a  poem  in  four  cantos 
(1811).  and  Miscellaneous  Poems,  a  selection 
frnni  his  fugitive  pieces  (1858).  For  the  Aldine 
edition  of  the  English  poets  he  contributed  eleven 
memoirs.  His  best  critical  work  was  on  Gray, 
fiiund  in  The  Works  of  Thomas  Grnif  (1810 1,  arid 
in  tlie  .\ldine  edition  (5  vols..  1S3.5-43).  His  re- 
searches have  been  very  freely  used  by  succeeding 
editors.  Clifford  left  three  volumes  of  manu- 
script on  Gray  and  a  large  mass  of  oilier  manu- 
script, much  of  which  is  now  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington iluseum  and  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum. 

MITFOED,  M.VRY  Eu.ssELL  (1787-1855).  An 
English  authoress,  born  at  Alresford.  Hampshire, 
December  16,  1787.  In  1797  she  drew  f'20,000 
in  a  lottery,  with  a  part  of  which  her  father 
built  a  house  at  Reading.  She  was  .sent  to  a 
good  London  school  for  a  short  time  (1798-1802), 
and  then  returned  to  her  father's  house.  At  this 
time  she  was  reading  extensively.     In   1810  she 


]niblished  Miscellaneous  I'oeins,  which  were  ira- 
niediately  followed  by  other  volumes  (1811-12- 
13).  The  family,  reduced  to  poverty  as  a  result 
of  the  father's  improvidence,  moved  in  1S20  to 
a  'laborer's  cottage'  at  Three  JMile  Cross,  a  vil- 
lage near  Reading.  For  a  living  she  now  began 
writing  for  the  magazines  and  tlie  stage.  Among 
her  plays  (tragedies),  which  were  moderately 
successful,  are  Julian  (1823),  Foscari  (1820), 
and  L'ienzi  (1828).  In  the  meantime  she  had 
taken  to  writing  sketches  of  village  life  as  she 
iiad  observed  it.  They  were  publislied  (5  vols., 
1824-32)  in  installments,  under  the  title  Our  Vil- 
lage. These  descriptive  pieces  ])Ossess  charm, 
grace,  and  humor  akin  to  .Tane  Austen's.  They 
were  followed  by  the  more  regular  novel  of 
country  life,  Belford  Regis  (1835),  and,  after  a 
long  interval,  by  Atherton  and  Other  Tales 
(1854).  In  1851  Miss  Mitford  removed  to  a 
near-by  cottage  at  Swallowfield,  wliere  she  died, 
January  10,  1855.  Consult  her  delightful  Recol- 
lections (London.  1852);  Our  Village,  with 
introduction  bv  Mrs.  A.  T.  Ritchie  (London, 
1803)  ;  L'Estrange,  Life  of  Mart/  Russell  Mitford 
( ib..  1870 )  :  and  The  Friendships  of  Mary  Russell 
Mitford    (ib.,    1882). 

MITFORD,  \ViLLi.\ii  (1744-1827).  An  Eng- 
lish historian,  born  in  London.  He  studied  at 
Queen's  College,  O.xford,  and  in  1709  became  a 
captain  in  the  South  Hampshire  militia.  He 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Gibl)on,  then  a  fellow- 
officer,  by  whose  advice  and  eneoiiragemcnt  he 
was  induced  to  undertake  his  celebrated  History 
of  Greece,  The  first  volume  of  this  work  ap- 
peared in  1784.  and  the  last  in  1810.  He  was 
three  times  elected  to  Parliament,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  history  at  tlie  Royal  Academy. 
He  also  wrote  An  Essay  on  the  Harmony  of  Lan- 
guage (1774),  and  several  minor  works. 

MITH'AN.  The  name  of  the  gayal  (q.v.), 
among  the  Indo-Chinese  tribes  west  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal. 

MITH'RAS  (Gk.M/fl/)ar,Ar.  M iSra, Skt.  Jilitra, 
friend  I .  One  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  an- 
cient Persian  religion.  The  god  seems  to  have 
been  known  to  the  Indo-lranians  before  their 
separation,  as  he  appears  in  both  Avesta  and 
Veda.  He  is  a  god  of  light,  invoked  in  company 
with  the  heaven  (Ahura  and  Varuna),  and  is 
the  guardian  of  truth  and  the  enemy  of  all 
falsehood.  In  India  this  deity  seems  to  have  been 
early  superseded,  but  in  Persia  he  retained  his 
place  as  one  of  the  chief  gods.  It  may  bo  con- 
sidered very  doubtful  whether  the  god  was  lior- 
rowed  from  the  early  Babylonians  at  a  date  long 
before  our  knowledge  begins,  more  especially  as 
in  the  earlier  texts  Mithras  is  not  the  sun.  but 
the  light  of  he;n'en.  In  the  Zoroastrian  religion 
he  is  one  of  the  Yazata  or  spirits  of  the  second 
rank,  though  even  here  he  occupies  a  high  posi- 
tion, seeing  and  knowing  everything,  a  being 
whom  it  is  impnssible  to  deceive  and  in  constant 
conflict  with  the  powers  of  darkness,  so  that  he 
becomes  a  warrior  god.  who  is  the  chief  helper 
of  Ahura -ilazda  in  his  sti-uggle  with  .Mirinian. 
In  the  Old  Persian  inscriptions,  it  should  be  .said, 
he  is  invoked  by  the  .Vcluemenida;  along  with 
Ahura-Mazda  and  Anahita.  and  his  festival  (on 
the  16th  day  of  the  7th  month)  was  one  of  the 
solemn  functions  of  the  State  religion.  Honored 
by  the  numerous  princes  who  built  up  small 
principalities  throughout  Western  Asia  after  the 


MITHRAS. 


632 


MITLA. 


division  of  Alexander's  kingdom,  the  god  was 
ii  prominent  divinity  in  Cilicia.  C'appadoiia,  and 
C'ommagenc,  though  practically  unknown  in  the 
Greek  world.  From  these  rejjions  his  worsliip 
came  to  the  West  through  the  Humans.  altliuugU 
it  is  not  mentioned  by  contemporary  writers  till 
the  first  century  of  our  era,  and  the  earliest 
Latin  inscriptions  belong  to  the  early  second 
century.  The  cult  with  its  mysteries  Avas  popu- 
lar in  the  army  and  quickly  spread  over  the 
whole  Roman  world,  as  its  monuments  in  all  the 
frontier  j)rovinees  plainly  show.  The  nature  of 
the  religion  is  obscure,  as  the  sacred  writings 
have  perished  and  information  must  be  drawn 
either  from  the  writings  of  Christian  adver- 
saries or  from  the  representations  in  the  numer- 
ous places  of  worship.  It  seems  clear  that  the 
basis  of  the  cult  was  derived  from  tlie  Mazdean 
worship,  but  with  a  considerable  mi.\turc  of 
Chaldsean  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
Mithras  seems  to  have  owed  his  prominence  to 
the  belief  that  he  was  the  source  of  all  life,  and 
could  also  redeem  the  souls  of  the  dead  anil 
bring  them  into  the  better  world.  This  worsliip 
was  celebrated  in  underground  chambers  of  small 
size,  to  which  only  those  who  belonged  to  tlie 
higher  degrees  were  admitted,  and  was  jirobably 
conducted  according  to  elaborate  ritual  pre- 
scriptions. The  ceremonies  included  a  sort  of 
baptism  to  remove  sins,  anointing,  and  a  sacred 
meal  of  bread  and  water,  while  a  consecrated 
wine  believed  to  possess  wonderful  power  played 
a  prominent  part.  The  mysteries  containe(l  seven 
degrees,  of  which  the  first  tliree  seem  to  have  been 
probationary  and  not  to  have  admitted  to  the 
sacred  ceremonies.  The  degrees  arc  given  in 
tliis  order:  (1)  Coro J  or  Raven;  (2)  Gruphus 
or  Griffin;  (3)  Miles  or  Soldier;  (4)  Leo  or 
Lion;  (.'))  Perscs  or  Persian;  (6)  flelioclromos 
or  Courier  of  the  Sun;  (7)  Patres  or  Fathers, 
who  were  at  the  head  of  the  cult,  and  whose 
chief  was  the  Pater  palruin.  The  other  initiates 
called  themselves  brethren  (fratrcs).  Women 
seem  to  have  been  excluded  from  the  rites.  The 
nature  of  the  initiation  is  not  known.  The  un- 
doubted similarity  in  much  cif  this  worship  with 
the  new  religion  of  Cliristianity  seems  only  to 
have  made  the  battle  between  the  rivals  bitterer, 
and  with  the  triumph  of  Christianity  began  the 
destruction  of  the  ^lithras  worship,  and  bv  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century  it  seems  to  have  been 
practically  extinct  in  tlie  West.  Consult:  Cu- 
niont.  Textes  ct  moniiinnits  ftfiiin's  7rln1ifs  aux 
vii/strres  tie  Milhnin  (Hrussels,  1804-001  ;  id..  Lrs 
mifxteres  de  Milhrnn  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  10021  ;  id., 
in  The  Of,,,!  CiiKrt    (Chicago.  Xovember.  1002). 

MITHRIDATES,  mlth'rrda'tez  (also  Mith- 
radates,  from  OPers.  MiOra,  the  stm-god  -f-  diita, 
given,  p.  p.  of  <l<i-,  to  give  I.  An  old  Persian  name, 
common  throughout  the  Kast.  borne  by  several 
kings  of  Pont  us.  The  most  celebrated  of  them 
and  the  greatest  of  the  rulers  of  Pontns  was 
Mithridates  VI.,  snrnanied  l^iipnlnr  and  Ploiii/- 
sun,  but  commonly  called  Mithridates  the  CJreat. 
lie  was  burn  at  Sinope  about  li.r.  1.14.  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  !Mithri<lates  V..  abotit  B.C.  121. 
At  the  age  of  about  twenty  he  took  the  reins  of 
government  into  his  own  hands.  Little  that  is 
certain  is  known  of  the  early  part  of  his  reign. 
He  soon  subdued  the  tribes  along  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Euxine  as  far  as  the  Tauric  Cherso- 
nese and  incorporated  the  Kingdom  of  Bosporus; 


he  then  prepared  to  extend  his  conquests  south  of 
the  Kuxine,  and  invaded  Cappaducia  and  Bitliy- 
nia.  Here  he  encountered  the  Romans.  He  waged 
three  wars  with  them,  known  as  the  First.  Sec- 
ond, and  Third  Mithridatic  Wars — the  First,  B.C. 
88-84;  the  Second,  B.C.  83-82;  the  Third.  B.C.  74- 
(i.j.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  First  Mithridatic 
War  was  the  invasion  of  the  territories  of  Mith- 
ridates by  Xicomedes,  King  of  Bithynia.  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  Romans.  Mithridates  quickly 
compelled  Xicomedes  to  withdraw,  but  was  in  the 
end  defeated  by  the  Roman  general  Flavius  Fim- 
bria, while  his  general  Archelaus  was  defeated  in 
tireece  by  Sulla.  It  was  in  the  course  of  this  war 
that  Jlitliridates  issued  an  order  to  all  the  cities 
of  Asia  to  put  to  death,  on  the  same  day,  all 
the  Roman  and  Italian  citizens  wlio  were  to  be 
found  within  their  walls.  Eighty  tliousand 
Romans  and  Italians  are  said  to  have  perished 
in  this  massacre.  As  a  result  of  the  First  Jlith- 
ridatie  War,  Mithridates  consented  to  abandon 
all  his  conquests  in  Asia,  to  pay  a  sum  of  2000 
talents,  and  to  surrender  to  the  llomans  a  fleet 
of  seventy  ships.  The  Second  Mithridatic  War 
was  due  to  the  invasion  of  Jlithridates's  do- 
minions by  the  Roman  general  Murena.  The 
war  was  in  the  main  favorable  to  ilitliridates, 
but  was  short-lived,  ilurena  being  soon  ordered 
by  Sulla  to  withdraw.  In  B.C.  74  Xicomedes  111., 
King  of  Bithynia.  died,  leaving  his  dominions  by 
will  to  the  Romans.  Jlithridates  claimed  that 
Xicomedes  had  left  >a  legitimate  son,  and  at  once 
prei)ared  to  assert  the  hitter's  right.  The  Third 
Mithridatic  W;ir  ensued.  At  first  alone,  and 
then  supported  liy  his  son-in-law.  Tigranes.  King 
of  Armenia,  ilithridates  successfully  opposed 
the  Roman  forces  under  Lueullus,  but  in  B.C. 
C6  the  conduct  of  the  war  was  intrusted  to 
Pompey.  ilithridates  was  then  obliged  to  re- 
treat beyond  the  Euxine,  where,  besieged  by  his 
son,  Pharnaces,  who  had  rebelled  against  hira 
and  had  been  proclaimed  King,  he  took  his 
own  life  at  Panticapaum  in  n.c.  03.  Mithri- 
dates was  a  siJecinieii  of  the  true  Eastern  despot, 
but  he  possesse<l  great  ability  and  extraordi- 
nary energy  and  ])erseverance.  His  want  of  suc- 
cess was  owing  not  to  his  defects  as  a  general, 
but  to  the  impossibility  of  raising  and  train- 
ing an  army  capable  of  coping  with  the  Roman 
legions.  He  had  received  a  Greek  education  at 
Sinope,  could  speak  more  than  twenty  dilferent 
languages,  and  had  a  taste  and  appreciation  for 
art  and  science.  He  owned  a  magnificent  collec- 
tion of  pictures,  statues,  and  engraved  gems.  In 
tlie  e.-tiniafion  of  tlic  J!nm:iMs.  be  was  the  most 
formidable  opponent  they  had  ever  encountered. 
Consult  Reinach,  MUhridate  Eupntor  (Paris, 
1890). 

MITLA,  m.-'tla.  or  MICTLAN.  A  small  town 
situated  thirty  miles  east  nf  (lie  city  of  (laxaca, 
in  Southern  NIexieo.  It  is  notable  as  being  the 
site  of  one  of  the  most  famous  and  remarkable 
groups  of  American  rtiins.  The  surnnuidings 
are  mountainous  and  inclose  a  wide,  fertile  val- 
ley, in  which,  near  the  banks  of  a  stream,  are 
located  the  ancient  buihlings  still  in  a  good 
state  of  preservation.  They  consist  of  five  great 
clusters  which  have  been  ternied  :  ( 1 )  the  group 
of  the  Cathrilic  Estnl)lishmeMt  ;  (2)  the  Colunms; 
(3)  the  Arrovo;  (4)  the  Adobe;  and  (.5)  the 
South  Side;  in  all  occupying  an  area  of  about 
2000  feet  in  width.  Other  foundations  of  razed 
buildings  exist  in  the  vicinity,  and  at  some  dis- 


MITLA. 


633 


MITOSIS. 


tance  away,  on  an  isolated  hill,  are  the  remains 
of  a  fort. 

The  building.^,  which  are  worthy  of  the  name 
of  temples  or  |)alaees,  are  ma.ssive,  reetan^nilar 
structures  of  dressed  stone,  set  on  i)yramidal 
|jlatforms,  and  erected  with  surprising  accuracy. 
The  stones,  usually  of  large  size,  and  weighing 
as  high  as  fifteen  toirs,  are  laid  with  such  pre- 
cision that  the  joints  are  scarcely  discernible  and 
for  this  reason  little  mortar  was  required.  The 
ground  plan  is  simple  and  tlie  buildings  are,  as  a 
rule,  long  and  narrow,  each  containing  only  a 
single  room,  while  the  walls  are  but  one  story  in 
height.  The  grouping  of  the  buildings  is  in  the 
form  of  quadrangles. 

The  walls,  in  many  cases  over  four  feet  in 
thickness,  are  faced  with  dressed  stone  or  plaster. 
Mosaic  stonework  like  that  of  Palenque  (q.v.) 
is  used  lavishly,  the  designs  being  frets  derived 
from  animal  motives.  The  exterior  walls  have 
no  openings,  but  the  doorways,  eitlier  single  or 
triple,  on  the  courts  are  imposing  in  their  mas- 
sive treatment.  There  were  no  doors,  but  sockets 
for  the  insertion  of  awnings.  Supports  were 
worked  out  in  the  jambs.  The  rooms  were  ceiled 
with  beams  of  wood  or  slabs  of  .stone.  In  ease 
the  room  was  wide,  two  sets  of  beams  were  used, 
su])ported  on  a  row  of  large  stone  columns,  some 
of  wliicli  are  16  feet  high  and  80  inches  in  diam- 
eter. The  roofs  were  massive  and  flat,  and  con- 
structed of  beams,  cross  poles,  and  tilling  material 
of  brush,  capped  with  rammed  clay,  similar  to 
the  metliod  emijloyed  by  the  Pueldo  Indians  of 
the  Southwestern  United  States.  Tlie  floors  were 
made  of  a  durable  cement.  On  the  whole,  the 
Mitla  buildings,  wliile  formal  in  plan  and  pro- 
file, show  perfect  and  charming  mosaic  surface 
decoration,  arranged  in  panels  which  exhibit 
great  fertility  of  geometric  design,  as  well  as  skill 
in  execution.  This  feature,  so  far  as  known,  is 
confined  to  two  groups,  though  it  was  probably 
used  in  others.  In  the  Arroyo  group  mural 
paintings  resembling  the  pictographs  of  the  co- 
dices were  employed  on  the  lintels.  A  note- 
wortliy  feature  is  that  sculpture  is  almost  lack- 
ing in  these  buildings. 

Only  one  of  the  palaces  has  a  basement  story, 
and  this  cellar  is  cruciform.  Several  of  these 
cruciform  structures  have  been  discovered  in  and 
near  Mitla.  but  nowhere  else  in  Mexico  have  they 
been  observed,  except  at  Chila  in  Puebla.  It  is 
.surmised  that  they  were  sepulchres  of  important 
personages.  The  character  of  the  Mitla  masonry 
is  also  seen  in  the  interesting  fortified  hill  situ- 
ated about  one  mile  west  of  the  village.  In  loca- 
tion, massiveness  of  construction,  and  skill  in 
plan,  it  ranks  with  the  ancient  fortifications  of 
Peru.  Piles  of  rounded  stones  on  the  walls  in- 
dicate that  the  fort  was  defended  by  slingers. 
The  quarries  from  which  the  ancient  ilitlans  se- 
cured their  materials  have  been  discovered.  The 
blocks  were  obtained  by  channeling  with  stone 
picks  and  hammers  the  full  length  of  the  stones 
and  across  the  ends:  then  channels  were  cut 
down  the  sides  and  under  the  blocks  until  they 
could  be  broken  off.  Enormous  stones  in  all 
stages  of  the  work  still  remain  in  the  quarry. 
Pottery  of  excellent  design  and  finish  has  been 
found.  Large,  well-executed  figurine  vases  are 
numerous.  The  color  is  dark-gray  like  the  an- 
cient Zapotecan  ware,  but  painted  pottery  is  un- 
common here.    Fan-shaped  implements  and  a  few 


celts  of  copper  represent  the  onlj'  metal  objecta 
found. 

Consult:  Charnay,  Cit<!s  vt  ruiiics  amvricaines 
(Paris,  18U3)  ;  Bandelier,  Archwological  Tour  in 
Mexico  in  ISSl  (Boston,  1884)  ;  Scler,  Wand- 
niiilrrrirn  von  Mitla  (Berlin,  1S!)5)  ;  Holmes, 
"Archaeological  Studies  Among  the  Ancient  Cities 
of  Mexico,"  in  Fublications  of  the  Field  Colum- 
bian Museum  (Chicago,  18U7);  and  .Saville, 
"Cruciform  Structures  Near  Jlitla,"  in  Bulletin 
of  American  Muxcuin  of  Xatural  History,  vol. 
xiii.   (New  York,  1000). 

MITO,  me'td,  or  MYTHO.  A  town  of  Cochin- 
China.  situated  on  an  arm  of  the  Mekong,  about 
4.5  miles  southwest  of  Saigon,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail  (ilap:  French  Indo-China,  E 
5).  It  has  a  college  and  a  hospital  and  is  on  the 
trade  route  between  Cambodia  and  Annam.  Popu- 
lation, about  27,000. 

MITO'SIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  filmc,  mitos, 
thread).  The  phenomena  accompanying  the  di- 
vision of  the  nucleus  of  cells,  a  term  proposed  by 
Fleming  in  1882  and  superseding  'karyokinesis.' 
In  cell-division  the  seat  of  the  changes  is  the 
nucleus,  in  which  portion  of  the  cell  the  processes 
of  cell-division  originate.  After  the  nucleus  sub- 
divides the  entire  cell  divides  into  halves,  form- 
ing two  new  cells.  Mitosis  occurs  not  onl3'  in 
the  division  of  cells  during  growth,  but  the 
nucleus  sulidivides,  forming  the  first  steps  in 
reproduction  or  fertilization  of  all  organisms. 
When  the  nucleus  is  about  to  divide,  tlie  chro- 
matic granules  forming  part  of  the  nuclear  sub- 
stance, and  previously  scattered  throughout  the 
central  mass  of  the  nucleus,  become  arranged 
in  a  row,  forming  a  long  thread,  wliich  extends 


STAGES  IN    HUTOSIS. 

1,  Preparatory  to  division  :  2,  early  stape  in  separation 
of  cliromosomes;  3,  lat«r  stacre  in  fteimration  ;  4,  form- 
ation of  daugliter  nuclei  at  poles,  and  of  wall  at  equator 
of  spindle. 

through  the  nucleus  in  an  irregular  spiral 
(s])irenie)  and  then  divides  into  portions 
("chromosomes')  of  fairly  equal  length.  The 
chromosomes  are  shaped  like  long  loops,  wliich 
afterwards  become  shortened,  thus  giving  rise  to 
short  loops,  straight  rods,  or  roinided  granules. 
As  a  rule  the  number  of  chromosomes  is  constant 
for  each  species  of  plant  or  animal,  and  also  for 


MITOSIS. 


634 


MITRE. 


successive  series  of  cells  during  gro«-th.  By  the 
time  llie  process  has  leaclieil  tlu!-  >tage  a  si)ecial 
mcclianism  appears,  which  has  till  now  remained 
concealed  in  the  cell-substance.  This  serves  to 
divide  the  chromatin  elements  into  two  equal 
parts,  to  separate  the  resulting  halves  from  one 
another,  and  to  arrange  them  in  a  regular  man- 
ner. At  the  opposite  poles  of  the  longitudinal 
a.\is  of  the  nucleus  two  clear  bodies — the  'cen- 
trosomes,'  each  surrounded  by  a  clear  zone,  the 
so-called  'sphere  of  attraction' — now  become  visi- 
ble. These  were  first  discovered  by  Fol,  by  Van 
Beneden,  and  also  by  Boveri,  who  recognized  their 
importance.  They  appear  to  possess  a  great 
power  of  attraction  over  the  vital  particles  of  the 
coll,  so  that  those  become  arranged  around  them 
like  a  series  of  ra,vs.  At  a  certain  stage  in  the 
])roparation  for  division,  the  substance  of  the  cell- 
body  and  of  the  nucleus  gives  rise  to  delicate 
fibres  or  threads;  these  fibres  are  motile,  and, 
after  the  disappearance  of  the  nuolcar  mem- 
brane, seize  the  chromosomes  with  wonderful  cer- 
tainty and  regularity,  and  in  such  a  way  that 
each  element  is  held  on  either  side  by  several 
threads  from  each  jiole.  The  chromatin  elements 
thus  immediately  become  arranged  in  a  fixed  and 
regular  manner,  so  as  to  lie  in  the  equatorial 
plane  of  the  nucleus.  The  centrosomes  and 
threads  or  astral  fibres  (axlei')  called  the  '.spin- 
dle' together  form  the  'am pinaster.'  The  chro- 
matin olemonts  next  split  longitudinally,  thus 
becoming  douljlod.  as  discovered  by  Fleming.  This 
splitting  is  completed  by  the  two  halves  being 
gradually  drawn  farther  apart  toward  the  op- 
posite poles  of  the  nuclear  spindle,  until  they 
finally  approach  the  centre  of  attraction  or  oen- 
trosome,  which  has  now  fulfilled  its  object  for  the 
present,  and  retires  into  the  obscurity  of  the  cell- 
substance,  only  to  booome  active  again  at  the 
next  cell  division.  Kach  .separate  half  of  the 
nucleus  now  ''onstitutes  a  daughter  nucleus  in 
whiih  it  breaks  up.  and  is  scattered  in  minute 
granules  in  the  nuclear  network.  The  body  of 
the  cell  then  divides,  showing  two  new  cells. 
Eou.x  has  pointed  out  that  the  whole  complex 
but  wonderfully  exact  apparatus  for  the  division 
of  the  nucleus  exists  for  the  purpose  of  divid- 
ing the  chromatin  Bubstancc  in  a  fi.\ed  and  regu- 
lar manner,  not  merely  <|Uanlitatively,  but  also 
in  respect  of  the  dilVeront  qualities  which  nuist 
be  contained  in  it.  It  will  l>e  remembered  that 
the  chromatin  particles  or  chromosomes  are  be- 
lieved to  be  bearers  of  hcreditv.  The  mechanism 
of  mitosis  is  thus  far  unkno«Ti.  The  problem 
may  be  solved,  as  Wilson  states,  through  chemi- 
cal research. 

Amitosi.s.  ^litosis  is  the  indirect  division  of 
the  nucleus:  where  the  nucleus  elongates  and  di- 
rectl.v  divides  through  its  total  mass  the  process 
is  called  'amitosis.'  This  appears  to  occur  ex- 
cept iunall.v.  but  is  known  to  take  phue  in  auKoba, 
in  leucoc.vtes,  and  has  boon  observed  in  the 
sperm-cells  and  eggs  of  batracbians  and  some  in- 
sects; but  more  commonl.v  in  pathological  tissues. 

Bliii.lo<iH,\PliY.  Fleming,  Zrllxuh.ilnnz,  Kern 
vnd  Zcllleiliiiitf  (Leipzig.  1S82)  ;  Roux,  I'cher 
<lir  lirrleiiliinfi  ilrr  Ki  rntriliinfi-ififttircii  (Leipzig, 
188.3);  (Irsiimiiirltr  .\bhamlluiir/rn  iihrr  I'nI- 
irirJ.Jitnpsnirchnnik  tjrr  Orrintiisnirn  (Leipzig, 
18'X"))  ;  Weisniann,  Thr  flrrm  I'titsm  (Xow  York, 
18031  ;  Wilson,  rii,'  Crll  iu  Drrrlnpment  and  In- 
hrritnncr  ( Xew  York.  IS'IO).  See  CELL;  Embby- 
OLOCT;  JIeCHAMCS  of  DEVELOPMENT. 


MITRA  (Skt.,  friend).  A  \'edic  Hindu  deity. 
He  is  mentioned  most  frequently  in  cipiiipany  with 
\'aruna  (ci-v.),  with  whom  in  the  Veda  liis  at- 
tributes l)lend.  Although  he  seems  to  have  been 
a  god  of  importance  in  the  Indo-lranian  religion, 
he  lost  his  rank  early  in  the  Indian  period,  and 
was  not  recognized  after  the  Vedic  age.  His 
Iranian  counterpart,  ilithra  (q.v. ),  however, 
was  one  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  pre-Zoroastrian 
religion,  where  lie  represented  the  sun. 

MITRAILLEUSE,  m^'tri'yCz'  (Fr.  mitraille- 
firer,  from  iiiitydiller,  to  fire  mitraille,  from  mi- 
iruillc,  liits  of  grape-shot,  from  OF.  titituilU  .  frag- 
ments, from  mile,  small  bit:  ultimately  connected 
with  (iotli.  mnitan,  to  cut).  A  machine  gun,  in 
which  is  combined  a  number  of  rifle  barrels,  with 
breech-action  mechanism,  and  designed  to  dis- 
charge small  missiles  with  great  rapidity.  It  was 
invented  in  Belgium,  and  adopted  Ijy  the  French 
a  little  before  the  war  with  Germany  in  1870. 
See  ilAciiixK  lU  x.s. 

MITRAL   VALVE.      Sec    Heart;    Circul.\- 

TIOX. 

MITRE  (OF..  Fr.  mitre,  from  Lat.  mitra, 
from  Gk.  fiirim,  mitre,  fillet,  bell ;  probably  ulti- 
matel.v  of  Oriental  origin).  The  head-dross  worn 
in  solemn  functions  by  bishops  and  some  abbots. 
The  ornament  is  ])rol)ably  of  Eastern  origin,  al- 
though the  head-dress  of  Eastern  ])relatos  at  the 
present  d;i.v  is  quite  different,  lieing  a  large  round 
cap.  something  like  a  crown.  Tlie  Western  mitre 
is  a  tall,  tongue-shaped  cap,  terminating  in  a  two- 
fold i)oint,  .supposed  to  s^'mlxdize  the  'eloven 
tongues  as  of  fire'  in  which  the  Holy  Spirit  de- 
soenilod  upon  the  Apostles ;  two  Haps  or  stream- 
ers fall  from  it  behind  over  the  shoulders.  Opin- 
ion is  much  divided  as  to  the  date  at  which  the 
mitre  first  came  into  use.  Eusoliius.  Gregory 
Xaziinzen,  Epiphanius,  and  others  s]ieak  of  an 
ornamented  head-dress  worn  in  the  (buroh:  Imt 
there  is  no  vcr.v  early  pictorial  representation 
which  exhibits  an.v  head-covering  at  all  resembling 
the  modern  mitre.  From  the  tenth  century,  how- 
ever, it  is  undcnd)tedl,v  found  in  use,  altlumgh  not 
at  first  \iniversall.v.  At  the  Reformation  the  mitre 
was  practically  discarded  as  a  jiart  of  the  epis- 
copal costume  in  England,  though  there  arc 
traces  of  its  survival  in  iscdatod  instances;  and 
the  first  Bishop  of  the  Episocijial  Church  in 
America,  Soabury,  occasionally  wore  one.  In  the 
last  half  of  the  nineteentli  (•entury  the  practice 
was  revived  with  increasing  frequency  in  the 
Anglican  Communion.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
ritual  throe  kinds  of  mitres  are  distinguished: 
mitra  preliosa,  richly  ornamented  with  jewels, 
gold,  and  silver;  mitra  (luriphri/fiiala.  of  gold 
brnc:ule  with  embroidery;  and  mitra  simptex.  of 
white  silk  or  linen  damask,  with  soarcol.v  any 
decoration,  which  is  worn  when  black  vestments 
are  used.     See  Costime,  Ecclesiastical. 

MITRE,  me'trA.  BARTOLOMfi  (1S2I  — ).  .\n 
Argentine  statesman,  born  at  Hucnos  Avros.  To 
escape  the  despotism  of  the  Dictator  Rosas,  he 
lied  to  Montevideo.  In  IStfi  he  emigrated  to 
Bolivia,  where  he  was  appointed  ehief  of  staff  to 
President  Ballivian.  and  director  of  the  military 
college.  l'])on  the  overthrow  of  liallivian  (1847) 
ho  was  banished  tii  Peru,  and  thence  went  to 
Chile.  In  18.51  he  joined  I'rquizii  in  the  upris- 
ing against  Rosas,  ami  in  I8."i'2  commanded  the 
revolutionary  artillery  at  the  battle  of  Monto 
Caseros,  in  which  Rosiis  was  overthro\vn.    Elected 


MITRE. 


635 


MITTERMAIEB. 


Deputy  to  tlie  Asspiiilily  of  Buenos  Ayres,  he 
strongly  opposed  the  ailniinislialion  of  L'l'qiiiza, 
who  was  now  at  the  heaii  of  the  Argentine  Confed- 
eration. \Vhen  suljsequentlv  Buenos  Ayres  had  set 
up  an  independent  government,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  war  and  eommanderiuehief  of  tlie 
forces.  He  was  defeated  Ijy  Ur<piiza  at  Cepechi  in 
1859,  and  Buenos  Ayres  was  forced  to  rejoin  tlie 
Confederation.  In  18G1  war  again  hrol<e  out, 
and  Urquiza  was  defeated  hy  Mitre  at  I'avon. 
A  constituent  congress  was  then  assenil)U^d, 
tile  present  Constitution  of  the  Argentine  Ke- 
public  was  adopted,  and  under  it  Mitre  was 
chosen  President  for  six  years.  By  his  care  im- 
portant internal  improvements  were  promoted 
and  foreign  inniiigration  was  encouraged.  When 
in  1865  war  was  declared  against  the  Republic 
by  the  Paragviayan  Dictator  Lopez,  Jlitre  ef- 
fected an  alliance  with  Brazil  and  Uruguay,  and 
commanded  the  united  armies  until  1807.  In 
lS7-t,  having  failed  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presi- 
dency, he  headed  an  inetVectual  revolt.  He 
founded  at  Buenos  Ayres  the  newspaper  La 
Nacion,  which  he  long  edited;  published  a 
volume  of  verse,  liimas  y  poesias  (1879),  and 
wrote  two  valuable  historical  works,  the  Hisioria 
de  lielg-rano  (1857)  and  Histoi'ia  de  iSrm  Martin 
(IStiO). 

MITRE,  The.  A  former  London  tavern,  the 
favorite  meeting-place  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson, 
Boswell,  and  other  celebrities.  It  stood  on  Fleet 
Street,  and  other  well-known  taverns  of  tlie 
same  name  were  situated  on  Wood  Street  and 
Fenchurch  Street,  both  destroyed  in  the  great 
fire  of  1660. 

MITRE  SHELL.  A  gastropod  of  the  genus 
Mitra.  family  ilitridie.  The  shells  are  very  beau- 
tiful and  much  prized  by  collectors,  the  favorite 
being  the  'bishop's  mitre'  {Mitra  episcopnlis) . 
The  shell  is  turreted,  smooth,  white,  spotted  with 
bright  red ;  pillar,  four-plaited ;  outer  lip  den- 
ticulated at  its  lower  part ;  epidermis  thin.  It  is 
found  in  East  Indian  seas.  In  this  genus  the 
shell  is  fusiform,  thick;  spire  elevated,  acute; 
aperture  small,  notched  in  front;  columella  ob- 
liquely plaited;  operculum  very  small.  The  ani- 
mal has  a  very  long  proboscis,  and  when  irri- 
tated emits  a  purple  liquid  having  a  very  of- 
fensive smell.  Over  400  recent  and  100  fossil 
species  have  been  described.  These  nioUusks  are 
found  at  depths  varying  from  the  surface  to  17 
fathoms,  on  reefs,  sandy  mud,  and  sands.  All 
are  inhabitants  of  warm  countries,  notably  the 
East   Indian  and  Philippine  regions. 

MITROWITZ,  mit'ro-vits,  or  Mitrovicza.  A 
town  of  Southern  Hungary,  in  the  Comitate  of 
Szcrem,  situated  on  the  Save,  40  miles  west  of 
Belgrade.  It  has  a  high  school,  considerable 
trade  in  grain  and  wine,  and  contains  ruins  of 
the  old  Roman  citv  of  ^inniiiin.  Population,  in 
1000,  11,518. 

MITSCHERLICH,  mit'sher-IlK,  Eit.ii.\RD 
(1794-186.3).  A  distingnislied  German  chemist. 
born  at  Xeuende,  near  .Tever.  In  1811  he  pro- 
ceeded to  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  where, 
as  well  as  at  Paris  and  GJlttingcn,  he  devoted 
himself  to  history,  philolog\-.  Oriental  languages, 
and  the  natural  sciences  and  medicine.  After- 
wards he  turned  his  attention  to  chemistry,  and 
while  working  under  Link  at  Berlin  he  first  ob- 
served the  similarity  in  the  crystalline  form  of 
those  phosphates  and  arsenates  similar  in  ehemi- 
VOL.  XIII.— 11. 


eal  composition.  He  then  set  to  work  measur- 
ing crystals  of  a  large  number  of  substances, 
and  was  able  to  establish,  about  1820,  the 
principle  of  isomorphism.  The  importance  o£ 
the  discovery  was  fully  recognized  by  Berzelius, 
on  whose  invitation  >lilsclierlich  went  to  Stock- 
holm, remaining  there  until  1821,  when  on  the 
death  of  Klaproth  he  was  appointed  to  the  va- 
cant chair  of  chemistry  at  Berlin.  One  of  his 
earliest  discoveries  after  his  appointment  was 
that  of  the  double  crystalline  form  of  sulphur, 
the  first  observed  case  of  dimorphism.  He  fur- 
ther discovered  seleiiic  and  p<'niiaiiganie  acids 
and  nitro-benzene;  studied  the  formation  of 
ethers,  the  phenomena  of  fermentation,  etc.  Hi.s 
principal  work  is  his  Lehrbuch  der  Chemie. 
begun  in  1829  (ed.  4,  Berlin.  1842-47).  His 
papers  on  various  scjentific  topics  appeared  in 
Poggendorff's  Annalen,  in  the  Ainiales  de  chimie 
et  de  physique,  and  in  the  Ablnindluniien  of  the 
Academy  of  Berlin.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  at  Berlin  in  1S96.  Mitscher- 
lieh  was  an  honorary  member  of  almost  all  the 
great  scientific  societies,  and  received  the  gold 
medal  from  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  his 
discovery  of  the  law-  of  isoinorphism.  Consult 
Rose,  Eilhard  Mitsclierlich  (Berlin,  1864),  See 
V  i:k.mi.stry,  section  on  llmltnti.  paragraph  Gen- 
eral Chemistry. 

MITTAG-LEEFLER,  mit'tag-lei'ler,  Magxcs 
Go.ST.\,  Baron  von  (1846 — ).  A  Swedish  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Stockholm.  He  studied  mathe- 
matics at  Upsala  and  later  under  Weierstrass 
at  Berlin.  He  began  his  teaching  as  tutor  at 
Upsala  in  1872,  and  five  years  later  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Helsingfors.  In  1881 
he  was  made  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
University  of  Stockholm,  and  subsequently  was 
several  times  its  rector.  He  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Sweden  in 
1883.  His  mathematical  contributions  are  con- 
nected chiefly  with  the  theory  of  functions.  In 
1882.  under  the  patronage  of  King  Oscai',  he 
founded  the  Aela  Maihematiea,  at  present  one 
of  the  leading  mathematical  journals  of  the 
world.  Tlie  historical  part  of  this  journal  has 
since  1887  been  published  separately  by  Enes- 
trijm  as  the  Bihliotheea  Mathematica.  It  was 
Mittag-Lefller's  ap]ireciation  of  Sonya  Kovalev- 
sky's   (q.v. )   work  that  took  her  to  Stockholm. 

MITTERMAIER,  mtt'ter-mT'er,  Karl  Jo- 
.SEPH  Anton  (1787-1867).  A  German  jurist; 
born  in  Munich,  and  educated  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Landeshut  and  Heidelberg.  He  was  a 
professor  at  Bonn  for  two  years,  1819-21 ;  but  the 
rest  of  his  life  was  passed  as  professor  of  law 
and  jurisprudence  at  Heidelberg.  For  many 
years  he  was  a  member  of  the  Baden  Legislature, 
and  in  1848  he  was  president  of  the  Frankfort 
Vorparlament,  serving  afterwards  as  representa- 
tive of  the  city  of  Baden  in  the  German  Na- 
tional Assembly.  His  greatest  claim  to  dis- 
tinction lies  in  his  extensive  writings  on  juris- 
prudence, among  which  is  a  complete  mantial  of 
criminal  law.  Das  deutsche  fUrnfverfahren.  and 
he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  reform  in  the 
German  criminal  procedure  and  in  pri.son  disci- 
pline. The  number  of  his  pulilished  writings  is 
very  large.  inclu<ling  many  treatises  on  branches 
of  law.  discussions  on  all  the  important  ques- 
tions of  his  time  connected  with  jurisprudence, 
and  especially  on  trial  by  jury  and  the  penal 


MITTEBMAIER. 


636 


MIXED   RACES. 


code.  His  priiaijial  wuik^  have  lieen  translatod 
into  many  lan;;iia;.'cs.  lit-  liimsilf  tian-.lated 
Francis  Liebcr's  Litter  on  Anylicun  and  (Jullican 
Liberty,  and  edited  the  German  translation  of 
the  same  author's  Civil  Liberty. 

MITTERWURZER,  mit'ter-voorts'er.  Anton 
ll81t?-7li).  A  Ccrman  opera  singer,  one  of  the 
greatest  barytone  interpreters  of  the  works  of 
•  iluck,  Marschner,  and  Wagner.  He  was  born  at 
SSterzing  in  tlie  Tyrol:  made  his  first  theatrical 
appearand  at  Innsbruck,  and  at  twenty-one  was 
engaged  at  Dresden,  where  he  stayed  for  thirty 
years,  and  greatly  inllucnced  operatic  methods. 
Alitterwurzer  was  at  his  best  in  such  Wagnerian 
rrdes  as  Wdlfram,  Telranmnd,  and  Hans  Sachs. 

MITTIMUS  (I.at.,  we  send).  A  written  war- 
rant or  mandate  issued  by  ;»  competent  judicial 
otlicer.  directing  a  proper  olliccr  to  convey  safely 
the  body  of  a  prisoner  to  some  jail  or  ])lace  of 
confinement,  and  commanding  the  warden  1o  re- 
ceive and  keep  the  prisoner  for  a  certain  time, 
or  until  released  by  due  process  of  law.  The 
act  of  .sending  the  jirisoner  to  prison  is  termed 
the  commitment,  and  this  latter  term  is  now- 
more  commonly  emidoved  to  describe  the  war- 
rant also.  .\iiy  oHicer  who  disobeys  such  a  com- 
mand is  guilty  of  contempt  of  court.     See  CoM- 

WITMENT;    ARRKST. 

MITTU,  niit'too.  An  agricultural  Negro 
tribe,  akin  to  the  lioiigo,  anil  living  on  the  I'pper 
Nile  in  J^oulhern  Sudan.  They  are  of  earthy  red- 
brown  color,  and  beknv  the  middle  stature,  but 
muscular.  The  hair  is  short  and  crisp.  The 
lighter  color  of  the  skin  would  indicate  a  type 
of  Hamite  blood ;  but  they  are  all  pagans,  like 
the  other  negroes  about  them,  and  little  affected 
by  ilohammedanisni.  (ioats.  fowls,  and  dogs 
are  their  domestic  animals.  At  certain  seasons 
of  the  year  they  are  engaged  in  hunting  and 
fishing.  The  costume  of  the  Mittu  consists  only 
of  a  fringed  apron:  but  they  are  fond  of  deco- 
rating their  hair  and  parts  of  the  body,  such 
as  the  neck,  arms,  and  lips,  with  ornaments. 
Their  weapons  are  bows  and  arrows,  with  jagged. 
murdcruMs    points.      They    call   their   land    Moro. 

MITTWEIDA,  mit'vida.  An  industrial  town 
of  Saxony,  (Jermany,  situated  (m  the  Zschopau, 
about  ;)()  miles  west-sovithwest  of  Dresden  (ilap: 
Oerniany.  E  .31.  It  has  important  manufactures 
of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  machinery,  and  fur- 
niture. Its  educational  institutions  include  a 
realschule  and  a  ti'chnical  school.  I'opulaticm 
(including  Kilssgen),  in  lilOO.  iri.Il!>,  chiefiy 
I'rotestants, 

MITYLENE,  mlt'Me'ne.  An  island  of  the 
-l-jgean.     Si-c  I.K.snos. 

MIVART,  nii'vert.  St.  (Jkorc^k  .Iackson 
(1827-HI(IO).  .\n  Kiigli-h  zoillogist.  horn  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  I'dui'ateil  first  at  Harrow,  then  at 
King's  Collegi'.  London,  and  then,  having  lieeome 
a  Catholic  in  1H44.  at  .Stint  Mary's  College.  Os- 
eott.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  IS.'il,  but 
in  1862  he  became  lecturer  on  comparative  anat- 
omy and  /.oiilogy  at  S:iint  Mary's  Hospital.  Lon- 
don, and  held  the  chair  of  biologv-  in  the  Honian 
Catholic  l?niversitv  College,  Kensington,  during 
its  short  career  (1874-77).  Knim  IHltO  to  ISfi:! 
he  was  professor  of  the  philosophy  fif  nattiral 
history  at  the  I'niviTsity  of  I.ouvain.  lielgium. 
He  was  a  most  enreful  and  competent  anatomist 
and  zoologist,  and  wrote  n  large  number  of  very 


important  nicmoir>.  esjiecially  upon  the  morphol- 
ogy and  classification  of  vertcl)rates,  and  con- 
tributed largely  lo  tlie  discussion  of  the  question 
of  evolution.  He  was  prol)ably  the  most  learned 
and  powerful  critic  of  Darwin  and  Huxley  in 
minimizing  the  etlect  of  natural  selection  as  a 
factor  of  evolution,  and  in  insisting  upon  the  ex- 
istence of  the  guiding  action  of  divine  power,  es- 
pecially in  the  develo])ment  of  man's  intellect  and 
spiritual  instinct.  lie  ilislinguishcd.  however, 
between  absolute  and  directive  creation,  main- 
taining that  evolution  o))erated  only  by  means 
of  the  latter.  His  strength  lay  in  natural 
science,  and  in  this  department  he  held 
a  position  of  unquestioned  eminence.  His 
elforts  to  reconcile  the  facts  of  science 
with  the  doctrines  of  religion  aroused  wide- 
spread attention.  In  this  field  he  published  a 
nund>er  of  works,  such  as  Lmaons  from  Mature 
as  Manifrstrrl  in  Mind  and  Matter  (1876)  :  .Ya- 
/»)■(■  and  Thoiiyht  (1882);  On  Truth  (1889); 
and  The  drounduork  of  Sriener:  A  i<tudy  of 
ICpistenioloyy  (189S).  He  claimed  an  increasing 
freedom  of  thought  which  ultimately  took  him 
Ix-yond  what  were  considered  in  the  Church  the 
hounds  of  permissible  speculation,  and  after  a 
series  of  magazine  articles  dealing  with  the  rela- 
tions between  science  and  faith  which  ran 
through  the  years  1885-1900.  he  was  finally  ex- 
coMuuunicated  by  Cardinal  Vaughan  in  .lanuarv, 
11100.  lie  died  April  1st  of  the  same  year.  His 
more  impintant  works  in  natural  science  are: 
The  Genesis  of  l^peeics  (1871)  ;  .Von  and  Apes 
(187:i);  The  Common  Frog  (1874);  The  Cat 
(  1881  1  :  Dnfis.  ./arkals.  ^ynlres.  and  Forres  ( 1890). 

MIXED  CADENCE  (in  music).  The  pecu- 
liar closing  strains  of  a  melody,  formed  by  the  suc- 
cession of  the  subdomimint.  dominant,  and  tonic 
chords.  It  is  the  most  frequently  use<l  of  any  of 
the  ca<lences.     See  C.^dknce. 

MIXED  RACES.  Races  which  are  blends  of 
various  dllicr  laics.  Of  the  factors  which  have 
been  most  potent  in  producing  the  varieties  of 
man  which  we  find  on  earth  to-day.  probably  en- 
vironment and  crossbreeding  must  be  assigned 
the  first  place.  Unfortunatidy,  neither  one  has  been 
investigated  with  siifliiMcnt  care  to  allow  an  accu- 
rate estimate  of  its  specific  intluciu'c.  Further, 
the  lack  of  any  agreement  aimuig  anthropologists 
as  to  a  classification  of  hum:in  races  complicates 
the  problem,  and  until  that  agreement  is  reached, 
confusion   in  the  discussion   is  inevitable. 

Certain  general  observations  may,  however,  be 
permitted.  With  regi>rd  to  crnss-lireeding,  it  is 
undoubted  that  extensive  migrations,  with  eonse- 
(pient  blood  mixtures,  have  been  going  on  for  an 
indefinite  period.  Ac<'urate  observation  of  ana- 
tomical anil  physiological  characteristics  of  cer- 
tain rather  restricted  groups,  as  in  Kurope.  re- 
veals a  variability  in  fliese  characters  which  has 
led  some  observers  to  conclude  that  a  pure  race 
does  not  exist  at  the  present  time.  Recognizing 
these  disturbing  facts,  however,  any  one  will  ad- 
mit that  there  are  certain  types  which  are  rela- 
tively permanent.  We  ri'gard  the  fair  white 
Kuropean  as  dilTcring  permanently  from  the  Ne- 
gro, and  both  of  these  equally  permanently  from 
tlie  typical  .Mongol.  It  is  also  a  matter  of  com- 
mon observation  that  mixture  of  any  two  of 
these  types  will  prixluce  a  third,  less  distinctive, 
of  course,  but  not  to  1m>  included  in  either  parent 
type.     The  real  problem  of  hybridity  as  applied 


MIXED  RACES. 


637 


HIYAJIMA. 


to  man  tlipn  arises:  Are  those  sul)tvpes  jiprnia- 
neiit  and  fertile,  or  do  the_\'  tend  to  revert  to 
either  one  or  the  other  of  the  parent  types';  It 
»  is  here  that  the  lack  of  accurate  knowledge  re- 
ferred to  above  prevents  positive  statement.  Early 
reports  as  to  lack  of  fertility  of  certain  half- 
hreeds,  as  in  the  case  of  English  and  Australians, 
have  been  shown  upon  examination  to  be  errone- 
ous or  the  apparent  sterility  due  to  non-essential 
factors;  and  recent  observations  on  half-breed 
American  Indians  actually  show  an  increase 
rather  than  a  decrease  in  fertility.  Looking  at 
tlie  question  broadly,  it  would  seem  that  the  evi- 
dence, while  e.xtremely  scanty,  points  toward  the 
view  that  any  two  races  (however  defined)  can 
unite  to  form  a  third;  and  this  in  turn  with 
others,  until  we  have  a  confusion  of  strains  and 
types  in  which  the  originals  are  indistinguishable, 
wholly  or  partly,  which  is  ajjparently  precisely 
the  condition  wliich  we  find  to-day  in  various  re- 
gions of  the  world.  An  authoritative  catalogue 
of  the  existing  mixed  races  of  tlic  world  is  there- 
fore impossible.  The  most  notable  are  probably 
the  well-known  Mulatto,  or  cross  between  Euro- 
pean and  Negro,  the  Mestizo,  so  called,  or  cross 
between  European  and  American  Indian,  and  the 
complex  mixtures  which  we  find  in  the  East  In- 
dian Archipelago,  where  Chinese  and  Malayan 
traits  predominate. 

The  social  significance  of  race  mixture  is  of 
course  very  great,  but  the  complicating  factors 
in  this  aspect  of  the  question  are  even  greater 
than  on  the  physical  side.  We  find  here  two 
schools  ardentlv  advocating  diametrically  op- 
posed views  both  as  to  the  advantages  or  disad- 
vantages of  racial  mixtures,  as  well  as  to  the 
mode  of  transmission  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  parent  stocks.  The  whole  problem  is  involved 
in  the  general  zoological  problem  of  evolution 
and  heredity,  and  unassailable  ground  as  to  the 
points  involved  cannot  be  assumed  iintil  a  much 
wider  range  of  facts  is  at  our  disposal  and  the 
disputed  questions  of  inheritance  in  general  have 
more  nearly  approached  solution. 

MIXES.   See  Zoque. 

MIXOG'AMY  (from  Gk.  ;uifo-,  mixo-,  mixed, 
from  /jLiy vuvai,  mUjnynai,  to  mix  -}-  7(i^os,  ga- 
mofs,  marriage).  A  term  describing  the  breeding 
habits  of  most  fishes,  where  the  males  and  fe- 
males congregate  on  the  spawning-beds,  and  the 
number  of  the  former  sex  is  greatly  in  excess. 
The  same  habit  has  been  ob.served  in  gars  (Lepi- 
dosteus).  On  the  other  hand,  the  stickleback 
(Gastcrosteus)  is  truly  polygamous,  several  fe- 
males depositing  their  eggs  in  the  same  nest, 
guarded  by  one  male  only.  Some  bony  fishes 
(Ophioeephalus,  and  probably  all  chondroptery- 
gians)  are  monogamous,  as  probably  are  all  the 
viviparous  fishes.  Consult  Giinther,  An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  Fishes  (London,  1880). 

MIXTEC.  or  MISTEC,  me-stek'.  An  impor- 
tant tribe  of  high  native  culture  occupying  the 
,  coast  region  of  Guerrero.  Mexico,  from  Acapulco 
southward  into  Oaxaca.  and  inland  to  beyond  the 
border  of  Puebla.  With  their  southern  neigh- 
bors, the  Zapotec  (q.v.).  they  constitute  the 
Zapotecan  linguistic  stock.  Like  them,  they 
were  skilled  and  industrious  in  agriculture  and 
the  simpler  arts,  built  cities  and  temples  of 
hewn  stone,  preserved  their  rituals  and  traditions 
in  hieroglyphic  records,  and  had  a  calendar 
system  resembling  that  of  the  Aztec  tribes.  They 


still  occupy  much  of  tlieir  original  territory, 
and  continue  to  keep  themsehes  as  far  as  pos- 
silde  apart  from  the  political  afTairs  of  Mexico 
and  to  maintain  their  ancient  reputation  for 
weaving  and  pottery. 

MIXTURE  (OF.,  Kr.  mixture,  from  Lat.  mis- 
turd,  mixture,  from  miscere.  to  mix).  An  aque- 
ous preparation  of  an  insoluble  substance  held 
in  suspension  by  a  suitable  vehicle.  Among  the 
Hiixtures  used  in  medicine  are  tlio.se  of  chalk,  of 
rhubarb  and  soda,  and  the  compound  mixtures 
of  iron  and  of  glycerin. 

MIXTURE.  An  organ  sto]).  consisting  of 
from  three  to  six  raidcs  of  small  metallic  pipes. 
It  is  generally  found  in  large  organs,  and  re- 
sembles the  sesipiialtera  and  furniture  stops, 
except  that  it  is  much  higher  and  shriller.  Like 
other  compound  stops,  the  two  smaller  ranks  of 
the  mixture  stop  change  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  organ  scale  into  an  octave  lower.  This  is 
necessitated  from  the  fact  that  the  pipes  in  their 
upper  ranks  would  produce  too  small  a  volume 
of  sound.  The  mixture  can  be  used  only  in  forte 
and  fortissimo  passages,  as  otherwise  the  har- 
monic would  be  heard  too  prominently. 

MIYA,  me'ya  (.lap.,  august  house).  A  term 
sometimes  applied  to  the  mansions  of  .Japanese 
princes,  but  more  commonly  denoting  the 
shrines  of  the  Shinto  religion.'  These  buildings 
represent  the  ancient  cabins  of  the  primitive 
.Japanese  modified  by  the  progress  of  civilization 
and  by  Buddhistic  influence.  The  earth  floor 
of  the  hut  is  replaced  by  wooden  flooring  raised 
two  or  three  feet  from  the  ground,  necessitating 
steps  at  the  entrance.  A  veranda  going  com- 
pletely round  the  edifice  has  been  added.  The 
sides  of  the  hut  were  made  of  mats,  but  the 
shrine  has  walls  of  wood.  The  roofs  were  origi- 
nally thatched,  but  are  now  covered  with  shin- 
gles, tiles,  or  even  copper.  In  many  shrines 
Buddhist  influence  has  led  to  much  decoration, 
but  the  characteristic  of  the  true  miya  is  ex- 
treme simplicity.  It  contains  neither  picture, 
image,  nor  altar,  but  only  a  mirror,  or  in  some 
instances  a  'pillow'  for  the  god.  Before  the 
shrines  is  the  'tnri-i'  (supposed  to  signify  "bird- 
rest"),  which  is  sometimes  taken  for  a  gate- 
way by  tourists.  Often  many  of  them  are  placed 
before  a  single  shrine.  From  a  cord  which  hangs 
above  the  entrance  are  suspended  '(jo-hei,'  paper 
cuttings,  representative  of  the  offerings  of  cloth 
which  were  made  in  ancient  times.  Services  are 
infrequent,  usually  not  oftener  than  once  a  year, 
and  in  some  shrines  there  are  no  ceremonies. 
103,476  miya  are  registered,  most  of  them  tiny 
constructions  and  only  a  few  of  wide  reputation. 
The  shrines  are  divided  into  four  classes:  na- 
tional, provincial,  prefectural,  and  local,  and  a 
few  are  supported  in  meagre  fashion  by  funds 
from  the  Imperial  treasury. 

MIYADZU,  me-yad'zii.  The  most  important 
town  of  the  .Japanese  Province  of  Tango  in  that 
part  of  Hondo  known  as  San-in-do,  87  miles 
northwest  of  Kioto.  It  was  the  residence  in  feu- 
ilal  times  of  JIatsudaira,  one  of  the  three  daimios 
who  niled  the  province.  Population,  about  10,- 
000.  In  the  vicinity,  near  Ama-no-hashidate,  or 
'Heaven's  Bridge,'  is  a  narrow  tongue  of  land 
which  juts  out  into  the  sea  in  a  way  much  ad- 
mired by  the  .Japanese. 

MIYAJIMA,  me-yil'je-ma  (temple  island), 
sometimes  called  Itsukushima.    A  small,  beau- 


MIYAJIMA. 


638 


MOA. 


tifully  wooded  island  in  the  Bay  of  Hiroshima, 
Japan,  cek-brated  as  the  site  of  one  of  the  most 
ancient  Shinto  shrines  of  the  countrj".  The 
temple  is  dedicated  to  tlie  goddess  Benten,  wor- 
shiped by  women  for  attractiveness  and  by  men 
for  wealth.  It  was  l)uilt  in  the  year  527.  The 
island  is  also  notable  for  its  deer,  and  the 
absence  of  dogs.  Priests,  rniagecarvers.  fisher- 
men, and  inn-keeijers  make  up  the  population. 

MIYAKO,  mi-yii'kd.  Another  name  for  Kioto, 
a  city  of  Japan. 

MIZON,  me'zO.x',  Louis  Alexandre  Antoine 
(1853-99).  A  French  naval  officer  and  explorer 
in  Africa.  He  was  born  in  Paris;  studied  at  the 
Kaval  School  (18(;9-72),  and  in  1877  was  sent 
out  to  accompany  Brazza  on  liis  expedition  to  the 
region  of  the  Ogowai  River.  He  was  stationed 
at  Franceville  for  si.\  years,  and  in  1886  he  pub- 
lished charts  of  the  Ogowai.  Four  years  after- 
wards he  was  sent  to  .\darnawa,  where  he  pro- 
moted French  commercial  interests  in  the  Niger 
country  and  greatly  irritated  Great  Britain.  The 
latter  power  in  189.'!,  after  Mizon  had  made  a 
treaty  with  the  Sultan  of  Hamarua.  declared 
llamarua  a  British  jjrotectorate,  and  forced 
ilizon's  recall.  In  189o  he  was  made  French 
resident  at  JIajunga  in  Madagascar.  He  died  in 
1899  as  Governor  of  the  colony  at  Jibuti  in 
French   Sonialiland. 

MIZ'PAH.  or  MIZTEH  (Heb.,  watch,  out- 
look). The  name  of  several  places  in  Palestine, 
of  which  the  most  imimrlant  are:  (1  I  The  heap 
of  stones  and  pillar  set  up  by  .Jacob  and  his 
brethren  as  a  witness  of  the  covenant  between 
Jacob  and  Laban.  It  was  also  called  Galeed  by 
Jacob,  and  .Jegar-sabadutha  by  Laban  (Gen. 
xx.\i.  44-49).  the  latter  being  the  Western  Ara- 
maic rendering  of  the  Hebrew  t/al-'ed  ('heap  of 
testimony').  The  narrative  points  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  sanctuary  in  (Jaleed  which  was  known  as 
Jlizpah.  The  pillar  and  the  Ilea])  of  stones  are  to 
be  regarded  as  objejrts  for  the  cult — the  former 
a  Baal  symbol,  the  latter  a  boundary  stone, 
serving  also  as  an  altar.  It  was  at  this  sanctuary 
that  Israel  was  emamped  before  the  conflict  with 
the  .\mmonites  (Judges  x.  17).  which,  as  Gen. 
xxxi.  2'y  informs  us,  lay  in  Gilead  (upon  which 
Gal-ed  represents  a  play).  The  indications  in  tlie 
Old  Testament  are  insutlicieiit  for  determining 
the  site  of  the  place  with  certainty.  It  lay  north 
of  the  .Jabbok,  ami  perhaps  near  the  modern 
.Jerash,  which  answers  the  conditions  involved. 
(2)  The  place  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin 
where  Israel  gathered  liefore  punishing  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  for  their  outrage  on  the  concubine 
of  the  Levite  at  Gibcali  (.Judges  xix.-xx.),  and 
probably  also  the  place  where  Samuel  assembled 
Israel  to  resist  the  Philistines  and  subsequently 
to  present  Saul  as  King  (I.  Sam.  x.  17  sqq.). 
though  it  is  also  possible  that  the  two  places 
may  be  distinct.  The  location  is  not  certain. 
It  nia.v  be  a  point  on  tlie  mountain  ridge  north  of 
Shafat.  These  gnlherings  again  indicate  the 
presence  of  a  sanctuary  at  Mizpah,  and  the  con- 
tinued importance  of  (be  place  is  made  manifest 
by  its  choice  as  a  seat  of  government  under  (Icda- 
liali  (II.  Kings  xxv.  23:  Jer.  xl.  6K  In  post- 
exilie  times  we  meet  with  references  to  Mizpah, 
and  it  is  of  special  interest  to  note  that  in  the 
days  of  the  Maccalwes  Mizpah  again  lx>come«  a 
gathering-place  for  Hie  .Tews  (I,  Maec.  iii.  4(1). 
Besides  these  two  Mizpahs  there  are  references 


in  the  Old  Testament  (a  I  to  the  land  of  Mizpah 
(■losh.  xi.  3)  and  the  valley  of  .Mizpah  ( ib..  xi. 
8),  which  are  identical.  This  .Mizpah  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  battle  of  Merom 
(q.v. ),  and  may  be  located  near  Hennon.  A 
fourth  Jlizpah  was  situated  in  the  'lowland'  of 
Judea  (Josh.  xv.  381,  and  a  fifth  in  Jloab  (I. 
.'sam.  xxii.  3).  The  use  of  Mizpah  as  an  inscrip- 
tion for  memorial  rings  is  based  upon  the  words 
occurring  in  connection  with  the  setting  up  of 
the  "heap'  of  stones  by  .Jacob  and  his  brethren: 
"The  Lord  watch  between  me  and  thee"  (Gen. 
xxxi.  49). 

MIZZEN,  or  MIZEN".    See  Mast. 

MJbSEN,  myc'zm.  The  largest  lake  in  Xor- 
wa,v,  situated  in  one  of  the  most  fertile  valleys 
of  the  country,  3(i  miles  northeast  of  Christiania 
( Map :  Xorway.  DO).  Its  length  is  02  miles, 
its  width  averages  only  two.  and  nowhere  ex- 
ceeds 10  miles.  It  receives  the  Laugen  River  at 
Lillehammer  and  empties  its  waters  through  the 
Vormeii  into  the  Glommen,  Its  depth  is  remark- 
able, reaching  in  the  southern  ]iart  141)0  feet,  its 
bottom  being  here  1050  feet  below  sea-level.  The 
vicinity  of  the  lake  is  very  popular  as  a  summer 
resort,  and  steamers  ply  on  it  regularly  during 
the  ice-free  season,  which  in  the  southern  part, 
on  account  of  its  great  depth,  sometimes  lasts 
tluougliout  the  year. 

MNEMONICS,  ne-mon'iks.    See  Memory. 

MNEMOSYNE,  nu-mos'i-n6  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
yivr/iioaivtj).  Ill  classical  mythology',  the  goddess 
of  memory,  daughter  of  L'ramis  and  Gaia.  By 
Zeus  she  became  the  mother  of  the  Muses  (q.v.). 
Sie  (JRKKK  Religion. 

MNESICLES.  iics'i-klez  (Lat..  from  Gk. 
ilt-ijaix'Mji,  MtK'nikhls).  A  Greek  architect,  who 
built  the  Propyhea  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens. 
His  name  was  found  on  an  inscription  in  its 
ruins,  and  Plutarch  mentions  him  as  its  archi- 
tect. 

MO'A  (Maori  name).  .\  general  name  for  a 
family  ( Dinornithida  1  of  extinct  ratite  birds  of 
New  Zealand,  some  of  which  were  of  gigant  ic  |)ro- 
j)ortions.  The  existence  of  their  remains,  and  of 
legends  among  the  Maoris  relating  to  them,  was 
first  published  in  1838,  The  exploration  of  Xew 
Zealand  revealed  bones  of  these  birds  in  great 
profusion,  on  the  surface,  in  peat  bogs,  in  sea- 
side sand-dunes,  and  especially  in  certain  caves 
where  the  dry  air  had  in  some  cases  preserved 
not  only  the  ligaments,  binding  skeletal  ))arls  to- 
gether, but  even  pieces  of  dried  skin  and  feathers, 
which  still  retained  their  chestnut  and  white  col- 
ors, while  footprints  and  broken  egg-shells  have 
also  been  found.  Prehistoric  camping-grounds 
always  furnisli  many  charred  bones  and  frag- 
ments of  egg-shells.  There  is  evidence  that  the 
extermination  was  completed  about  the  date  of 
the  diseoveiT  of  .America  by  Columbus. 

The  nioas  form  a  family  more  nearly  assorted 
in  structure  with  the  emeus,  cassowaries,  and. 
kiwis  than  with  the  ostriches.  They  were  in  or-, 
gani/jition  nearest  to  the  kiwis  (.\pteryx),  but 
distinguished  by  their  short  beaks  and  by  having 
after-shafts  upon  the  feathers.  They  attained 
not  only  to  great  numbers  and  size  in  the  isola- 
tion of  Xew  Zealand  (where  they  were  exposed  to 
no  enemies  until  man  came),  btit  to  a  remarkable 
variety,  some  twenty  species  being  now  recog- 
nizable.     Some   were   not    larger   than    turkeys. 


MOA. 


639 


MOABITE  STONE. 


and  these  perhaps  may  liave  had  some  vestiges 
of  wiug-boiies;  but  the  hirger  iiioas  were  not 
only  wingless,  but  entirely  destitute  of  any  shoul- 
der-girdle whatever.  The  largest  and  most  typi- 
cal were  of  the  genus  Dinornis,  and  these  had 
long  and  comparatively  slender  leg  bones  and 
large  depressed  skulls.  Some  of  these  were  taller 
than  any  ostriches,  estimates  varying  from  10 
to  12  feet.  The  leg  of  the  tallest  species  (Dinor- 
nis maximus)  was  considerably  longer  than 
that  of  a  horse.  In  the  genus  Paehyornis,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  leg  bones  were  short,  massive  and 
extremely  powerful,  so  that  these  are  called  the 
'elephant-footed'  moas.  Their  eggs  were  greenish 
in  color.  One  (of  the  giant  moa,  measuring  10% 
by  6%  inches)  was  found  unbroken  in  the  grave 
of  a  ilaori,  with  whom  it  had  been  buried  un- 
known centuries  ago.  Consult:  Owens,  Extinct 
Birds  of  Xeic  Zealand  (London,  1879)  ;  Newton, 
Dictionary  of  Birds  (New  York,  1803-90)  ;  and 
Lucas,  Animals  of  the  Past  (New  York,  1901). 
See  .^5pyoR>is;  Extinct  Animals;  Extinction 
OF  Species. 

MO'AB.  The  name  given  to  a  people  occupy- 
ing the  high  table-land  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  southern  section  of  the  .Jordan.  The  soutliern 
boundary  was  Edom,  the  eastern.  Amnion  and  the 
desert;  the  northern  boundary  shifted  from  time 
to  time,  but  in  general  was  marked  by  a  line  some 
miles  beyond  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  This  land  of  Moab  is  a  plateau  about  3000 
feet  above  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  western 
slopes  are  generally  steep  and  the  aspect  of  tlie 
Moabite  Mountains  rising  to  the  plateau  is  bar- 
ren. In  the  spring  the  hills  are  covered  with 
grass  and  portions  of  the  plateau  are  now  sown 
with  corn.  It  has  streams  in  aliundance;  besides 
the  Arnon,  which  divides  the  plateau,  springs  and 
brooks  intersect  the  country.  To  the  east  the 
plateau  is  separated  from  the  desert  by  low  roll- 
ing hills.  Numerous  ruins  testify  to  the  former 
prosperity  of  the  district,  while  the  hundreds  of 
rude  stone  monuments  (stone-circles,  dolmens, 
cairns),  show  that  it  was  densely  settled  in  very 
early  days.  According  to  the  biblical  account, 
Moab,  the  eponiTnous  ancestor  of  the  Moabites, 
was  a  son  of  Lot  by  one  of  his  daughters  (Gen. 
xix.  37).  This  story,  which  traces  both  Moab 
and  Ammon  to  an  incestuous  connection,  may 
be  a  bit  of  tribal  slander  by  Hebrew  writers  to 
throw  discredit  on  their  hated  rivals  and  foes. 
(See  Lot.)  The  close  affiliation,  however,  be- 
tween Hebrews  and  Moabites,  which  is  indicated 
by  the  story,  is  correct.  Not  only  was  the  lan- 
guage of  Moab  practically  identical  with  Hebrew, 
but  Moabites  and  Hebrews  belong  to  the  same 
branch  of  the  Semitic  stock,  and  for  an  in- 
definite period  Hebrew  and  Moabitish  history 
form  an  inseparable  unit.  The  story  of  the  sepa- 
ration of  Abraham  and  Lot  embodies  a  remin- 
iscence of  a  union  once  existing  between  Hebrew 
and  Moabitish  clans  which  was  dissolved  by  a 
quarrel  over  land — to  this  day  a  common  cause 
for  hostility  among  Bedouin  clans.  The  land  of 
Moab  was  included  in  the  Egyptian  su]uem- 
acy  over  Western  Asia  in  the  period  from 
the  seventeenth  to  the  thirteenth  century  B.C., 
and  the  name  INIoali  occurs  in  a  list  of  con- 
quests inscribed  by  Rameses  IT.  (c.  1300  B.C.) 
on  one  of  his  mon\inients  at  T.uxor.  The  rela- 
tions between  Moab  and  Israel  during  the  por- 
tion of  Hebrew  history  known  to  us  were  gen- 


erally hostile,  and  tliis  hostility  is  traced  back 
by  tradition  to  the  days  of  the  K.xodus  (cf.  Deut. 
xxiii.  4-,J  I ,  l>ut  the  oldest  document  we  have  re- 
garding Moab  is  a  fragment  of  a  song  (Num. 
xxi.  21-30),  recalling  a  victory  of  the  Ammonites 
over  Moab  and  the  subsequent  defeat  of  the  Am- 
monites by  the  Hebrews.  The  song,  which  bears 
marks  of  antiquity,  may  date  from  the  early 
struggles  of  the  Hebrews,  anteiior  to  the  at- 
tempts of  the  latter  to  conquer  Canaan  to  the 
west  of  the  Jordan.  On  the  other  luind,  the  story 
of  the  endeavor  of  lialak,  King  of  iloab,  to  secure 
the  services  of  Balaam  to  curse  Israel  (Num. 
xxii.-xxiv. )  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  Midrash 
based  upon  the  persistent  hostility  between 
Israel  and  Moab  and  illustrating  the  invincible 
character  of  the  former.  Coming  to  a  period  for 
which  the  historical  traditions  are  less  uncertain, 
we  find  that  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  the 
Hebrews  were  frequently  at  the  mercy  of  the  JIo- 
abites,  as  well  as  of  Ammonites  and  Amalekites. 
We  learn  of  a  King  Eglon  of  Moab,  who  held  the 
Hebrews  in  subjection  for  eighteen  years  (.Judges 
iii.),  from  which  they  were  freed  by  Ehud,  a 
Benjamite.  Saul  appears  to  have  held  the  Moab- 
ites in  cheek,  while  under  David  tliey  actually 
became  tributary  to  the  Hebrews;  and  this  con- 
dition continued  after  the  separation  of  the  South- 
ern Hebrews  until  the  days  of  Ahab,  when  Moab 
began  to  resist  and  finally,  on  the  death  of  Ahab, 
threw  off  the  yoke.  This  hapjiened  during  the  reign 
of  King  Mesha,  who  describes  his  victories  over 
Israel  on  the  monument  known  as  the  Moabite 
Stone  (q.v. ).  When  the  advance  of  the  Assyrian 
power  threatened  the  independence  of  the  various 
Palestinian  principalities,  we  find  the  !Moabites 
occasionally  in  alliance  with  the  Hebrews  against 
the  common  foe,  but  subsequently  we  find  them 
on  the  side  of  Babylonia  and  alietting  the  de- 
struction of  the  Southern  Hebrew  kingdom.  Moab 
was  saved  from  extinction,  but  of  course  became 
tributary  to  Babylonia.  In  post-exilic  sections  ot 
the  Books  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  we  find  refer- 
ences to  Moab  which  jioint  to  the  continued  ex- 
istence and  in  a  measure  prosperity  of  the  coun- 
try, but  otherwise  throw  no  light  upon  its  his- 
tory. The  name  lingered  on  into  the  Christian 
era.  During  the  Roman  occupancy  of  Palestine 
the  land  of  Moab  was  still  densely  inhabited,  as 
the  Roman  and  Greek  remains  show,  but  gradu- 
ally the  Arabs  of  the  desert  overran  it,  and 
what  culture  once  existed  there  came  to  an  end. 
It  remained  for  modern  travelers  like  Seetzen  and 
Burckhardt  to  rediscover  it,  but  it  is  still 
one  of  those  districts  of  Palestine  in  which 
it  is  dangerous  to  travel.  The  chief  god  of  the 
Moabites  was  Chemosh  (q.v.)  and  their  religion. 
so  far  as  Vie  know  it,  bore  the  characteristic 
marks  of  early  Semitic  cults.  Consult :  Robert- 
son Smith,  Relif/ion  of  the  Semites,  pp.  370  and 
400  (Edinburgh',  1894)  ;  Tristram.  fAind  of  Moab 
(New  Y'ork,  1874)  :  Conder.  lleth  and  }toab 
(London.  18S3)  :  George  .\dam  Smith,  Historiral 
(Icographi/  of  the  Uoli/  Land  (London,  1897); 
(Jlermont-Ganneau,  Kccneil  d'archi'ologie  orien- 
Irile,  vol.   ii..  pp.    18.5-234    (1889). 

MOABITE  STONE,  The,  A  stone  bearing  an 
inscripliim  nf  34  lines  in  the  Moabitish  language, 
(li-icovered  by  the  (icrman  missionary  V.  Klein, 
at  Diban.  in  Moab,  in  ISOS.  The  negotiations  set 
on  foot  for  its  purchase  by  M.  Clermont-Ganneau, 
attache  of  the   French  consulate  at  Jerusalem, 


MOABITE  STONE. 


640 


MOBILE. 


who  had  also  learned  of  the  existiiico  of  the  stone, 
led  to  quarrels  among  the  Arab  tribes  claiming 
an  interest  in  it,  and  the  monument  was  un- 
fortunately broken  to  pieces.  The  fraumenls, 
however,  were  with  great  dilhculty  collected,  and 
are  now  preserved  in  the  Louvre.  With  tlie  aid 
of  a  squeeze  obtained  by  t'lermont-Gannean  prior 
to  the  destruction  of  the  stone,  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  inscription  has  been  recovered,  and 
as  the  result  of  numerous  researches  by  Kreneh, 
German,  and  Knglish  scliolars,  the  decipherment 
may  now  be  said  to  be  complete.  The  cliaracters 
on  the  Moahitish  stone  are  identical  with  those 
on  Pha-nician  monuments,  and  the  language  is  so 
closely  allied  to  Hebrew  that  the  conclusion  is 
justified  which  makes  Hebrew  and  Jloabitish 
l)ractically  identical.  The  inscription  itself  re- 
fers to  the  deeds  of  Mesha,  King  of  iloab,  who  is 
mentioned  in  the  very  first  line,  and  the  interest 
of  the  .stone  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  circum- 
stance that  he  is  identical  with  the  Mesha  (q.v. ) 
spoken  of  in  11.  Kings  iii.  4.  ^lesha  begins  in  his 
inscription  by  referring  to  the  affliction  wliich 
Moab  endured  under  Omri,  King  of  Israel,  and 
the  hitter's  son  (i.e.  .Muib,  who,  however,  is  not 
mentioned  by  nanuM.  We  know  frimi  the  biblical 
narrative  (hat  iloab  was  tributary  to  Israel  dur- 
ing the  reigns  of  Omri  and  Ahab.  This  is  the 
'affliction'  referred  to  and  is  attributed  by  ilesha 
to  the  anger  of  his  deity  Chemosh.  Thanks,  how- 
ever, to  Chemosh,  who  turned  with  favor  to 
Mesha.  the  latter  regained  the  cities  which  Israel 
had  captured.  Mesha  adds  in  an  exaggerated 
manner  that  ''Israel  perished  with  an  everlasting 
destruction."  The  rest  of  the  ins<riplion  i- 
taken  up  with  details  of  the  conflict  and  with 
building  operations  undertaken  by  Jlesha.  Be- 
sides its  historical  significance,  the  inscription  is 
of  geographical  importance  because  of  the  many 
names  of  sites  in  Moab  which  it  contains.  Ac- 
cording to  the  biblical  account,  the  revolt  of 
Moab  took  place  after  the  death  of  Ahab  (c.S;).'? 
B.C).  Init  Mesha  claims  that  already  in  the  life- 
time of  Ahab  he  freed  himself  from  the  Israel- 
itish  yoke.  This  would  make  the  date  of  the 
Moabite  stone  c.StiO  n.c.  As  the  oldest  inscrip- 
tion in  I'lupnician  characters,  the  Moabite  stone 
has  also  great  epigra|)liical  value.  Of  the  large 
literature  on  the  subject  it  is  sufficient  to  refer 
to  the  publications  of  Smend  and  Socin.  Dii  In- 
achrifl  drs  So»i<i/i  Mena  roii  Monb  (Freiburg, 
188(1).  with  supplenuMit  in  Uerichte  dcr  kiinifjlicli 
^chsischrn  (Irxrllnrhaft  ilir  WixxoLsrhaftni 
(1807)  :  I.id/barski.  in  "Kphenieris  fiir  semitische 
Epigraphik."  i.  (UIOO):  Xordliinder.  Dir  In- 
schrift  drx  Koiiiiin  Mrsn  roil  Moah  (Leipzig. 
1890)  :  Driver,  Trxl  of  thr  Bonks  of  .'.'nmiir/  (Xew 
York.  ISOOt. 

MOALLAKAT,  m.Val  lakiit'  (Ar..  hung  upK 
A  collection  of  seven  Arabic  jioems  by  the  same 
number  of  authors  who  lived  in  the  century  pre- 
ceding the  birth  of  Moliaiiimed.  The  name  refers 
to  the  custom  of  hanging  iioetical  ciiiii)iositions 
on  the  walls  of  the  Kaaha  as  n  challenge  to  com- 
peting poets. 

MOAT  (OK.  »io(r,  embankment,  from  ;ML. 
mottt,  mound,  enibnnkment,  ditch,  castle;  prob- 
ably conniH'ted  ultimately  with  Bavarian  moll, 
peat.  Swiss  miillr.  turf).  The  ditch  round  the 
ramparts  of  n  fortress.    See  FoBTincxTloN" ;  C.\.<s- 

TI.K. 


MOA'WIYAH,  moa-we'ya  (Ar.  Mu'auiyyah) 
(c.tilU-iiJSl)  ( .  Cali])li.  and  founder  of  the  Oinmiad 
dynasty.  He  was  born  at  Mecca,  the  son  of  Abu 
Sotian.  the  bitter  enemy  of  Mohammed.  Ue  was 
made  Governor  of  Syria  by  the  Caliph  Otliman, 
and  during  his  term  of  office  conquered  the  island 
of  Rhodes,  but  lost  Cyprus.  On  the  proclamation 
of  Ali  as  the  successor  of  Othman  in  (i.iG,  Moa- 
wiyah  revoltedj  and  with  the  aid  of  the  gifted 
Anir  ibn  al-Asi  attempted  to  make  liimself 
Caliph.  He  was  defeated  in  several  battles  by 
Ali,  who,  however,  was  prevented  by  domestic 
rebellion  and  foreign  war  from  completely  crush- 
ing his  rival.  Moawiyah  was  proclaimed  Caliph 
at  Damascus,  6.i7,  and  after  the  assassination  of 
Ali  in  (itil  he  succeeded  in  speedily  reducing  the 
rest  of  the  Empire  to  submission.  His'  army, 
after  making  extensive  coiuiuests,  was  unable, 
after  a  long  siege  and  repeated  assaults,  to  cap- 
ture Constantinople,  and  in  ()78  he  entered  into 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Byzantine  Emperor. 
Moawiyah  not  only  exerted  absolute  control  over 
the  Saracen  empire,  but  succeeded  in  having  the 
calipliate  declared  hereditary  in  his  family.  Con- 
sult:  Muir,  Aniuils  of  the  Early  Caliphate  (Lon- 
don, 1883)  ;  Weil,  dcschichte  des  islamitischen 
^^olk<■s  (Stuttgart,  1806). 

MOB.     See  Crowd. 

MO'BERLY.  A  city  in  Randolph  County, 
Mo.,  I.'iO  miles  east  by  north  of  Kansas  City; 
on  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  and  the 
Wabash  railroads  (Map:  Missouri,  D  2).  It 
has  the  division  headquarters  and  machine  shops 
of  the  Wabash  Railroad,  brick  yards,  flouring 
and  planing  mills,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
ice  factory,  and  a  large  grain  elevator.  There  are 
valuable  deposits  of  coal  and  fire  clay  in  the 
vicinity.  An  extensive  trade  is  carried  on  in 
agriciiitural  and  dairy  products,  lumber,  live 
stock,  poultry,  hules.  wool,  tobacco,  and.  of  the 
city's  manufactured  products,  flour  and  bricks. 
iIol)erlv  has  a  public  librarv  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building.  Population,  in  I'snO,  8215;  in  1000, 
8012. 

MOBERLY,  George  (1803-8.5).  An  English 
jirclatr.  I'.ishop  of  Salisbury.  He  was  born  in 
Saint  IVtcrsburg.  Russia,  and  was  edniatcd  at 
Winchester  and  Oxford.  In  1820  he  took  the  Ox- 
ford chancellor's  prize  for  the  best  English  essay. 
.\fter  connection  with  Balliol  College,  as  tutor 
and  fellow,  he  was  in  1830-30  head-master  of 
Winchester.  He  was  then  presented  to  the  liv- 
ing of  Brightstone  in  the  Isle  of  W  igbt.  and  in 
1808  became  a  canon  of  Chester  Cathedral.  In 
1800  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  Of 
his  numerous  published  works  the  most  import- 
ant are:  A  Frir  Remarks  on  the  Proposed  Ad- 
mission of  Pissenters  to  the  I'nircrsity  of  Oxford 
( 1834  I  :  Sermons  Preaehed  at  Winehester  College 
(1S44)  :  and  Sermons  on  the  fieatitndes  (1800). 
Ill  1808  he  ihdivered  the  Bamplon  lectures  which 
appiMicd  under  the  title  of  The  Administralion 
of  thr  Until  Spirit  in  the  Uody  of  Christ, 

MOBILE,  niober.  A  port  of  entry  and  the 
county-seat  of  Mobile  County,  Ala.,  140  miles 
east  by  north  of  Xew  Orleans;  on  Mobile  Ray, 
at  the  mouth  of  .Mobile  River,  30  miles  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on  the  Louisville  and 
Xashville.  the  Southern,  the  Mobile.  .Tackson  and 
Kansas  City,  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroads 
(Map:  Alabama.  A  .l).  It  has  a  total  area  of 
nbout  eight  square  miles  and  is  situated  on  a 


MOBILE. 


641 


MOBILE  BAY. 


plain  whicli  rises  giadually  from  the  river  into 
low  hills.  The  streets  are  broad  and  generally 
regular,  and  are  well  shaded  with  live  oaks  and 
magnolias.  The  finest  structure  in  Mobile  is  the 
United  States  Government  building,  which  cost 
$250,000.  Other  notable  buildings  are  the  court 
house,  Cotton  E.xchange,  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
Commercial  Club.  United  States  JIarine  Hospital, 
City  Hospital,  I'rovidence  Infirniary.  Odd  Fel- 
lows' and  Tempersnce  halls,  Ma.sonic  Temple,  and 
the  Catlu'dral  of  the  Immaculate  Coneeptiun. 
The  old  Cuard  House  Tower  is  an  interesting 
structure  of  Spanish  architecture.  Besides  the 
charitable  institutions  mentioned,  there  are  sev- 
eral orphan  asylums.  The  educational  institu- 
tions include  Barton  Academy,  Convent  and 
Academy  of  the  Visitation.  Saint  Mary's  School, 
and  the  Medical  College  of  Alabama,  opened  in 
1859.  Spring  Hill  College  (Roman  Catholic), 
opened  in  1830,  is  a  few  miles  west  of  the  city. 
Mobile  has  three  libraries:  the  Public,  the  Mo- 
bile ( subscript i(m)  of  8000  volumes,  and  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Public,  with  3000.  Among  the  local 
attractions  are  the  shell  road,  a  fine  drive  along 
the  bay,  and  Monroe.  Fraseati.  and  Bienville 
parks. 

iloliile.  as  the  only  port  in  the  State,  has  ex- 
tensive coiumercial  interests,  particularly  in  its 
export  trade.  The  exports  in  1901,  principally 
lumber,  cotton  and  cotton  products,  live  stock 
and  meat  products,  breadstuffs  and  uaval  stores, 
were  valued  at  nearly  .$12,000,000.  while  imports 
amounted  to  about  .$3,000,000.  The  commerce  of 
the  city  has  been  promoted  by  extensive  improve- 
ments in  the  harbor  and  in  the  channel  through 
the  bay,  both  of  which  are  now  accessible  for 
large  vessels.  According  to  the  census  of  1900, 
Mobile  was  the  third  manufacturing  city  in  Ala- 
bama. Capital  to  the  amount  of  $3,294,238  was 
invested  in  the  city's  various  industrial  enter- 
prises, their  ]u-oducts  aggregating  .$4,451,062. 
The  leading  manufactures  are  lumber,  and  lumber 
products,  flour  and  grist  mill  products,  foiuidry 
and  machine  shop  products,  ships  and  boats,  to- 
bacco, cigars,  and  cigarettes.  There  are  also  cot- 
ton mills,  red  cedar  pencil  and  basket  factories, 
and  a  distillery  of  whisky.  The  cultivation  of 
vegetables,  which  are  shipped  in  considerable 
quantities  to  Central  and  South  America,  is  a 
lucrative   industry  in  the  vicinity. 

Mobile  spends  annually  in  maintenance  and 
operation  about  $230,000,  the  principal  items  be- 
ing $3.-).000  for  interest  on  debt.  $35,000  for 
the  police  department.  $31,000  for  the  water- 
works, $25,000  for  street  expenditures,  and  $21,- 
000  for  the  fire  department.  The  schools  arc  sup- 
ported by  the  State  and  county.  The  city  owns 
and  operates  the  water-works,  which  were  built 
in  1899  at  an  approximate  cost  of  $615,000.  The 
.system  comprises  04  miles  of  mains.  Pojnilation, 
in  ISfiO,  29.25S;  in  1870.  .32,034;  in  1890,  31.076; 
in  1900,  38,4()9.  including  17,045  (44  per  cent.) 
persons  iif  negro  descent. 

In  1702  Iberville,  the  French  explorer,  estab- 
lished a  settlement  twenty  miles  north  of  Mobile 
and  called  it  Fort  Louis  de  la  Mobile,  from  the 
Maul>ila  Indians.  In  1710.  on  account  of  a  de- 
structive hurricane,  the  settlement  was  moved  to 
the  present  site.  For  eighteen  years  it  was  the 
capital  of  French  territory  in  this  part  of  Amer- 
ica, but  on  account  of  the  shoaling  of  a  part  of 
Dauphin  Island,  it  was  forced  to  surrender  this 
distinction  to  Biloxi  in   1720  .  In   1703  Mobile, 


with  the  rest  of  'VVcst  Florida,"  was  ceded  to 
Kngland  and  became  a  starling  point  for  English 
e.xiieditions  up  the  Alississiiipi  and  into  the  'Illi- 
nois country.'  On  March  14,  1780,  Galvez,  the 
Spanish  commandant  at  New  Orleans,  captured 
the  city,  and  by  the  treaty  of  1783  Spain  was  left 
in  possession.  After  1803  the  United  States 
claimed  the  city  as  a  part  of  Louisiana,  and  on 
April  13,  1813,  General  .lames  Wilkinson  cap- 
tured it,  but  was  dis]jossessed  by  the  English 
later  in  the  year.  Restored  to  the  United  States 
by  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  in  1814,  Jlobile  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city  five  years  later.  In  1870, 
during  the  "reconstruction  period,'  its  area  was 
curtailed  and  its  name  changed  to  the  'Port  of 
Mobile,'  but  in  1887  it  was  reincorporated  with 
full  city  rights.  On  August  5,  1864.  it  was 
the  scene  of  Farragut's  famous  naval  victory. 
Forcing  his  way  into  the  harbor  in  spite  of 
numerous  torpedoes  and  mines,  he  destroyed  the 
Confederate  fleet.  This  victory  was  followed  by 
the  capture  of  Forts  Gaines  and  Morgan.  (See 
Mobile  Bay,  Battle  of.)  Early  in  the  spring 
of  1865  the  other  fortifications  surrendered  and 
the  city  passed  into  Union  hands.  Consult : 
Hamilton,  Colonial  Mobile  (Boston,  1897)  ;  and 
Powell.  Historic  Towns  of  the  Houthern  Stales 
(Xew  York,  1900). 

MOBILE  BAY.  The  estuary  of  the  Alabama 
and  Tombigbee  Rivers  ( whose  waters  after  their 
junction  form  the  Mobile  and  Tensas  Rivers), 
running  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  through  the 
southwestern  portion  of  the  State  of  Alabama 
(Map:  Alabama,  B  5).  It  is  about  30 
miles  long  and  from  10  to  12  miles  wide. 
The  island  of  Dauphin  lies  west  of  the 
entrance,  which  is  defended  In'  Forts  Morgan 
and  Gaines,  and  on  the  east  is  Mobile  Point,  the 
station  of  a  ligbthoiise  with  a  revolving  light.  The 
bay  has  also  an  outlet  on  the  southwest  through 
Grant's  Pass,  communicating  with  Mississippi 
Sound,  used  by  steamers  of  light  draught,  and 
the  regular  course  uf  the  Mobile  and  New  Orleans 
steamers.  The  harbor,  once  quite  shallow,  has 
been  improved  by  the  United  States  Government ; 
ships  draw'ing  over  23  feet  of  W'ater  can  now 
enter  the  lower  bay,  and  vessels  drawing  17  to  23 
feet  can  pass  through  the  channel  to  the  wharves 
of  Mobile.     See  MouiLE  Bay,  Battle  of. 

MOBILE  BAY,  Battle  of.  A  battle  of  the 
Civil  War  in  America,  fought  August  5,  1864,  be- 
tween a  Federal  fleet  under  Rear-Admiral  Far- 
ragut  and  the  Confederate  ram  Tennessee  aided 
by  three  auxiliary  gunboats  and  the  guns  of  Fort 
]\Iorgan.  When  Farragut  was  ordered  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  in  .Januarv,  1864,  he  wished  to  attack 
Mobile,  and  eft'ectually  put  an  end  to  blockade- 
running,  out  not  until  late  in  July  was  he  as- 
sured of  the  support  of  a  land  force  and  of  iron- 
clads, without  which  the  attack  was  likely  to 
prove  a  failure.  The  city,  thirty  miles  above  the 
Gulf,  was  protected  by  Fort  Jlorgan  and  Fort 
Gaines.  res]Tectively  on  the  eastern  and  western 
sides  of  the  entrance  to  the  bay.  The  channel 
was  closed  bv  piles  and  torpedoes  except 
for  a  narrow  s|>ace  uiuler  the  guns  of  Fort 
Morgan.  At  7  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  August 
.5th  the  four  monitors.  Teciimseh,  Manhattan, 
Winnehaqo.  and  Chirkasair.  began  to  fire  upon  the 
fort  as  they  steamed  past.  They  were  followed 
by  the  wooden  sloops  liroohhin.  Hartford  (flag- 
ship),    Richmond,     Lackananna,     Mononf/ahela, 


MOBILE  BAY. 


642 


MOBITTS. 


Ossi/iic,  and  Oneida,  to  each  of  \\liicb  was  lashed 
a  gunboat,  to  prevent  it  from  drifting  if  disabled. 
When  the  Brooklyn  was  almost  abreast  of  tlie 
torpedoes  she  stopped  and  began  to  back.  The 
captain  of  tlie  Tecnmscli  disobeyed  orders,  steer- 
ing to  the  west  of  the  oi)eii  cluinnel,  and  his  ves- 
sel was  blown  up.  As  the  ISrooklyn  turned  across 
the  channel,  to  prevent  fouling,  Admiral  Farra- 
gut  ordered  tlie  course  directly  across  the  tor- 
pedoes. Though  the  torpedoes  were  felt  to  strike 
the  bottom  of  the  vessels,  none  exploded.  Little 
damage  was  done  by  the  guns  of  the  fort  and 
the  Federal  gunboats  were  released.  Soon  they 
sank  the  Hclina,  drove  the  Gaines  aground, 
and  the  Moryan  under  the  guns  of  the  fort, 
aud  the  fleet  prepared  to  anchor.  The  ram 
Tennessee  coming  out  from  the  shelter  of  the 
fort  attacked  the  entire  Federal  fleet.  Though 
hit  many  times,  and  rammed  by  the  Hart- 
ford, the  •  Monongahela,  and  the  Lackauauna, 
her  armor  suffered  little  damage,  but  her  smoke- 
stack was  shot  away,  her  steering  gear  dis- 
abled, and  lier  commander  had  his  leg  broken 
by  a  splinter.  Her  port  shutters  were  so  jammed 
that  it  was  impossible  to  use  lier  guns  success- 
fully and  at  10  o'clock  she  surrendered.  General 
(iranger  hail  investeii  Fort  (iaines,  August  3d, 
and  on  .August  7th  that  fort  surrendered.  Fort 
^Morgan  was  immediately  invested  and  surren- 
dered on  August  23d.  Xo  attempt  was  made  to 
take  tlie  city  at  this  time  on  account  of  the  shoal 
water,  but  the  port  was  effectually  closed.  The 
Confederate  losses  amounted  to  12  killed,  20 
wounded,  and  2S0  taken  prisoners.  The  Federals 
lost  52  killed,  170  wounded.  To  this  should  be 
added  from  the  crew  of  the  Tecuinseh.  03  drowned 
and  4  captured.  Consult :  Loyall  Farragut,  Life 
of  Da  lid  tilasyoie  Farrayut  ("Sew  York,  1892)  ; 
and  Mahan,  Admiral  Farraput,  in  "The  Great 
Commanders  Series"   (New  York,  1892). 

MOBILE  POINT.  A  name  applied  to  the 
end  of  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  sand  which 
stretches  between  Xavy  Cove  and  the  Bay  of  Bon 
Secours  to  the  north  and  the  CJulf  of  ilexico  to 
the  south,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  en- 
trance to  Mobile  Bay.  Fort  Morgan  is  situated 
here,  on  the  groimd  once  occupied  by  Fort  Bow- 
yer  (q.v. ). 

MOBILE  mVEK.  The  western  branch  of 
the  system  of  cliaiincls  through  which  the  united 
Alabama  and  Tombigbee  Rivers  discharge  into 
ilobile  Bay.  It  is  at)OUt  .50  miles  long,  and  coni- 
mnnieates  at  several  points  with  the  Tensas,  or 
eastern  branch  of  the  system,  the  two  entering 
the  bay  through  a  common  delta  at  the  city  of 
Jlobile. 

MOBILES,  m(>'U-'V.  Com-s  ni-  (Fr.  (jarde  mo- 
hile.  iii(>\alili'  guard).  .\  French  corps  organized 
in  1870.  and  consisting  entirely  of  men  who  had 
previously  been  exempted  from  service  in  the 
active  armv  for  reasons  other  than  physical  dis- 
jibility. 

MOBIL'IAN  TRADE  LANGUAGE.  .\n 
Indian  trade  jargon  formiTly  serving  the  same 
purpose  of  intertribal  and  trade  communication 
in  the  Gulf  Stnte.s  that  is  still  served  by  the 
Chinook  jargon  (q.v.)  along  the  Columbia  and 
the  northwest  coast,  by  the  linqna  qeral  in  Bra- 
zil, and  to  n  certain  extent  by  the  sign  language 
(q.v.)  of  the  Plains.  It  was  based  upon  Choctaw, 
•with  additions  from  all  the  neighboring  dialects 


and  from  the  more  northern  Algonquian  lan- 
guages, and  was  the  common  mcilium  of  com- 
munication among  all  the  tribes  of  tlie  Gulf  re- 
gion, from  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Florida  probably 
as  far  west  as  ^Matagorda  Bay  in  Texas  and 
northward  along  both  banks  of  the  Mississippi  to 
the  Algonquian  frontier  about  the  entrance  of  the 
Ohio.  It  was  called  Mobilienne  by  the  French, 
from  Mobile,  the  great  trading  centre  of  the  Gulf 
region.  Along  the  Mississippi  it  was  sometimes 
known  as  the  Chickasaw  trade  language.  It  was 
evidently  by  this  medium  that  De  Soto's  inter- 
preter from  Tampa  Bay  was  able  to  talk  with 
all  the  tribes  they  met  until  tliey  reached  the 
Mississippi.  In  au  ollicial  report  upon  the  Texas 
tribes  in  1805  Sibley  stated  that  the  '.Mobilian' 
was  spoken  in  addition  to  their  native  language 
by  all  the  Indians  who  had  come  from  the  east 
side  of  the  Mississippi.  It  was  still  spoken  in 
Louisiana  fifty  years  ago,  but  has  died  out  with 
the  general  decay  of  the  Indian  life. 

MOBILIER.  mi','bft'yS',  Cbedit,  kra'd.*-'.     See 

CHEDIT    Monil.lKU. 

MOBILIZATION  (Fr.  mobilisation,  from  mo- 
bilisir,  to  mobilize,  from  mobile,  Lat.  mobilis, 
movable,  front  movere,  to  move,  Skt.  miv,  to 
push).  The  transformation  of  an  army  from  its 
]ieace  establishment  to  a  war  footing  and  its  a.s- 
scmbly  at  appointed  depots  or  stations.  The 
(ierman  method  of  mobilization,  which  is  typical 
of  Continental  Kurojic  generally,  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  mobilization  order  is  issued  by  the 
Kmperor.  and  promulgated  by  all  civil  and  mili- 
tary authorities.  From  the  moment  the  order  is 
issued  every  individual  is  supposed  to  know  what 
to  do  and  where  to  report.  The  reserves  are 
called  in,  and  the  establishment  of  the  standing 
army  completed  from  their  number.  The  re- 
mainder are  formed  into  additional  regiments; 
at  the  same  time  the  levy  of  hor>cs  is  commenced. 
In  time  of  war,  the  organization  of  a  mobilized 
army  corps  differs  but  little  from  that  obtaining 
in  time  of  peace.  Any  additional  formations  are 
made  into  separate  cavalry  divisions,  and  are 
composed  of  a  n\imber  of  cavalry  regiments  taken 
from  the  regular  divisions.  There  would  also  be 
reserve  divisions,  and  depot  and  liindwchr  forma- 
tions of  every  kind;  train  columns  and  sanitary 
or  hospital  detachments  being  also  assigiu>d.  The 
landwchr  keeps  the  active  army  up  to  strength, 
and  garrisons  stations  at  home.  anil,  if  necessary, 
those  at  or  near  the  base  of  o])erations.  .\rtillery 
is  distributed  in  jiart  throughout  the  divisions  of 
the  army  corps,  and  in  part  as  the  nucleus  of  an 
artillery  corps,  under  the  separate  couunand  of 
a  general  olTicer.  The  pioneer  battalion  is  broken 
up  into  companies  and  attached  to  the  divisions; 
mail,  telegraph,  balloon,  and  railway  service  be- 
ing similarly  assigned.  As  soon  as  the  army 
moves  the  Etappen  are  organized,  maintaining, 
if  possible,  by  railways  the  connection  with  tlie 
rear,  .\dditional  information  will  be  found  under 
I'lioNTiK.H.  Military. 

MOBIUS,  melx'-us,  .XicrsT  FERmNAM)  (1700- 
18(iS).  A  German  mathematician,  born  in  Leip- 
zig. He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig 
and  Giittingen.  .\t  first  he  devoted  his  attention  to 
law.  but  later,  under  the  influence  of  Gauss,  he 
look  up  niathematical  astronomy.  In  ISlfi  he  was 
made  professor  at  Leipzig  aud  almost  immediately 
afterwards  t«'came  director  of  the  observatory  in 
the  Pleissenhurg.  which  was  built  after  his  plans 


MOBIITS. 


643 


MOCHNACKI. 


(1818-21).  His  inipurtant  astronomical  and 
liiatlienialical  memoirs  appeared  from  this  time 
(in,  in  tlie  Af^tronoinischr  ydchrichlcn,  ('i*elli*'s 
Journal,  and  the  lierichle  of  the  Scientific  Society 
of  Leipzig.  His  leading  niatliemalical  work  was 
Der  harycentrische  Calcul  (1827).  This  con- 
tained a  novel  discussion  of  homogeneous  coor- 
dinates, presented  the  first  systematic  discussion 
of  the  essential  diflferences  between  the  modern 
and  the  ancient  geometries,  set  fortli  the  general- 
ization of  figures,  stated  the  invariant  property 
of  cross  ratios,  and  made  extensive  use  of  the 
principle  of  duality.  He  also  wrote  the  following 
works:  Die  Haiiptmtze  der  Astronomie  (183G; 
7th  ed.  1890)  ;  Leiubiich  der  HIatik  (1837)  ;  Die 
Elcmeitte  der  Uechnnik  des  Himmels  (1843). 
His  GesammeUe  ^yerke  have  been  edited  by  Bal- 
tzer,  Klein,  and  Scheibner(4  vols.,  Leipzig,  1885- 
87  I. 

MOBIUS,  Karl  August  (1825—).  A  Ger- 
man zocilogist.  He  was  born  in  Eilenburg:  stud- 
ied at  Berlin,  and  in  1808  was  made  professor 
of  zoology  at  Kiel.  There  he  became  especially 
interested  in  marine  animals,  and  he  w'as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  of  1871  and  1872  for  the 
investigation  of  German  writers.  Jliibius  went  to 
Berlin  in  1887  as  director  of  the  zoiilogieal  mu- 
seum. His  publications  include:  Die  Xester  der 
genelligen  Wespen  (1856).-  Die  echten  Perlen 
(1857)  ;  Neue  Seesterne  (1859)  ;  Fauna  der  Eie- 
ler  Bucht  (1866-72);  Die  Ausier  (1877);  Die 
Fisclie  der  Ostsee  (1883)  :  Aexthetische  Betrach- 
tung  der  Ticre  (1895)  ;  and  Aesthetische  Beur- 
ieilnnti  der  Hiiugetiere  (1900). 

MOBIUS,  Theodor  (1821-90).  A  German 
philologist,  one  of  the  foremost  students  of  old 
Norse  literature  and  language,  son  of  August 
Ferdinand  Jlijbius,  the  mathematician.  He  was 
born  at  Leipzig,  studied  there  and  in  Berlin, 
and  in  1852  became  docent  of  Scandinavian  lan- 
guages at  Leipzig.  He  was  promoted  to  professor 
in  1859,  and  in  1865  became  a  member  of  the 
faculty  of  Kiel.  Mobius's  most  valuable  work 
was  as  an  editor.  Especial  mention  should  be 
made  of  Forns6.7ur(with  Vigfusson,  1860)  ;  Edda 
Sa-mundar  (1800);  Islendingahok  (18001;  Kor- 
mdkssaga  (1886)  ;  Mrilshdttakvwthi  (1873)  :  and 
Snorre's  Hdttntal  (1879-81).  His  other  work 
includes  the  dissertation.  Die  <iltere  isUiiidische 
fiuga  (1852)  ;  the  valuable  bibliography,  Catalo- 
gu.t  lAhrorum  Islandieorum  et  'N  orvegicorum 
JEtatis  ilediw  (18.50:  a  .supplemental  volume  in 
1880);  Annlecta  Tforrcena  (1850);  Altnordische 
Philologie  im  skandiiuivischen  Norden  (1864); 
Altnordisches  Glossar  (1800)  ;  Diini.iche  Formen- 
lehre  ( 1871 )  ;  and  Ueher  die  all nordische  Sprache 
(1872). 

MOCCASIN.      See   Shoes   .\>;n   Shoe  Manu- 

FACTUHK. 

MOCCASIN-FLOWER.    See  Lady's-Slipper  ; 

al>o  (  olored  Plati'  of  American  Orchids. 

MOCCASIN  SNAKE,  Water  IIoccasin,  or 
CoTTONMouTii.  An  !i(|uatic.  fish-eating,  venom- 
iiii~  pit-viper  (Aniintrodon  piKrivorii.t)  of  the 
Southern  United  States,  allied  to  the  copperhead. 
It  may  grow  to  be  four  feet  long;  is  thick  and 
hea\'j'  in  body;  has  a  tapering  tail,  without  any 
rattle  or  s[)ine;  and  in  color  is  dark  chestnut 
brown,  with  light  marks  on  the  lips.  olisc\ire 
hlael<ish  bars  on  the  sides,  and  the  abdomen  black 
blotched  with  vellowish  white.     The  interior  of 


the  mouth,  displayed  when  llie  snake  is  about 
to  strike,  is  cottony  while.  This  serpent  exists  in 
large  numbers  from  southern  Indiana  and  south- 
eastern \irginia  to  the  Rio  Grande  in  swamps, 
marshes,  on  overflowed  lands,  and  along  rivers 
and  bayous,  where  it  is  fond  of  lying  in  the  sun- 
shine upon  banks,  tussocks,  driftwood,  or  bushes 
and  trees  overhanging  the  water.  It  never  goes  far 
away  from  such  places,  and  is  really  a  water-  • 
snake;  its  food  is  mainly  frogs  and  fishes.  When 
disturbed  it  may  escape  by  swinnning,  but  is 
((uite  as  likely  to  turn  and  light  fearlessly.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  virulent  and  deadly  of  all 
American  serpents,  but  fortunately  it  does  not 
wander  into  places  where  men  usually  go,  except 
in  the  irrigated  rice  fields,  where  it  is  greatly 
dreaded.  In  captivity  it  is  one  of  the  most  un- 
tamable and  ferocious  of  known  reptiles.  It  pro- 
duces eight  or  ten  young  annually  in  midsummer, 
all  fully  prepared  for  oH'cnse  or  defense.  The 
moccasin  is  'mimicked'  by  the  quite  harmless 
water-snake  Natrix,  which,  however,  is  usually 
much  smaller,  has  a  narrower,  less  triangular  and 
forbidding  head,  and  may  always  be  distinguished 
by  the  double  row  of  scales  on  the  under  side  of 
the  tail.  Consult  Stejneger,  Annual  Report  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  1893  (Wa.shing- 
ton,  1895).  Compare  Copperhead;  Rattle- 
snake. 

MOCENIGO,  m6-che-ne'g6.  The  name  of  a 
prominent  Venetian  family  which  furnished  sev- 
eral able  commanders  and  doges  to  the  Republic. 
The  most  noted  was  Tomaso.  Doge  from  1414  to 
1423.  At  a  time  when  Venice  was  mistress  of 
extensive  possessions.  Mocenigo  endeavored  to 
maintain  her  position  by  a  policy  of  peace.  His 
chief  opponent  was  Francesco  Foscari,  the  ne.xt 
Doge,  who  urged  a  policy  of  conquests  on  the 
mainland  of  Italv.  Mocenigo  was  able  to  with- 
hold Venice  from  this  course,  which  afterwards 
proved  so  disastrous  to  her  power.  To  him  was 
due  the  building  of  the  present  Doge's  palace.  At 
the  time  of  Tomaso's  death  Venice  had  reached 
the  zenith  of  her  glory. 

MOCHA,  mo'ka.  A  strongly  fortified  .seaport, 
and  once  the  capital,  of  the  Province  of  Yemen, 
in  Arabia.  It  is  situated  on  the  Red  Sea,  at  the 
head  of  a  little  bay  near  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
!Mandeb,  and  130  miles  west-northwest  of  Aden 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  Q  13).  It  formerly  ex- 
ported large  amounts  of  eolfee  and  other  produce, 
which  are  now  distributed  through  the  ports  of 
.Aden  and  Hodeida.     Pojnilation.  !5000. 

MOCHA  STONE,  or  Dendritic  Agate.  A 
name  given  to  those  erypto-crystanine  varieties  of 
quartz,  such  as  agate  and  chalcedony,  which  con- 
tain moss-like  or  dendritic  forms,  usually  con- 
sisting of  manganese  dioxi(ie  distributed  through 
the  mass.  They  were  originally  brought  into 
Europe  from  Mocha.  Of  a  siniihir  n;\t>ire  is  the 
moss-agate. 

MOCHNACKI,  nK'.K-niits'kf,  MAinnx-Y  (1803- 
35).  A  Polish  publicist  and  critic,  born  at 
P.ojaniec.  (Jalicia.  He  took  part  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830-31.  and.  after  the  capture  of  Warsaw. 
left  liis  native  country  and  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  France.  He  was  the  defender  of  tlie 
Romantic  School  in  Poland,  and  is  said  to  have 
dealt  the  death  blow  to  Classicism  in  that  coun- 
try. His  works  are:  A  flistori/  of  Polish  Litera- 
ture in  the  Xineteenth  Century    (1830),   and  a 


MOCHNACKI. 


644 


MODENA. 


valuable  flistory  of  the  .\<ilio)iut  hmurnctivii  in 
I'olmid  in  Ifi-iO  and  lS.il    (1834). 

MOCKING-BIRD  {Mimiis  polygloUos) .  The 
most  I'aiiious,  if  not  the  swcetcsl  and  most  beauti- 
ful, of  Anieiieaii  soiij^sters.  It  receives  its  popu- 
lar uame  from  its  extranriliiiary  powers  of  vocal 
imitation.  It  is  often  called  nioeking-tlirush,'  and 
was  formerly  con.sidered  a  ])e(iiliarly  modified 
thrush,  but  now,  with  its  near  relatives  the  cat- 
bird and  brown  thrasher,  it  is  olassified  very  near 
the  wrens.  The  genus  Minuis  is  characterized  by 
the  elongate  form,  long  tail,  short  wings,  and 
straight  bill,  nuieh  shorter  than  the  head,  notched 
near  the  tip,  and  whiteness  of  the  plumage  on  the 
inferior  surface  of  tlie  body.  The  mocking-bird 
is  about  ten  or  eleven  inches  long,  the  tail  being 
nearly  <me-half  the  total  length.  The  upper  parts 
are  ashy-gray;  the  wings  and  tail  arc  nearly 
black,  extensively  marked  with  white;  under 
parts  grayish-white.  The  bird  is  very  common 
in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  and  in 
summer  ranges  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts  and 
westward  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  nest  is  built 
in  bushes  and  low  trees.  It  is  made  of  twigs, 
leaves,  weed-stalks,  and  grasses,  lined  with  root- 
lets, cotton,  etc.  The  eggs  are  four  to  si.x  in 
number,  pale  gi-eenish-blue.  heavily  spotted  and 
blotched,  especially  near  the  larger  end,  with 
bright  brown.  Two  and  sometimes  three  broods 
are  reared  in  the  season,  which  begins  early  in 
the  spring  and  lasts  until  the  end  of  the  summer. 
During  the  spring  and  early  summer  the  birds 
sing  all  day  and  even  all  night,  and  in  many 
localities  the  air  rings  with  tlieir  nuisic.  Their 
native  song  is  extraordinarily  beautiful,  but  it 
has  in  addition  tlic  jiowcr  of  reproducing  the 
songs  of  other  liirds  with  such  accuracy  as  to  de- 
ceive even  the  iniil;iled  birds.  There  is,  however, 
very  great  individual  diirerence  in  this  power,  for 
while  some  birds  seem  seldom  to  attempt  any 
mimicry,  others  are  constantly  imitating  the 
sounds  which  they  hear. 

When  taken  from  the  nest,  young  mocking- 
birds readily  bectune  accustomed  to  cage  life,  and 
may  live  for  many  years.  Tliey  are  easily  tauglit 
and  often  improve  greatly  with  careful  training. 
The  food  of  the  mocking-binl  is  largely  com- 
posed of  insects  and  berries  or  seeds.  An  in- 
habitant of  gardens  and  roadsides,  fond  of  human 
habitations,  and  seldom  seen  in  the  woods,  the 
mocking-bird  is  often  found  in  villages  and  even 
in  the  streets  of  large  towns. 

Resides  the  common  mocking-bird,  more  than 
a  dozen  other  sjiecies  of  Miums  occur  in  the  West 
Indies,  Mexico,  Central  and  South  .\mcrica.  The 
'mountain  mockingbird'  tOrnscopIrs  mnnlnnnn) 
of  the  Western  I'nited  States  is  a  much  smaller 
and  quite  different  bird,  ami  not  especially  nota- 
ble as  a  songster.  See  Colored  Plate  of  SoNO- 
Btros  with  Thrush. 

MOCKING  WREN.  The  Carolina  wren. 
Sec   Wiif  \. 

MOCK  MOONS.     See  lI.M.o. 

MOCK  ORANGE.  A  hardy  flowering  shrub. 
See  Pim.Ai>h:i.iMtrs. 

MOCK  SUNS.      See  lI.M.o. 

MOD'DER,  or  Kaiba.  RIVER.  A  left  affluent 
of  (be  \aal  Hiver.  South  .\frica,  which  it  joins 
after  an  eastern  course  of  ISO  niiles,  al)out  •'!! 
miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Orange  River 
(Map:   Cape  Colony.  K  .'>).     During  the  war  of 


1 89!)- 1002  its  banks  were  the  scene  of  nuich  fight- 
ing and  witnessed  the  rejjulse  of  the  British 
troops  at  .Maagersfontcin  in  ISilil,  and  the  sur- 
render of  Cronje  at  Paardeberg  in   1900. 

MODELING  (from  niuilrl,  from  OF.  mudelle, 
Fr.  iiiiiilih,  from  hat.  "ntoil)  lliis.  from  modulus, 
standard,  diminutive  of  modus,  measure).  The 
process  of  preparing  the  original  pattern  or  de- 
sign from  which  a  work  in  sculpture  is  to  lie 
cast  or  carved.  Modeling  is  also  practiced  by 
medalists;  the  head  or  tigure  intended  to  be  cut 
in  the  die  being  first  modeled  in  relief  with  wax 
on  a  piece  of  slate.  Goldsmiths,  silversniitlis,  and 
jewelers  also  model  intricate  and  artistic  forms 
and  ornaments  of  pieces  of  plate,  to  be  cast  and 
cliased  by  them,  or  in  which  jewels  are  to  be  set. 
Modeling  is  also  a  branch  of  the  potter's  trade. 
For  large  models,  the  material  employed  is  pot- 
ter's clay,  which,  when  used  by  sculjitors,  is 
mixed  with  a  porticm  of  sandstone,  finely  pulver- 
ized, to  make  it  work  freely.  In  painting,  the 
term  modeling  is  used  to  denote  that  quality 
which  conveys  to  the  eye  the  .sense  of  projection, 
volume,  and  bulk  of  an  object. 

MODEL  YACHTING,  riic  pastime  of  sail- 
ing model  yachts.  In  Kngland  it  is  known  as  'mini- 
ature yaciiting.'  uniler  which  name  it  \v:is  first 
generally  practiced  in  .\mcriea.  The  boats  \ised 
were  either  exact  models  to  .scale  of  well-known 
large  yachts,  or  of  such  ]x>rfection  as  to  be  capa- 
ble of  being  built  full  size  from  the  models — 
thus  considerably  improving  the  .sailing  capacity 
of  the  models.  The  model  department  is  one  of 
the  most  important  branches  of  modern  shipbuild- 
ing yards,  owing  to  the  practice  of  'trying  out' 
important  yachts  in  the  shape  of  models  before 
proceeding  with  full  size  construction.  In  this 
manner,  faults  in  design  are  discovered  and  reme- 
died. The  yachts  are  rigged  with  careful  accu- 
racy, and  are  mechanically  self-steering.  There 
is  a  variety  of  devices  for  this  p\irpose.  Some- 
have  wire  springs  which,  when  the  pressure  of 
the  wind  has  been  removed,  return  the  rudder  to 
its  original  fixed  angle;  but  a  traveler  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  aft  of  the  tiller  head, 
threaded  with  (wo  screws,  will,  in  the  hands  of  an 
operator  who  knows  his  business  and  the  prevail- 
ing winds,  be  sullicient.  Models  steered  witli  this 
device  may  frequently  jibe  back  and  forth,  but 
they  will,  at  the  end  of  a  mile  run,  invariably 
arrive  within  a  very  short  distance  from  the 
exact  spot  for  which  they  were  started.  The  use 
of  's|iinnakers  has  never  been  successful.  The 
principal  races  are  those  between  the  boats  nf 
the  Miniature  Yacht  Club,  (he  Wave  Crest,  and 
the  .American  Model  Yacht  Club  of  New  York. 
Plans,  diagrams,  and  full  instructions  for  build- 
ing and  sailing  will  lie  found  in  a  scries  of  arti- 
cles puliljshcil  in  (luliiiii  for  February  and  March, 
ISO,')  Mild   ISiltl,  by  Franklyn   Massford. 

MODENA,  mo'da-na  (T.at..  ^^utin(l).  A  for- 
iiu  T  iliicliy  ill  Northern  Italy,  south  of  (he  Pn,  in- 
cluded in  the  compnrlimcnlo  of  F.milia  in  the 
modern  Kingdom  of  Italy.  The  lioman  colony 
of  M\itina  was  founded  on  (he  .1']milian  Way 
about  B.C.  220,  after  the  conquest  of  Cisalpine 
fiaul.  Modena  was  acquired  by  (he  House  of 
Este  (q.v.)  in  128S.  and  in  14.'>2  the  Alarquis 
Porso  d'Este  was  made  Duke  of  Modena  by  the 
F.mperor  Frederick  Til.  lie  w:is  a(  the  same  time 
niak<'  Duke  of  Ferrara  by  the  Pope,  and  the  po- 
IKical  destinies  of  the  two  cities  were  therefore 


MODENA. 


645 


MODERN  INSTANCE. 


united  until  15US,  h  lien  Fi-iraru  was  seized  as  an 
eschcaleil  lief  by  its  overlord,  tile  Pope,  while 
Modcna,  with  Reggio  and  Alirandola,  remained  in 
the  possession  of  the  House  of  Este.  In  17JIU  the 
Duke  Ereole  was  dethroned  by  Bonaparte,  and 
Modena,  with  Ferrara  and  Bologna,  was  erected 
into  the  Cispadane  Republic,  which  in  1797 
was  merged  in  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Lunf-ville  (1801)  the  Duke  of  ilodena 
received  the  Breisgau  in  exchange  for  his 
duchy.  On  the  death  of  Duke  Ereole  in  1803 
the  duchy  devolved  by  marriage  ujjon  the  House 
of  Hapsburg.  the  daughter  of  Ereole  having 
married  Ferdinand,  a  son  of  Maria  Theresa,  and 
it  was  awarded  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
to  the  son  of  this  marriage,  Francis  IV.,  who 
proved  a  cruel  despot.  He  married  Beatrice, 
daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel  I.  of  Sardinia.  In 
1831  an  uprising  forced  him  to  take  refuge  in 
Austria,  but  he  was  promptly  restored  by  Aus- 
trian arms,  and  ruled  by  the  methods  which  the 
Hapsburg  connections  made  familiar  in  all  parts 
of  Italy  at  that  time.  Francis  IV.  died  in  1846 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  V.  Tlie 
latter  has  been  described  as  hardly  more  than  an 
'Austrian  deputy  sheriff.'  In  1848  he  was  forced 
to  flee  from  his  State,  which  proclaimed  itself 
a  ))art  of  the  Sardinian  Kingdom,  but  he  was 
soon  reinstated  by  Austria.  He  fled  when  war 
broke  out  in  18.59,  and  although  it  was  provided 
by  the  Treaty  of  Zurich  that  he  should  be  re- 
stored, the  people  of  tlip  duchy,  in  connuon  with 
those  of  Parma,  Tuscany,  and  the  Legations, 
promptly  declared  their  wish  to  he  luiited  with 
Sardinia  in  the  new  Kingdom  of  Italy,  and  this, 
being  formally  confirmed  by  a  plebiscite,  was 
done.    Sec  Italy. 

MODENA.  A  city  in  Northern  Italy,  for- 
merly tlie  capital  of  the  Duchy  of  Modena  and 
now  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
sit\iated  in  a  rich  gardened  plain  between  the 
Panaro  and  the  Secchia.  24  miles  northwest  of 
Bologna  (Map:  Italy.  E  3).  A  navigable  canal 
connects  it  with  both  rivers.  It  is  a  city  of  spa- 
cious streets  and  roomy  arcades,  and  is  divided 
into  an  old  and  a  new  part  by  the  historic  Via 
Emilia.  (In  the  main  piazza  ri.ses  the  -fine 
Romanesque  cathedral,  dating  from  1099,  by  Lan- 
franco.  It  was  restored  in  1893.  The  facade  is 
embellished  with  curious  sculptures.  The  ex- 
terior is  also  enriched  by  a  rose  wimlow,  and  by 
a  colonnade  encircling  the  whole  edifice.  The  in- 
terior is  at  first  disappointing,  but  is  in  reality 
imposing.  There  are  here  a  good  altar-piece  by 
Dosso  Dossi  and  a  fine  group  by  Mazzoni.  The 
famous  Campanile,  dating  from  1224,  is  over  300 
feet  high.  It  leans  slightly.  The  Gothic  Church 
of  .San  Francesco  has  an  immense  and  excellent 
terracotta  'Descent  from  the  Cross'  by  Begarelli. 
The  Church  of  San  Pietro  is  remarkable  for  its 
fine  brick  Renaissance  facade. 

Modena  is  rich  in  palaces.  The  Palace  Al- 
bergo  Arti  (1707)  now  holds  the  municipal 
museum,  containing  several  interesting  collec- 
tions. The  historic  librarv  here — Biblioteca  Es- 
tense.  one  of  the  most  famous  in  Italv — has 
132,000  volumes,  and  also  over  8000  JMSS..  some 
of  them  very  rare.  It  possesses  in  addition  a 
coin  collection  and  museum  of  archipology.  Its 
picture  gallery  is  quite  well  known,  comprising 
examples  by  Correggio,  Dosso  Dossi.  Ouido  Reni. 
and  Velazquez.  The  splendid  ducal  palace 
dating    from    1G3.5    is    now    used    for    a    mili- 


tary school.  Modena  has  statues  of  Tas- 
soni  and  \'ictor  Emmanuel  11.,  and  an  excellent 
religious  group  by  Mazzoni.  The  trade  of  Mo- 
dena is  not  very  important.  There  are  weekly 
cattle  markets — grain,  beef,  sausages,  fruit,  wine, 
and  liquors  being  chiefly  dealt  in.  The  manufac- 
tures are  few.  Linen  and  woolen  goods,  leather, 
hats,  vinegar,  glass,  and  pottery  are  produced. 
Silk  is  woven,  but  less  extensively  than  formerly. 
In  art  history  Slodena  is  known  for  its  terra- 
cottas. It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has 
a  Tiniversity,  a  'Konvikt.'  a  military  school  for 
infantry  and  cavalry,  a  technical  "institute,  a 
technical  school,  an  agricultural  college,  and  an 
academy  of  fine  arts.  The  university,  founded  in 
1683,  has  three  faculties,  and  a  pharmaceutical 
and  a  veterinary  school.  The  number  of  students 
is  over  700.  The  public  gardens  are  lovely,  and 
the  site  of  the  former  ramparts  senes  as  a 
pleasure  ground.  Pojiulation  (comnuine).  in 
1901,04,843.     For  history,  see  MooENA   (ducliy). 

MODENA,  Gustavo  (1803-61).  A  noted 
Italian  actor.  He  was  born  in  Venice  and  edu- 
cated for  the  law,  but  was  early  turned  to  the 
stage  and  revealed  extraordinary  powers  as  a 
tragedian.  Among  his  greatest  impersonations' 
were  those  in  the  plays  of,  Alfieri.  and  several 
from  the  French,  especially  the  role  of  Louis  XI. 
Political  troubles  obliged  him  to  live  in  exile 
from  1831  to  1837.  In  the  movements  of  1847 
his  patriotism  again  led  him  to  take  a  prominent 
part.  He  published  at  this  time  his  Dinlofihetti 
popolari. 

MODERATOR  (Lat.  moderator,  one  who  reg- 
ulates, from  iiioderare,  to  regulate;  connected 
with  modestus.  discreet,  modus,  measure,  and 
ultimately  with  OHG.  mezan,  mezzan,  Ger.  mes- 
sen,  Goth,  milan,  A.S.  metan,  Eng.  mete).  A 
title  given  to  the  presiding  officer  on  certain 
academic  and  ecclesiastical  occasions.  In  the 
Congregational  and  Presbyterian  churches  of  the 
L'nited  States  the  title  of  moderator  is  given 
to  the  presiding  officer  of  assemblies.  In  the 
former  the  title  is  used  not  only  in  the  meetings 
of  congregations  and  district.  State,  and  triennial 
conventions,  but  also  in  councils  called  to  act  in 
a  judicial  capacity.  The  presiding  officers  in  the 
series  of*  Church  courts  provided  for  in  the 
Presbyterian  system,  viz.  the  session,  the  presby- 
tery, the  synod,  and  the  General  Assembly,  are 
usually  called  moderators.  The  pastor  of  a  local 
cliurch  is  ex  o/ficio  moderator  of  the  session  of 
the  church,  while  in  the  other  bodies  mentioned 
the  moderators  are  elected  from  among  the  pres- 
byters. The  most  important  function  of  these 
officers,  apart  from  presiding  at  the  sessions  of 
the  body,  is  the  naming  of  the  standing  com- 
mittees.' The  terra  is  also  a])plied  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  examinations  for  degrees  and  hon- 
ors at  the  universities  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford 

MODERN  INSTANCE,  A.  A  novel  bv  W. 
D.  HowcUs  (1881),  Bartley  Hubbard,  the  hero, 
a  thoroughly  unprinci])led,  selfish  fellow,  origi- 
nally a  country  journalist,  removed  to  Boston 
after  his  marriage  to  Alarcia  Oaylord,  a  l)eauti- 
ful  but  passionate  and  undisciplined  girl,  Hub- 
bard disappears  after  a  final  quarrel,  and  two 
years  later  brings  action  for  divorce  in  a  West- 
ern town.  There  Marcin  and  her  father,  the 
.Tudgp.  surprise  him  by  a  counter-suit,  and  his 
career  ends  in  a  shooting  affray  in  Arizona. 
Though  painful   in  its  general  features,  it   is  a 


MODERN  INSTANCE. 


646 


MODES. 


graphic  piL-lure  of  ct-rtaiii   phases  of  Xew  Eng- 
land life. 

MODEBN  MACCABEES,  Knigiit.s  of  the. 
A  Irati-rnul  Ix'Mclieial  orjjanization  founded  in 
18S1,  for  social  and  benevolent  purposes.  The 
organization  had  at  the  close  of  the  year  1902 
D73  subordinate  tents  or  branches,  witli  a  total 
membership  of  102,808,  and  an  insurance  branch 
in  which  there  were  in  force  certificates  repre- 
scntinj;  $12.'>,510,0()0  insurance.  Duriiif;  the  year 
1902  the  organization  disbursed  $941, .578,  and  the 
pnlirc  amount  of  benefit  paid  since  the  date  of 
organization  was  .$(j.70ti.fifi8.  This  is  the  original 
order  bearing  this  title. 

AXTTHEXTIO  MODES. 
1  Mode.  Dorian. 

— >— r  ■"    f- 

: 1 1 1 


died  in  .\,D.  .397.  Sumc  time  later — and  tradi- 
tion mentions  Saint  Gregory  1.  (Pope  from  590  to 
604)  as  their  originator — four  other  modes  were 
added.  Tliese  were  called  the  pluyal  modes. 
During  the  si.\tcenlli  century,  when  the  principles 
of  harmony  began  to  be  first  understood,  two 
more  authentic  with  tlicir  corresponding  plagal 
modes  were  added,  so  that  the  total  number  of 
Church  modes  was  twelve.  8ome  tlieorists 
claimed  the  existence  of  two  more,  l.ocrian  and 
lly]iohicrian  (one  authentic  and  one  plagal)  ;  but 
neither  of  tliese  was  ever  used  in  actual  practice. 
The  reason  for  their  rejection  will  become  ap- 
parent a  little  further  on.  The  following  is  a 
complete  table  of  the  fourteen  modes: 

PLAGAL   MODES. 
II  Mode.  n.vpoilorian. 


\^=^ 


i^ 


ni  Mode. 


S 


Phrygian. 


m 


V  Mode. 


IV  Mode. 


VI  Mode. 


HypophryRlan. 
Hypolydlan. 


=*=er 


1 


\U  Mode. 


Mixolydian. 


vni  Mode. 


Hypomlxolydlan. 


^m 


=1= 


m 


IX  Mode. 


.^olian. 


Hvpoieolian. 


MODES  (OF..  Fr.  mode,  fnmi  La't.  modus, 
measure,  manner).  The  octave  species  in  use 
before  the  time  of  the  invention  of  harmony  a3 
well  as  during  the  period  of  the  contrapuntal 
style  up  to  the  time  of  Uach.  The  original 
scale  of  tlie  ancient  (Irceks  was  a  disc iidinfl 
minor  scale  with  semi-steps  between  the  third 
and  fourth  and  seventh  and  eighth  degrees.  Other 
tones  than  the  fundamental  were  aiso  taken  as 
starting  points,  but  the  tones  of  the  ori.ainal  scale 
remained  unaltered.  This  shifted  the  position  of 
the  scini-steps  every  time  the  starting  tone  wa.s 
shifted.  The  combinations  of  tones  thus  obtained 
were  regarded  as  separate  scales  and  called  oc- 
tave species.  This  system  the  theorists  of  the 
parly  Middle  .\ges  adopted.  But  instead  of  using 
descending  scales  they  made  use  of  aseriidiiiij 
ones.  At  the  same  time  Ihey  retained  the  original 
Greek  names,  but  applii'd  them  to  scales  not 
corresponding  to  the  original  Oreek  scales.  From 
among  the  nine  octave  species  of  the  (Greeks  four 
were  originally  selected  for  the  service  of  the 
Oinreh.  These  were  known  as  the  nvlhrnlic. 
modes.  Their  establishment  is  commonly  at- 
tributed to  Saint  .-Xmbro.se,  Bishop  of  Jlilan,  who 


(In  this  table  the  final  note,  corresponding  to 
our  modern  tonic,  of  each  mode  is  indicated  b.v 
a  half  note,  the  semi-steps  by  slurs.)  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  compass  of  every  tnithcntic  mode 
is  from  the  final  to  its  octave  aliove;  that  of 
everv  iiluf/al  mode  from  a  fourth  below'  to  a 
fifth  above  the  final.  Every  iiiithrntic  mode  has 
its  corresponding  plaf/al  distinguished  by  the 
lirefix  hypo  (under),  and  beginning  a  fourth 
below  the  authentic  mode.  Furthermore,  everv 
mode  must  be  considered  as  consisting  of  two 
scries  of  tones  forming  either  a  pentachord  or  a 
tetrachord  in  such  a  maimer  that  the  highest 
tone  r)f  the  lower  series  is  at  the  same  time  the 
lowest  tone  of  the  higher  series.  In  the  authentic 
modes  the  first  five  tones  constitute  the  penta- 
chord, the  last  four  the  tetrachord.  In  the  plagal 
modes  the  tetrachord  comes  before  the  penta- 
chord. The  former  arrangement  is  called  by  the 
eminent  theorist  Zarlino  ((j.v.)  Imrmmiic  di- 
vision (diri.iione  armonicn)  ;  the  latter  arrange- 
ment, arithmetirnl  diiision  (dirisione  aril- 
nu'tira).  In  examining  the  above  table  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  pentachords  and  tetrachords 
■  if  all  the  modes,  except  the  T>ocrian  and  Hypo- 


MOBES. 


6-17 


MODJESKA. 


locrian,  exhibit  the  compass  of  a  perfect  fifth  or 
fourth.  In  these  two  modes  the  pculachord 
represents  the  eompass  of  a  diminished  fifth,  the 
teti'ac-hord  that  of  an  atigmeiilcd  fouilli  (trito- 
nus).  Uoth  these  intervals  were  stron<;ly  con- 
dennied  by  musical  theoiy,  and  hence  these  two 
modes  were  rejected  as  impure,  and  therefore 
impracticable. 

In  every  mode  four  notes  have  a  special  sig- 
nificance, just  as  the  tonic,  dominant,  and  sub- 
dominant  have  in  our  modern  scales.  These 
notes  are:  (1)  The  final;  (2)  the  dominant; 
(3)  the  mediant;  (4)  the  participant.  The  final 
is  the  tone  on  which  every  melody  ends.  By 
means  of  this  tone  the  mode  in  which  any  melody 
is  written  is  determined.  If  it  moves  within 
the  range  of  the  final  and  its  octave,  the  mode 
is  authentic:  if  it  moves  below  or  above  the 
final,  the  mode  is  plagal.  Tlie  dominant  of  every 
authentic  mode  is  found  a  fifth  above  the  final; 
of  every  plagal  mode  a  third  below  the  dominant 
of  its  corresponding  authentic  mode.  The  only 
tone  which  can  never  serve  as  a  dominant  is  B. 
Whenever  B  would  occur,  C  i-^  substituted  for 
it.  The  reason  for  this  change  is  that  B  always 
forms  a  dissonant  interval  with  F,  either  an  aug- 
mented fourth  or  a  diminished  fifth.  The  me- 
diant derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
authentic  modes  it  always  lies  midway  between 
the  final  and  the  dominant:  it  is  always  the 
third  tone  of  the  mode.  In  the  plagal  modes  the 
position  of  the  mediant  is  rather  unsettled,  owing 
to  tile  necessity  of  obtaining  a  convenient  tone 
for  cadences,  as  in  the  case  of  the  dominant,  and 
for  the  same  reason  B  can  never  appear  as  a 
mediant.  C  is  invariably  substituted.  The 
participant  in  the  authentic  modes  lies  either 
between  the  final  and  the  mediant,  or  between 
the  mediant  and  the  dominant.  If.  however, 
two  notes  lie  between  the  mediant  and  the 
dominant,  either  tone  may  serve  as  the  par- 
ticipant. In  the  plagal  modes  the  participant 
is  always  the  same  as  the  dominant  of  the  cor- 
responding authentic  mode.  Since  each  plagal 
mode  begins  a  fourth  below  its  corresponding 
authentic,  this  dominant  (participant  of  the 
plagal )  is  the  same  as  the  lowest  tone  of  the 
plagal  mode.  Here,  again,  B  is  barred  and  C 
substituted.  Likewise  F  can  never  be  partici- 
pant, the  next  higher  tone  (G)  being  substituted. 

While  every  melody  must  end  upon  the  final,  it 
may  begin  upon  any  one  of  the  four  just-men- 
tioned tones.  But  anV  phrase  except  the  last 
of  a  melody  may  also  end  upon  these  tones. 
Hence  they  are  also  called  cadences  or  modula- 
tions. As  in  a  long  melody  a  feeling  of  monotony 
would  be  produced  by  the  constant  employment 
of  these  modulations,  two  or  more  tones  are  ad- 
mitted. The  final,  dominant,  mediant,  and  par- 
ticipant are  called  regular  modulations,  and  the 
additional  tones  con-ceded  modulations.  One  of 
the  most  frequent  of  these  conceded  modulations 
is  the  seventh  tone  of  the  mode.  This  always 
appears  an  octave  lower  than  the  true  pitch,  on 
account  of  a  license  permitting  the  extension  of 
every  authentic  mode  by  one  tone  below  its  final 
and  of  every  plagal  mode  by  a  sixth  above  the 
final.  In  order  to  bring  melodies  within  the 
range  of  certain  voices  it  sometimes  happens 
that  they  are  written  a  fourth  higher  or  a 
fifth  lower  than  the  regular  mode.  Such  trans- 
position is  always  indicated  by  a  B  flat  in  the 
signature.     In  these  cases  the  true  final  will  be 


either  a  fourth  below  or  a  fifth  above  the  closing 
note. 

According  to  their  range  melodies  are  classed 
as  perfect,  imperfect,  and  super/luous.  A  perfect 
melody  moves  within  the  range  of  the  mode  in 
w  hich  it  is  written ;  an  imperfect  melody  does 
not  exhaust  the  entire  range;  a  superlluous 
melody  exceeds  the  range  either  above  or  below. 
Some  melodies  exhaust  the  complete  range  of 
both  the  authentic  and  its  corresponding  plagal 
mode;  these  are  said  to  be  written  in  a  mixed 
mode.  See  Gkeek  Music;  Plain  Chant;  and 
for  an  explanation  of  the  two  modes  in  use  at 
present,  see  Ma  job;  Minoh. 

MODESTO.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Stanislaus  County,  Cal.,  "7  miles  south  by  east 
of  Sacramento ;  on  the  Tuolunuie  Uiver  and  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  Uailroad  (.Map:  California, 
C  3).  It  has  some  manufactures,  and  a  trade 
in  grain,  fruit,  and  wool,  being  the  centre  of  an 
extensive  and  productive  region,  the  fertility  of 
which  is  developed  by  an  elaborate  system  of 
irrigation.  The  court  house  and  the  county  hos- 
pital are  tine  structures.  Population,  in  1890, 
2402;  in  1900,  2024. 

MODICA,  mo'de-ka.  A  city  in  the  Province 
of  Syracuse,  Sicily,  C.3  miles  by  rail  southwest 
of  the  city  of  Syracuse,  in  a  fertile  and  beautiful 
valley  1445  feet  above  the  sea  (Map:  Italy,  .J  11 ). 
The  principal  products  are  grain,  wine,  oil,  cheese, 
butter,  cattle,  and  mules.  There  are  a  public 
library,  a  hospital,  and  an  infant  asylum,  a  gym- 
nasium, technical  schools  and  a  technical  insti- 
tute, and  a  theatre.  Population  (commune),  in 
1881.  41,231;  in  1901,  48.0G2. 

MODIFICATION  OF  TEMPO.     See  Tempo. 

MODIL'LION  (OF.  modillion,  modiglion,  Fr. 
modilUon.  from  It.  modiqlione,  modillion,  from 
Lat.  modulus,  model).  An  ornamental  bracket 
much  used  in  classic  architecture,  especially  in 
the  cornices  of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite 
styles.  It  is  so  called  only  when  used  in  a  long 
series — not  singly — and  is  usually  small.  Larger 
and  single  brackets  are  called  consoles. 

MODIOLOIDES,  nio'di-.'i-loi'dez  (Neo-Lat. 
nom.  p!.,  from  Lat,  modiolu.'s,  nave  of  a  wheel  -+- 
Gk.  eUos,  eidos,  form).  One  of  the  very  earliest 
fos-sil  clams  known,  found  in  rocks  of  Lower 
Cambrian  age.     See  Fordilla;    Pemcypoda. 

MODISff,  Lady  Bettv,  A  character  in  Colley 
Cibber's  Careless  Husband,  a  charming  woman 
of  fasliion,  who,  though  coquetting  with  Lord 
Foppington,  is  in  love  with  Lord  Morelove.  Mrs. 
Oldfield  acted  the  part  so  successfully  as  to  win 
unusual  praise  from  the  author. 

MODJESKA,  m6-jes'ka,  Helena  (1844—). 
A  noted  actress,  of  Polish  origin,  since  187(i  a  resi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  Michael  Opido.  a  musician,  and  was  bom  in 
Cracow,  October  12,  1844.  ]\Iarried  in  18C0  to  a 
manager  named  Modrzejewski.  from  the  contrac- 
tion of  whose  name  comes  that  by  which  she  is 
known,  she  became  in  18tl5  the  leaditig  actress 
in  the  theatre  of  her  native  city.  Three  years 
later  she  was  married  to  her  second  husband. 
Count  Bozenta  Chlapowski,  and  became  the  star 
of  the  Imperial  Theatre  of  Warsaw.  Political 
difllculties  and  ill  health  led  her  with  her  hus- 
band to  go  in  1870  to  California,  where  they 
established  a  Polish  colony.  This  did  not  suc- 
ceed, and  after  only  a  few  months'  study  of  Eng- 


MODJESKA. 


648 


MODULATION. 


lish  the  Polish  Couutess  made  lier  debut  in  San 
yranoisco  (July,  1877)  as  Adiienne  Lecouvreur. 
She  won  u  .surprisiiij,'  success,  and  was  soon  seen 
in  New  Voik  in  tlie  same  play.  In  1880  she 
made  her  London  deltut  in  tlie  part  of  Caniille. 
In  188!)  and  18!t0  she  starred  witli  Edwin  Bootli, 
with  whom  she  had  already  in  188^  appeared  in 
Romeo  and  Juliet.  The  list  of  her  roles  is  a 
long  one,  but  her  greatest  devotion  has  been  to 
Shakespeare,  from  whom  are  many  of  her  mast 
notable  impersonations,  among  them  Ophelia, 
Rosalind,  Viola,  Imogen,  Cleopatra,  and  Lady 
ilacbeth.  Her  great  natural  gifts,  always  or- 
dered by  high  ideals  and  tlie  most  careful  study 
of  her  art,  have  gained  her  as  a  tragic  actress  a 
foremost  rank  upon  the  American  stage.  Con- 
sult: Strang,  Famuun  Actresses  of  tlie  Day  in 
America  (Bcxston,  1899);  McKay  and  Wingate, 
Famous  American  Actors  of  To-day  (New  York, 
189G)  ;  Gilder,  in  Actors  and  Actresses  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  ed.  bv  Matthews 
and   Hutton    (New   York,    lH8(i). 

MOBLING,  nied'Iing.  A  town  of  Lower  Aus- 
tria, situated  at  the  foot  of  the  WienerwaUl,  ten 
miles  south-southwest  of  Vienna.  Tlie  nianufa<'- 
fures  consist  of  iron  products,  railway  supplies, 
footwear,  etc.  Population,  in  1890,  10,9.'i6;  in 
1900,   15,.104. 

MO'DOC.  A  small  but  warlike  and  aggres- 
sive tribe,  formerly  ranging  about  Lower  Kla- 
math Lake  and  Lost  River,  an<l  on  the  extreme 
nortlieast  frontier  of  California.  The  name  is 
said  to  mean  'aliens'  (i.e.  enemies),  having  been 
given  by  some  one  of  the  neighboring  tribes. 
They  call  themselves  .\lal;hl,s,  'people."  and  with 
their  northern  neighbors,  the  Klamath,  whose 
language  they  speak  and  with  whom  they  origi- 
nally formed  oye  tribe,  are  at  present  classified 
as  a  distinct  linguistic  stock  known  as  Lutua- 
mian,  but  they  ma.v,  however,  eventually  prove 
to  be  connected  with  the  Shahaptian  stock. 
At  some  earlier  jieriod  they  seceded  from  the 
parent  Klamath  trilic  and  established  themselves 
on  Lost  River.  Their  houses  were  round  log 
structures,  covered  with  earth,  and  their  women 
were  expert  ba.sket-weavers  and  cradle-makers. 
The  Modoc  made  no  alliances,  but  were  at  war 
with  all  the  weaker  surrounding  tribes,  and 
carried  on  a  regular  slave  trade  by  selling  their 
raptives  to  the  Coluiiiliia  tribes  in  exchange  for 
ponici.  They  were  of  vigorous  vitality,  and  kept 
up  their  nuinlH'rs  in  spite  of  smallpox  and  con- 
stant wars  with  both  Indians  and  whites.  They 
came  into  early  <ollision  with  the  California 
immigrants,  ami  a  chronic  warfare  was  inau- 
gurated, marked  by  wholesale  massacres  on  both 
sides.  In  1800  they  were  severely  defeated  by 
troopi*  under  Captain  Lyon.  In  18.52  they  mas- 
sacred a  number  o/  settlers,  for  which  terrible 
retaliation  was  made  by  a  band  of  miners  under 
the  notorious  lien  Wright,  who  invited  their 
warriors  to  a  feast  and  peace  conference,  and 
treacherously  murdered  forty-one  of  the  forty-six 
who  responded.  -Mlhougb  thus  diminished  by 
nearly  half  their  fighting  force,  the  Modoc  recom- 
menced the  war  of  extermination,  which  continued 
until  1804,  when  they  entered  into  a  treaty  by 
which  they  agreed  to  go  upon  the  Klamath 
reservation  in  Oregon.  By  this  time  they  had 
been  reduced  to  nbput  2.50.  Finding  their  posi- 
tion there  intolerable  by  reason  of  the  persecution 
and  insults  of  the  Klnniath,  who  considered  them 


as  rebels,  the  majority  under  a  younger  leader 
known  as  Captain  .lack  (q.v.)  left  the  reserva- 
tion and  returned  to  tlicir  old  home  on  Lost 
River.  Thej'  were  induced  to  return  on  pioinise 
of  protection,  but  linding  themselves  again  sub- 
jected to  the  same  persecution  without  olhcial 
redress,  thej'  returned  to  Lost  River,  leaving  only 
ali'out  100  behind  under  the  old  hereditary  chief 
Skonchin.  Orders  were  given  to  the  troops  to 
bring  them  back,  and  on  November  29,  1872,  the 
final  -Modoc  ivar  was  begun  by  a  night  attack  on 
Captain  .lack's  cam]).  The  ilodoc  retreated  to 
the  Lava  Beds,  just  across  the  line,  wliere  they 
so  intrenched  themselves  in  the  labyrinth  of  vol- 
canic rocks  that  four  hundred  regular  troops 
were  twice  forei'il  to  retire  with  heavy  loss  with- 
out being  able  to  come  near  enough  even  to  see 
one  of  their  concealed  enemies.  A  peace  com- 
nii.ssion  to  confer  with  the  hostiles  was  then 
appointed,  consisting  of  General  Canby.  Rev. 
-Mjr. Thomas. and  Indian  Superintendent  Meacham. 
They  met  the  bead  men  of  the  Modoc  on  -\pril  11, 
1873.  .lack  repeated  bis  demand  to  remain  on 
Lost  River,  and  on  Canby's  refusal,  drew  his 
revolver  and  shot  him  dead.  .\t  the  same  moment 
the  other  warriors  fired,  killing  Thomas  instantly 
and  severely  wounding  Jleacham,  but  were  driven 
otf  before  they  could  finish  the  work  by  the  ar- 
rival of  the  troops  whom  Canby  had  kept  hidden 
within  easy  reach.  The  war  was  continued 
under  (ieneral  Davis  until  the  hostiles  were 
finally  starved  out  and  compelled  to  surrender 
two  months  later.  -V  ])art  of  the  surrendered 
hostiles  were  returned  to  their  kindred  on  the 
Klamath  reservation.  Oregon,  while  the  rest  were 
transported  to  the  Quapaw  reservation  in  Indian 
Territory.  Those  on  the  Klamath  reservation  now 
number  225,  and  are  apparently  fairly  prosperous 
and  advancing  and  coalescing  with  the  Klamath. 
Those  on  the  (Quapaw  reservation  number  .50, 
having  decreased  about  one-half  since  the  re- 
moval.    See  Klamath. 

MO'DRED.  The  nc])hew  of  King  Arthur. 
Tinny-iiii  represents  him  ambitious  to  gain  the 
throne,  and  after  revealing  Guinevere's  unfaith- 
fulness to  the  King,  he  stirs  up  a  revolt,  during 
which   .Arthur  is  slain. 

MODUGNO,  mo-dTio'nyd.  A  to%vn  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Baridelle  Puglie.  Italy,  about  five  miles 
southwest  of  liari.  It  markets  good  fruit,  wine, 
and  oil.  Populatioii.  in  1901  (commune),  11,- 
SSo. 

MODULATION  fin  Alusic)  (Lai.  modulatio, 
from  iHoduliiri.  to  regulate,  from  modulus,  dimin- 
utive of  iiHidus.  measure,  manner).  The  process 
of  changing  from  one  key  to  another  within  the 
same  composition.  In  a  movement  of  even  the 
smallest  dimensions  monotony  would  result  if 
the  composer  should  confine  himself  strictly  to 
one  key.  There  are  two  kinds  of  modulations, 
/lassiny  and  /irnil.  Passing  modulation  intro- 
duces chords  belonging  to  other  keys  only  inci- 
dentally and  soon  returns  to  the  original  key. 
But  when  a  piece  modulates  so  that  the  original 
key  is  abandoned  and  a  new  key  takes  its  place, 
the  modulation  is  final.  In  the  sonata-form  (see 
Sonata)  the  first  development  of  the  principal 
subject  confines  itself  only  to  passiur/  modula- 
tions. A  final  modulation  occurs  at  the 
entrance  of  the  secondary  subject  (generally 
to  the  dominant  key).  Tlie  .second  or  de- 
velopment   section    is    concerned    entirely    with 


MODULATION. 


649 


HCEKIS. 


passing  UKxlulatiou.  ]5iit  even  here  the  choice 
of  keys  is  not  arbitrary.  However,  no 
rule.s  can  be  given ;  tlie  artistic  and  ustlietie 
instinct  of  the  composer  is  the  sole  guide.  Ac- 
cording to  the  theory  of  the  present  day,  all 
modulation  is  regarded  in  its  relation  to  the 
principal  key  of  the  piece,  and,  in  a  wider  sense, 
all  keys  are  but  steps  within  the  unlimited 
domain  of  tonality  (q.v.).  Older  composers  are 
very  sparing  and  careful  in  the  use  of  modula- 
tion, but  those  of  the  nineteentli  ci'iit my  (espe- 
cially Wagner,  Schumann.  Chopin)  practically  re- 
moved all  barriers.  The  means  of  moilulation  are 
various  and  cannot  be  discussed  in  an  article 
like  the  present.  The  most  frequent  expedient 
is  the  different  interpretations  put  upon  the 
same  chord.  Thus  the  chord  c,  e,  g  may  lie 
conceived  as  tonic  of  C,  dominant  of  F,  .sub- 
dominant  of  G,  etc..  and  consequently  can  be 
used  to  modulate  at  once  to  those  keys.  In 
modern  music  the  chord  of  the  diminished  seventh 
plays  an  important  part  in  modulation.  Thus 
cjt,  e,  g,  bb  leads  into  D  minor;  the  same  chord 
conceived  as  e,  g,  bb,  djj  into  F  minor;  as  g,  b\), 
db,  fb  to  A  flat  minor;  as  aJt,  cj{,  e,  g  into  B 
minor,  etc.  The  principal  works  on  modulation 
are:  Draseke,  Antceisunfi  ziiin  kunstgerechten 
ModuUeren  ( Freienwalde.  1876)  ;  Riemann.  Hiir- 
monie  und  Modulatiotislehre  (Leipzig,  1900): 
Jadassohn,  Die  Kiinst  xu  modulieren  (Leipzig, 
1890). 

MOiyULE  (Fr.  module,  from  Lat.  modulus, 
small  measure).  In  classic  architecture,  an 
arbitrary  measure  or  standard  for  determining 
the  proportions  of  the  various  members  of  the  col- 
umnar orders.  It  is  based  upon  the  width  of  the 
temple  fagade.  Vitruvius.  upon  whose  statement 
all  such  calculations  have  been  based,  divides  a 
he.xastyle  Doric  front,  for  example,  into  44 
moduli,  the  capital  being  the  modulus,  the 
diameter  of  the  shaft  two  moduli,  the  total 
height  of  the  column  14  moduli,  etc.  Such  a 
scheme  was  undoubtedly  a  (Jreek  idea  incor- 
porated in  the  writings  of  the  Greek  architects 
whom  Vitruvius  copied.  But  no  such  cast-iron 
rules  could  have  been  formulated  .is  were  laid 
down  by  the  neo-classic  architects  of  the  Renais- 
sance, such  as  Serlio  and  Vignola,  who  made  the 
modulus  the  one  determining  iinit  of  proportion. 
By  them  the  diameter,  semi-diameter,  or  one- 
third  of  the  diameter  are  most  frequently  used ; 
the  first  being  usually  divided  into  60  parts  (or 
minutes),  the  second  into  30  parts,  and  the  third 
into  20  parts. 

MODULUS  (Lat.,  small  measure).  A  term 
variously  used  in  mathematics.  In  the  theory 
of  logarithms  (q.v.)  it  designates  the  multiplier 
by  which  one  system  of  logarithms  is  trans- 
formed into  another.  The  expression  ^'ar  +  6" 
is  often  called  the  modulus  of  the  complex  num- 
ber, o  +  bi,  where  i  stands  for  ■^/ — I.  (See  CoM- 
I'l.EX  Number.)  In  the  theory  of  numbers,  the 
term  congruence  (q.v.)  is  applied  to  an  equality 
in  which  we  neglect  certain  quantities  which  are 
called  'moduli;'  e.g.  26=12  (mod.  7)  denotes 
that  26  is  congruent  to  12  to  the  modulus  7, 
i.e.  that  26—  12  is  a  mul1i]ile  iif  7. 

MODULUS  OF  ELASTICITY.  See  Elas- 
ticity. 

MOE,  mo'e.  .Torqen  (1815-82).  A  Norwegian 
poet  and  folklorist.     He  was  born  at  Holm,  in 


the  District  of  Kingerike.  and  before  his  entry 
at  the  University  of  Cliristiania  became  well 
acquainted  with  Asbjiirnscn  (q.v.),  later  bis  col- 
laborator. From  1835  to  1852  hardly  a  year  passed 
during  which  Moe  did  not  nuike  a  long  tour  of 
I  lie  country  in  search  of  jiopular  legends.  The 
first  collection  of  these  tales,  edited  by  Moe  and 
Asbjornsen  under  the  title  A'ocsA-e  folkceventyr, 
appeared  in  1842-44;  was  republished  by  Moe  in 
1852,  and  was  translated  into  English  by  Dascnt 
(1859).  His  Hamlvde  Hkrifler  (1877)  include 
the  popular  poems  (1850)  and  the  juvenile 
stories,  /  Briindi  n  og  i  Kjiirnct  ( 1851 ) .  Moe  died 
at  Christiansand,  where  he  had  been  bishop  for 
seven  years. 

MOEL,  moil  (Welsh,  hill).  A  hill  having  a 
rounded  outline  in  its  u|)per  portion  because  the 
sunmiit  is  protected  from  rapid  denudation  by  a 
layer  of  soil  and  a  growth  of  forest  trees  or  grass, 
or  by  marshes  of  peat.  Consult  Marr,  The  Ge- 
ograiihical   Journal    (London,    1901). 

MCELLER,  mel'ler,  Louis  (1856—).  An 
American  genre  painter,  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  a  pupil  of  E.  M.  Ward  and  Will 
Low  in  New  York  C!ity,  and  of  Dietz  and 
Duveneck  in  Munich.  He  is  a  clever  delineator 
of  character.  In  1884  he  won  the  first  Hallgar- 
ten  Prize  with  his  picture  "I'uzzled,"  and  he  was 
made  a  National  Academician  in  1895. 

MOEN,  me'en.  A  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic 
Sea,  separated  from  Seeland  on  the  northwest 
by  the  Ulv  Sound,  and  from  Falster  on  the  south- 
west by  the  Grijn  Sound  (Map:  Denmark,  F  4). 
Area,  82  square  miles.  Population,  in  1901, 
14,504.  Its  surface  is  remarkably  irregular  com- 
pared with  the  rest  of  Denmark.  The  limestone 
formation  which  underlies  a  large  ])art  of  the 
country  here  crops  out  in  the  form  of  high  and 
steep  chalk  clifl's  of  great  natural  beauty.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile.  Agriculture  and  fisheries 
are  the  leading  industries.  The  chief  town  and 
seaport  is  Stege,  on  the  west  coast,  with  :i  popula- 
tion  (1901)    of  2247. 

MCE'R^.  The  Greek  name  of  the  Fates. 
See  Pakc.e. 

MCERIS,  me'ns  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Moipis,  Moi- 
ri.i).  Lake.  The  ancient  name  of  a  sheet  of 
water  in  Central  Eg^'pt,  a  remnant  of  which,  it 
is  generally  agreed,  exists  in  tlu^  present  liirkrt- 
Karun  or  Birket  el-Kerun  ('lake  of  horns'),  34 
miles  long  by  i\U  miles  wide,  extending  along 
the  northwestern  borders  of  the  Province  of 
Fayum.  The  classical  writers  have  left  Very 
confused  descriptions  of  a  great  artificial 
reservoir  at  this  locality  for  storing  the  water 
of  the  Nile  and  irrigating  the  surrounding  coun- 
try by  means  of  sluices.  As  the  lake  is  at  pres- 
ent 130  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  it  must, 
within  historic  times,  have  hollowed  out  its  bed 
200  feet,  or  the  artificial  lake  must  have  been  a 
small  reservoir  southeast  of  it,  or  else  the  an- 
cients must  have  totally  misrepresented  the  whole 
matter.  The  investigations  of  Major  Brown, 
which  have  been  fully  confirmed  by  Petrie,  seem 
to  point  to  the  last-named  solution.  The  lake 
formed  by  the  Bahr-Yusuf  (.Joseph's  Canal) 
must  have  been  much  larger,  until  the  kings  of 
Dynasty  XII.,  and  later  the  second  Ptolemy, 
diked  off  considerable  portions.  The  semi-mythi- 
cal King  Moeris  of  Herodotus  is  Amenemhat  III., 
the  builder  of  the  Labyrinth    (q.v.),  whose  two 


nCERIS. 


650 


MOGILA. 


colossi  have  been  discovered  at  Biahmu.  Consult 
Petrie,  Iluuura,  Biahmu,  and  Aisinue  (London, 
1889). 

MOEBO,  niwa'rd,  Mof;bo-Mkata,  or  Mebl". 
A  lake  in  .South  Central  Afrit-a,  situated  100  miles 
west  of  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika. 
(Map:  Africa,  G  5.)  It  lies  on  a  plateau  at  an 
altitude  of  .'iOOO  feet,  and  is  surrounded,  espe- 
cially on  the  north,  by  wooded  mountains  having 
an  Alpine  aspect.  It  is  08  miles  long,  24  miles 
wide,  and  very  deep,  especially  in  the  northern 
part.  It  is  evidently  of  great  age,  as  it  con- 
tains a  remarkable  species  of  fish  belonging  to  the 
Silurian  period  and  of  amphibious  haliits.  The 
Luapula  River  enters  the  lake  by  two  mo\iths  at 
the  southern  end,  and  leaves  at  the  northern  end 
to  join  tile  Congo.  The  lake  was  discovered  in 
1867  by  Livingstone.  The  settlement  of  Rhodesia 
was  founded  on  its  eastern  shore  in  1892. 

IKESIA,  me'shl-a  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Moto-fa, 
Moisia).  An  ancient  Roman  province,  hounded 
by  the  Danube,  and  f(ir  a  short  distance  by  the 
Savus  (Save),  on  the  north,  the  Black  Sea  on 
the  east,  the  mountain  chains  of  ILemus  ( Bal- 
kan) and  Orbelus  on  the  south,  and  by  the  range 
of  Scardus  and  the  river  Drinus  (Drina)  on  the 
west.  The  river  Cibrus  (Tzibritza)  divided  it  into 
two  parts,  the  eastern  (Jloesia  Inferior)  corre- 
sponding api)roximately  to  the  present  Bulgaria, 
and  the  western  (Miesia  Superior)  to  Servia.  Its 
original  inhabitants  were  mostly  of  Thracian  race. 
Gaulish  or  Celtic  invaders  settled  in  Western 
Jlcesia  about  B.C.  277,  under  the  name  of  Sciu- 
disci.  The  Romans  lirst  came  in  contact  with  the 
tribes  of  Ma?sia  after  the  conquest  of  Macedonia. 
In  B.C.  75  C.  Scribonius  Curio  forced  his  way  as 
far  north  as  the  Danube,  and  gained  a  victory 
over  the  JIa?sians,  hut  the  country  was  not 
completely  subjugated  till  B.C.  29.  It  was  madi' 
a  Roman  province  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and 
flourished  for  more  than  two  centuries ;  but  as  a 
frontier  province  it  was  nuich  exposed  to  hostile 
invasions,  and  required  a  line  of  fortresses  and 
stations  all  along  the  south  Iwink  of  the  Danul)e. 
The  chief  Roman  towns  were  Viminacium  in 
McEsia  Superior,  and  Istros,  Marciano|)olis.  and 
Nicopolis  in  Moesia  Inferior.  In  a.d.  2.j0  the 
Goths  made  an  irruption  into  the  country,  and 
defeated  and  slew  the  Roman  Emperor  Decius 
in  tjie  following  year,  and  about  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century  it  was  given  up  to  them 
by  the  Kmperor  Theodnsius  I.  Slavic  tribes 
settled  in  .Nbesja  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  cen- 
turies, and  toward  the  close  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury the  Bulgarians  established  their  kingdom  in 
the  eastern  part. 

MCESO-GOTHS,  nie'sA-gnths'.  A  name  given 
to  the  (Jolhs  who.  early  in  the  third  century,  set- 
tled in  Lower  Miesla.  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dan 
vil)e.  In  the  fourth  century  they  were  cnnverted 
to  Christianity  through  the  efl'orts  of  Ulfilas,  who 
translated  the  Bible  into  their  dialect.  (See  'Cl.Fr- 
IAS.)  The  name  Mirso-Gotlis  is  applied  especial- 
ly to  those  Goths  who  remained  in  Mo>sia  after 
the  great  niignitions  at  the  Iwginning  of  the  fifth 
eenlurv.     See  GoTIIS. 

MOF'FAT,  RoREBT  (1795-188.1).  .\  mission- 
ary to  Siiutli  .\friea.  born  in  Ormiston,  Scotland. 
In  early  life  he  was  a  gardener,  but  having 
made  the  aeqiiaintance  of  some  Wesleyan  min- 
isters,   he    determined    to    engage    in    religious 


work,  and  sought  to  ((ualify  himself  to  l)e  a  mis- 
sionary. He  was  accepteii  by  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  and  set  apart  for  the  ministry 
in  181(i:  was  appointed  to  South  .\frica,  and 
arrived  at  Cape  Town  early  in  1817.  He  pro- 
cet>ded  to  Xamaqualand,  and  to  the  kraal  of 
Africaner,  a  savage  chief,  who  was  converted  and 
became  an  earnest  Christian.  The  country, 
however,  did  not  prove  well  adapted  for  the  loca- 
tion of  a  mission  centre;  and  Moil'ut.  after  having 
explored  a  considerable  region,  established  the 
station  of  Kunnnan  in  182.5.  His  missionary 
labors  were  very  successful,  and  produciivc  of 
great  benefits  in  the  amelioration  of  the  character 
of  the  people  and  the  developujcnt  of  civilization. 
In  18.5!)  a  new  centre  was  established  among  the 
Matabele  at  Inajati.  The  missionary  labors  of 
Dr.  -Moll'at  and  his  travels  and  adventures  are 
described  in  his  book.  Missionan/  l,nbtirs  and 
Scenes  in  South  Africa  (1842).  During  183!l-43 
he  visited  England  and  then  returned  to  .\frica, 
and  remained  there  till  1870.  when  he  went 
back  to  England  and  settled  in  Brixton.  London, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  In  187.3  he 
was  presented  with  the  sum  of  £.5800  in  recog- 
nition of  his  great  services.  His  daughter  was 
the  wife  of  Dr.  David  Livingstone.  Besides  the 
volume  already  mentioned.  Dr.  Moll'at  published 
Afrira.  or  Gnfipel  J.ifiht  Shining  in  thr  Midst  of 
Heathen  Darkness:  A  Sermon  on  Faith  (1341); 
and  Rivers  of  Water  in  Dry  Places:  An  Ac- 
count of  the  Introduction  of  Chri.itianilii  into 
South  Africa,  and  of  Mr.  Moffat's  Missionarii 
Labors  (186.3).  He  also  translated  the  Bible 
into  the  language  of  the  Bechuanas.  The  full  ac- 
count of  Moffat's  life  and  labors  is  given  in  the 
Lives  of  Robert  and  Mar;/  Moffat,  by  their  son, 
John  South  Moflat  (London.  188.5;  new  edition, 
ISSC;   pc,[iular  edition,  1889). 

MOGADOR,  mog-a-diir'.  or  Suera.  The  prin- 
cipal seaport  of  Moro<co.  situated  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  120  miles  west-southwest  of  the  city  of 
Morocco,  of  which  it  is  the  jHirt  (Map:  Africa, 
CI).  It  is  built  on  a  rocky  promontory,  sur- 
rounded on  the  land  side  by  sand-dunes.  .A  chan- 
nel between  the  town  and  a  neighl)oring  island 
forms  the  harbor.  Mogador  is  the  best-built 
town  of  Morocco,  having  been  plamied  by  a 
French  engineer  in  1760.  .\  part  of  it.  the  K.as- 
bah  or  castle,  is  surrounded  l)y  walls,  and  con- 
tains the  residences  of  the  Moorish  orticials  and 
of  the  protected  .lewish  and  Christian  mer- 
chants. Most  of  the  .lews,  however,  live  in  a 
separate  quarter  of  the  city.  The  traiU-  of  the 
city  is  considerable,  and  is  mostly  with  (!reat 
Britain  and  France.  The  principal  exports  arc 
olive  oil,  almonds,  gum  arable,  hides,  goat  skins, 
and  wool.  The  total  value  of  the  trade  for  1901 
was  .*2.7.'<r>.onn.     Population,  abnut    1.5.000. 

MOGILA,  nioge'la.  or  MOGILAS,  Peter 
(c.l.596c.  1647  ) .  -A  Russian  theologian.  He  was 
born  in  Moldavia,  of  a  noble  Wallachian 
family,  and  was  educated  at  the  Cniversity  of 
Paris,  .\fter  serving  in  the  Polish  army  he  went 
into  a  monastery  at  Kiev,  and  became  metropoli- 
tan of  that  see  in  1629.  He  set  up  a  prinling- 
press.  and  founded  an  academy  and  a  library, 
to  whii'h  he  gave  his  own  collection  of  books. 
He  published  a  catechism  in  164.5.  and  other 
minor  works.  His  great  title  to  fame  rests  upon 
the  orthodox  Confession  of  Faith,  which  was 
drawn  up  at  his  instance  by  the  .Vbhot  Kosslov- 
ski  of  Kiev,  approved  at  a  provincial  synod  in 


MOGILA. 


651 


MOHAMMED. 


1G40,  and  iicoeiited  by  tlio  patiiarohs  of  Con- 
staiitiiioplf,  .lorusalem.  and  Antiocli  in  l(i42-43, 
and  by  tlio  Synod  of  Jerusalem  in  1072.  It 
has  been  edited  in  Greek  and  Latin  by  I'ana- 
geotes  (Amsterdam,  10(52)  and  llotl'mann  (Leip- 
zig, 10!);")).     A  (ierinan  translation  by  Friseli  ap- 


peared  at    Frankfort   in    17 


It   is   given   by 


Von  Kininiell.  in  Libii  Hymbolici  Ecclesice  Orien- 
talis   (.Jena,   1843}. 

MOGOK,  mo'gok.  The  capital  of  the  district 
of  Kiiliy  Mines,  Upper  Burma.  India,  0.5  miles 
northeast  of  JIandalay  (Jlap:  Burma,  C  2). 
The  town  lies  in  a  valley  at  an  altitude  of  4000 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  noted  for  its  ruby  mines, 
which  are  controlled  by  a  European  eon\pany. 
which  has  introduced  a  complete  modern  mining 
installation  with  electric  power  furnished  liy  an 
artifi<'ial  reservoir  supplied  by  the  Yeni  stream. 
I'opulatitm.  cstiiiiatcd,  8000. 

MOGONTI'ACXTM.  The  Roman  name  of 
Wainz. 

MOGUL,  Gke.\t  {more  correctly  Mughal,  or 
Moyhul;  Hind.  Mughal,  from  Mongol  Mongol, 
Mongol,  from  mong,  to  be  brave).  The  popu- 
lar designation  of  the  Emperor  of  Delhi,  as  the 
impersonation  of  the  powerful  empire  estab- 
lished in  Hindustan  by  the  ilongol  conciueror, 
Bal)er,  the  great-grandson  of  Timur.  in  lo2(i. 
The  most  important  princes  of  this  line,  after 
Baber  (the  first  Great  Mogul),  were  Akbar 
(1550-100.")),  .lehangir  (1605-27),  Shah  .Jehan 
(1028-58),  and  Aurungzebe  (1658-1707).  In 
1S0.3  the  Great  Mogul,  Shah  Alam,  was  deprived 
of  his  throne,  and  in  1827  he  surrendered  even 
the  ajipearance  of  authority,  becomiu;^  a  pen- 
sioner of  the  British.  In  1857  Jloliammed 
Bahadur,  the  last  of  the  dynasty,  who  had  been 
invested  with  the  imperial  dignity  at  Delhi  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Se[)oy  ilutiny,  was  con- 
demned and  transported  for  his  complicity  in  the 
mutiny  to  l!anj;oon,  where  he  died  in  1862.  Con- 
sult Kccuc.  I'lill  of  the  Miiqhal  Empire  (London, 
ls7(;i. 

MOHACS,  m.Vhach.  A  market  town  of  Hun- 
j:iry,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danulie. 
-!•')  miles  southeast  of  Fiinfkirchen  (ilap:  Hun- 
gary, F  4).  It  is  poorly  built,  but  is  an  im- 
portant station  for  steaiuers.  and  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  in  wood,  coal,  and  grain. 
It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  August 
29.  1520,  between  the  Hungarians  under  Louis  IT. 
and  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the  ilagnificent. 
The  King  and  over  20.000  Hungarians  and  (Jer- 
mans  jjcrished.  and  a  large  part  of  Hungaiy  fell 
under  the  yoke  of  Turkey.  On  Augtist  12. 
1087.  a  second  battle  was  fought  at  MohScs, 
in  which  the  Imperialists  under  Charles  of  Lor- 
raine d<'feated  the  Turks,  thereby  putting  an  end 
to  the  Turkish  dominion  in  Central  Hungarv. 
Population,  in   18!)0.  14.40.3;  in  1900.  15.832." 

MO'HAIR  (OF.  moiihaire,  mouaire,  mohere, 
Fr.  inoirr,  from  Ar.  iiixikhngfiar,  fabric  of  goats' 
hair).  The  wool  of  the  Angora  goat  (see  Goat) 
of  Asia  .Minor  and  South  Africa.  Few  animals 
have  so  lieautiful  a  covering  as  the  fine,  soft, 
silky,  long,  and  always  pure  white  wool  of  this 
goat.  Each  animal  at  the  annual  clip  in  April  or 
May  yields  from  two  pounds  to  four  pounds  of 
wool.  The  fabric  mohair  made  from  this  wool  is 
characterized  by  its  li<;ht  weight,  smooth,  dust- 
shedding  surface,  and  lustre.  In  pile  fabrics, 
such  as  plushes  and  astrakhans,  mohair  is  some- 

Voi..   XIII.— IJ. 


times  used  for  the  pile-warp,  while  the  body  is 
made  of  cotton.  The  fabric  known  as  camel's 
hair  is  nnule  from  the  best  mohair,  which  enters 
into  the  man\ifacture  of  many  fabrics.  Consult 
77i<-  Angiira  (loat  { Faniurn'  Itulletin,  No.  137, 
Initcd  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington. 1901).  For  the  production  of  mohair  in 
the  I'nitcil  States,  see  Wool. 

MOHAM'MED  (Ar.  .Vu/iom  mod.  the  Praised; 
according  to  Deutsch.  Sprenger,  and  Hirschfeld, 
the  predicted  .Messiah  (cf.  Haggai  ii.  7).  The 
founder  of  Islam.  He  was  born  about  a.d.  570, 
at  Mecca,  the  .son  of  Ahd  Allah,  of  the  family 
of  Hashini  and  Amina.  of  the  family  of  Zuhra, 
both  of  whom  belonged  to  branches  of  the 
powerful  tribe  of  the  Koreish.  His  father,  a 
poor  merchant,  died  before  or  shortly  after 
Mohammed's  birth ;  and  liis  mother,  after  the 
fashion  of  her  tribe,  gave  the  child  to  a  Bedouin 
woman,  that  she  might  nurse  him  in  the  health- 
ful air  of  the  desert.  The  infant  was  subject 
to  fits,  which  were  ascribed  to  demons,  and  the 
nurse  brought  him  back  in  his  third  year.  Three 
years  afterwards  his  mother  died.  His  grand- 
father. Abd  al-Muttalib.  adopted  the  boy;  and 
when  the  grandfather  died,  Mohammed's  uncle, 
Aim  Talib.  a  man  of  influence,  though  poor,  took 
him  into  his  house,  and  remained  his  best  friend 
and  protector  tliroughout  his  life.  The  later  tra- 
dition has  surrounded  Mohammed's  youth  with 
luireliable  legends.  What  is  known  is  that  he  at 
first  gained  a  scanty  livelihood  by  tending  the 
flocks  of  the  Meccans.  and  that  he  once  or  twice 
accompanied  his  uncle  on  his  journeys  to  South 
Arabia  and  Syria.  In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he 
entered  the  service  of  a  rich  widow  named  Kha- 
dija.  who  was  also  of  the  Koreish.  and  accom- 
panied her  caravans,  perhaps  as  a  camel-driver, 
to  the  fairs.  Soon  Khadija,  who  was  much  older 
than  he  and  twice  widowed,  ofl'ered  him  her  hand, 
which  he  accepted.  She  bore  him  a  son,  Al- 
Kasim,  and  four  daughters,  Fatima,  Zainab, 
Rukaiya,  and  Umni  Knlthum ;  and  afterwards  a 
second  son,  whom  he  called  Abd  Allah.  Both 
sons  died  early.  Mohammed  conducted  Khadija's 
business  at  Mecca  with  success,  although  he 
spent  much  time  in  solitary  contemplation.  He 
was  esteemed  for  his  integrity  and  good  judg- 
ment, and  there  is  nothing  of  nuich  importance  to 
be  told  of  his  life  until  he  reached  his  fortieth 
year,  and  received  his  first  revelation. 

The  conditions  attending  his  advent  as  a  re- 
ligious leader  are  important.  By  the  year  600 
Christianity  had  penetrated  Arabia  through 
Syria  and  Abyssinia.  .Judaism  no  less  played  a 
prominent  part  in  tlie  peninsula,  particularly  in 
the  north,  which  was  dotted  over  with  Jewish 
colonies  founded  by  emigrants  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  espcciallv  round  about 
Vathrib  (Medina).  That  both  Christianity  and 
.rudalsm  had  found  an  entrance  into  the  more 
southerly  part  of  Arabia  is  shown  by  the  mono- 
(  hcistic  inscriptions  found  there.  Besides  these  two 
important  religious  elements,  several  sects,  rem- 
nants of  the  numerous  ancient  sects  which  had 
sprung  up  everywhere  during  the  first  Christian 
centuries  on  the  borders  of  Syria  and  Babylonia, 
heightened  the  religious  ferment  which,  shortly 
before  the  time  of  Alohammed,  began  to  move  the 
minds  of  the  thoughtful.  Certain  men  in  the 
lledjaz  (Waraka.  Obaid  Allah.  Othman.  Zaid. 
and  others)  began  to  preach  the  futility  of  the 
ancient  paganism,  with  its  star-worship,  its  pil- 


MOHAMMED. 


652 


MOHAMMED. 


grimages  and  festive  eereiuoiiies,  its  temples  and 
fetishes.  It  had  long  eeased  to  be  a  living  faith, 
■but  the  mass  of  the  people  elung  to  it  as  to  a 
saered  inheritance  from  times  immemorial.  The 
unity  of  tiod,  the  'ancient  religion  of  Abraham/ 
was  the  doctrine  promulgated  by  the  religious  re- 
formers, and  many  were  roused  by  their  words 
to  search  for  a  form  of  religion  which  should 
embody  both  the  traditions  of  their  forefathers 
and  a  purer  doctrine  of  the  divinity,  and  turned 
to  Judaism  or  to  Christianity.  Jlccca,  the  centre 
of  the  pilgrimages  of  most  of  the  Arabian  tribes, 
where,  from  times  anterior  to  the  city  itself,  the 
Kaaba  (q.v. ),  Mount  Arafat,  the  valley  of  ilina, 
etc.,  had  been  held  sacred — the  Koreish,  Mo- 
hammed's tribe,  had  had  supreme  care  over  tlicse 
sanctuaries  since  the  fifth  century — was  natu- 
rally the  scene  of  much  of  this  reform  preaching. 
Surrounded  by  such  conditions,  Mohammed  in  his 
fortieth  year  entered  the  field  as  a  teacher  of  a 
faith  independent  alike  of  the  old  idolatry  and 
of  Judaism  and  Christianity.  Like  other  Ori- 
ental projiliets,  he  claimed  to  have  received  a 
divine  call,  which,  he  asserted,  had  come  to  him 
in  the  solitude  of  the  mountain  llira,  near  Mec- 
ca. Gabriel  ajipearcd  to  him.  and  comman<lcd 
him  to  proclaim  the  name  of  Allah — that  is,  to 
preach  the  true  religion.  That  Mohanniied  was 
no  common  impostor  is  clear.  The  source  of  his 
visions  is  more  diflicult  to  determine.  By  some 
they  have  been  attributed  to  his  epilepsy.  Un- 
doubtedly they  were  in  <'onsiderable  measure  due 
to  his  frequent  retirement  into  desert  solitudes, 
which  brought  on  tlie  ecstasies  so  familiar  in 
Oriental  religious  enthusiasts.  W'araka,  one  of 
his  wife's  relatives,  who  had  embraced  .ludaism. 
may  have  instructed  him  in  .lewish  doctrines  and 
told  him  the  stories  of  the  patriarchs  and  Israel, 
not  as  they  are  related  in  the  Bible,  but  as  in  the 
Jlidrash.  The  legendary  poetry  of  the  latter 
seems  to  have  made  as  deep  an  impression  on 
Mohammed's  poetical  mind  as  the  doctrine  of  the 
unity  of  (Jod  and  the  moral  teachings  of  the  Old 
Testament,  together  with  those  civil  and  re- 
ligious laws,  .scriptural  and  oral,  which  are  either 
contained  as  germs  or  fully  developed  in  this 
record.  Christianity  exercised  less  influence  ujxin 
him.  His  knowledge  of  the  Xew  Testament  was 
confined  to  a  few  apocr^-phal  books;  ami  while 
he  recognized  .Jesus,  whom,  together  with  Moses, 
he  called  the  greatest  prophet  next  to  himself,  his 
notions  of  the  Christian  relij;ion  anil  its  founder 
were  excessively  vague.  He  tidil  of  his  mission 
to  Khadija,  wlio  stood  by  him  faithfully  from 
the  first,  to  his  daughter,  his  step-son  -\li.  his 
favorite  slave  Zaid.  whom  he  had  freed  and 
adopted,  and  to  his  trustworthy  friend.  .\bu 
Bekr.  His  other  relatives  rejecte<I  his  teachings. 
Abu  l.ahab.  his  uncle,  called  him  a  fool ;  and  .\bu 
Talib.  his  uncle  and  adoptive  father,  although  he 
protected  him.  never  professed  belief  in  Moham- 
med's works. 

By  the  fourth  year  of  his  mission  he  had  made 
forty  i)roselytes.  chiedy  slaves  and  people  from 
the  lower  ranks;  and  now  first  he  claimed  to  have 
received  a  command  to  come  forward  publicly  as 
a  preacher,  and  to  defy  (he  unbelievers.  He 
vigorously  assailed  the  superstition  of  the  Mee- 
enns.  and  exhorted  tlwrn  to  believe  in  a  just  but 
merciful  f!od.  eternal,  indivisible,  nlniighty.  and 
all-wise,  and  in  himself  as  chosen,  like  the 
prophets  of  old.  to  teach  mankind  how  to  esi'ape 
the  punishments  of  hell  and  attain  eternal  happi- 


ness. He  adopted  a  primitive  Oriental  doctrine 
that  the  mercy  of  God  is  to  be  obtained  by  prayer, 
fasting,  and  almsgiving.  He  was  too  practical  to 
challenge  the  strong  belief  in  the  sacredness  of 
the  Kaaba  and  tlii'  ceremonies  of  the  pilgrimage, 
and  he  made  tliem  a  part  of  the  new  religion; 
but  he  unsparingly  condenmed  certain  barbarous 
habits  of  the  Bedouins,  such  as  the  killing  of 
their  new-born  daughters.  The  prohiliition  of 
certain  kinds  of  food  also  belongs  to  the  first 
period,  when  he  was  still  under  the  inllueuce  of 
•ludaism;  the  prohibition  of  gambling,  usury, 
etc.,  probably  are  of  a  .somewhat  later  date. 
Whether  he  did  or  did  not  understand  the  art  of 
writing  and  reading  is  not  qnite  cle;ir;  but  be 
employed  the  services  of  amanuenses  for  his 
Koranic  dicta,  whicli  at  first  consisted  merely 
of  brief  rhymed  sentences,  in  the  manner  of  the 
ancient  .Vrabic  soothsayers.  The  Meccans  looked 
upon  him  as  a  conunon  "poet'  or  'soothsayer.'  who 
was  not  in  his  right  .senses,  or  simply  a  liar. 
Xevertheless,  the  number  of  his  converts  in- 
creased until  his  progress  comixdled  attention; 
and,  finally,  fearing  for  the  sacredness  of  Mecca, 
the  rejection  of  which  would  <leprive  them  both 
of  their  i)rceminence  and  of  rcv<'nue,  they  assailed 
the  new  prophet  and  his  adherents,  who  dared 
"to  call  their  ancient  gods  idols,  and  their  an- 
cestors fools."  The  converted  slaves  and  f reed- 
men  had  to  undergo  terrible  punishment ;  and 
others  suffered  so  much  at  the  hands  of  their 
own  relatives  that  they  were  fain  to  revoke  their 
creed:  so  that  the  Prophet  himself  advised  lii.s 
followers  to  emigrate  to  .\l)yssinia.  Moluunmed 
himself  yielded  so  much  as  to  acknowledge  the 
idols  by  had  assailed  as  intermediate  between 
<iod  and  man:  but  he  soon  revoked  this  as  an  in- 
spiration of  Satan,  thereby  increasing  the  hatred 
uf  his  adversaries,  who  in  every  way  tried  to 
throw  ridicule  upon  him.  At  last  it  became 
necessarj'  that  he  should  be  luit  beyond  the  reach 
of  his  persecutors,  and  .\bu  Talib  hid  him  in  a 
fortified  castle  of  his  own  in  the  country.  Ham- 
za.  his  uncle,  and  Omar,  who  was  formerly  an 
enemy  of  Mohammed,  and  who  later  succeeded 
.\liu  Bekr  as  the  third  head  of  Islam,  continued 
in  the  meantime  to  spread  the  new  doctrine.  The 
Koreish  now  demanded  that  Mohammed  should  be 
delivered  into  their  hands:  but  .\bu  Talib  stead- 
fastly refused  to  comply  with  their  wishes;  a 
feud  thereupon  broke  out  with  the  family  of 
the  Ilashimites,  and  Mohanniied  and  all  the  mem- 
bers of  his  family,  except,  perhaps,  .\bu  I.abab, 
were  excomnninicated.  .\ftcr  the  space  of  Ihrce 
ycjirs.  however,  the  'peace  party'  in  Mecca 
brought  about  a  reconciliation,  and  Mohammed 
was  allowed  to  return.  .\  great  grief  befell  him 
at  tjiis  time — his  faithful  wife  Khadija  died, 
and  shortly  afterwards  his  uncle,  Abn  Talib,  and 
to  aild  to  his  misery  the  vicissitudes  of  his  career 
had  reduced  him  by  this  time  to  poverty.  .\ 
migration  to  Taif.  where  he  sought  to  improve 
his  jxisition.  proved  a  failure:  it  was  with  great 
dillieulty  that  be  escaped  with  his  life.  Shortly 
after  his  return  from  Taif  he  married  Sauda. 
and  in  the  course  of  his  later  life  so  increased 
the  mimber  of  his  wives  that  at  his  death  he  left 
nine,  of  whom  .\yesha.  the  daughter  of  .Abu  Bi-kr, 
and  lliifsa.  the  ilaiiphter  of  Omar,  are  best  known. 
In  the  cotirse  of  time  Moh:immed  succeeded  in 
(•(mvcrting  several  men  from  ^'athrib,  who  came 
to  Mei-ca  on  pilgrimage.  The  inhabitants  of  that 
city  had  long  been  accustomed  to  hear  from  the 


MOHAMMED. 


653 


MOHAMMED. 


numerous  Jews  liviiij;  tlieic  the  \v(irds  "Revela- 
tion.' 'Prophecy.'  Uoii's  Word,'  '.Messiah' — to  tlie 
ileeeans  mere  sounds  without  meaninfr.  In  Vatli- 
rih  the  new  faith  took  a  stron<;  liold.  The  next  pil- 
grimage brought  twelve,  and  the  third  m<ue  than 
seventy,  adherents  of  the  new  faith  from  that  eity ; 
and  with  these  Mohammed  entered  into  a  close 
allianee.  He  now  conceived  the  plan  of  seeking 
refuge  in  the  friendly  city,  and  in  the  year  li2'2 
(about  twelve  years  after  entering  upon  his 
work),  after, encouraging  about  l.JO  of  his  ad- 
herents to  migrate  to  Yathrib.  lie  lied  thither,  ac- 
companied by  Abu  Bekr.  The  fugitives  reached 
their  destination  not  without  danger,  and  were 
enthusiastically  received.  Thenceforth  Yathrib 
was  known  as  iladinat  al-yahi  (City  of  the 
Prophet),  or  JJedina.  The  flight  (the  Hejira)  is 
one  of  the  great  events  of  Islam  and  the  starting- 
point  of  the  Mohammedan  calendar.  See  Hejira. 
The  Hejira  was  also  a  turning-point  in  the 
career  of  Mohammed.  Previously  he  !iad  been 
despised  as  a  madman  or  ini])ost<n';  uow  he  be- 
came judge,  lawgiver,  and  ruler  of  Medina,  and 
of  two  powerful  Arabian  tribes.  His  first  care 
was  to  organize  his  forms  of  worship:  his  next  to 
proselytize  tlie  numerous  .Jews  who  inlialiited  the 
city,  to  whom,  besides  having  received  their  prin- 
cipal dogmas  into  his  religion,  he  made  many 
important  concessions  in  the  outer  observances 
of  Islam,  and  concluded  alliances  with  many  of 
their  tribes:  but  the  .Jews  resisted  conversion. 
They  ridiculed  his  pretensions,  and  by  their  con- 
stant taunts  made  him  their  liitter  adversary  up 
to  the  hour  of  his  death.  The  most  im|)ortant 
act  in  the  first  year  of  the  Hejira  was  his  iiermis- 
sion  to  go  to  war  with  the  enemies  of  Islam  in 
the  name  of  God,  a  kind  of  manifesto  chiefly 
directed  against  the  Jleccans.  Xot  being  able  at 
first  to  fight  his  enemies  in  the  open  field,  he  en- 
deavored to  weaken  their  power  by  attacking  the 
caravans  of  the  Koreish  on  their  way  to  Syria. 
He  interfered  materially  with  their  trade,  con- 
cluded alliances  with  the  adjoining  Bedouin 
tribes,  and  at  last  the  signal  for  open  warfare 
was  given.  A  battle  between  .314  Moslems  and 
about  COO  Meccans  was  fought  at  Bedr.  in  the 
second  year  of  the  Hejira:  the  former  gained  the 
victory,  and  made  many  prisoners.  .\  great  num- 
ber of  adventurers  soon  flocked  to  ^lohammed's 
colors,  and  he  made  successful  expeilitions 
against  the  Koreish  and  the  .Tewish  tribes,  chiefly 
the  Bani  Kainuka,  whose  fortified  castle  he  took 
after  a  long  siege.  He  sustained  heavy  losses, 
and  was  himself  wounded  in  the  battle  near 
Ohod,  but  his  power  increased  so  rapidly  that  in 
the  sixth  year  of  the  Hejira  lie  was  able  to 
proclaim  a  public  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  Although 
the  ileccans  did  not  allow  this  to  he  carried  out, 
he  gained  the  still  greater  advantage  that  they 
concluded  a  formal  peace  with  him,  and  thus 
recognized  him  as  an  equal  power  and  belliger- 
ent. He  now  sent  missionaries  all  over  Arabia 
and  beyond  the  frontiers  without  hindrance:  and 
in  the  following  year  celebrated  the  pilgrimage 
for  three  days  undisturbed  at  'Mecca.  Soon  after- 
wards he  narrowly  escaped  death  from  poisoning 
at  the  hands  of  a  Jewess,  one  of  whose  relatives 
had  been  killed  while  fighting  against  him.  His 
missionaries  went  to  Khosru  II..  of  Persia,  to  the 
Byzantine  Kmperor  Heraclius.  to  the  King  of 
\l>yssinia.  and  to  the  Oovernor  of  Egypt,  and  the 
iliiefs  of  several  .\raliic  tribes  received  the  new 
gospel ;  but  the  King  of  Persia,  and  Amru,  the 


Ghassanidc,  rejected  his  proposals,  and  Amru 
had  the  messenger  executed.  This  was  the  cause 
of  the  lir.st  war  between  the  Christians  and  the 
Moslems,  in  which  the  latter  were  beaten  with 
great  loss  by  Amru.  The  Jleccans  took  the  occa- 
sion to  commit  depredations  upon  certain  allies 
of  Mohanuned,  with  the  result  that  the  Prophet 
nuirehed  upon  the  city,  captured  it  without  a  blow, 
an<l  was  recognized  as  ruler  and  prophet.  This 
comjilctcd  the  triumph  of  the  new  faith  in  Arabia. 
Jloliammed  now  undertook  to  destroy  all  traces  of 
idolatry  in  ilecca,  and  to  establish  the  laws  and 
ceremonies  of  his  true  faith:  but  he  soon  learned 
of  a  new  attack  by  a  considerable  force  of  Arab 
tribes,  gathered  near  Taif  (030).  Again  he  was 
victorious,  and  his  influence  and  reputation  cor- 
respondingly expanded.  Deputations  came  to  do 
homage  to  him  in  the  name  of  the  various  tribes, 
either  as  the  messenger  of  God  or  at  least  as  the 
Prince  of  Arabia,  and  the  year  9  of  the  Hejira 
was  therefore  called  the  Y'ear  of  the  Deputations. 
He  made  extensive  pre])arations  for  a  war  against 
the  Eastern  Empire,  but  was  not  able  to  assemble 
forces  enough  to  carry  out  his  plan.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  tenth  year  of  the  Hejira  he  under- 
took, at  the  head  of  at  least  40,00o'  Jloslems,  his 
last  solenm  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  there  (on 
Mount  Arafat)  instructed  them  in  the  important 
laws  and  ordinances,  chiefly  of  the  pilgrimage; 
and  the  ceremonies  observed  by  him  on  that  occa- 
sion were  fixed  for  all  time.  (See  Ha.j.j.)  He 
exhorted  his  believers  to  righteousness  and  piety, 
reconmiended  them  to  jirotect  the  weak,  the  poor, 
and  women,  and  to  abstain  from  usury.  Soon 
after  his  return  from  Mecca  he  became  ill  and 
began  to  decline  rapidly.  He  took  part  in  public 
prayers  as  long  as  he  could.  At  last,  realizing 
the  near  approach  of  death,  he  preached  to  the 
people,  reconnnending  Abu  Bekr  and  Usama.  the 
son  of  Zaid.  for  the  leadership  of  the  army.  He 
asked  whether  he  had  wronged  any  one,  read 
passages  from  the  Koran,  and  exhorted  the  peo- 
ple to  peace  among  themselves,  and  to  strict 
obedience  to  the  tenets  of  the  faith.  A  few  days' 
afterwards  he  died  in  the  arms  of  Ayesha.  his 
favorite  wife,  on  the  I2th  of  the  third  month,  in 
the  year  11  of  the  Hejira  (June  8,  032).  His 
death  caused  intense  excitement,  and  Omar  tried 
to  persuade  the  jjeople  that  he  was  still  alive. 
But  Abu  Bekr  said  to  the  assembled  multitude: 
"Whoever  amon'g  you  has  served  Mohanuned.  let 
him  know  that  Mohanuned  is  dead ;  hvit  he  who 
has  served  the  God  of  Mohanuned.  let  him  con- 
tinue in  His  service,  for  He  is  still  alive,  and 
never  dies."  He  had  made  no  provision  for  a  suc- 
cessor, and  the  quarrel  over  the  leadership,  which 
not  long  after  divfded  the  Moslem  world  into 
two  warring  sects,  began  before  'Mohanuned's  body 
w'as  buried.  Abu  Bekr  finally  received  the  hom- 
age of  the  principal  Moslems  at  Medina.  Mo- 
hammed was  buried  in  the  night  in  the  house  of 
.\yesha.  where  he  liad  died,  and  which  afterwards 
became  part  of  the  adjoining  mosque. 

Midiammed  was  not  an  idealist,  and  his 
religion  was  adapted  to  his  age  and  surround- 
ings. It  has  been  said  that  he  gave  the  peo])le  as 
nnich  religion  as  he  thought  they  could  take  care, 
of.  judging  by  his  knowledce  of  them  and  of  his 
own  tendencies.  He  was  at  times  deceitful,  cun- 
ning, even  revengeftil  and  cowardly,  and  much 
addicted  to  sensuality.  B>it  he  is  praised  for 
his  amiability,  his  faithfulness  toward  friends, 
his  tenderness  toward   his   family,  his   frequent 


MOHAMMED. 


654 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


readiness  to  fnrjiive  an  ciiciiiy,  and  the  extreme 
simplicity  of  lii>  domestic  life.  He  lived,  wlien 
already  in  full  pouer.  in  simple  quarters,  mended 
his  own  clollies,  and  freed  all  his  slaves.  He 
was  much  inclined  to  melancholy  and  nervous 
sensitiveness.  His  mind  contained  a  strange  mix- 
ture of  truth  and  error,  of  right  and  wrong.  En- 
tering the  field  as  the  foe  of  the  old  superstitions, 
he  yet  i  lung  to  superstitious  heliefs  current  among 
his  people.  He  believed  in  jinns,  omens,  charms. 
and  dreams.  However  much  the  religion  of  Islam 
may,  rightly  or  wrongly,  he  considered  the  bane 
and  cause  of  the  decay  of  Kastern  States  and  na- 
tions in  our  day.  it  nuisl,  in  the  first  place,  not  be 
forgotten  that  it  is  not  necessarily  islam  which 
has  caused  the  corruption,  as  indeed  its  ethics  are 
for  the  most  part  of  tlie  Ivigher  order:  and  in  the 
second  place,  that  ilolianuncd  is  not  to  be  made 
responsible  for  all  the  errors  of  his  successors. 
Take  him  all  iu  all,  the  history  of  humanity  has 
seen  few  more  earnest  and  sincere  'prophets,' 
using  the  word  prophet  in  the  true  sense  of  one 
irresistibly  impelled  by  an  iinier  power  to  ad- 
monish, and  to  teacb.  and  to  utter  austere  and 
sublime  truths,  the  full  purport  of  which  is  often 
unknown  to   himself. 

Mohammed  is  described  as  of  middle  height, 
lean,  but  broadshonldered,  with  slightly  curling 
hair  about  a  well-devcdoped  head.  His  eyes,  over- 
hung with  thick  lashes,  were  large  and  coal-black  : 
his  nose,  large  and  slightly  bent,  was  well  formed. 
A  long  beard  added  to  the  dignity  of  his  appear- 
ance. A  black  mole  between  his  shoulders  be- 
came known  among  the  faithful  as  the  '.seal  of 
prophecy.' 

BiBLlooKAPHY.  Of  the  lives  of  Mohammed  the 
best  are:  In  English.  Sir  \\illiam  Muir  (4  vols., 
London,  ISfjl-Gl  :  2d  ed..  abridged,  1  vol..  ib.. 
18941:  in  German.  Niildeke  (Hanover,  18G3)  : 
Weil  (Stuttgart.  1804)  :  Sprenger  (•2d  ed.,  Ber- 
lin. ISr.n)  :  Krehl  (l.eiiizig.  1S84):  Grimme 
(Minister.  1802)  :  in  Krencli.  Laniairesse  and  Du- 
jarric  ( I'aris.  18!t8).  fonsult  also  Saint 
•Hilaire.  Mohniiirl  ct  tr  Coran  (Paris,  1805)  : 
Wellhausen,  Muhammed  in  Medina  (Berlin, 
1882)  :  id..  Hkizzen  und  Vorarbeitni,  iii.  and  iv. 
(ib..  1887-89)  :  August  Miiller.  Her  Islnm  im 
Mortim-  vnd  Ahendlnndr.  vol.  i.  (Berlin,  1885)  ; 
.\Iuir,  Mnhomel  and  Islam  (London,  1887); 
I  Ameer  Ali.  TIte  Life  and  Tcachinris  of  Moham- 
med (London.  1891):  and  the  \Vorks  mentioned 
under  KoitAN  and  .M<)1I.\mmi;i)AMs.\i.  S<v  also 
Sinn  A. 

MOHAMMED.  The  name  of  four  sultans  of 
Turkey. — Miiiiammi;i>  1.  was  the  son  of  Siiltan 
Bajazet  I.,  who  was  defeateil  and  captured  by 
Tinuir  in  141)2  an<l  died  in  captivity  in  1403. 
Mohammed  I.,  after  sharing  the  supreme  ])Ower 
with  his  biotlieis.  became  sole  Sultan  in  1413. 
He  reigned  until  1421.  He  consolidated  the  Em 
pire,  which  ba<l  snlfered  from  the  inroad  of 
Tinuir.— MoiiAMMKU  !i.  (c. 1430-81)  was  Sultan 
from  1451  to  1481.  He  was  surnamed  F.l<lhazl. 
i.e.  conrpieror  (of  infidels),  ami  also  Hiijiiil:, 
i.e.  the  (Iieat.  He  was  born  at  Adrianople.  and 
succeeded  bis  father,  .\miinith  II.  His  first  nets 
were  the  murder  of  hi-;  brothers  and  the 
suppression  of  a  rebellion  in  Karamania. 
Having  thus  secured  himsidf  on  the  throne, 
he  lient  all  his  energies  in  order  to  effect  the  cap- 
ture of  f'on-lantinople.  This  city  was  now  the 
sole  remnant  of  (he  once  mighty  empire  of  the 
Coesars,   and   after   more   than   a   year   spent    in 


]>reparations.  .Moliammed  commenced  the  siege  on 
.\pril  li,  14.'>3,  with  an  army  of  aliout  70.000  and 
u  llect  of  320  \essels.     The  Greeks,  aided  by  gal- 
lant   bands    under    Gian    Giustiniani,    a    noble 
Genoese,  long  maintained  an  obstinate  resistance. 
On  the  niorning  of  ilay  2yth  the  Turks  made  a 
combined   attack   by   land   and   sea    without   suc- 
cess;  but  the  retirement  from  the   ramparts  of 
Giustiniani.    who    had    been    severely    wounded, 
caused  a  panic  among  bis  followers,  and  the  si- 
multaneous charge  of  a  chosen  body,of  .Janizaries, 
with  Mohammed  himself  at  their     head,  proved 
irresistible.      The    brave    Emjieror,    Constantino 
XI.,  died  in  the  breach,  and  the  Turks  poured  in 
over  his  corpse  to  phmder  and  devastate  his  cap- 
ital.   Mohammed  now  transferred  the  seat  of  his 
government    to    Constantin  iple,    and    sought    to 
gain  the  good  will  of  the  inhabitants  oy  promis- 
ing them  a  free  e.vercise  of  their  .  eiigion.     .\fter 
achieving  this  great  ccmiiuest,  he  made  formidable 
preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Hungary.     Bel- 
grade  was  the   first   point    oi   attack;    but   .lanos 
Hunyady    |i|.v. )    coiii|iellecl  him  to  raise  the  siege 
(1450).      Soon    after    this    Mohammed    became 
master  of  the   Morea,  annexed   Servia.   and   con- 
quered  the   Empire  of  Trebiz<m<l,  an  otl'shoot  of 
the  Byzantine  Empire.     He  then  turned  his  arms 
against  the  .Albanians,  whose  leader.  Scanderbeg, 
long  defied  the  Turkish  power.     Scanderbeg  died 
in    140,S.  and  ten  years  later  the  subjugation  of 
.\ll)ania  was  eompleteil.     In  1470  MohamiiuMl  con- 
quered  Xegrojiont  from  the   Venetians.      In    1475 
he  made  tlie   Khan  of  the  Crimea   tributary,  and 
at    the     same     time    deprived     the    Genoese    of 
Kafl'a.       In     1480,     however,     he     was     repulsed 
by    the    Knights    of    Saint    John    from    Rhodes. 
In  the  same  year  he  captured  Otranto.  in  Italy, 
the  last  achievement  of  his  reign.  Mohammed  was 
possessed  of  great  abilities;  he  was  brave,  enter- 
prising, and  sagacious;  he  is  said  to  have  spoken 
five   languages    (luently,    and    to    have   been    well 
versed  in  geography,  ancient  history,  natural  sci- 
ences, and  the  fine  arts.     But  the  brilliancy  of  his 
career,   and    the   occasional    generosity    and   I'ven 
magnanimity  which  he  showed,  cannot   obliterate 
the    recollection    of    those    acts    of    cruelty    and 
treachery  which  have  justly  branded  him  as  the 
most  ruthless  tyrant  of  the  House  of  Osman. — 
JIoi!A.\i.MKi)   111'.    (1500-1003)    was   Sultan   from 
1595   to   1003.      He   succeeded   bis   father   and   at 
once  murdered  his  nineteen  brothers.     He  waged 
war   against   .\ustria   without    success. — Moiiam- 
MEn    IV.     (KMI-On     was    Sultan    from    1048    to 
1087.     He  came  to  the   throne   when   only   seven 
years  of  age,  succeeding  his  father,  Ibrahim,  who 
liad  been  murdered  by  the  .Janizaries.     The  real 
rulers   were   the    Kiujirili    (q.v.).     The   reign   of 
Mohammed  IV.  Avitnessed  the  collapse  of  Turkish 
power  in  Eurojie.     The  great  onslaught  upon  the 
House  of  .\uslria  in   1083  resulted   in  the  difea) 
of  Kara  Miislai)ha    (q.v.)    before  Vienna.     When 
other    disasters    followed.    Alohammed    was    de- 
throned In   10S7.      lie  died  in  prison. 

MOHAMMEDAN  ART.  The  art  produced 
by  (lie  naliuii-.  und  in  the  countries  professing  the 
religion  of  Islam,  from  the  seventh  century  A.n.  to 
the  present  time.  The  most  nourishing  period  was 
between  the  ninth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
though  in  ivrtain  places,  such  as  Constantinople, 
Cairo,  and  India,  the  golden  age  lasted  later. 
The  homes  of  this  art  have  been  mainly  Syria, 
Persia.  Egjpt.  North  Africa.  Spain,  Asia  Minor, 
Judia,   Sicily,   and   Constantinople,      In  a   large 


MOHAMMEDAN  AKT. 


635 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


part  of  this  leiiioii  it  succeeded  Byzantine  art, 
under  the  inliueiice  of  wliicli  it  h)nf,'  remained, 
while  also  inheriting  local  peculiarities  of  ear- 
lier Persian  and  Coptic  (Kfivptian)  art.  The 
Arabs,  founders  and  propajiators  of  Mohannne- 
danieni,  possessed  none  of  the  arts  (.see  Ahaiuan 
Akt),  and  consequently  a  period  of  at  least  two 
centuries  passed  before  the  amalgamation  of  con- 
verted peoples,  after  tentative  etForls  to  adapt 
preceding  artistic  forms,  created  the  special 
types  of  Jlohannnedan  art.  This  work  was 
done  especially  in  Syria,  Persia,  and  Egypt, 
though  North  Africa  and  Spain  also  contributed 
their  share.  Byzantine,  Persian,  and  Coptic  art- 
ists, even  if  Cliristians.  were  employed  at  tirst; 
but  finally  all  the  branches  were  ])racticed  by 
Mohammedans.  The  religious  prejudice  against 
the  reproduction  of  the  human  figure  in  art  pre- 
vented am-  development  in  the  large  fields  of  fig- 
ured sculpture  and  painting,  forcing  the  artist 
inti.  decorative  work  in  pure  line  and  color,  in 
which  he  became  the  most  consummate  master 
in  the  whole  history  of  art.  Surface  ornamenta- 
tion became  the  keynote  to  thi,s  art,  whether  dis- 
played on  broad  architectural  surfaces  or  on  the 
smallest  article  of  furniture  or  decoration.  This 
ornamentation,  like  the  forms  of  architecture 
themselves,  was  at  first  derived  from  Byzantine 
models,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mosques  of  Cor- 
dova, Damascus,  Jerusalem,  and  the  earliest 
Cairo  work,  with  a  large  clement  of  stiff  floral 
patterns,  many  of  classic  origin.  But  gradually 
the  invasion  of  purely  geometrical  forms  almost 
extinguished  the  flora,  and  the  system  was  evolved 
and  completed  in  the  eleventh  century,  which  is  a 
combination  of  pure  geometric  and  arabesque  de- 
signs, used  with  ever-increasing  profusion  until 
all  surfaces  were  covered  with  it. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Commencing  about  a.d.  700,  Mohammedan 
architecture  runs  parallel  to  the  history  of  later 
Byzantine  architecture  in  the  East  and  Roman- 
esque and  Gothic  in  the  West.  We  must 
study  the  origins  of  this  architectural  style 
in  the  mosques  (q.v. ).  As  the  Mohammedans  in 
the  countries  which  they  conquered  foiuid  them- 
Belves  surrounded  by  nuignificent  monuments  of 
all  the  past  civilizations  of  the  East,  it  was  natu- 
ral that  they  should  turn  to  them  for  the  typo  of 
their  mosques.  The  earliest  mosque  of  any  pre- 
tension was  that  of  Amru  (about  a.d.  f)41) 
at  Fostat,  which  consecrated  the  Arab  conquest 
of  Egypt.  It  served  as  a  type  for  two  centuries. 
Its  colonnades  around  an  open  court  seem  to 
combine  the  plan  of  the  atrium  of  a  Christian 
basilica  and  the  hypostyle  hall  of  an  Eg^'ptian 
temple.  The  columns  were  taken  from  chinches 
and  arranged  in  numerous  rows,  surmounted  by 
low-stilted  arches,  on  which  rested  a  flat,  wooden 
ceiling.  There  appears  to  have  been  no  a'sthetic 
beauty  and  no  decoration  in  this  perfectly  plain 
brick  structure.  It  was  in  Syria,  where  the  Om- 
miad  caliphs  had  their  capital  at  Damascus,  that 
the  first  artistic  monuments  were  erected  under 
.\hd  al-Malak  and  his  son  .Al-Walid.  about  A.n. 
Too.  They  spent  immense  sums  on  three  buildings 
which  still  remain:  the  Mosque  of  Damascus 
(70.5).  reputed  the  most  sU7uptuous  monument  of 
the  Mohammedan  world,  and  built  to  surpass  the 
works  of  Christian  architectiire  in  Syria;  the 
Al-Aksa  Mosque,  and  the  Dome  of  the  Rock,  com- 
monly called  'Mosque  of  Omar'    (691),  both  in 


•Icrusalem,  built  to  rival  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
S-pulchre.  The  Al-Aksa  was  of  a  dillerent  type 
from  the  Egyptian  mosques,  and  more  like  a  ball 
or  a  Christian  church.  The  principal  side  of  its 
i-ourt,  called  (lie  Jami,  containing  liie  Kiblah  and 
pulpit  (minibarl,  luul  a  fcncst  of  2S(t  ccilunms  in 
20  rows,  and  in  the  centre,  opposite  the  Kiblah, 
rose  a  dome.  On  the  other  hand,  llie  great  Da- 
nuiseus  mosque  was  of  the  Egj'ptian  type  of  the 
Mo.sque  of  Aniru,  the  ty])e  of  the  atrium,  an<l  luid 
only  a  triple  line  of  columns  on  the  Jdiiii  (main 
hall)  side,  and  a  single  row  on  the  others.  In 
Ixith  mosques  the  columns  now  support  pointed 
arches.  The  courts  were  filled  with  secondary 
mimuments,  usually  in  the  sha])e  of  domed  chap- 
els or  fountains.  The  most  important  of  these 
is  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  in  the  court  of 
the  Al-Aksa  Mo.sque.  It  followed  the  Byzan- 
tine domical  type;  its  central  dome,  112  feet 
high,  is  supported  on  four  square  piers  with 
intermediate  columns,  and  is  surrounded  by  two 
concentric  aisles  with  eight  piers  and  si.\teen  col- 
umns, on  an  octagonal  plan.  It  was  erected  in 
order  to  rival  in  splendor  and  sacredness  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

The  next  important  building  in  tlw  Mohamme- 
dan world  is  the  great  mos(|ue  at  Cordova,  the 
capital  of  the  new  Kingdom  of  Spain,  f(nmded 
in  786.  The  main  hall  of  this  nu>sque  was 
the  largest  known,  measuring  534  X  387  feet, 
and  containing  856  columns  in  10  aisles.  Its 
wooden  ceiling,  notwithstanding  this  great 
length,  is  30  feet  high.  The  intricate  effect 
of  the  maze  of  columns  is  increased  by  there 
being  no  central  nave  as  in  Christian  churches 
and  by  the  unique  arrangement  of  two  stories  of 
superposed  horseshoe  arclies.  Here  one  sees  the 
alternation  of  wliitc  and  black  marbles,  which 
later  became  so  characteristic  of  the  Italian  Tus- 
can school,  and  an  early  form  of  stifl'  f(diated 
arabesque  in  small  separate  compartments.  The 
eighth  century  and  the  following  witness  a  flow- 
ering of  Mohammedan  architecture  in  all  prov- 
inces and  in  all  classes  of  buildings:  fountains, 
baths,  aqueducts,  palaces,  khans,  bridges,  caravan- 
serais, minarets,  mausoleums,  monasteries  and 
colleges,  bazaars  and  city  gates,  hospitals,  clois- 
ters. A  large  part  of  the  ri'vcnues  of  the  State 
was  devoted  to  public  works.  Bagdail  was  built 
in  762  and  became  the  capital  of  the  caliphate. 
Great  buildings  were  erected  in  the  cities  of  North 
Africa, in  Kairwan  I  nu).s(|ue  in  837  ) , Tunis  (  mosque 
and  arsenal  in  742J .  Tlie  wonderful  buildings  of 
Bagdad,  so  vividly  described  but  now  all  de- 
stroyed, probably  gave  the  keynote  to  the  lunv  art. 
The  relief  ornaments  at  Cordova  were  echoes  from. 
Byzantium:  so  were  the  mosaics  and  marbles, 
as  well  as  the  domes  of  the  nion\iments  of  Damas- 
cus and  .Terusalem.  But  gradually  Persian  pre- 
ponderance makes  itself  felt  through  the  dynasty 
of  the  Abbassides  with  Bagdad  as  centre.  The 
wooden  roof  is  entirely  abandoned  for  the  dome. 
A  purely  Oriental  sysi<'m  of  ornament  is  in- 
vented, both  geometric  and  arabesqiie.  The  wall 
surfaces,  which  had  hitherto  been  left  plain  or 
ornamented  in  By/antine  fashion,  are  covered 
with  intricate  stuccoes  and  faience  tiles,  inherited 
from  ancient  Persia  and  Babylonia. 

Egypt.  E,g\'pt  remained  for  a  while  outside  of 
this  movement,  probably  because  its  architecture 
was  still  in  the  hands  of  native  Christian  Copts; 
no  domes  were  used  and  brick  had  not  yet  given 
place  to  stone.     The  most  famous  mosq\ie  of  this 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


656 


MOHAMMEDAN  AKT. 


age  was  that  built  by  Ibn  Tulun  when  he  declared 
Egypt's  indepeiideiiee  (STtl  tu  87'.>).  As  Ibii  Tu- 
luii  objected  to  destroying  so  many  Christian 
churches  to  get  the  300  columns  required  for  the 
new  mosque,  a  Christian  Coptic  architect  of- 
fered to  build  it  without  using  a  single  column. 
It  is  the  first  mosque  with  piers  in  place  of  col- 
umns. This  mosque  is  of  the  cloistered  type, 
with  two  aisles  on  three  sides  and  live  aisles  on 
the  .Tami  side;  formed  of  IGO  rectangular  piers 
supporting  broad  stilted  pointed  arches,  such  as 
the  Copts  had  always  employed.  The  entire  con- 
struction was  of  burnt  bricks  stuccoed  on  both 
sides,  the  stucco  being  decorated  with  stitT  ara- 
besques in  relief  of  the  Unop  and  llower  pattern 
derived  from  ancient  Oriental  or  tJreek  models. 
A  Hat  wooden  roof  rested  on  the  walls  not  far 
above  the  crown  of  the  arches.  The  wall  inclos- 
ing the  mosque  forms  a  court  about  31)0  feet 
s<piare.  All  the  brilliant  revetment  and  coloring 
have  disappeared.  Still  this  remains  the  finest 
example  of  the  early  type  of  mosque.  It  also  has 
a  couple  of  the  earliest  minarets,  built,  as  were 
all  the  early  ones,  of  brick.  There  is  a  small 
dome  in  front  of  the  Milirab,  as  in  the  earlier 
Syrian  and  Palestinian  mosques. 

Under  another  dynasty,  another  great  mosque 
was  built,  the  Kl-.V/.liar  or  I'liiversity  mosque. 
in  the  newly  founded  ca]iital.  Cairo,  begun  in 
!t(10.  Here  the  same  cloistered  plan  was  used,  but 
the  churches  were  ilespoiled  of  coUunns  for  it,  in 
l)lace  of  using  piers.  When,  in  000,  the  mosque 
of  KI-Hakim  was  built,  however,  the  quadrangu- 
lar pier  was  used  as  in  the  mosque  of  Tulun.  But 
its  proportions  are  far  slenderer  and  higher. 

It  was  about  this  time  (e.lOOO)  that  Eg^'p- 
tian  architects  adopted  the  dome.  Cairo's  great 
characteristic  is  its  nuiltitude  of  ihnnes.  They 
were  used  mainly  over  funerary  chapels.  There 
now  arose  an  important  class  of  funerary  mosques 
attached  to  royal  tombs.  The  Egyptian  rulers  of 
the  Katimite  dynasty  displaced  the  caliphs  of 
Bagdad  as  principal  patrons  of  .Mohammedan  art. 
and  the  monuments  of  Syria.  North  .\friea.  and 
Sicily  were  inspired  from  Egypt  during  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  I'lidoubtedly  it 
was  the  thorough  study  and  application  of  geom- 
etry by  Arab  writers  of  the  sihools  of  Bagdad 
and  Cairo  that  made  possible  not  only  the  scien- 
tific arehitectvire  of  this  period,  but  the  wonder- 
ful system  of  geometrical  ornament  that  became 
so  much  a  part  of  it.  A  consistent  style  was 
finally  developed,  which  spread  over  the  entire  Mo- 
hammedan world  from  Spain  and  Jlorocco  to 
Persia,  and  from  Asia  Minor  to  India.  The 
minaret  towers  were  multiplied  and  began  to  lose 
their  early  heaviness  ( see  .Mi.\,\iti;T)  and  to  take 
on  great  varietv  of  forms,  and.  beini;  l"iili  "''  'ip  ■ 
as  well  as  brick,  they  were  better  adapted  to  a 
richer  ornamentation.  The  heavy  walls  were 
crowned  with  delicate  battlements. 

Most  characteristic  was  the  invention  of  the 
stalactite  pendentlve,  on  the  basis  of  spherical 
polygons,  as  a  unique  constructive  and  decorative 
bond  between  the  square  plan  and  the  cin'ular 
dome.  Often  this  transitiim  was  assisted  by  a 
polygonal  dome.  The  historical  tendency  was  ever 
to  raise  the  domes  higher  and  make  them  more 
pointed.  Their  numbers  multiplierl  in  the  thir- 
teenth alid  following  centuries.  The  cemeteries 
of  Cairo  are  full  of  ruined  but  Iwautiful  media'val 
domical  tombs.  The  mausoleum  niosqties  of  Sul- 
tans Hasan.  Barkuk,  Kalt  Bey,  Kalaun,  EI-Ghurl 


are  the  finest  examples  in  Cairo  of  the  domical 
style.  The  use  of  domes  over  simple  sepulchral 
chambers  had  been  easy,  but  its  application  to  the 
mosque  was  dillicult.  Beginning  with  the  tomb 
of  Esh-Shafi'y  in  1211,  passing  through  the  stage 
of  the  tomb  mosque  of  Ks-Salih  in  1240,  complete 
success  was  realized,  under  the  impetus  given  by 
the  Mameluke  sultans  in  the  mns(|ue  of  lla-an  in 
1350,  where  the  plan  is  a  (ireek  cross  centring 
about  an  open  court,  and  with  tlie  domed  chapel 
beyond  the  mihrab.  This  magnificent  building 
was  regarded  as  luiequaled  in  Mohammedan 
lands,  its  proportions  are  grandiose;  the  tunnel 
vaults  over  the  arnis  of  its  cross  are  bold.  Stone 
and  marble  have  definitely  replaced  brick.  Dur- 
ing this  time,  however,  the  tyjie  of  the  old  clois- 
tered mos(pie  had  been  continued  in  buildings  not 
connected  with  tombs,  such  as  those  of  Mibars 
(1208),  of  En-Xasir  (1318),  Kusun  (1320),  El- 
Maridany  (1330).  The  system  of  stalactite  con- 
struction passed  from  jiendentives  to  corbels,  and 
was  used  to  fill  up  gaps  between  all  dill'erent 
planes.  Like  most  of  Mohanunedan  work,  it  con- 
ceals under  apiiarenl  irregularity  and  freedom, 
not  to  say  vagrant  fancy,  the  most  scientific 
accuracy  of  form.  The  wonderful  development  of 
decorative  work  at  this  time  in  mosaic,  faience, 
wooil  carving,  niarlile  inlay,  metal,  etc..  is  noticed 
later  in  this  article  and  in  special  articles. 

Sp.\ix.  Meanwhile,  other  .Mohammedan  lands 
had  been  following  the  exanqde  of  Egypt,  but 
with  the  exception  of  Spain  their  architecture  has 
been  neglected  by  students.  The  .VraboMy/.antine 
style  of  the  monuments  of  Cordnva  had  ruled  for 
about  two  centuries;  a  national  ilohanune<lan 
style  was  formed  shortly  before  1000,  as  in 
Egypt,  as  shown  in  monuments  of  Tarragona,  Se- 
govia, and  especially  Toledo  and  .Seville.  The 
cusped  and  horseshoe  arches  became  very  decora- 
tive. Christian  influence  is  still  shown  in 
mosques  covered  entirely  by  domes  or  roofs,  like 
churches.  The  famous  Giralda  tower  at  Seville 
belongs  to  this  middle  style,  while  the  alcazars, 
or  Moorish  palaces,  at  Seville,  Segovia,  and  Ma- 
laga usher  in  the  style  of  the  Alhambra  at  Gra- 
nada. When  in  1238  Granada  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  floors  in  Spain,  its  monuments  ex- 
jiressed  the  development  of  native  arts  for  the 
ensuing  century.  Here  is  f<nind  the  richest  ex- 
tant combinati(m  of  the  dilTerent  kinds  of  surface 
decoration  in  which  Mohammedan  art  excelled, 
however  faulty  it  was  in  composition,  construc- 
tion, and  form.  .Arabesque  and  geometrical 
ornament,  stucco  and  faVence.  mosaic  and  marble 
inlay  cover  every  inch  of  space,  and  stalactites 
abotnid  as  well  as  open-work  tracery.  The  round 
horseshoe  arch  yields  to  the  flat  pointed,  stilted, 
and  slinrlitly  incurving  arch.  But  though  so  rich, 
the  iirnament  of  the  .\lhambra.  being  molded, 
lacks  the  life  and  flexibility  of.the  Egyptian  work 
of  the  same  kind,  whii'h  is  done  by  hand  in  the 
soft   plaster.     See  .\i.Ti.\MnR,\. 

Pfr.sia.  The  Turks  and  .Mongols  made  such 
havoc  of  the  earlier  monuments  of  Mohanmiedali.' 
Persia,  the  retrion  of  Bagdail  and  the  great  north- 
ern States  of  Bokhara  and  Samarkand,  that  noth- 
ing has  survived  in  thesi»  regions  belongintr  to 
the  periods  thus  far  mentioned.  But  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  while  they  show 
a  style  certainly  in  full  decailence.  are  inlerestin); 
because  we  can  study  it  in  smh  a  variet\-  of  forms 
in  different  countries.  The  Tatars  and  Turks  give 
their   version  of  it,  adapted   both   from    Persia, 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


657 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


;iiul  Arniciiia.  and  (Jt'Oij;ia,  in  tlu'  Imilrlings  of  the 
thirU'fiith  and  fcmrlccntli  rciitiiiio.s  at  Sivas, 
Kaisaiitli,  Kunifli,  Ni^dt-li.  Niiica.  Jiiusa,  etc. 
Tile  cunU'Uipoiary  buiNliiigs  in  IVrsia.  at  Tabriz, 
.•^ultanifli,  'IVliiMan,  and  f>pi'oially  Ispahan  (tho 
Meidan,  mosque  of  ilfsjid  Sliali,  Hazar,  and  ile- 
dressch  of  Hoscin  Shah),  scattered  over  a  period 
of  about  three  centuries,  show  that  Persnm 
art  was  never  led  to  al)an(hin  flowing  lines  foi 
anguhir  and  geometrical  designs;  even  its  ara- 
hesipies  are  more  continuous  and  soft,  and  jt 
hardly  ever  resorted  to  stalactite  design.  Tlie 
form  of  its  domes  also  varied  essentially  from 
those  elsewhere.  It  is  usually  flat-sided  and 
pointed  on  the  interior  and  bulbous  outside, 
l)uilt  of  brick,  which  was  almost  entirely  used 
in  place  of  stone.  The  minarets  have  the  late 
<ireular  shape  and  are  exceedingly  slender,  being 
lopped  by  small  domes.  Another  peculiarity  is 
I  he  fatade  of  various  clas-es  of  l)uildings  formed 
id'  high  recessed  pointed  arches  of  the  same  pecu- 
liar flat-sided  outline  as  the  domes,  and  remind- 
ing distantly  of  such  English  screen  facades  as 
Lincoln  and  Peterborough. 

IxniA.  At  the  same  time  Mohammedan  art 
received  a  great  impetus  in  India  through 
the  establishment  of  the  ilogul  supremacy 
(1520),  and  i)roduced  a  style  that  was  in 
many  ways  the  most  artistic  and  the  grandest 
in  the  whole  sphere  of  Mohammedan  architecture. 
Buildings  like  the  mosque  and  tomb  of  Mahmud 
at  Bijajiur.  the  mosques  at  Fathipur,  Sikhri, 
-Agra,  and  Delhi,  the  palace  of  Akhar  at  Alla- 
habad, and  the  Taj  JIahal  at  Agra  are  master- 
jdeces.  There  is  undouI)tedly  a  dependence  on 
the  art  of  Persia  in  the  shape  of  the  pointed 
arches  and  domes,  and  in  the  niche  facades,  as 
well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  Turkish  adaptation 
of  the  Saint  Sopliia  type,  but  these  Indian  archi- 
tects showed  a  surpassing  sense  of  composition 
and  efTeetiveness,  never  allowing,  as  the  archi- 
tects of  Egypt  and  Spain  so  often  did,  the  love 
of   detail   to   become   paramount. 

Finally,  when  the  Turks  captured  Constanti- 
nople (1453)  they  adopted  the  Byzantine  style 
and  speciflcally  that  of  Saint  So])hia.  which  be- 
came their  chief  mosque.  They  never  knew  the  old 
type  of  cloistered  mosque,  but  only  great  domi- 
cal, fully  vaulted  interiors.  The  architects  they 
employed  were  Christian  (Jreeks.  Their  mosques 
have  ever  since  been  mere  repetitions  of  Saint 
Sophia  on  a  smaller  scale.  I!\it  some  of  them 
have  great  merit  of  dignity  and  composition  and 
some  orijjinality  in  the  exterior  treatment:  for 
example,  the  nio.sque  of  Mohammed  II.,  which  has 
four  semi-domes  grouped  around  the  central  one, 
but  especially  the  Sulainianiyyah  mosque  (1553). 
These  have  alternating  white  and  black  marbles' 
in  the  interior  voussoirs,  and  the  simple  bril- 
li.nncy  of  tlie  surfaces  gives  quite  a  different  effect 
from  a  Byzantine  interior.  For  details  regarding 
special  classes  of  buildings  ami  the  delightful 
domestic  architecture  of  the  ^loslems.  see  special 
articles,  such  as  Caravanserai;  Fountain; 
Bazar;  Tekive;  Minaret;  ilo.squE. 

MINOR  arts. 
Decoration.  The  sculpture  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans was  purely  decorative,  becoming  richer  as 
the  Middle  Ages  advanced.  In  the  earlier  stages 
it  partook  somewhat  of  liyzantiue  design,  as  in 
the  mosqiie  of  Cordova  and  in  early  Eg\'ptian  and 
Syrian  mosques.   But  it  was  then  scanty  and  ra- 


ther heavy.  W  hen  the  >.eliociK  iM'came  more  differ- 
entiated in  the  eleventh  century,  into  the  Persian 
naturalistic,  ligured  and  floral:  the  Syrian  sche- 
matic, animal  and  floral:  and  the  Egyptian,  geo- 
metric and  stiff  floral  schools,  ornament  began 
to  spread  over  the  entire  building.  Even  the 
exterior  surfaces  of  domes  and  walls  were  covered, 
with  a  lacework  cut  in  stone  or  stucco.  Color 
was  given  by  marble  mosaics  in  Egj'pt,  or  in 
Syria  and  Persia  by  brilliantly  colored  tiles.  The 
Mosque  of  Omar  is  an  early,  the  Alhandjra  at 
Granada  a  mediaeval,  and  the  Mosque  of  Ispahan 
a  late  e.xam])le.  The  tiles  became  an  Oriental 
specialty,  and  were  imitated  in  Spain  until  re- 
centl>-.     See  AziLE-JO. 

WoonwoRK  and  Ivory.  In  no  style  of  art  has 
so  varied  an  artistic  use  been  made  of  wood. 
Where  other  styles  have  used  stone  and  marble 
we  find  wood  used,  for  instance,  in  carved  ceil- 
ings, windows,  pulpits,  lecterns,  screens,  lattice- 
work, doors,  balconies,  parapets,  tomb-casings. 
In  the  richest  pieces  ivory  is  sometimes  used  in 
connection  with  wood,  being  cither  inlaid  in 
carved  panels  or  being  set  as  panels  in  wooden 
frames.  Wood  was  used  not  only  for  the  furni- 
ture of  the  i)rivate  house,  but  for  that  of  the 
mosque,  such  as  cupboards,  tables,  and  the  classes 
of  work  mentioned  above.  Some  of  the  best  ex- 
amples of  floral  design  in  Eg^'pt  are  preserved 
in  wood  carvings.  The  most  magnificent  pieces 
are  probably  the  pulpits,  such  as  that  of  Kait 
Bey  in  South  Kensington  Museum,  and  the  panels 
from  those  of  Maridany.  Lagin,  and  Kusun  in  the 
same  museum.  The  panels  of  the  hospital  of 
Kalaun  show  a  Persian  style  of  figures  and  ani- 
mals, rather  than  the  floral  and  geometrical  pat- 
terns. The  reading-platform  of  the  Mosque  of 
Kait  Bey  is  a  fine  instance  of  marquetry  and 
ivory,  largely  in  polygonal  design.  Ebony  and 
ivory  were  often  confliined  in  mosaic-like  pat- 
terns, sometimes  framed  in  strips  of  metal,  as  in 
jewel  eases  and  other  boxes.  But  the  most  exten- 
sive of  all  the  wood  carvings  and  inlaid  work 
were  the  ceilings  of  mosques  and  palaces,  as  in 
those  of  Kait  Bey,  El-Mogyed.  and  El-Bordeini. 

Met.\l  Woriv.  The  Persians.  Syrians,  and 
Eg;s'ptians  were  skillful  workers  in  metal.  Per- 
haps the  earliest  centre  was  in  Mesopotamia,  at 
Mosul.  Brass,  bronze,  and  copper  were  chiefly 
used.  While  chiseled  bronze  and  repousse  copper 
seem  the  earliest  processes,  the  works  came  to 
be  often  inlaid  with  silver  and  sometiiues  with 
gold  liy  different  processes:  (1)  by  incrusting  a 
thread  of  gcdd  or  silver  into  an.  undercut  groove; 
(2)  by  inclosing  a  metal  strip  or  plate  between 
raised  walls:  (3)  by  pressing  a  thin  leaf  of 
metal  into  stipple  marks.  The  entire  metal  sur- 
face was  excavated  according  to  the  elaborate  de- 
sign, the  edges  undercut,  the  threads  or  plates  of 
gold  or  silver  inserted  and  burnished,  and  then 
the  s\irfaces  chased  with  all  the  details  that 
could  not  be  given  by  the  general  outlines.  .\ni- 
mals.  birds,  human  figures,  hunting  scenes,  feast- 
ing scenes,  and  other  genre  siibjeets.  as  well  as 
floral  designs.  charact<'rize  more  especially  the 
Persian  and  Syrian  works,  while  arabesques  and 
geometric  patterns  predominate  in  Egypt.  In- 
scriptions are  made  almost  always  to  contribute 
to  the  decorative  effect.  The  Mesopotamian  and 
Persian  schools,  though  undoubtedly  of  much 
earlier  origin,  gained  new  life  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, when  Tatar  and  Turkish  influence  gave  to 
artists    far   greater    freedom    in   the   use  of  the 


MOHAMMEDAN  ABT. 


658 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


human  figure.  The  sclioul  uf  Danmseus  was  the 
iiHist  famous  centre  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades, 
giving  its  name  to  the  entire  process  of  dama- 
scening or  inlaying.  The  Egyptian  scliool,  with 
its  centre  at  Cairo,   lUiurislied  somewhat   hvter, 

'  under  the  Mameluke  rulers  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  objects  made  wholly  of  gold  and  silver 
have  almost  entirely  disappeared,  but  the  inven- 
tories of  the  palace  of  the  rulers  of  Bagdad  and 
Cairo  prove  the  e.xistence  of  many  thousands  of 
such  objects — vases,  boxes,  mirrors,  stands, 
lamps,  trays,  coti'ers,  figures  of  birds  and  ani- 
mals, dishes,  cups,  llagons,  bowls.  Of  the.se  classes 

,  man}'  objects  still  remain  in  the  baser  metals, 
either  plain  or  dama.scened:  particularly  interest- 
ing are  the  hanging  lami)»i.  lanterns,  and  chande- 
liers, the  stands  and  tables,  mo.sque  doors,  per- 
fume-burners, ewers,  bo.\es  (especially  writing 
boxes),  trays,  and  bowls,  it  is  in  the  magnificent 
arms  and  armor  that  the  metal-workers  showed 
the  suprcmest  mastery,  using  all  the  processes, 
chiseling,  damascening,  enameling,  jewel-setting 
to  produce  the  master])ieces  in  the  shape  of  pon- 
iards, swords,  and  yataghans,  helmets,  breast- 
plates, and  lances,  stirrups,  bits,  and  the  rest  of 
the  military  e(|ui|)ment  and  caparison,  including, 
in  later  times,  nuiskets,  pistols,  and  halberds. 
In  this  special  field  the  school  of  Syria  (Damas- 
cus) reigned  supreme,  manufacturing  the  best 
pieces  for  the  entire  Mohanunedan  world.  The 
Persian  style  was  more  iirnalc.  standing  midway 
between  Syrian  simplicity  and  Indian  gorgeous- 
ness.    See  Indian  .Art, 

Gla.ss.  It  is  in  Kg\pt  that  stained-glass  win- 
dows were  made,  rivaling  on  a  small  scale  the 
cathedral  windows  of  the  (Jothic  period.  Here, 
as  in  every  other  branch,  there  is  originality  of 
methods.  'ITie  windows  are  small,  forming  usually 
an  oblong  of  less  than  two  by  three  feet.  The 
frame  is  of  wood  and  the  process  consists  of 
pouring  a  bed  of  plaster  into  this  frame,  letting 
it  set.  and  then  cutting  out  the  design,  leaving 
only  narrow  rims  or  bands  of  plaster  to  hold  the 
glass.  The  design  is  extremely  elaborate,  with 
a  central  motif,  usmilly  of  flowers,  plants,  and 
trees:  the  bits  of  stained  glass  cut  to  fit  over  the 
i)|ienings  are  laid  on  anil  fastened  with  fresh 
plaster.  The  openings  arc  often  slanting  toward 
the  street  and  the  jilastcr  artistically  linislied  on 
the  outside.  The  eileit  on  the  inside  is  similar  to 
mosaic.  The  commoMcst  designs  are:  pinks,  and 
(ither  flowers  growing  from  a  vase;  cypress  with 
entwined  flower-stem:  scroll  of  flow^ers  and 
leaves:  kiosk  between  buds  or  cypresses;  one  or 
two  cypresses  with  flowers.  Earlier  than  these 
are  the  more  purely  geometric  designs,  as  in  the 
tomb  of  Hibars  at  Cairo.  Of  course  the  plaster  is 
far  nu)re  fragile  than  lead  as  a  frame,  and  the 
windows  easily  disintegrate  ami  cannot  be  made 
large.  Such  windows  (called  kiimiirhif)  are 
found  not  merely  in  mosipies.  but  in  tbi'  iiirxhrn- 
hii/ih  or  latticed  projecting  windows  of  private 
houses.  In  harmony  and  quiet  depth  of  color 
they  surpass  their  more  colossal  fiothic  counter- 
parts. 

.\  dilTerent  kind  of  artistic  glass  is  exemplified 
in  (he  mosque  lamps  of  enameled  and  painted 
glass.  It  is  true  that  there  is  a  great  quantity 
of  exquisite  glass,  both  white  and  c(dore(l,  show- 
ing in  Persia:  Syria  and  Kg>'pt  still  carried  on  in 
the  Middle  .\ges  the  old  Kgyptian  and  Pbienician 
industry,  with  exquisite  understanding  of  forms 
and  tones,  furnishing  models  to  Veniee:  hut  it  is 


in  the  mosipic  lamps  tliat  the  glass-workers  cer- 
tainly enter  the  domain  of  line  art.  Here  the 
cidors  are  enameled  on  a  gilt  ground  and  the  de- 
signs aje  similar  to  those  of  metal  work,  with 
greater  prominence  given  to  inscriptions;  cobalt, 
red,  pale  green,  and  white  are  the  principal 
eiuimels  and  the  decoration  is  in  bands  with 
medallions.  The  most  beautiful  examples  are 
winks  of  the  fourteenth  century  from  the  mosques 
(if  Cairo.  The  mellow  light  shining  through  the 
emuuels  and  glass  of  these  suspended  lamps  was 
of  an  exquisite  ell'ect, 

Ii.iA'.MiXATiON  OF  Mani  scRii'is.  The  aversion 
to  the  representation  of  the  human  figure  hin- 
dered the  development  of  the  art  of  illumination 
— a  branch  of  art  not  cidtivated  extensively 
until  the  later  Middle  Ages.  It  is  true  that  fig- 
nreil  compositions  were  not  unknown  either  to 
the  Egyptian  or  the  Syrian  artists,  but  it  was  the 
Persian  school,  under  Tatar  and  Mongol  in- 
lluences,  which  first  boldly  attcni|ited  scenes  of 
daily  life  and  of  history.  Tlicre  an-  many  manu- 
scri|)ts  of  the  Koran  belonging  to  the  other 
schools,  whose  first  and  last  pages  are  a  mass  of 
geometric  and  floral  ornament.  The  finest  col- 
lection of  Egyptian  manuscrii)ts,  executed  main- 
ly for  the  sultans  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  is  that  of  the  Cairo  Museum  rescued 
from  the  mosques,  such  as  those  of  Sultans  Ka- 
laun,  Shaban,  and  liarkuk.  Sometimes  the  flow- 
ers, arabesques,  and  polygons  are  in  colors  on  a 
gold  groiuul.  sometimes  in  gold  on  a  ground  of 
plain  l>Uic  ur  red  (U-  of  shaded  and  grouped  colors. 
The  (incst  of  these  illuminated  pages  surpass  any- 
thing done  by  Christian  artists  in  richness,  in 
exquisite  coloring,  and  in  fineness  of  execution. 
They  are  executed  not  on  velliuii,  but  on  fine 
I'.gyptian  cream-colored  or  reddish  paper.  The 
Syrian  and  Persian  schools  avoided  the  geo- 
metric ornamentation,  and  their  floral  designs 
were  freer  and  iikiic  naturalistic.  The  Persian 
loudness  for  legend  and  poetry  shows  itself  in  the 
rich  illumination  of  jiocms  and  stories  which 
gave  occasion  for  charming  genre  scenes  and  vi- 
gnettes, and  the  artist's  fancy  sprinkled  animals 
:uid  birds  in  riototis  confusion  in  a  backgroimd 
of  beautiful  garden  scenes. 

It  is  in  these  figured  illuminations  alone  that 
wo  can  study  the  style  of  the  fresco-painters  of 
"Mohannnedanisni,  whose  works  have  disapi)eared. 
It  is  plain  from  native  writers  that  the  caliphs 
of  Bagdad,  the  rulers  of  Egypt  and  Spain,  at  <lif- 
ferent  times  lavishly  patronized  figure  jiainters 
and  that  such  works  were  not  confined  to  the 
Persian  school.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
similarity  tx'twei'n  Persian  and  Chinese  painted 
design  and  to  make  the  Mongols  the  intermedia- 
ries between  the  two  schools.  The  primitive  c(m- 
ception  of  composition  and  figure  and  the  awk- 
ward conventionalities  itiake  the  Persian  school, 
though  successful  in  coloring,  less  successful  in  its 
sphere  than  the  |)urely  decorative  Egyptian.  The 
most  famous  Persian  illutninators  belong  to  the 
sixteenth  century,  sucdi  as  Fabrizi,  .Tehangir, 
liukhari,  an<l  Behzada,  The  latter's  works  are 
masterly  in  composition  and  correspond  to  the 
Italian  Oiottescpie  masters.  The  last  great  mas- 
ter was  Mari,  a  naturalist  from  India. 

Tkxtii.k  FAnitics.  T'he  Ear  East  had  always 
been  famous  for  its  artistic  stufTs.  embroideries, 
tapestrii's,  rugs.  It  was  as  successors  to  the  arta 
of  Persia  and  Babylon  that  the  Mohammedans  de- 
veloped this  branch,  though  Bagdad,  Damascus, 


MOHAMMEDAN  ART. 


659 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


Cairo,  ami  L'uiiluva  all  toiik  part  and  the  tribes 
and  villages  rivaled  with  the  large  eities.  Noth- 
ing beoaiiie  more  eharaetcristie  of  the  Kast,  noth- 
ing inllueneed  the  West  more  strongly,  throvigh 
constant  importation  and  the  contaet  of  the 
Crusaders.  The  haute-lisse  tapestry,  after  a 
method  long  lost  in  Europe,  was  in  current  use. 
The  .same  difference  finally  appeared  in  the  de- 
signs here  as  in  other  Ijranches:  geometrical  and 
set  pattciiis  being  more  common  in  Egyjit ;  free 
lloral  designs  being  used  in  Persia.  I'he  feu- 
known  Persian  rugs  of  as  early  a  ])eriocl  as  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  arc  now 
valued  at  many  thousand  dollars  (.$10,000  to 
.$40,000),  and  a  study  of  their  design  shows  an 
almost  incalculable  variety  of  native  llowers  nat- 
uralistically  reproduced.  The  Syrian  school  had 
much  in  conunon  with  the  Byzantine  and,  as 
usual,  occupied  a  middle  position,  with  medal- 
lions in  a  stiff  lloral  ground  containing  heraldic 
animals  or  birds.  There  were  in  every  Moham- 
medan country  royal  manufactories  whose  prod- 
ucts were  entirely  reserved  for  the  Court  and 
sovereign;  the  standards,  baldachins,  tents, 
royal  robes,  hangings,  housings,  and  rugs  were 
all  of  a  magnificence  unknown  to  the  ruder  West 
and  unsurpassed  at  any  time.  The  known  speci- 
mens date  no  earlier  than  the  eleventh  century 
and  the  art  decayed  before  the  sixteenth  century. 

Ini'I.I'ENce  o.-v  Ei'ROPE.  Sicily.  Southern  Italy. 
Venice,  and  Spain  were  all'cctcd  by  the  Mohaiii- 
medan  arts  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  as 
late  as  the  Renaissance.  Hence  the  use  of  the 
pointed  and  the  horseshoe  arch  in  many  parts  of 
Southern  Europe.  The  cosmopolitan  culture  of 
the  Norman  Kings  of  Sicily  had  a  large  Moham- 
medan element.  The  palaces  of  the  kings — such 
a.s  La  Kuba,  La  Liza,  Favara.  and  Baida — were 
imitated  from  those  of  the  Eastern  emirs  and 
sultans;  San  tjiovanni  degli  Eremiti  seems  an 
importation  from  Cairo.  Mohanunedan  artists 
executed  the  wonderful  stalactite  ceiling  in  carved 
wood  and  probably  also  the  geometric  mosaics  in 
the  Cappella  Palatina  at  Palermo.  The  famous 
Rufl'olo  Palace  at  Ravcllo,  and  several  cloisters 
(e.g.  at  Amalfi),  show  the  spread  of  Eastern 
architectural  forms  in  Campania.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  see  how  in  most  cases  where  there  are 
traces  of  Byzantine  art,  there  are  also  signs  of 
Mohanmicdan  influence,  and  vice  versa.  This  is 
nowhere  more  evident  than  in  Venice,  where  both 
forms  of  Oriental  art  were  so  prominent.  Here 
quite  a  flourishing  school  of  Mohammedan  metal- 
workers was  established,  existing  as  late  as  the 
sixteenth  eontury,  when  Mahmud  El-Kurdi  signed 
some  exquisite  pieces.  The  Halian  artists  who 
imitated  them  called  themselves  workers  all' 
aficmwa,  'in  the  Persian  style.'  and  even  Cellini 
confesses  to  have  copied  Oriental  arms.  In  fact, 
the  Renaissance  metal-workers  of  the  sixteenth 
century  both  in  Italy  and  France  owed  more  than 
their  mediteval  predecessors  to  Oriental  design. 
Even  more  widespread  and  radical  was  the  use 
and  imitation  in  Europe  of  Oriental  stuffs  and 
fabrics,  partly  Byzantine,  but  especially  Moham- 
medan. W(mderful  not  merely  for  beauty  of  ma- 
terial, but  for  the  figures  and  patterns  woven  or 
embroidered.  The  imported  tents,  baldachins, 
hangings,  carpets,  and  the  like,  furnished  the 
models  for  the  European  ateliers  in  Sicily, 
Rome.  Venice.  Belgium,  and   France, 

BiBLionRAPiiY.  G.  Le  Bon,  La  civilisation  des 
Amies  (Paris,  1883),  contains  the  most  sugges- 


tive general  sketch  of  the  .Mohammedan  arts, 
with  numerous  illustrations;  (Jayet.  in  L'art 
l>irsan  (Paris,  IS!);"))  and  L'aii  (iniht  (ib., 
1893),  describes  the  various  arts  in  Mohammedan 
Persia  and  Egjpt,  in  hand-book  form.  A  more 
thorough  book  of  the  same  type  is  Stanley  Lane- 
Poole,  The  Art  of  the  Haracens  in  Eyyiit  (Lon- 
don, 188(5).  Franz- Paseha,  Die  liaukunut  des 
Islam  (Darmstadt,  I89G),  is  a  general  historical 
and  critical  treatise  on  .Mohanunedan  architec- 
ture and  dei'orative  dct;uls.  with  description  of 
the  dirt'ereut  classes  of  buildings.  For  the  de- 
signs and  patterns  used  in  decoration,  the  best 
text-book  renuiins  J.  Bourgoin,  Les  arts  arahes 
(Paris,  1808-70)  and  Pricis  de  I'arl  arabe 
( ib.,  1889).  In  Fergusson's  History  of  Archi- 
tecture (2d  ed.,  London.  1873-76),  considerable 
space,  with  not  very  .scientiflc  treatment,  is  given 
to  the  Mohanunedan  styles;  see  also  his  Indian 
and  Eastern  Arrhitrcliire  ( L(md<m.  1870);  M. 
von  Berchem,  in  his  "Notes  d'arch^ologie  arabe"' 
(in  various  years  of  the  Journal  Asiatiqiie), 
is  laying  a  good  historic  basis  for  a  historic 
treatment  and  making  known  new  monuments. 
The  most  sumptuous  illustrative  plates  are  still 
for  Egypt  in  Prisse  d'Avennes,  f/art  arabe  d'aprcs 
les  nwnuriients  dii  Caire  (Paris,  1809-77).  and 
for  Persia  Flandin  and  Coste,  Monuments  ino- 
dernes  de  la  Perse  ( ib.,  1867).  For  Spain  the 
first  serious  work  was  Girault  de  Prangly, 
L'areliitectnre  des  Arabes  et  des  Maures  en 
Ks/iaf/ne,  rn  t^icile  et  <m  Tiarbarie  (ib.,  1842), 
which  should  be  supplemented  by  the  Spanish 
Government  publication.  Monumenlos  arquitec- 
tonicos  de  Espana  (Madrid,  1877  sqq. ).  Noth- 
ing satisfactoiy  has  been  published  about  the 
monuments  of  Northern  Africa,  of  Syria  or  Asia 
Minor.  In  fact,  the  whole  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject is  unsatisfactory.  Aside  from  the  works  re- 
maining in  situ  there  are  not  many  collections  of 
the  smaller  works  of  Mohammedan  art.  That  of 
the  South  Kensington  Musoun  is  important,  as 
are  those  of  Cairo,  and  of  the  Musee  des  Arts 
Dccoratifs  in  Paris, 

MOHAMMEDANISM.  The  name  commonly 
given  in  the  West  to  the  religion  founded  by  Mo- 
hammed. The  proper  name  is  Islam  (q.v. ),  sug- 
gested by  Mohammed  himself,  and  explained  by 
him  to  include  the  ))erformance  of  five  duties 
(the  'five  cardinal  points  of  Islam'),  viz.:  ac- 
ceptance of  the  fornuihi.  'there  is  no  god  but 
Allah,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet';  prayer; 
alms-giving;  the  fast  of  Ramadan;  and  the  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca. 

Doctrine  a.nd  Practice.  Like  every  organized 
religion,  Islam,  as  developed  by  the  Mohammedan 
theologians,  presents  two  sides — the  theoretical 
jiart,  known  as  'aman,  'faith,'  and  the  practical 
])art  called  din.  'religion.'  The  doctrine  concern- 
ing (lod.  His  nature  and  attributes,  coincides 
with  the  .Jewish  and  Christian  in  so  far  as  He  is 
by  both  taught  to  !)<>  the  Creator  of  all  things  in 
heaven  and  earth,  who  rules  and  jircscrves  all 
things,  without  beginning,  onmipotent.  onuiis- 
cient,  omnipresent,  and  full  of  mercy.  But,  ac- 
cording to  the  Mohanunedan  belief.  He  has  no 
offspring.  .Tesus  is  regarded,  like  Adam.  Abra- 
ham, and  Moses,  as  a  prophet  and  apostle,  al- 
though His  birth  is  said  to  have  been  due  to  a 
divine  intervention;  as  the  Koran  superseded  the 
Gospel,  so  Mohanuned  su))erseded  Christ  and  all 
preceding  pro|)hets.  Next  to  the  belief  in  God, 
that  in  angels  forms  a   prominent  dogma,   and, 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


660 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


like  the  toriiier.  ina_v  l>e  traced  l)ack  ilirectly  to 
Jewish  ami  christian  and  in  a  sniallir  ilrgiee  to 
Tersian  inlliicmin.  Created  of  lire  and  endowed 
with  a  kind  of  incorporeal  l)ody.  anf^els  stand  be- 
tween (■(h1  and  man.  There  are  four  chief  angels: 
Gabriel,  the  angel  of  revelation;  ilidiael,  the 
special  protector  and  guardian  of  the  Jews; 
Azrael,  the  angel  of  death;  Isratil  (L'riel),  whose 
oflice  it  will  be  to  sound  the  trumpet  at  the  resur- 
rection. Besides  angels  tliere  are  good  and  evil 
genii  (jinns,  q.v.),  of  a  grosser  fabric  than  the 
former  and  subject  to  death.  They  have  dillereiil 
names  and  offices  {pirls,  fairies;  dcrcs,  giants; 
lalcic'uis,  fates,  etc.),  and  are  much  like  the 
slirdim  in  the  Talmud  and  Jlidrash  and  the  de- 
mons of  other  peoi)les.  The  chief  of  the  evil  genii 
is  Iblis  (q.v.),  once  called  Azazil,  who,  refusing 
to  pay  homage  to  Adam,  was  rejected  by  God.  A 
third  belief  is  that  in  certain  divinely  given 
scriphircs,  revealed  successively  to  the  different 
propluts.  Originally  there  were  104  sacred  books, 
but  only  four  have  survived,  viz.:  the  Pentateuch, 
the  Psalms,  the  Gospel,  and  the  Koran,  and  the 
fir.st  three  are  in  a  nnitilated  and  falsified  condi- 
tion. The  numl>er  of  ])r(>phets  sent  at  ditfcrent 
times,  is  stated  variously  at  between  :200.000  and 
300,000.  Among  them  313  were  apostles,  and  six 
were  specially  commissioned  to  proclaim  new  laws 
and  dispensations,  which  abrogated  the  preceding 
ones.  These  were  Adam,  Noah.  .Aliraham,  Moses. 
Jesus,  and  Mohammed — the  last  the  greatest  of 
them  all.  and  the  propagator  of  the  final  dis- 
pensation. Tile  belief  in  the  rcxiirrcrl iiiii  and 
the  final  judf/niriit  is  an  important  article  of  faith, 
which  in  the  theological  writings,  later  than  JIo- 
hammed.  is  elaborately  developed.  The  condition 
of  the  dead  in  the  future  world  and  the  punish- 
ment of  the  wicked  are  pictured  with  a  great 
multiplicity  of  details.  The  dead  are  received  in 
their  graves  by  an  angel  announcing  the  coming 
of  the  two  examiners,  Munkar  ('Unknown')  and 
Xakir  ( ■Uepmliating") .  who,  ilocrilied  as  two 
black  angels  with  blue  eyes,  put  cpiestions  to  the 
dead  respecting  his  belief  in  God  and  llohammed, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  answers,  either  tor- 
ture or  comfort  him.  The  soul,  awaiting  a  gen- 
eral resurrection,  is  treated  according  to  its  rank; 
prophets  enter  immediately  into  Paradise;  mar- 
tyrs, in  the  shape  of  a  green  bird,  partake  of  the 
delights  of  the  abode  of  bliss;  common  believers 
either  stay  nc:ir  the  grave,  or  are  with  .\dani  in 
the  lowest  heaven,  or  remain  in  the  well  Zem- 
zem  or  in  the  trumpet  of  tlie  re.-.urn'clion,  or  rest 
in  the  shape  of  a  wliite  I>iril  under  the  throne  of 
God.  The  sotils  of  intidels  dwell  in  a  certain 
well  in  the  province  of  Hadraniaut  (interpreted 
as  Chamber  of  Death),  or,  being  first  ofTered  to 
heaven,  then  to  earth,  and  rejected  by  both,  are 
subject  to  unspeakable  tortures  until  the  day  of 
resurrection.  Concerning  the  latter,  considerable 
discrepancy  ri'igns  among  the  Mohammedan  the- 
ologians. Alohanimcd  himself  seems  to  have  held 
that  both  soul  and  body  will  be  raised,  and  it  is 
saiil  that  the  rump-bone  will  remain  un<'orrupted 
till  the  last  day,  and  from  it  the  whole  body  will 
spring  anew,  after  a  forty  days'  rain,  .\mong 
the  signs  by  which  the  approach  of  the  last  day 
tiiay  be  known  are  the  decay  of  faith  among  men. 
the  advancing  of  the  meanest  persons  to  the  high- 
est dignities,  wars,  seditions,  and  tunuiUs,  and 
onnserpient  dire  distress.  Certain  provinces  shall 
revolt,  and  the  buildings  of  Medina  shall  reach  to 
Mecca.     These  are   the  eight   'lesser'   signs;    of 


'greater'  signs  tlierc  arc  no  less  than  17;  the  sun 
will  rise  in  the  west,  the  Beast  will  a]ipear.  Con- 
stantinople will  be  taken  by  the  descendants  of 
Isaac,  the  Antichrist  will  come  and  be  killed  by 
Jesus  at  Lud  (Lydda).  Further  there  will  come 
a  war  with  the  Jews,  Gog  and  Jlagog's  ( Yujuj 
and  iliijuj)  eruption,  a  great  smoke,  an  eclipse, 
the  Mohannnedans  will  return  to  i<h)latry,  a 
great  treasure  will  be  found  in  the  I'Aiphrates, 
the  Kaaba  will  be  destroyed  by  tlic  KMiiopians, 
beasts  and  inanimate  things  will  speak,  and  final- 
ly, a  wind  will  sweep  away  tli<'  souls  of  those 
who  have  faith,  even  if  equal  only  to  a  grain  of 
mustard  .seed,  so  that  the  world  shall  be  left  in 
ignorance.  The  time  of  the  resurrection  even 
;\Iohammed  could  not  learn  from  Gabriel ;  it  is  a 
mystery.  Three  blasts  will  announce  it;  that  of 
consternation,  of  such  terrible  ])ower  that  moth- 
ers will  neglect  the  baln's  on  their  breasts,  and 
heaven  and  earth  will  melt;  that  of  examination, 
which  will  annihilate  all  things  and  beings,  even 
the  angel  of  death,  save  p,'iradise  and  hell  and 
their  inhabitants;  and,  forty  years  later,  that  of 
resurrection,  when  all  men.  Mohammed  first, 
sliall  have  their  souls  breathed  into  their  restored 
bodies,  and  will  sleep  in  their  sepulchres  until 
the  final  doom  has  been  passed  upon  them.  The 
day  of  judgment,  lasting  from  one  thousand  to  i 
fifty  thousand  years,  will  call  up  angels,  genii, 
men.  and  animals.  The  trial  over,  the  righteous 
will  enter  [)aradise,  to  the  right  hand,  and  the 
wicked  will  pass  to  the  left,  into  hell;  both,  how- 
ever have  first  to  go  over  the  bridge  AlSiiat, 
laid  over  the  midst  of  hell,  finer  than  a  hair, 
sharper  than  the  edge  of  a  sword,  and  beset  with 
thorns  on  either  side.  The  righteous  will  pro- 
ceed on  their  path  with  ease  and  swiftness,  but 
the  wicked  will  fall  headlong.  Hill  is  divided 
into  seven  stories  or  apartments,  respectively  as- 
signed to  Mohammedans.  .Jews.Christ  ians,  Saliians. 
^lagians,  idolaters,  and — the  lowest  of  all — to  the 
hypocrites,  who,  outwardly  professing  a  religion, 
in  reality  had  none.  The  degrees  of  pain — chief- 
ly consisting  in  intense  heat  and  cold — vary:  but 
the  Mohammedans,  and  all  those  who  professed 
the  unity  of  God.  will  finally  be  released,  while 
unbelievers  and  idolaters  will  be  condemned  to 
eternal  punishment.  Paradise  is  divided  from 
hell  by  a  partition  (Uirf)  in  which  a  certain 
number  of  half-saints  will  find  place.  The 
blessed,  destined  for  tlie  abode  of  eternal  delight 
(Al-Jannah.  Heh.  Clan-Eden),  will  first  drink 
of  the  pond  of  the  Prophet,  which  is  supplied 
from  the  rivers  of  Paradise,  whiter  than  milk, 
an<l  more  odoriferous  than  nuisk.  Arrived  at  one 
of  the  eight  gates,  they  will  be  met  by  beautiful 
youths  and  angels;  and  their  degree  of  righteous- 
ness (prophets,  religious  teachers,  martyrs,  be- 
lievers) will  procure  for  them  the  corresponding 
degi'ce  of  happiness.  Mankind  on  the  last  day 
will  be  assembled  in  three  classes:  ( I )  Those  who 
go  on  foot,  believers  whose  good  works  have  been 
few;  (2)  those  who  ride.  lH>lievers  acceptal)lc  in 
the  eyes  of  God;  and  (3)  tho.se  who  creep,  the 
unbelievers.  The  various  felicities  which  await 
the  pious  represent  a  conglomeration  of  .Jew- 
ish, Christian,  Zoroastrian,  and  other  fancies 
to  which  the  Prophet's  own  scnsu;il  imagination 
has  aiMed  very  considerably.  Feasting  in  the  most 
gorgeous  and  delicious  variety,  the  most  costly 
and  lirilliant  garments,  odors,  and  music  of  the 
most  ravishing  nature,  and,  above  all,  the  cnio.v- 
inent  of  the  Hiir  ah'wjfin,  the  black-eyed  daugh- 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


661 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


ters  of  Paradise  (sec  HoiRi),  created  of  pure 
musk,  are  held  out  as  a  reward  to  tlie  eonmioiiest 
iiiliabitanl  of  Paradise,  wlio  will  always  remain 
ill  the  full  vi^or  of  youth  and  manhood.  For 
those  deserving  a  higher  degree  of  reeoiinieiise, 
rewards  will  be  prepared  of  a  purely  spiritual 
kind — i.e.  the  'beholding  of  God's  face'  (,She- 
chinah)  by  night  and  by  day.  The  last  of  the 
precepts  of  pure  faith  taught  by  Mohaiiiniedan- 
isin  is  the  full  and  unconditional  suhiHisaiun  to 
God's  decree,  and  the  ijrcdcutiHiition  of  good  and 
evil,  which  is  found  from  the  beginning  inscribed 
on  a  'preserved  table.'  Not  only  a  man's  fortunes, 
but  his  deeds,  and  consequently  his  future  re- 
ward or  punishment,  are  irrevocably,  and  thus 
unavoidably,  pre-ordained;  a  doctrine  which  is 
not,  however,  taken  literally  by  all  Moslems. 

The  first  of  the  four  chief  duties  of  din  or  the 
practical  part  of  Islam  is  prayer,  "the  key  of 
Faradi.se."  Certain  religious  purifications  are  in- 
cluded as  necessary  preparations.  They  are  of  two 
kinds:  the  ghusi,  or  total  immersion  of  the  body, 
required  on  certain  special  occasions ;  and  the 
tcudfi',  a  partial  ablution,  to  be  performed  imme- 
diately before  the  prayer.  This  is  of  primary- 
importance,  and  consists  in  washing  the  hands, 
face,  ears,  and  feet  up  to  the  ankles — a  proceed- 
ing generally  accompanied  at  each  stage  by  cor- 
responding pious  sentences,  and  concluded  by  the 
recital  of  the  ninety-seventh  sura  of  the  Ko- 
ran. If  water  is  not  to  be  had,  sand  may  supply 
its  place.  Even  the  ground  or  the  carpet  upon 
wliich  one  prays  must  be  as  clean  as  possible,  and 
the  use  of  a  special  prayer-carpet  (sajjfidah)  is 
therefore  recommended.  Every  Jlohamniedan  is 
required  to  piay  five  times  in  the  space  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  prayer  {salat)  itself  consists 
partly  of  extracts  from  the  Koran  {fard),  partly 
of  sentences  ordained  upon  the  precept  or  practice 
of  the  Prophet  (sunna).  The  times  of  prayer 
are:  Daybreak  ifajr);  noon  (zuhr);  afternoon, 
midway  between  the  second  and  fourth  (Visr)  ; 
evening  {maghrib)  ;  after  night  has  closed  in 
('i.?7i4).  These  several  times  of  prayer  are  an- 
nounced by  the  muezzins  (q.v. )  from  the  mina- 
rets of  the  mosques.  The  believer  passes  through 
a  series  of  thirteen  postures  during  his  prayers; 
and  a  certain  number  of  such  inclinations  of  head 
and  knees,  prostrations,  etc.,  is  called  rak'uh.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  face  of  the  worshiper  should 
be  turned  toward  the  kiblah.  i.e.  in  the  direction 
of  Mecca  (see  KlBl,.4.ii).  Women,  although  not 
forbidden  to  enter  the  mosque,  yet  are  not  sup- 
posed to  pray  there,  lest  their  presence  should 
he  hurtful  to  true  devotion.  Besides  these 
prayers,  there  are  others  ordained  for  special 
occasions,  as  on  a  pilgrimage,  before  a  battle,  at 
funerals,  during  an  eclipse,  etc.  The  Moslems  do 
not  pray  to  Mohammed,  but  simply  inijilore  his 
intercession,  as  they  do  that  of  the  iminerous 
saints,  the  relatives  of  the  Prophet,  and  the  first 
Jiropagators  of  Islam.  Petitions,  moreover,  play 
a  subsidiary  part  in  the  prayers,  which  are  chiefly 
made  up  of  thanksgivings  and  praise  formulas. 
Mohammedanism  has  no  clergy  in  the  Western 
sense  of  the  word,  but  there  is  always  a  leader 
('imam),  who  takes  his  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
congregation  and  'leads'  the  latter  in  prayer. 
(See  Im.\m;  Mollah:  Mufti.)  Next  to  prayer 
stands  the  duty  of  giving  o/m.s.  These  are  two- 
fold, legal  (jrtin/)  and  voluntary  (mdnknh) . 
but  the  former,  originally  collected  by  the  sov- 
ereign and  applied  to  pious  uses,  has  now  been 


practically  abrogated.  The  sadakah,  according 
to  the  law,  is  to  be  given  once  every  year,  of 
cattle,  money,  corn,  fruits,  and  wares  sold,  at 
about  the  rate  of  from  two  and  a  half  up  to 
twenty  per  cent.  Besides  these,  it  is  usual  to  be- 
stow a  measure  of  provisions  upon  the  poor  at 
the  end  of  the  sacred  month  of  Kamadan.  The 
duty  of  fasting  follows.  During  the  whole  month 
of  Ramadan,  the  Moslem  is  commanded  to  refrain 
from  eating,  drinking,  and  every  indulgence  in 
worldly  pleasure,  from  daylireak  until  sunset. 
During  the  night  he  is  allowed  to  eat,  drink,  and 
enjoy  himself.  Certain  classes  are  exempt,  as  it 
was  Mohammed's  special  and  express  desire  that 
no  one  should  fast  who  is  not  equal  to  it.  lest  ' 
he  injure  his  health  and  disqualify  himself  for 
necessary  labor.  Of  other  commendable  fast- 
days,  the  most  important  is  the  \\shura,  on  the 
tenth  of  iluharram.  corresponding  in  a  measure 
to  the  -Jewish  Day  of  Atonement.  The  fast  of 
Ramadan  is  universally  kept,  in  letter  if  not  in 
spirit,  fasting  being  considered  "one-fourth  part 
of  the  faith."  (See  Raiiau.\.\  :  Fasts.)  The 
last  duty  is  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  which  every 
Moslem  must  make  once  in  his  life,  if  he  be  free, 
sound  in  body,  and  able  to  meet  the  expense. 
Women  also  perform  the  pilgrimage.  To  pay  the 
way  of  one  who  cannot  himself  afford  it  is  con- 
sidered a  pious  act,  and  the  Shiites  allow  the  pil- 
grimage to  be  made  by  proxy.    See  Hajj;  Ha.j.ti. 

To  the  'positive'  ordinances  of  Islam  may  be 
added  the  sagh'ir  or  /c.v.scr  and  kabir  or  greater 
festivals.  The  first  (ul-fitr,  or  breaking  the  fast) 
follows  immediately  upon  Ramadan,  beginning  on 
the  first  day  of  the  month  of  Shawwal,  and  lasts 
three  days.  The  second  ('Id  al-kurhan,  or  sacri- 
fice festival)  begins  on  the  tenth  of  Dhu  l-Hijjah. 
The  latter  was  intended  to  be  the  more  important 
of  the  two.  but  the  people  have  in  most  places 
changed  the  order,  and  make  the  lesser  festival, 
which  follows  Ramadan,  the  more  joyful  and  the 
longer.  The  day  set  aside  for  the  weekly  as- 
sembly is  Fridatj.  which,  however,  is  not  a  day  of 
rest.  After  prayers  the  people  return  to  their 
ordinary  afTairs. 

Islam  also  enjoins  a  number  of  prohihitorg 
Inns  based  upon  utterances  of  the  Prophet.  The 
drinking  of  icine,  which  includes  all  strong  and 
inebriating  liquors,  is  vigorously  forbidden. 
ChieHy  through  Euro])ean  influence  some  Jloslems 
have  lost  their  scruples  on  this  score,  but  the 
great  majority  of  the  faithful  refuse  even  to  make 
use  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  wine  or  grapes. 
Some  scrupulous  believers  even  include  opium, 
coffee,  and  tobacco  in  the  prohibition ;  but  gen- 
eral practice  has  decided  (lifferently.  The  pro- 
hibitory laws  respecting  food  resemble  closely 
those  of  Rabbinical  .Judaism;  blood,  the  flesh  of 
swine,  animals  which  have  died  from  disease  or 
age,  or  on  which  the  name  of  some  idol  has  been 
invoked,  or  which  have  been  sacrificed  unto  an 
idol,  or  which  have  been  strangled,  or  killed  by 
a  blow,  a  fall,  or  by  some  other  beast,  are  strictly 
forbidden.  'Pure'  animals  must  be  slaughtered 
according  to  certain  fixed  rules,  and  fish,  l)iid, 
game  are  generally  allowed  for  food.  All  games 
subject  to  chance — such  as  dice,  cards?  tables, 
bets.  etc. — are  considered  so  wicked  that  a  gam- 
bler's testimony  is  invalid  in  a  court  of  law. 
Chess  and  other  games  depending  on  skill — pro- 
vided they  do  not  interfere  with  the  reguhir  per- 
formance of  religious  duties,  and  that  they  are 
played  without  any  stakes — are  allowed  by  the 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


062 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


majority  ol  .\lo.sleiii  llieolojiiaiis.  Lsury  is  strict- 
ly prohibited.  Taking  interest  upon  any  loans, 
however  large  or  sniall,  or  profiting  in  trade 
through  questionable  means,  save  by  buying  and 
selling,  is  severely  condemned.  To  prevent  the 
faithful  from  ever  falling  back  into  idolatry,  the 
laws  relating  to  images  and  pictures  have  been 
made  very  stringent.  Whosoever  makes  an  imita- 
tion of  any  living  being  in  stone,  wood,  or  any 
other  material,  shall,  on  the  day  of  judgment,  be 
asked  to  endow  his  creation  with  life  and  soul, 
and.  on  his  protesting  his  inability  of  doing  so, 
shall  undergo  the  punishment  of  hell  for  a  cer- 
tain period. 

The  civil  and  criminal  laws  of  Mohammedan- 
ism, founded  on  both  the  Koran  and  the  Tradi- 
tions (.S'unnu,  q.v. ).  in  instances  where  the  let- 
ter of  the  written  or  oral  precept  allows  of  vari- 
ous explanation*,  or  where  the  case  in  question  is 
unprecedenteil.  are  interpreted  according  to  the 
opinion  of  one  of  the  four  great  masters  of  Islam: 
Abu  Hanlfah  (born  "C'i). Malik  ibn  Anas  (born 
714),  ilohammed  al-Shafii  (born  767),  and 
Ahmad  ibn  Hanbal  (born  780),  within  the  pale 
of  their  respective  sects.  (.See  Mohammeiian 
Sects.)  Upon  the  principal  points  all  Moham- 
medans agree.  In  regard  to  mnrriaye,  polygamy 
is  allowed,  but  rot  without  restriction.  Four 
wives  and  a  certain  numl)er  of  concubine  slaves 
is  the  legal  limit  for  a  Moslem.  The  Prophet's 
example  proves  nothing  to  the  contrary,  since  he 
was  endowed  with  special  privileges,  and  not  sub- 
ject to  the  common  law  in  many  respects.  11  is, 
moreover,  added  as  advice,  that  to  marry  one  or 
two  is  quite  suHicient  for  a  num.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  rule  among  Mohammedans  of  the 
present  day  is  to  have  but  one  wife.  A  Moslem 
may  marry  a  Christian  woman  or  a  .Tewcss.  but 
a  Mohammedan  woman  is  not.  under  any  circum- 
stances, to  mirry  an  unbeliever.  In  all  cases, 
however,  the  child  i)orn  of  a  Moslem,  whatevrr 
the  mother's  faith,  is  a  Moslem;  nor  does  the 
wife  who  is  an  unbeliever  inherit  at  her  hus- 
band's death.  Forbidden  degrees  are:  The 
mother,  daughter,  sister,  half-sister,  aunt,  niece, 
foster-mother,  or  a  woman  related  to  the  faithful 
"by  milk  in  any  of  the  degrees  which  would  pre- 
clude his  marriage  with  her  if  she  were  similarly 
related  to  him  by  consanguinity:"  the  mother  of 
his  wife,  even  if  he  lie  not  yet  actually  married 
to  the  latter;  the  daughter  of  his  wife,  if  the 
latter  still  be  his  legal  wife;  his  father's  wife 
and  his  son's  wife;  two  sisters  at  the  same  time; 
wives  who  stand  to  each  other  in  the  rclati<m  of 
aunt  and  niece;  or  the  nnemaneipated  slave,  or 
another  man's  slave,  if  he  have  already  a  free 
wite.  A  simple  declaration  of  a  man  and  woman 
at  the  age  of  puberty,  before  two  witnesses,  of 
their  intention  to  marry  each  other,  and  the  p.ay- 
ment  of  part  of  the  dowry  (which  is  indispen- 
sable, and  must  amount  to  at  least  ten  dirhems, 
or  about  one  ilollar)  is  suflieient  for  a  legal 
marriage.  A  girl  under  age  is  given  away  by 
her  natural  or  appointed  guardian,  with  or  with- 
out her  cimsent.  To  see  the  face  of  any  woman 
who  is  neither  his  wife  nor  his  concubine,  nor 
belongs  %o  any  of  the  forbidden  degrees,  is  strictly 
forbidden  to  the  believer.  Divorce  is  a  compara- 
tively light  matter  with  the  Mohammedans. 
Twice  a  man  may  send  away  his  wife  and  take 
her  back  again  without  any  ceremony;  the 
third  time,  however,  he  may  not  receive  her  again 
in  wedlock  unless  she  have  been  married  prop- 


erly to  another  mau  in  the  meantime.  Mere  dis- 
like is  sulHcient  reason  for  a  mau  to  dissolve  the 
conjugal  ties,  and  his  saying  ""I'liou  art  di- 
vorced," or  "1  divorce  thee,"  together  with  the 
repayment  of  the  dowry,  is  all  that  is  required 
from  him  by  the  law.  A  wife,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  bound  to  her  husband  forever,  unless  she  can 
prove  some  flagrant  ill  usage  or  neglect  of  con- 
jugal duty  on  his  part ;  and  even  then  she  for- 
feits part,  or  the  whole,  of  her  dow'ry.  A  divorced 
wonum  is  obliged  to  wait,  like  the  widow,  for  a 
certain  period  before  marrying  again.  If  she 
liave  a  young  child,  she  is  to  suckle  it  until  it  be 
two  years  old,  and  the  father  is  to  bear  all  the 
expenses  of  the  maintenance  of  mother  and  child. 
If  a  slave  becomes  a  mother  by  her  master,  and 
he  acknowledges  the  child  to  be  his  own.  the  lat- 
ter is  free,  and  the  mother  is  to  be  emancipated 
at  the  master's  death,  and  may  not  be  given 
away  or  otherwise  disposed  of  by  him  during  his 
lifetime.  A  free  person,  wishing  to  marry  his  or 
her  slave,  must  first  emancipate  this  slave;  and 
if  the  slave  of  another  person  has  been  married 
by  a  free  man  or  woman,  and  afterwards  becomes 
the  latter's  property,  the  marriage  becomes  il- 
legal, and  can  only  be  renewed  by  a  legal  con- 
tract and  emancipation.  As  regards  inheritance, 
males  generally  receive  a  ilouble  share.  A  person 
may  not  bequeath  more  than  one-third  of  his 
property,  unless  there  be  no  legal  heirs.  Chil- 
dren, whether  begotten  with  the  legal  wife  or 
slave,  or  concubine,  or  only  adopted,  and  their 
descendants,  are  the  first  heirs ;  next  come  the 
claims  of  wives,  parents,  brothers,  sisters,  in 
their  order.  Where  there  is  no  legal  heir,  the 
property  falls  to  the  State.  The  law  is  very 
lenient  toward  dehtnrs.  Insolvency  and  inability 
to  Wfirk  for  the  discharge  of  the  claim  solve  all 
furjicr  obligations.  The  most  conscientious  per- 
formance of  all  private  contracts  is  constantly 
). 'commended  in  the  Koran.  Murder  is  either 
p\inishc(l  with  death  or  liy  the  payment  of  a  fine 
to  the  family  of  the  deceased,  according  to  their 
own  pleasure.  There  must,  however,  be  palliat- 
ing circum.stances  in  the  latter  case.  The  Bed- 
ouins still  maintain  the  primitive  Semitic  law 
of  blood-revenge,  and  up  to  this  day  the  "ven- 
dftta'  often  rages  not  only  between  family  and 
family,  out  between  whole  tribes,  villages,  and 
provinces.  Unintentional  homicide  is  expiated  by 
freeing  a  believer  from  slavery,  and  paying  to  the 
famil_\  a  certain  s,im  in  proportion  to  the  rank 
and  sex  of  the  deceased.  He  who  has  not  the 
means  of  freeing  a  believer  is  to  fast  for  two 
months  by  waj'  of  penance.  According  to  the 
strict  letter  of  the  law  a  man  is  not  liable  to 
capital  punishment  for  killing  his  own  child  or 
an  infidel:  but  practically  no  ditrerence  is  made 
by  the  Mohanunedan  governments  (chiefly  the 
Turkish)  at  the  |)resent  time.  Murder  is  pint- 
ished  with  death  and  no  fine  frees  the  culprit. 
Injuries  to  the  person  are  punished  ;u'(ording  to 
the  primitive  law  of  retaliation:  that  is.  a  cer- 
tain proportionate  fine  in  money  is  to  lie  paid 
lo  the  injured.  The  payment  for  any  of  the 
single  limbs  of  the  human  body  (e.g.  the  nose) 
is  the  full  price  of  lilood.  as  for  a  homicide; 
for  a  limb  which  is  found  twice,  like  hand  or  foot, 
half;  for  a  finger  or  a  toe,  the  tenth  part,  etc. 
Women  and  slaves  have  smaller  claims.  In- 
juries of  a  dangerous  or  otherwise  grievous  na- 
ture pay  the  full  price;  those  of  an  inferior  kind, 
however,  bring  the  perpetrator  within  the  prov- 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


G63 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


iiicc  of  llie  la.-li  ui  imiyfl.  Tho  Kiiran  orders 
small  llnfl  to  III'  imiiislic'il  liv  cuUiny  oil'  the 
chief  uUeiidinj;  liiiilj,  llie  rij"ht  hand;  the  tseeond 
theft  is  punishable  by  the  loss  of  the  left  foot ; 
the  third,  of  the  left  hand;  the  fourth,  of  the 
right  foot,  etc.;  but  the  ordinary  punishments 
of  imprisonment,  hard  labor,  and  the  bastinaiUi 
have  been  substituted  in  later  times.  The  prop- 
erty stolen  nuist  not,  however,  liave  been  of  easy 
access  to  the  thief,  nor  must  it  have  consi-sted  of 
food,  since  he  may  have  taken  this  to  satisfy  the 
craving  of  his  hunger.  Unchustity  on  the  part  of 
a  woman  was  in  the  eommencemetit  of  Islam  pun- 
ished by  imprisonment  for  life,  for  which  after- 
wards, however,  stoning  was  substituted  in  the 
case  of  a  married  woman,  and  a  hundred  stripes 
and  a  year's  e.vile  in  the  case  of  an  uiunarriei' 
free  woman,  a  slave  to  undergo  only  half  of  that 
punishment.  He  who  accuses  a  'woman  of  rc])U- 
tation"  of  adultery  or  fornication  uuist  produce 
four  (male)  witnesses,  and  if  he  be  not  able  to 
do  so,  he  is  to  receive  fourscore  stripes,  nor  is  his 
testimony  ever  after  to  be  received  unless  he 
swear  four  times  that  he  speaks  the  truth,  and 
the  tifth  time  impiecate  God's  vengeance  if  he 
speak  false.  Even  this  testimony  may  be  over- 
thrown by  the  wife's  swearing  four  times  that 
her  accuser  is  a  liar,  and  imprecating  the  fifth 
time  the  wrath  of  God  upon  herself  if  he  speak 
the  truth.  In  the  latter  case  she  is  free  from 
punishment;  the  marriage,  however,  is  to  be  dis- 
solved. Fornication  in  either  sex  is,  b}'  the  law 
of  the  Koran,  to  be  visited  with  a  hundred 
stripes.  IiifideJiti/,  or  oposlanii  from  Islam,  is  a 
crime  to  be  visited  by  the  death  of  tlie  offender, 
if  he  have  been  warned  thrice  without  recanting. 
Severer  still,  that  is.  not  to  be  axerted  by  repent- 
ance or  revocation  of  any  kind,  is  the  punish- 
ment inflicted  for  blasphemy — against  God,  !Mo- 
hanimed.  Jesus,  Moses,  or  any  other  prophet. 
Inuuediate  death  is  the  doom  of  the  offender. 

A  further  injunction  of  tlie  Koran  is  that  of 
making  war  against  the  infidels  {jlhud) .  He 
who  is  slain  wliile  fighting  in  defense  of  Islam  or 
for  its  propagation  is  reckoned  a  martyr;  while 
a  deserter  from  the  holy  war  is  held  up  as  an 
object  of  execration,  and  has  forfeited  his  life  in 
this  world  as  well  as  in  the  world  to  come.  At 
first  all  the  enemies  taken  in  battle  were  ruth- 
lessly slain;  later,  however,  it  became  the  law 
to  give  the  people  of  a  different  faith  against 
whom  war  was  decla